1.
Naga Pelangi
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Naga Pelangi is a wooden junk rigged schooner of the Malay pinas type built from 2004 to 2009 in Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia. Finished in 2010, it is operated as a vessel in South East Asia. It is a Malay-style sailing boat with lines based on the traditional pinas-design, in Malaysia, these sailing boats are called Perahu Besar. They were built for cargo and piracy and are made in two types, the bedar and the pinas and they are made of chengal wood, a heavy hardwood of the Dipterocarpaceae family growing only on the Malay peninsula, the home of the worlds oldest rainforest. These picturesque junk rigged boats have used in the South China Sea for centuries. The Malays have developed a technique to build wooden boats. They build without plans, hull first, frames later, the planks are fire bent and joined edge on edge using basok made from Penaga-ironwood. There is no European style caulking hammered into a groove between the planks, Before the new plank is hammered home, a strip of skin of the Melaleuca species is placed over the dowels. This 1–2 mm layer of a material has sealing properties. It is an ancient and unique building technique, the origins of which date back to the Proto-Malay migrations that colonised the archipelago thousands of years ago. As of 2013, Naga Pelangi is operated by its owner in the eastern Indian Ocean, in modern Malay, Naga Pelangi, translated literally, means Rainbow Dragon. Nāga is a Sanskrit word and means snake and depicts a snake like creature in the Mahabharata. For lack of word, modern Malay uses this Indian word to denominate the Chinese symbol of the dragon. All over South East Asia, in Burmese, Thai, Vietnamese, Khmer culture, Nagas are found in form, half snake. For the pre-Islamic Malays the Naga was a deity living in the sea and was held in esteem by the seafarers. Sacrifices were offered to ask for a journey and frequently the bow of their craft was adorned with a figurehead of a carved Naga. This detailed carving was reduced to a carving in later times due to the strict picture ban of the Islam. The figurehead of a Malay pinas is called gobel, with the elements of the old Naga shining through, one of the stories told is that on the eastern shore of an island in the Terengganu river mouth a mermaid was once sitting, an indo-pacific sea cow
Naga Pelangi
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British postage stamp depicting a Malay pinas, 1955
Naga Pelangi
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the Pinas Naga Pelangi in
Langkawi, 2010
Naga Pelangi
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the bedar Naga Pelangi, after her circumnavigation sailing off Kuala Terenganu, 1998
Naga Pelangi
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A carving of a
Naga deity
2.
Vietnam
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Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương
Vietnam
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A
Đông Sơn bronze drum, c.800 BC.
Vietnam
–
Flag
Vietnam
–
The
Imperial City in
Huế.
Vietnam
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French Indochina in 1913.
3.
Dowel
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A dowel is a solid cylindrical rod, usually made from wood, plastic, or metal. In its original manufactured form, a dowel is called a dowel rod, dowel rods are often cut into short lengths called dowel pins. Dowels are employed in numerous, diverse applications including axles in toys, detents, structural reinforcements in cabinet making, to make a dowel, a piece of wood is split or whittled to a size slightly bigger than desired and then driven through the hole in the dowel plate. The sharp edges of the hole shear off the excess wood, a second approach to cutting dowels is to rotate a piece of oversized stock past a fixed knife, or alternatively, to rotate the knife around the stock. Machines based on this principle emerged in the 19th century, frequently, these are small bench-mounted tools. For modest manufacturing volumes, wood dowels are typically manufactured on industrial dowel machines based on the principles as the rotary cutters described above. Such machines may employ interchangeable cutting heads of varying diameters, thus enabling the machines to be changed to manufacture different dowel diameters. Typically, the mechanism is open-ended, with material guides at the machines entry, since the 19th century, some of these dowel machines have had power feed mechanisms to move the stock past the cutting mechanism. High-volume dowel manufacturing is done on a shaper, which simultaneously forms multiple dowels from a single piece of rectangular stock. These machines employ two wide, rotating cutting heads, one above the stock and one below it, the heads have nearly identical cutting profiles so that each will form an array of adjoined, side-by-side half dowels. The wooden dowel rod used in woodworking applications is commonly cut into dowel pins, some woodworkers make their own dowel pins, while others purchase dowel pins precut to the required length and diameter. When dowels are glued into blind holes, a common case in dowel-based joinery, there must be a path for air. If no provision is made to relieve the pressure of air and glue. An old solution to this problem is to plane a flat on the side of the dowel, some dowel pins are Fluted with multiple parallel grooves along their length to serve the same purpose. When two pieces of wood are to be joined by dowels embedded in holes, there are numerous methods for aligning the holes. Dowel centers are simple and inexpensive tools for aligning opposing blind holes, various commercial systems, such as Dowelmax, have been devised to solve this problem. Alternative joinery methods may be used in place of conventional dowel pins, such as Miller dowels, biscuit joiners, spline joints, and proprietary tools such as the Domino jointer. The word dowel was used in Middle English, it appears in Wycliffes Bible translation in a list of the parts of a wheel. and the spokis, cognates with other Germanic languages suggest that the word is much older
Dowel
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Wooden dowel pins.
Dowel
–
A dowel plate
Dowel
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Fluted wood dowel pin
Dowel
–
Steel dowel pins
4.
Timber frame
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Timber framing and post-and-beam construction are methods of building with heavy timbers rather than dimensional lumber such as 2x4s. Traditional timber framing is the method of creating structures using heavy squared-off and it is commonplace in wooden buildings from the 19th century and earlier. The method comes from making out of logs and tree trunks without modern high tech saws to cut lumber from the starting material stock. Since this building method has been used for thousands of years in parts of the world. These styles are categorized by the type of foundation, walls, how and where the beams intersect, the use of curved timbers. Three basic types of frames in English-speaking countries are the box frame, cruck frame. The distinction presented here is the load is carried by the exterior walls. Purlins are also in a timber frame. A cruck is a pair of crooked or curved timbers which form a bent or crossframe, more than 4,000 cruck frame buildings have been recorded in the UK. Several types of frames are used, more information follows in English style below. True cruck or full cruck, blades, straight or curved, base cruck, tops of the blades are truncated by the first transverse member such as by a tie beam. Raised cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and extend to the ridge, middle cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and are truncated by a collar. Upper cruck, blades land on a tie beam, very similar to knee rafters, jointed cruck, blades are made from pieces joined near eaves in a number of ways. See also, hammerbeam roof End cruck is not a style, aisled frames have one or more rows of interior posts. These interior posts typically carry more load than the posts in the exterior walls. This is the concept of the aisle in church buildings, sometimes called a hall church. However, a nave is often called an aisle, and three-aisled barns are common in the U. S. the Netherlands, aisled buildings are wider than the simpler box-framed or cruck-framed buildings, and typically have purlins supporting the rafters. In northern Germany, this construction is known as variations of a Ständerhaus, the frame is often left exposed on the exterior of the building
Timber frame
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The market square of
Dornstetten (Germany), showing an ensemble of half-timbered buildings
Timber frame
–
Illustration of timber framing from the
Lexikon der gesamten Technik (1904)
Timber frame
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A "true" or "full" cruck half-timbered building in
Weobley,
Herefordshire, England. The cruck blades are the tall, curved timbers which extend from near the ground to the ridge.
Timber frame
–
Half timbered houses,
Marbach am Neckar, Germany
5.
