1.
Beam bridge
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Beam bridges are the simplest structural forms for bridge spans supported by an abutment or pier at each end. No moments are transferred throughout the support, hence their structural type is known as simply supported, the simplest beam bridge could be a log, a wood plank, or a stone slab laid across a stream. Bridges designed for modern infrastructure will usually be constructed of steel or reinforced concrete, the concrete elements may be reinforced, prestressed or post-tensioned. Types of construction could include having many beams side by side with a deck across the top of them, the main beams could be I-beams, trusses, or box girders. They could be half-through, or braced across the top to create a through bridge, beam bridges are not limited to a single span. Some viaducts such as the Feiyunjiang Bridge in China have multiple simply supported spans supported by piers and this is opposed to viaducts using continuous spans over the piers. Beam bridges are only used for relatively short distances because, unlike truss bridges. The only supports are provided by piers, the farther apart its supports, the weaker a beam bridge gets. As a result, beam bridges rarely span more than 250 feet and this doesnt mean beam bridges arent used to cross great distances, it only means that a series of beam bridges must be joined together, creating whats known as a continuous span
2.
Clapper bridge
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A clapper bridge is an ancient form of bridge found on the moors of Devon and in other upland areas of the United Kingdom including Snowdonia and Anglesey, Cumbria, Yorkshire and Lancashire. It is formed by large slabs of stone, often granite or schist, supported on stone piers. Although often credited with prehistoric origin, most were erected in medieval times and they are often situated close to a ford where carts could cross. A fine example, the Postbridge Clapper Bridge, can be found at Postbridge and its slabs are over four metres long, two metres wide and weigh over eight tons each, making the bridge passable to a small cart. It was first recorded in 1380 and was built to facilitate the transportation of Dartmoor tin by pack horses to the town of Tavistock. Other surviving examples include the Tarr Steps over the River Barle in Exmoor, some larger clapper bridges, such as at Dartmeet and Bellever, have collapsed – their slabs swept away by floods, or raided for building or wall construction. However, there are other smaller examples in existence on Dartmoor and still in use, such as those at Teignhead Farm, Scorhill. While the term clapper bridge is typically associated with the United Kingdom, one example is the Anping Bridge in China, which is over two kilometres long
3.
Viaduct
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A viaduct is a bridge composed of several small spans for crossing a valley, dry or wetland, or forming a flyover. The term viaduct is derived from the Latin via for road and ducere, the ancient Romans did not use the term, it is a modern derivation from an analogy with aqueduct. Like the Roman aqueducts, many early viaducts comprised a series of arches of equal length. Viaducts may span land, water or both, a viaduct is a bridge composed of several small spans for crossing a valley or a gorge. The term is conventional for a flyover as opposed to a flying junction or a rail bridge which crosses one feature. In Romance languages, the word refers to a bridge which spans only land. A bridge spanning water is called ponte, the longest viaduct in antiquity may have been the Pont Serme which crossed wide marshes in southern France. Viaducts are commonly used in cities that are railroad centers, such as Chicago, Atlanta, Birmingham, London. These viaducts cross the railroad yards that are needed for freight trains there. These viaducts keep highway and city street traffic from having to be interrupted by the train traffic. Likewise, some viaducts carry railroads over large valleys, or they carry railroads over cities with many cross-streets, many viaducts over land connect points of similar height in a landscape, usually by bridging a river valley or other eroded opening in an otherwise flat area. Often such valleys had roads descending either side that become inadequate for the traffic load, such bridges also lend themselves for use by rail traffic, which requires straighter and flatter routes. Some viaducts have more than one deck, such that one deck has vehicular traffic, others were built to span settled areas, crossing over roads beneath—the reason for many viaducts in London. Viaducts over water use of islands or successive arches. The Millau Viaduct is a cable-stayed road-bridge that spans the valley of the River Tarn near Millau in southern France and it was formally dedicated on 14 December 2004 and opened to traffic two days later. The viaduct Danyang–Kunshan Grand Bridge in China is the longest bridge in the according to Guinness World Records as of 2011. Where a viaduct is built across land rather than water, the space below the arches may be used for such as car parking, vehicle repairs, light industry, bars. In the United Kingdom, many lines in urban areas have been constructed on viaducts
4.