Covered bridge
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A covered bridge is a timber-truss bridge with a roof and siding which, in most covered bridges, create an almost complete enclosure. The purpose of the covering is to protect the structural members from the weather. Uncovered wooden bridges have a lifespan of only 10 to 15 years because of the effects of rain, Bridges having covers for reasons other than protecting wood trusses, such as for protecting pedestrians and keeping horses from shying away from water, are also sometimes called covered bridges. Early timber covered bridges consisted of horizontal beams laid on top of piles driven into the riverbed below, however, this construction method meant that the length between bridge spans was limited by the maximum length of each beam. Early European truss bridges used king post and queen post configurations, some early German bridges included diagonal panel bracing in trusses with parallel top and bottom chords. To solve the problem of deterioration of the wood upon exposure to weather, at least two covered bridges make the claim of being the first built in the United States. Town records for Swanzey, New Hampshire, indicate their Carleton Bridge was built in 1789, philadelphia, however, claims a bridge built in the early 1800s on 30th Street and over the Schuylkill River was the first, noting that investors wanted it covered to extend its life. Beginning around 1820, new designs were developed, such as the Burr, Lattice, in the mid-1800s, the development of cheaper wrought iron and cast iron led to metal rather than timber trusses, except in those areas of plentiful large timber. There are about 1600 covered bridges in the world, china, covered bridges are called lángqiáo, or wind and rain bridges in Guizhou, traditionally built by the Dong. There are also covered bridges in Fujian, taishun County, in southern Zhejiang province near the border of Fujian, has more than 900 covered bridges, many of them hundreds of years old, as well as a covered bridge museum. There are also a number in nearby Qingyuan County, as well as in Shouning County, the Xijin Bridge in Zhejiang is one of the largest. Germany / Switzerland, Holzbrücke Bad Säckingen, over the river Rhine from Bad Säckingen, Germany, to Stein, Switzerland, first built before 1272, destroyed and re-built many times. Switzerland has many covered bridges, Bridge over the river Muota, Brunnen, near Lake Lucerne, Berner Brücke/Pont de Berne over the Saane/Sarine, near Fribourg. Bulgaria, Lovech Covered Bridge over the river Osam The 1, in 1900 Quebec, New Brunswick, and Ontario had an estimated 1000,400, and five covered bridges respectively. By the 1990s there were 98 in Quebec,62 in New Brunswick, and one in Ontario, the West Montrose Covered Bridge. According to Covered Bridges Today by Brenda Krekler, as many as 12,000 covered bridges existed in the United States. The National Society for the Preservation of Covered Bridges was formed in 1950, the Federal Highway Administration encourages the preservation of covered bridges with its Covered Bridge Manual. Delaware - Three bridges remain in New Castle county, see list of covered bridges in Indiana
Covered bridge
–
The
Cogan House Covered Bridge, U.S.A.
Covered bridge
–
Baumgardener's Covered Bridge, showing the truss protected by the covering
Covered bridge
–
Buchfart - Alte Holzbrücke 1613
Covered bridge
–
Pont de Rohan
6.
Shipbuilding
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Shipbuilding is the construction of ships and other floating vessels. It normally takes place in a facility known as a shipyard. Shipbuilders, also called shipwrights, follow a specialized occupation that traces its roots to before recorded history, Shipbuilding and ship repairs, both commercial and military, are referred to as naval engineering. The construction of boats is an activity called boat building. The dismantling of ships is called ship breaking, the ancestors of Australian Aborigines and New Guineans also went across the Lombok Strait to Sahul by boat over 50,000 years ago. Evidence from Ancient Egypt shows that the early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull as early as 3000 BC, the Archaeological Institute of America reports that some of the oldest ships yet unearthed are known as the Abydos boats. These are a group of 14 ships discovered in Abydos that were constructed of wooden planks which were sewn together, the ship dating to 3000 BC was about 25 m,75 feet long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh. According to professor OConnor, the 5, 000-year-old ship may have belonged to Pharaoh Aha. Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together, early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints. The oldest known tidal dock in the world was built around 2500 BC during the Harappan civilisation at Lothal near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat coast in India, other ports were probably at Balakot and Dwarka. However, it is probable that many small-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade, ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established trade with Mesopotamia. Shipbuilding and boatmaking may have been prosperous industries in ancient India, native labourers may have manufactured the flotilla of boats used by Alexander the Great to navigate across the Hydaspes and even the Indus, under Nearchos. The Indians also exported teak for shipbuilding to ancient Persia, other references to Indian timber used for shipbuilding is noted in the works of Ibn Jubayr. The ships of Ancient Egypts Eighteenth Dynasty were typically about 25 meters in length and they mounted a single square sail on a yard, with an additional spar along the bottom of the sail. These ships could also be oar propelled, the ocean and sea going ships of Ancient Egypt were constructed with cedar wood, most likely hailing from Lebanon. The ships of Phoenicia seem to have been of a similar design, the naval history of China stems back to the Spring and Autumn period of the ancient Chinese Zhou Dynasty. The Chinese built large rectangular barges known as ships, which were essentially floating fortresses complete with multiple decks with guarded ramparts. There is considerable knowledge regarding shipbuilding and seafaring in the ancient Mediterranean and this was dually met with the introduction of the Han Dynasty junk ship design in the same century
Shipbuilding
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An expedition's shipwrights building a
brigantine, 1541
Shipbuilding
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A two-masted Chinese junk, from the Tiangong Kaiwu of
Song Yingxing, published in 1637
Shipbuilding
–
Illustration of some shipbuilding methods in England, 1858
Shipbuilding
–
Babbitt's
rotary engine
7.
Boat building
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Boat building, one of the oldest branches of engineering, is concerned with constructing the hulls of boats and, for sailboats, the masts, spars and rigging. Anchor- a heavy, pick like device, attached to a boats stem by a warp, common types are Plow or Fisherman and Danforth. Modern anchors are made of steel but in pre-industrial societies rocks were used, the chain is added to the lower anchor end to add weight and prevent chafing of the rope warp on rocks or shellfish beds. A Norsemen invention used in sailing ships from about the 10th century AD that predates blocks. They served the purpose of a block/jamb cleat in one unit and it was a flat section of wood about 150 high x 120 wide shaped like an angel/butterfly used in attaching stays to the hull. The V-shape at the part of the wings acted as a V jam cleat. Bitts - Two short strong posts often made of steel, located on the fore and aft decks of a heavily built boat or ship. Bilge - the lowest part of the interior, under the sole. Often water and or fuel tanks are placed in the bilges to lower the centre of gravity, bilge keel - a longitudinal, external, underwater member used to reduce a ships tendency to roll. In Britain twin bilge keels are often used on small boats moored in estuaries with a tidal range so the boat stay upright when dried out. With their much shallower draft yachts of this type can be sailed in shallow waters, not as hydro dynamically efficient as a fin keel. Bilge pump - a pump, either manual or electric with the set at the lowest point in the bilges where water will collect when the boat is upright. The inlet is protected by a screen to stop blockages Block a fitting with a wheel inside 2 cheeks designed to hold the turn of a rope. Originally made of wood, they are now made of plastic and they are mainly used in rigging in pairs or quads to allow a single person to operate a sail that creates a lot of force. Similar to a pulley or sheave, bow - The front and generally sharp end of the hull. It is designed to reduce the resistance of the cutting through water. Bowsprit - A spar that extends forward from the foredeck, outboard of the hull proper, common in square rigged ships where they were used to attach the outer or flying jib. In modern sailboats they are made of lightweight carbon and used for attaching the luff of lightweight down-wind sails
Boat building
–
The schooner
Appledore II under construction.
Boat building
–
Boat building in
Greece.
Boat building
–
Damaged boat mid-reconstruction; carvel planking partially removed.
Boat building
–
Caulking irons and oakum.
8.
Honey Locust
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The species has become a significant invasive weed in other regions of the world. They are prone to losing large branches in windstorms, the leaves are pinnately compound on older trees but bipinnately compound on vigorous young trees. The leaflets are 1. 5–2.5 cm and bright green and they turn yellow in the fall. Honey locusts leaf out relatively late in spring, but generally slightly earlier than the black locust, the strongly scented cream-colored flowers appear in late spring, in clusters emerging from the base of the leaf axils. The fruit of the honey locust is a legume that matures in early autumn. The pods are generally between 15–20 cm, the pulp on the insides of the pods is edible, unlike the black locust, which is toxic. In addition, the seeds are released in the hosts manure, honey locust seed pods ripen in late spring and germinate rapidly when temperatures are warm enough. Honey locusts commonly have thorns 3–10 cm long growing out of the branches, some reaching lengths over 20 cm, these may be single, or branched into several points, and commonly form dense clusters. The thorns are fairly soft and green when young, harden and turn red as they age, then fade to ash grey, thornless forms are occasionally found growing wild and are available as nursery plants. Hybridization of honey locust with water locust has been reported and its cultivars are popular ornamental plants, especially in the northern plains of North America where few other trees can survive and prosper. It tolerates urban conditions, compacted soil, road salt, alkaline soil, heat, the popularity is in part due to the fact that it transplants so easily. It is resistant to gypsy moths but is defoliated by another pest, spider mites, cankers, and galls are a problem with some trees. Many cultivated varieties do not have thorns, despite its name, the honey locust is not a significant honey plant. The name derives from the taste of the legume pulp, which was used for food by Native American people. The long pods, which dry and ripen to brown or maroon, are surrounded in a tough. The pulp—bright green in unripe pods—is strongly sweet, crisp and succulent in ripe pods, dark brown tannin-rich beans are found in slots within the pulp. It is also used for posts and rails since it takes a time to rot. In the past, the thorns of the younger trees were used as nails while the wood itself was used to fashion treenails for shipbuilding
Honey Locust
–
Honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos
Honey Locust
Honey Locust
–
Detail of thorns
Honey Locust
–
Unripe honey locust pods
9.
Plank (wood)
–
A plank is timber that is flat, elongated, and rectangular with parallel faces that are higher and longer than wide. Used primarily in carpentry, planks are critical in the construction of ships, houses, bridges, planks also serve as supports to form shelves and tables. Usually made from sawed timber, planks are usually more than 1 1⁄2 in thick, planks are often used as a work surface on elevated scaffolding, and need to be wide enough to provide strength without breaking when walked on. The wood is categorized as a board if its width is less than 2 1⁄2 in, a plank used in a building as a horizontal supporting member that runs between foundations, walls, or beams to support a ceiling or floor is called a joist. However, since the 20th century, wood has largely supplanted in ship construction by iron and steel, to decrease cost. Lumber Plank cooking Walking the plank
Plank (wood)
–
A plank of wood being used in the repair of a ship.
10.
Rail fastening system
–
A rail fastening system is a means of fixing rails to railroad ties or sleepers. The terms rail anchors, tie plates, chairs and track fasteners are used to refer to parts or all of a rail fastening system, various types of fastening have been used over the years. The earliest wooden rails were fixed to wooden sleepers by pegs through holes in the rail, by the 18th century cast iron rails had come into use, and also had holes in the rail itself to allow them to be fixed to a support. The first chair for a rail is thought to have introduced in 1797 which attached to the rail on the vertical web via bolts. In North American practice the flanged T rail became the standard, elsewhere T rails were replaced by bull head rails of a rounded I or figure-8 appearance which still required a supporting chair. Eventually the flanged T rail became commonplace on all the worlds railways, a Golden Tie, also known as a Golden Spike or The Last Spike, may be used to symbolize the start or the completion of an endeavor. These are less often silver or another precious material, historically, a ceremonial Golden Spike driven by Leland Stanford connected the rails of the First Transcontinental Railroad across the United States. The valuable rail fastening spike represented the merge of the Central Pacific and Union Pacific railroads on May 10,1869, at Promontory Summit, since, railroad workers have been celebrated in popular culture, including in song and verse. Most recently, a Golden Spike marked the completion of the longest transportation tunnel in the world, the Gotthard Base Tunnel, full rail service began on 11 December 2016. Its functional length is 57.09 km and its the worlds deepest traffic tunnel, a rail spike is a large nail with an offset head that is used to secure rails and base plates to railroad ties in the track. Robert Livingston Stevens is credited with the invention of the railroad spike, in 1982, the spike was still the most common rail fastening in North America. Common sizes are from 9 to 10/16 inch square and ~5.5 to 6 inch long, a rail spike is roughly chisel-shaped and with a flat edged point, the spike is driven with the edge perpendicular to the grain, which gives greater resistance to loosening. The main function is to keep the rail in gauge, on smaller scale jobs spikes are still driven into wooden sleepers by hammering them with a spike maul. Though this manual work has largely replaced by hydraulic tools and machines. Splitting of the wood can be limited by pre-boring spike holes or adding steel bands around the wood, for use in the United States three basic standards are described in the ASTM A65 standard, for different carbon steel contents. A screw spike, rail screw or lag bolt is a metal screw used to fix a tie plate or to directly fasten a rail. Screw spikes are screwed into a hole bored in the sleeper, the screw spike was first introduced in 1860 in France and became common in continental Europe. A dog screw is a variant of the screw spike
Rail fastening system
–
Elements of a baseplate based rail fastening system 1. Screw for fixing plate to sleeper 2. Elastomeric pad supporting rail 3. Tension washer 4. Rail clamp 5. Tensioning bolt (nut not shown) 6. Baseplate
Rail fastening system
–
Unimog pushing a "Spindle Precision Wrenching Unit" used for automatic and synchronous tightening and loosening of rail fastenings
Rail fastening system
–
Assembled example
Rail fastening system
–
Rusted cut spikes (scale in inches)
11.
Railroad
–
Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
Railroad
–
Four
BNSF GE C44-9W diesel locomotives hauling a mixed freight train along the banks of the
Columbia River, between
Kennewick and
Wishram,
Washington State, United States
Railroad
–
Horsecar in
Brno, Czech Republic
Railroad
–
A British steam locomotive-hauled train
Railroad
–
Tren a las Nubes (Train to the Clouds), located in
Salta,
Argentina
12.