Passenger rail terminology
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It uses passenger railcars operating singly or in multiple unit trains on fixed rails. It operates on separate rights-of-way from which all other vehicular and foot traffic are excluded and it uses sophisticated signaling systems, and high platform loading. Originally, the rapid transit was used in the 1800s to describe new forms of quick urban public transportation that had a right-of-way separated from street traffic. This set rapid transit apart from horsecars, trams, streetcars, omnibuses, though the term was almost always used to describe rail transportation, other forms of transit were sometimes described by their proponents as rapid transit, including local ferries in some cases. The term bus rapid transit has recently come into use to describe bus lines with features to speed their operation and these usually have more characteristics of light rail than rapid transit. They are consequently designed for operations in tunnel, viaducts or on surface level, in different parts of the world Metro systems are also known as the underground, the subway or the tube. Rail systems with specific construction issues operating on a segregated guideway are also treated as Metros as long as they are designated as part of the public transport network. ”Metropolitan railways are used for high capacity public transportation. They can operate in trains of up to 10 cars, carrying 1800 passengers or more, in Germany, the terms U-Bahn and S-Bahn are used. Some metro systems run on rubber tires but are based on the same principles as steel wheel systems. Subway used in a transit sense refers to either a rapid transit system using heavy rail or a light system that goes underground. The term may only to the underground parts of the system. Some lines described as subway use light rail equipment, notably, Bostons Green Line and the Newark City Subway, each about half underground, originated from fully surface streetcar lines. Sometimes the term is qualified, such as in Philadelphia, where trolleys operate in a subway for part of their route. In some cities where subway is used, it refers to the system, in others. Historic posters referred to Chicagos Red & Blue lines as the subway lines, interestingly, when the Boston subway was originally built, the subway label was only used for sections into which streetcars operated, and the rapid transit sections were called tunnels. Bus subways are uncommon but do exist, though in cases the non-underground portions of route are not called subways. Bus subways are built to provide an exclusive right-of-way for bus rapid transit lines. These are usually called by the bus rapid transit
5.
Lumber
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Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not less than 5 inches in its smallest dimension. The latter includes the often partly finished lumber used in timber-frame construction, remanufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing/cutting of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it is cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill, resawing is the splitting of 1-inch through 12-inch hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a ten-foot 2×4 into two ten-foot 1×4s is considered resawing, structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with grain and large knots. There are various types of sawing, Plain sawn —A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log, quarter sawn and rift sawn—These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn so the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides of the lumber. Boxed heart—The pith remains within the piece with some allowance for exposure, heart center—the center core of a log. Free of heart center —A side-cut timber without any pith, free of knots —No knots are present. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4, 2×6, and 4×4, the length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth
6.
Iron
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Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series and it is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earths outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earths crust, like the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +6, although +2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments, but is reactive to oxygen, fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray, but oxidize in normal air to give hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. Unlike the metals that form passivating oxide layers, iron oxides occupy more volume than the metal and thus flake off, Iron metal has been used since ancient times, although copper alloys, which have lower melting temperatures, were used even earlier in human history. Pure iron is soft, but is unobtainable by smelting because it is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities, in particular carbon. A certain proportion of carbon steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron, further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and iron alloys formed with metals are by far the most common industrial metals because they have a great range of desirable properties. Iron chemical compounds have many uses, Iron oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding and purifying ores. Iron forms binary compounds with the halogens and the chalcogens, among its organometallic compounds is ferrocene, the first sandwich compound discovered. Iron plays an important role in biology, forming complexes with oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Iron is also the metal at the site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants. A human male of average height has about 4 grams of iron in his body and this iron is distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin, tissues, muscles, bone marrow, blood proteins, enzymes, ferritin, hemosiderin, and transport in plasma. The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests, including the Brinell test, Rockwell test, the data on iron is so consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. An increase in the content will cause a significant increase in the hardness. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0. 6% carbon content, because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium. Because of its significance for planetary cores, the properties of iron at high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively
7.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
8.