Railroad ties
–
A railroad tie/railway tie/crosstie or railway sleeper is a rectangular support for the rails in railroad tracks. Generally laid perpendicular to the rails, ties transfer loads to the track ballast and subgrade, hold the rails upright, railroad ties are traditionally made of wood, but pre-stressed concrete is now also widely used, especially in Europe and Asia. Steel ties are common on secondary lines in the UK, plastic composite ties are also employed, as of January 2008, the approximate market share in North America for traditional and wood ties was 91. 5%, the remainder being concrete, steel, azobé and plastic composite. Approximately 3,520 wooden crossties are used per mile of railroad track in the US,2,640 per mile on main lines in the UK. The type of railroad tie used on the predecessors of the first true railway consisted of a pair of stone blocks laid into the ground, one advantage of this method of construction was that it allowed horses to tread the middle path without the risk of tripping. In railway use with heavier locomotives, it was found that it was hard to maintain the correct gauge. The stone blocks were in any case unsuitable on soft ground, such as at Chat Moss, bi-block ties with a tie rod are somewhat similar. Historically wooden rail ties were made by hewing with an axe, a variety of softwood and hardwoods timbers are used as ties, oak, jarrah and karri being popular hardwoods, although increasingly difficult to obtain, especially from sustainable sources. Sometimes non-toxic preservatives are used, such as copper azole or micronized copper, New boron-based wood preserving technology is being employed by major US railroads in a dual treatment process in order to extend the life of wood ties in wet areas. Some timbers are durable enough that they can be used untreated, problems with wooden ties include rot, splitting, insect infestation, plate-cutting, also known as chair shuffle in the UK and spike-pull. For more information on wooden ties the Railway Tie Association maintains a website devoted to wood tie research. Wooden ties can, of course, catch fire, as they age they develop cracks that allow sparks to lodge so that they catch fire more easily, concrete ties are cheaper and easier to obtain than timber and better able to carry higher axle-weights and sustain higher speeds. Their greater weight ensures improved retention of track geometry, especially when installed with continuous-welded rail, concrete ties have a longer service life and require less maintenance than timber due to their greater weight, which helps them remain in the correct position longer. Concrete ties need to be installed on a well-prepared subgrade with a depth on free-draining ballast to perform well. Concrete ties amplify wheel noise, so wooden ties are used in densely populated areas. On the highest categories of line in the UK, pre-stressed concrete ties are the only permitted by Network Rail standards. Steel ties are formed from pressed steel and are trough-shaped in section, the ends of the tie are shaped to form a spade which increases the lateral resistance of the tie. Housings to accommodate the system are welded to the upper surface of the tie
Railroad ties
–
Wooden ties are used on many traditional railways. In the background is a track with concrete ties.
Railroad ties
–
Stone block from the Kilmarnock and Troon Railway.
Railroad ties
–
A variant fastening of rails to wooden ties
Railroad ties
–
Concrete ties on the
BNSF line north of
Yakima, Washington
13.
Victorian times
–
The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
Victorian times
–
Queen Victoria, after whom the era is named
Victorian times
–
The Louth-London
Royal Mail travelling by train from
Peterborough East, 1845
Victorian times
–
A picture of
Leadenhall Street, London, c. 1837
Victorian times
–
The Poultry Cross,
Salisbury, painted by
Louise Rayner, c. 1870
14.
Froe
–
A froe or shake axe is a tool for cleaving wood by splitting it along the grain. It is an L-shaped tool, used by hammering one edge of its blade into the end of a piece of wood in the direction of the grain, then twisting the blade in the wood by rotating the haft. A froe uses the haft as a lever to multiply the force upon the blade, by twisting one way or the other the direction of the split may be guided. Froes are used in combination with wooden mallets to split timber, to make planks, wooden shingles, or kindling, they are safer and more accurate to use than hatchets because the blade is not swung. The origin of the word “froe” is not clear, and some find it spelled “frow. ”One possibility of its roots can be found in the Old English word “fro, ” which meant “away. Froes are similar in form to axes, in that a froe is an L-shaped assembly of a blade head set at a right angle to a handle called a haft. A froe can be thought of as an axe which is sharpened along the top of a long, narrow, some froes are made of a single piece of metal with no perpendicular haft. Instead, the handle is the end of the blade which extends directly from the blade. These froes must be hammered through the piece of wood. A given froe can split a piece of wood no wider in its narrowest dimension than the length of the blade, that is. A froe is also unlike an axe or maul in that the froe can be placed exactly where the user would like the split to begin, with the exception of users with expert aim, axes and mauls cannot. This technique can be used with enough precision that regularity of measurements can be kept when cutting shingles, ground stakes, another use is to rive pieces of wood to be used for steam bending, as this wood follows the grain and is less prone to breakage. Hitting the narrow blade of a froe constantly soon damages a mallet and this is simply a short length of a thin log, still with the bark on it, with one end reduced with a drawknife to convenient diameter for a handle. It is rotated slightly in the hand with each blow, so as to even the wear, and although it wears out. When hammering the portion of the blade projecting from the wood. This commonly happens when the froe encounters a hidden knot in the wood, when making the first strike to set the froe into the wood, it is safer to hold the blade at the eye, where the handle meets the blade. This makes it impossible to strike your fingers with the froe club. Van Natta Forestry and Logging website
Froe
–
A froe.
15.
Drawknife
–
A drawknife is a traditional woodworking hand tool used to shape wood by removing shavings. It consists of a blade with a handle at each end, the blade is much longer than it is deep. It is pulled or drawn toward the user, the drawknife in the illustration has a blade 23 centimetres although much shorter drawknives are also made. The blade is sharpened to a chisel bevel, traditionally, it is a rounded, smooth bevel. The handles can be below the level of the blade or at the same level, the thin blade lends itself to create complex concave or convex curves. Unlike a spokeshave, it not have a closed mouth to control chip formation. They are also a piece of equipment in hand-made cricket bats. The operator gently levers the blade to bite into the wood, one works from the centre of the piece to the end, not the entire length all at once. The operator then reverses the piece in the horse or vise and works from near centre to trim the fatter end to match the centre. Final work can be done by spokeshave, sanding block or lathe, when operated conventionally, that is blade bevel-side upward the drawknife takes deeper cuts and some novices may find it has a tendency to dive. When operated bevel-side down there is the advantage of removing less stock, the operator applies little leverage from centre and most leverage, so the blade bites deeper, thus removing more wood as they approach the end grain. The operator applies minimal, then most, then least force on the handles from centre toward the end grain, the work stock is reversed and same method repeated this time commencing a tiny distance away from centre so as to leave a coarse raised section. The coarse raised section where the two curves meet can be finished with a rasp, file, spokeshave or other tool. For very rapid and rough removal of stock, the blade is drawn toward the user, the operator immediately stops pulling, and uses the drawknife blade to lever upward so as to flick the splinter or splice out of the worked piece. This technique is advanced and may damage the worked piece and drawknife blade if due care is not observed, traditionally, the waste shavings, which are particularly durable, are used for basket weaving or for kindling. They also make excellent compost and plant bed material, large drawknives can be used to dress logs, and small sizes for carving and shaving. A common use of a drawknife is to create a roughly cylindrical billet of wood for turning on a pole lathe. Fifty million tent pegs were manufactured in the United Kingdom throughout World War II via the drawknife method, a pushknife is a similar tool, used by pushing, rather than pulling
Drawknife
–
Traditional draw knife
Drawknife
–
Draw shaves are often used with shaving horses.
16.
Shaving horse
–
A shaving horse is a combination of vice and workbench, used for green woodworking. Typical usage of the horse is to create a round profile along a square piece. They are used in such as coopering and bowyery. As the name suggests, the worker sits astride the shaving horse. The clamp is operated by the operator pressing their feet onto a bar below. A foot-actuated clamp holds the work piece securely against pulling forces, the shavehorse provides a rapid and sturdy clamp, which allows the operator to use their legs and upper body weight as additional power for work. It is considered by some to result in less fatigue than generated by constantly standing, Shaving green wood with the drawknife or spokeshave along the grain is far quicker and easier work than turning across it. Skilled operators can produce very fine results with a drawknife and shavehorse, straddling a shave horse while carelessly using any dangerous power tool, such as a circular saw, may result in the operator suffering serious bodily injury. The typical clamp is a bar or bars, hinged on a pivot attached to or passing through the bench/seat top. The top of bar is enlarged into the horse-, dog-, or dumb head. Some clamps are worked via string or rope, rather than mechanical leverage, for extra precision and better clamping force, the clamp pivot point may be raised above the bench level on a sub-bench, giving more leverage. These so-called Black Forest or German and Swiss shave horses give a longer lever-ratio, creating greater mechanical advantage, for the itinerant bodgers, simplicity and lightness of their tools was important, thus the bodgers often created their shave horses from logs found in their woodland plot. Mike Dunbar, the Dean of Windsor Chair Makers, has posted a blog decrying the use of the horse for actual production work. When asked why, I answer, Why would I impose a pay cut on myself and that is in effect the result of using this tool. It is so limiting that it slows down the chairmaker and costs him income, using a vise I am standing, not sitting, and I am far more productive and efficient. I work far faster, using less energy, different Shave Horse - The Clydesdale Green Woodwork Craftsmanspace Free Shaving Horse Plan Internet Archive of Craftsmanspace Shaving-Horse plans
Shaving horse
–
Shaving horses in use
Shaving horse
–
Simple French example, with a stick in place for working
Shaving horse
–
A
Black Forest pattern, with more precise clamp
Shaving horse
–
Shaving horse
17.
Dutch barn
–
Dutch barn is the name given to markedly different types of barns in the United States and Canada, and in the United Kingdom. In the United States, Dutch barns represent the oldest and rarest types of barns, there are relatively few—probably fewer than 600—of these barns still intact. Common features of these include a core structure composed of a steep gabled roof, supported by purlin plates and anchor beam posts. Little of the weight is supported by the wall, which could be removed without affecting the stability of the structure. Large beams of pine or oak bridge the center aisle for animals to provide room for threshing, entry was through paired doors on the gable ends with a pent roof over them, and smaller animal doors at the corners of the same elevations. The Dutch Barn has a profile, unlike the more rectangular English or German barns. In the United Kingdom a structure called a Dutch barn is a relatively recent agricultural development meant specifically for hay and straw storage, British Dutch barns represent a type of pole barn in common use today. Design styles range from fixed roof to roof, some Dutch barns have honeycombed brick walls. Still other British Dutch barns may be found with no walls at all, the New World Dutch barn is the rarest of the American barn forms. The remaining American Dutch-style barns represent relics from the 18th and 19th century, Dutch barns were the first great barns built in the United States, mostly by Dutch settlers in New Netherlands. New Netherlanders settled along the Hackensack, Passaic, Raritan, Millstone rivers, in New York, they concentrated in the Hudson Valley, and along the Mohawk River and Schoharie Creek. Many Dutch barns also were built in portions of the American Northeast. Relatively few—probably less than 600—Dutch barns survive intact in the 21st century and those that remain date from the 18th and early 19th century. Dutch barns rarely remain in a good, unaltered condition, the Dutch Barn Preservation Society has cataloged hundreds of standing Dutch Barns throughout the Hudson, Mohawk, and Schoharie Valleys as well as in New Jersey. Schoharie County Historian Harold Zoch regularly speaks on Dutch barns, New World Dutch Barns in the National Register of Historic Places include the Wortendyke Barn and an example at the Caspar Getman Farmstead. The exterior features a gable roof, which, in early Dutch barns extended very low to the ground. The barns feature center doors for wagons on the narrow end, a pent roof, or a pentice, over the doors offered some protection from inclement weather. The siding was usually horizontal and had few details, Dutch barns often lacked windows and had no openings other than the doors and holes for purple martins to enter
Dutch barn
–
Map of New Netherland dated 1685 - where the greatest numbers of Dutch barns were built in what is now New Jersey
Dutch barn
–
A New World Dutch barn known as the Bull Barn located at the
Bull Stone House in Hamptonburgh, NY. This barn has the oldest known barn timbers in its core dated to 1726 but the roof structure, side aisles and exterior are not original.
Dutch barn
–
Dilapidated Dutch barn in
upstate New York recorded by the
Historic American Buildings Survey in 1937
Dutch barn
–
The large beam with a tenon protruding through the post is called an anchor beam. This image is of a barn in the Netherlands, but anchor beams in North America are very similar. (Nutter - 20170459 - RCE)
18.
Woodworking
–
Woodworking is the activity or skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinet making, wood carving, joinery, carpentry, and woodturning. Along with stone, clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans, microwear analysis of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials, among early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from Kalambo Falls, Clacton-on-Sea and Lehringen. The spears from Schöningen provide some of the first examples of hunting gear. Flint tools were used for carving, since Neolithic times, carved wooden vessels are known, for example, from the Linear Pottery culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra. Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include tree trunks worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark, there is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in Ancient Egypt. Woodworking is depicted in extant ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture has been preserved. Tombs represent a collection of these artefacts and the inner coffins found in the tombs were also made of wood. The metal used by the Egyptians for woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, commonly used woodworking tools included axes, adzes, chisels, pull saws, and bow drills. Mortise and tenon joints are attested from the earliest Predynastic period and these joints were strengthened using pegs, dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in the New Kingdom period, Ancient Egyptians invented the art of veneering and used varnishes for finishing, though the composition of these varnishes is unknown. Woodworking was essential to the Romans and it provided, sometimes the only, material for buildings, transportation, tools, and household items. Vitruvius dedicates a chapter of his De architectura to timber. Pliny, while not a botanist, dedicated six books of his Natural History to trees and woody plants which provides a wealth of information on trees, the progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring and Autumn period. Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane, chalk-line and his teachings were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing. Despite this, it is believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various items such as pots, tables, altars, etc. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which Chinese furniture was so famous, with the advances in modern technology and the demands of industry, woodwork as a field has changed
Woodworking
–
Artists can use woodworking to create delicate
sculptures.
Woodworking
–
Ancient Egyptian woodworking
Woodworking
–
Damascene woodworkers
carving wood for
hookahs, 19th century.
Woodworking
–
Micronesian of
Tobi,
Palau, making a paddle for his
wa with an
adze.
19.
History of wood carving
–
Wood carving is one of the oldest arts of humankind. Wooden spears from the Middle Paleolithic, such as the Clacton Spear, the North American Indian carves his wooden fish-hook or his pipe stem just as the Polynesian works patterns on his paddle. Figure-work seems to have been universal, the texture of the material, too, often proves challenging to the expression of features, especially in the classic type of youthful face. On the other hand, magnificent examples exist of the rugged features of age, the beetling brows. In ancient work the surface may not have been of such consequence, for figures as a rule being painted for protection and especially color. It is not always realized at the present day to what extent color has even from the most ancient times used to enhance the effect of wood-carving. The modern Colour prejudice against gold and other tints is perhaps because painted work has been vulgarized, the arrangement of a proper and harmonious scheme of colour is not the work of the house painter, but of the specially trained artist. In the early 20th century, the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, on much of this entry is based, commented. The work is slow and requires substantial skill, making the works expensive. Other and cheaper methods of decoration have driven carving from its former place, machine work has much to answer for, and the endeavor to popularize the craft by means of the village class has not always achieved its own end. The gradual disappearance of the individual artist, elbowed out as he has been, the extreme dryness of the climate of Egypt accounts for the existence of a number of woodcarvings from this remote period. Some wood panels from the tomb of Hosul Egypt, at Sakkarah are of the III, the carving consists of Egyptian hieroglyphs and figures in low relief, and the style is extremely delicate and fine. A stool shown on one of the panels has the legs shaped like the fore and hind limbs of an animal, in the Cairo museum may be seen the statue of a man from the period of the Great Pyramid of Giza, possibly 4000 B. C. The expression of the face and the realism of the carriage have never been surpassed by any Egyptian sculptor of this or any other period, the figure is carved out of a solid block of sycamore, and in accordance with the Egyptian custom the arms are joined on. The IV. V. and VI. dynasties cover the finest period of Egyptian sculpture, the statues found in the tombs show a freedom of treatment which was never reached in later times. They are all portraits, which the artist strove his utmost to render exactly like his model, for these are not, like mere modern statues, simply works of art, but had primarily a religious signification. As the spirits of the deceased might inhabit, these Ka statues, sometimes the animal would be carved in the round and its hollowed body used as the case itself. Of furniture, folding seats like the camp stool, and chairs with legs terminating in the heads of beasts or the feet of animals
History of wood carving
–
A
Chinese wooden
Bodhisattva,
Jin dynasty (1115–1234),
Shanghai Museum.
History of wood carving
–
Ancient Egyptian servant statuettes
History of wood carving
–
Detail from the carved portal, of
St Sabina on the
Aventine Hill, dating back from the 5th century
History of wood carving
–
Gothic beauty in carved wood
20.
Wood
–
Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees, and other woody plants. It is a material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, in a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots, Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber. In 2005, the stock of forests worldwide was about 434 billion cubic meters. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy, in 1991 approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction, a 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick discovered the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago. Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks. Constructions using wood date back ten thousand years, buildings like the European Neolithic long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has changed by the addition of steel. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the climate at that time. This process is known as growth, it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, if the distinctiveness between seasons is annual, these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent, if the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. It is usually lighter in color than that near the portion of the ring. The outer portion formed later in the season is known as the latewood or summerwood. However, there are differences, depending on the kind of wood
Wood
–
Diagram of
secondary growth in a
tree showing idealised vertical and horizontal sections. A new layer of wood is added in each growing season, thickening the stem, existing branches and
roots, to form a
growth ring.
Wood
Wood
–
A knot on a tree at the
Garden of the Gods public park in
Colorado Springs, Colorado (October 2006)
Wood
–
Wood knot in vertical section
21.
Lumber
–
Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not less than 5 inches in its smallest dimension. The latter includes the often partly finished lumber used in timber-frame construction, remanufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing/cutting of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it is cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill, resawing is the splitting of 1-inch through 12-inch hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a ten-foot 2×4 into two ten-foot 1×4s is considered resawing, structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with grain and large knots. There are various types of sawing, Plain sawn —A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log, quarter sawn and rift sawn—These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn so the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides of the lumber. Boxed heart—The pith remains within the piece with some allowance for exposure, heart center—the center core of a log. Free of heart center —A side-cut timber without any pith, free of knots —No knots are present. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4, 2×6, and 4×4, the length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth
Lumber
–
Timber in storage for later processing at a sawmill
Lumber
–
Wood cut from Victorian
Eucalyptus regnans
Lumber
–
The harbor of Bellingham, Washington, filled with logs, 1972
Lumber
–
A 2×4.
22.
Bow and arrow
–
The bow and arrow is a projectile weapon system that predates recorded history and is common to most cultures. Archery is the art, practice, or skill of applying it, a bow is a flexible arc that shoots aerodynamic projectiles called arrows. A string joins the two ends of the bow and when the string is drawn back, the ends of the bow are flexed, when the string is released, the potential energy of the flexed stick is transformed into the kinetic energy of the arrow. Archery is the art or sport of shooting arrows from bows, today, bows and arrows are used primarily for hunting and for the sport of archery. Someone who makes bows is known as a bowyer, and one who makes arrows is a fletcher —or in the case of the manufacture of arrow heads. The bow and arrow appears around the transition from the Upper Paleolithic to the Mesolithic, at the site of Nataruk in Turkana County, Kenya, obsidian bladelets found embedded in a skull and within the thoracic cavity of another skeleton, suggest the use of stone-tipped arrows as weapons. After the end of the last glacial period, use of the bow seems to have spread to every inhabited continent, including the New World, the oldest extant bows in one piece are the elm Holmegaard bows from Denmark which were dated to 9,000 BCE. High-performance wooden bows are made following the Holmegaard design. Microliths discovered on the south coast of Africa suggest that arrows may be at least 71,000 years old, the bow was an important weapon for both hunting and warfare from prehistoric times until the widespread use of gunpowder in the 16th century. Organised warfare with bows ended in the mid 17th century in Europe, the British upper class led a revival of archery from the late 18th century. Sir Ashton Lever, an antiquarian and collector, formed the Toxophilite Society in London in 1781, under the patronage of George, the basic elements of a bow are a pair of curved elastic limbs, traditionally made from wood, joined by a riser. Both ends of the limbs are connected by a known as the bow string. By pulling the string backwards the archer exerts compressive force on the section, or belly, of the limbs as well as placing the outer section, or back. While the string is held, this stores the energy released in putting the arrow to flight. The force required to hold the string stationary at full draw is used to express the power of a bow. Other things being equal, a draw weight means a more powerful bow. The various parts of the bow can be subdivided into further sections, the topmost limb is known as the upper limb, while the bottom limb is the lower limb. At the tip of each limb is a nock, which is used to attach the bowstring to the limbs, the riser is usually divided into the grip, which is held by the archer, as well as the arrow rest and the bow window
Bow and arrow
–
A modern reconstruction, in fiberglass and wood, of a historical
composite bow
Bow and arrow
–
Scythians shooting with bows,
Panticapeum (modern
Kertch), 4th century BCE.
Bow and arrow
–
Polychrome small-scale model of the archer XI of the west pediment of the
Temple of Aphaea, ca. 505–500 BCE.
23.
Bush carpentry
–
The phrase bush carpentry is a familiar Australian usage, but finding an exact description of its practice is rare. The Macquarie Dictionary for example, defines a bush carpenter as an amateur carpenter. The Macquarie in turn defines rough-and-ready as rough, rude or crude, wannan says that a bush carpenter is a very rough, unorthodox artisan indeed, and includes a sardonic excerpt from Henry Lawson to exemplify it. In his Bushcraft series Ron Edwards describes hut and furniture building, Tocal Agricultural College offers a course in Traditional bush timber construction, The word traditional appears six times in the course outline, but not bush carpentry. Cox and Lucas, writing in 1978 of Australian pioneer buildings, perhaps because it has been the symbol of hardship and country toil, perhaps because it was thought too crude and rude to be treated seriously as architecture by the academics. There have been few books and articles written on the subject, the vernacular, often, is a fragile architectural form, evolved for expedience and resulting—especially in the case of the more primitive examples—in early decay and disappearance. Within the vernacular building, function is the dominant factor, a similar and familiar phrase is traditional bush carpentry, this implies that its principles are well-known, but informally transmitted. Like folk music, bush carpentry exists within an oral and demotic culture, the tradition of Australian inventiveness, however, has an extensive literature. Vigorous attitudes to innovation prevailed in the Colonies in the nineteenth century, lessons from these attitudes both underline the continuing importance of the lone inventor and hold relevance for education, management, and technology policies today. There is sometimes a sardonic sense included in the phrase bush carpentry, one which implies slip-shod work by a careless practitioner, the milk is set in dishes made of kerosene-tins, cut in halves, which are placed on bark shelves fitted round against the walls. The shelves are not level and the dishes are brought to a horizontal position by means of chips and bits of bark. The milk is covered by soiled sheets of old newspapers supported on sticks laid across the dishes and this protection is necessary, because the box bark in the roof has crumbled away and left fringed holes—also because the fowls roost up there. Sometimes the paper sags, and the cream may have to be scraped off an article on dairy farming, in Australian parlance, the bush includes not only all remote and rural areas, but ways of living there, especially the limitations and hardships endured. The expression bush carpentry includes two criteria of remoteness, the first, that the builder is separated from regular methods of construction. The second, separation from regular resources such as milled timber, fasteners, specialized tools and those in both remote circumstances are forced to invent and improvise. They produce a structure or object via unorthodox procedures, and it will be serviceable. These two criteria allow the use of manufactured materials—e. g, milled timber—in an irregular manner, and materials other than wood. The Australian Aborigines were probably the first bush carpenters, from the Aborigines, European settlers learned how to strip bark in large sheets from particular tree species, and use this for roofs and walls
Bush carpentry
–
Bush carpentry in
Maldon, New South Wales
Bush carpentry
–
Bush timber supporting deck of Maldon Suspension Bridge.
Bush carpentry
–
Thomas Rowlandson: Naval carpenter, 1799
Bush carpentry
–
Broadaxe
24.
Cabinetry
–
A cabinet is a box-shaped piece of furniture with doors or drawers for storing miscellaneous items. Some cabinets stand alone while others are built into a wall or are attached to it like a medicine cabinet, cabinets are typically made of wood or, now increasingly, of synthetic materials. Commercial grade cabinets, which differ in the used, are called casework. Cabinets usually have one or more doors on the front, which are mounted with door hardware, many cabinets have doors and drawers or only drawers. Short cabinets often have a surface on top that can be used for display, or as a working surface. A cabinet intended for clothing storage is usually called a wardrobe or an armoire, before the advent of industrial design, cabinet makers were responsible for the conception and the production of any piece of furniture. In the last half of the 18th century, cabinet makers, such as Thomas Sheraton, Thomas Chippendale, Shaver, cabinet Constructors, and George Hepplewhite, also published books of furniture forms. These books were compendiums of their designs and those of other cabinet makers, in parallel to this evolution there came a growing demand by the rising middle class in most industrialised countries for finely made furniture. This eventually resulted in a growth in the number of traditional cabinet makers. Before 1650, fine furniture was a rarity in Western Europe, generally, people did not need it and for the most part could not afford it. They made do with simple but serviceable pieces, the arts and craft movement which started in the United Kingdom in the middle of the 19th century spurred a market for traditional cabinet making, and other craft goods. It rapidly spread to the United States and to all the countries in the British Empire and this movement exemplified the reaction to the eclectic historicism of the Victorian era and to the soulless machine-made production which was starting to become widespread. After World War II woodworking became a hobby among the middle classes. The more serious and skilled amateurs in this field now turn out pieces of furniture which rival the work of professional cabinet makers and this style of design is typified by clean horizontal and vertical lines. Compared to other designs there is an absence of ornamentation. While Scandinavian design is easy to identify, it is more about the materials than the design. This style of design is very ornate, French Provincial objects are often stained or painted, leaving the wood concealed. Corners and bevels are often decorated with gold leaf or given some kind of gilding
Cabinetry
–
Cabinet
Cabinetry
–
Tortoise-shell cabinet of Polish king
John III Sobieski,
looted by the Germans from the
Wilanów Palace during
World War II
Cabinetry
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Crafted by Hughes Sambin (1570-1600), double cabinet features the combination of architectural elements and relief carving that is characteristic of French furniture of the period.
25.
Carpentry
–
Carpentry in the United States is almost always done by men. With 98. 5% of carpenters being male, it was the fourth most male-dominated occupation in the country in 1999, Carpenters are usually the first tradesmen on a job and the last to leave. Carpenters normally framed post-and-beam buildings until the end of the 19th century and it is also common that the skill can be learned by gaining work experience other than a formal training program, which may be the case in many places. The word carpenter is the English rendering of the Old French word carpentier which is derived from the Latin carpentrius, the Middle English and Scots word was wright, which could be used in compound forms such as wheelwright or boatwright. An easy way to envisage this is that first fix work is all that is done before plastering takes place, second fix is done after plastering takes place. Second fix work, the construction of such as skirting boards, architraves. Carpentry is also used to construct the formwork into which concrete is poured during the building of such as roads. In the UK, the skill of making timber formwork for poured, or in situ, although the. work of a carpenter and joiner are often combined. Joiner is less common than the finish carpenter or cabinetmaker. The terms housewright and barnwright were used historically, now used by carpenters who work using traditional methods. Someone who builds custom concrete formwork is a form carpenter, wood is one of mankinds oldest building materials. The ability to shape wood improved with technological advances from the age to the bronze age to the iron age. The oldest surviving, complete text is Vitruvius ten books collectively titled De architectura which discusses some carpentry. By the 16th century sawmills were coming into use in Europe, the founding of America was partly based on a desire to extract resources from the new continent including wood for use in ships and buildings in Europe. In the 18th century part of the Industrial Revolution was the invention of the steam engine and these technologies combined with the invention of the circular saw led to the development of balloon framing which was the beginning of the decline of traditional timber framing. The 19th century saw the development of engineering and distribution which allowed the development of hand-held power tools, wire nails. In the 20th century portland cement came into use and concrete foundations allowed carpenters to do away with heavy timber sills. Also, drywall came into common use replacing lime plaster on wooden lath, plywood, engineered lumber and chemically treated lumber also came into use
Carpentry
–
Two German carpenters working (1975)
Carpentry
–
Traditional carpenter's tools Ethnographic Museum of Western Liguria,
Cervo,
Italy
Carpentry
–
Carpenters in an Indian village
Carpentry
–
Khati or Tarkhan, carpenter caste of the Panjab, India. Man sawing a plank.(1825)
26.
Chainsaw carving
–
The art of chainsaw carving is a fast-growing form of art that combines the modern technology of the chainsaw with the ancient art of woodcarving. The oldest chainsaw artist records go back to the 1950s, which include artists Ray Murphy, in 1952 Ray Murphy used his fathers chainsaw to carve his name into a piece of wood. In 1961 Ken Kaiser created 50 carvings for the Trees of Mystery, many new artists began to experiment with chainsaw carving, including Brenda Hubbard, Judy McVay, Don Colp, Cherie Currie, Susan Miller, Mike McVay, and Lois Hollingsworth. At this time chainsaw carvers started loading up their carvings in the back of their trucks, in the 1980s the art form really began to grow with Art Moe getting much exposure for the craft at the Lumberjack World Championships held in Hayward, Wisconsin. The addition of carving contests from the west coast to the east coast brought carvers together to test their skills, the first Chainsaw Carving World Championships was held in 1987 and won by then 24-year-old Barre Pinske. The 80s also brought the first book on chainsaw carving, Fun and Profitable Chainsaw Carving by William Westenhaver and Ron Hovde, other books soon followed, including a book by Hal MacIntosh published in 1988 titled Chainsaw Art and in 2001 Chainsaw Carving, The Art and Craft. He published material on chainsaw carving that predated the popularity of the Internet, the first booking agency dedicated to promoting and preserving the integrity of performance chainsaw art was founded by Brian Ruth in 1992. It was appropriately named Masters of the Chainsaw, the company has represented some of the most respected artists in the U. S. such as Brian Ruth, Ben Risney, Josh Landry, Mark Tyoe and Marty Long, as well as select artists from other countries. In 2007, Masters of the Chainsaw, under the direction of Jen Ruth, featured in this all-female team are greats like Stephanie Huber, Angela Polglaze, Lisa Foster, Alicia Charlton, Uschi Elias, and Sara Winter. Brian Ruth introduced the art as an art to Japan in 1995. Since then, he has established a division of Masters of the Chainsaw, although the general impression of the public is that it is largely performance art, there are a few chainsaw carvers now producing stunning works of art. These works can be produced in a fraction of the time that would normally be expected if only conventional tools such as mallet, although many carvers continue to use other tools alongside the chainsaw, the chainsaw remains the primary tool. With the growth of the Internet, chainsaw carving has become a phenomenon with chainsaw carvers all over the world. In the United Kingdom, the English Open Chainsaw Competition draws thousands of visitors annually, in 1989 Duncan Kitson was the first British carver, with notable success, to represent Wales and The UK in international competition. His work is recognized for its individual, engineered and tactile qualities, English chainsaw artist Matthew Crabb has carved the largest wooden statue of the Virgin Mary in the world, at 9 meters high, in Schochwitz, Germany. Welsh veteran, Harry Thomas of Thomas Carving is highly respected in the industry and specialises in bears, Harry has appeared on ITVs Daybreak, where he carved Queen Elizabeth IIs head, in celebration of her Diamond Jubilee. In Canada, many wooden statues produced by the chainsaw artist Pete Ryan decorate the town of Hope. In Japan, the Toei Chainsaw Art Club established the World Chainsaw Art Competition, the 2011 World Chainsaw Art Competition at the Toei Dome was to be dedicated to raising money for disaster relief due to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster that has affected the country
Chainsaw carving
–
A man carving a Bernese bear with a chainsaw in
Brienz,
Switzerland
Chainsaw carving
–
World's tallest
Virgin Mary carving at
Schochwitz,
Germany
Chainsaw carving
–
Carving of owls,
Brighton Recreation Area, Michigan
27.
Chip carving
–
Chip carving or chip-carving, kerbschnitt in German, is a style of carving in which knives or chisels are used to remove small chips of the material from a flat surface in a single piece. The style became important in Migration Period metalwork, mainly Animal style jewellery and this was very probably a transfer to metalworking of a technique already used in woodcarving, but no wooden examples have survived. Famous Anglo-Saxon examples include the jewellery from Sutton Hoo and the Tassilo Chalice, in modern wood carving, the style is also called spoon carving. The style is traditional in the art of many countries. Patterns can be free form style or based on geometric figures, in America it is mostly used with basswood, butternut, pine, or mahogany. Chip carving knives can also be used for whittling, cabinet making, and general workbench purposes
Chip carving
–
Chip carving in wood
28.
Clog
–
Clogs are a type of footwear made in part or completely from wood. Clogs are used worldwide and although the form may vary by culture, traditional clogs remain in use as protective footwear in agriculture and in some factories and mines. Clogs are also used in different styles of dance. When worn for dancing an important feature is the sound of the clog against the floor and this is one of the fundamental roots of tap, but with the tap shoes the taps are free to click against each other and produce a different sound from clogs. The Oxford English Dictionary defines a clog as a piece of wood, and later as a wooden soled overshoe. Welsh traditional clog maker Trefor Owen identified three main varieties of clogs, wooden upper, wooden soled and overshoes, Wooden upper clogs, are made by hollowing out a lump of solid wood to make a combined upper and lower. Two main variants can be seen, whole foot clogs, where the upper covers the whole of the foot to near the ankle. They are also known as wooden shoes, whole foot clogs can give sufficient protection to be used as safety footwear without additional reinforcements. Half open clogs, where the wooden upper extends over the toes or slightly further, the upper is similar in outline to a court shoe. Half open clogs may have additional covering or securing straps in some sort of fabric or leather, Wooden soled clogs, use wood for the sole only. Wooden soled clogs come with a variety of uppers, complete uppers made from leather or similar material, for more protection, they may have steel toecaps and/or steel reinforcing inserts in the undersides of the soles open sandal type fitting. For example, Japanese geta toe peg styles, for example, Indian paduka Overshoes, are wooden soles with straps designed to be worn over other footwear for protection, commonly known as pattens. Patten style clogs are not used anymore, however the derivative galoshes are common world-wide. The type of upper determines how the clogs are worn, whole foot clogs need to be close fitting and can be secured by curling the toes. In contrast wooden soled clogs are fastened by laces or buckles on the welt, half open clogs may either be secured like whole foot clogs, or have an additional strap over the top of the foot. Some sandal types, and in particular toe peg styles, are more like flip-flops. Being wood, clogs cannot flex under the ball of the foot as softer shoes do, to allow the foot to roll forward most clogs have the bottom of the toe curved up, known as the cast. Some styles of clogs have feet, such as Spanish albarca, the clog rotates around the front edge of the front feet
Clog
–
Clogs are often associated with whole foot style
klompen from the Netherlands
Clog
–
Wooden soled type
English clogs
Clog
–
Overshoes type of clogs (
pattens) with leather shoes (German), reconstruction of the Middle Ages
Clog
–
16th century ladies clogs - illustration by Percy Anderson for Costume Fanciful, Historical and Theatrical, 1906
29.
Fretwork
–
Fretwork is an interlaced decorative design that is either carved in low relief on a solid background, or cut out with a fretsaw, coping saw, jigsaw or scroll saw. Most fretwork patterns are geometric in design, the materials most commonly used are wood and metal. Fretwork is used to adorn furniture and musical instruments, the term is also used for tracery on glazed windows and doors. Fretwork patterns originally were ornamental designs used to decorate objects with a grid or a lattice, designs have developed from the rectangular wave Greek fret to intricate intertwined patterns. A common misconception is that fretwork must be done with a fretsaw, however, a fretwork pattern is considered a fretwork whether or not it was cut out with a fretsaw. Computer numerical control has brought change in the method of timber fretwork manufacture. Lasers or router/milling cutting implements can now fashion timber and various materials into flat
Fretwork
–
Timber fretwork
Fretwork
–
Fretwork for a ventilation or light grill
Fretwork
–
Gable end Fretwork
30.
Intarsia
–
Intarsia is a form of wood inlaying that is similar to marquetry. The start of the practice dates before the seventh century and it is thought that the word intarsia is derived from the Latin word interserere which means to insert. The technique of intarsia was already perfected in Islamic North Africa before it was introduced into Christian Europe through Sicily, the most elaborate examples of intarsia can be found in cabinets of this period, which were items of great luxury and prestige. After about 1620, marquetry tended to supplant intarsia in urbane cabinet work, in the 1980s, intarsia began to gain popularity in the United States as a technique for creating wooden art using a band saw or scroll saw. Early practitioners made money both by selling their art, and also selling patterns used to create intarsia, intarsia is a woodworking technique that uses varied shapes, sizes, and species of wood fitted together to create a mosaic-like picture with an illusion of depth. Intarsia is created through the selection of different types of wood, using their natural grain pattern, after selecting the specific woods to be used within the pattern, each piece is then individually cut, shaped, and finished. Sometimes areas of the pattern are raised to create more depth, marble intarsia, called pietre dura in English for the semi-precious hardstones combined with colored marbles that are employed, is an intarsia of coloured stones inlaid in white or black marble. Later complex designs and refinement of the art developed in Naples circa the beginning of the 17th century, the floor of St. Peters Basilica in Rome is a particularly notable example of marble intarsia. Later this form of decoration became a feature of interior design. Today intarsia can be made from purchased patterns, to make intarsia from a pattern, first wood is chosen based on color and grain pattern. Next the pattern is transferred onto the wood and individual pieces are cut out on the band saw or scroll saw. Those pieces are then sanded individually or in groups to add depth to the piece, once the sanding is completed, the wood pieces are fitted together to form the final result. A finish can be applied to the pieces before gluing. Intarsia is also used to refer to a technique used with small
Intarsia
–
Geometric figure (1537), intarsia by fra Damiano da Bergamo; Museum of the Basilica of Saint Dominic, Bologna, Italy
Intarsia
–
The marble intarsia floor of
St. Peter's Basilica
Intarsia
–
Modern intarsia using natural wood grains and colors