Reinforced concrete
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The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing schemes are designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed, so as to improve the behaviour of the final structure under working loads. In the United States, the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for example. François Coignet was a French industrialist of the century, a pioneer in the development of structural. Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignets descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete, in 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-storey house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, in 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders with iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire and reintroduced in the mid to late 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology. His work played a role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven. Without Hyatts work, more dangerous trial and error methods would have largely depended on for the advancement in the technology. G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron, in 1879 Wayss bought the German rights to Moniers patents and in 1884 started the first commercial use for reinforced concrete in his firm Wayss & Freytag. Up until the 1890s Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Moniers system of reinforcing, ernest L. Ransome was an English-born engineer and early innovator of the reinforced concrete techniques in the end of the 19th century. With the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, ransomes key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar improving bonding with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America, one of the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States, was a private home, designed by William Ward in 1871. The home was designed to be fireproof for his wife, one of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-storey Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904. Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames, Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete. Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures, small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building
9.
Prestressed concrete
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Prestressed concrete is a concrete construction material which is placed under compression prior to it supporting any applied loads. A more technical definition is Structural concrete in which stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses in the concrete resulting from loads. This compression is produced by the tensioning of high-strength tendons located within or adjacent to the concrete volume, tendons may consist of single wires, multi-wire strands or threaded bars, and are most commonly made from high-tensile steels, carbon fibre or aramid fibre. This can result in improved structural capacity and/or serviceability compared to reinforced concrete in many situations. Typical applications range through high-rise buildings, residential slabs, foundation systems, bridge and dam structures, silos and tanks, industrial pavements, first used in the late-nineteenth century, prestressed concrete has developed to encompass a wide range of technologies. Tensioning of the tendons may be undertaken either before or after the concrete itself is cast, tendons may be located either within the concrete volume, or wholly outside of it. Whereas pre-tensioned concrete by definition uses tendons directly bonded to the concrete, pre-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned prior to the concrete being cast. Pre-tensioning is a common technique, where the resulting concrete element is manufactured remotely from the final structure location. It requires strong, stable end-anchorage points between which the tendons are stretched and these anchorages form the ends of a casting bed which may be many times the length of the concrete element being fabricated. Higher bond strength in early-age concrete allows more economical fabrication as it speeds production, to promote this, pre-tensioned tendons are usually composed of isolated single wires or strands, as this provides a greater surface area for bond action than bundled strand tendons. Unlike those of post-tensioned concrete, the tendons of pre-tensioned concrete elements generally form straight lines between end-anchorages, where profiled or harped tendons are required, one or more intermediate deviators are located between the ends of the tendon to hold the tendon to the desired non-linear alignment during tensioning. Such deviators usually act against substantial forces, and hence require a robust casting bed foundation system, pre-tensioned concrete is most commonly used for the fabrication of structural beams, floor slabs, hollow-core planks, balconies, lintels, driven piles, water tanks and concrete pipes. Post-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned after the concrete structure has been cast. The tendons are not placed in contact with the concrete. At each end of a tendon is an anchorage assembly firmly fixed to the surrounding concrete, once the concrete has been cast and set, the tendons are tensioned by pulling the tendon ends through the anchorages while pressing against the concrete. The large forces required to tension the tendons result in a significant permanent compression being applied to the once the tendon is locked-off at the anchorage. Casting the tendon ducts/sleeves into the concrete before any tensioning occurs allows them to be profiled to any desired shape including incorporating vertical and/or horizontal curvature. Bonded post-tensioning has prestressing tendons permanently bonded to the concrete by the in situ grouting of their encapsulating ducting following tendon tensioning
10.
Falsework
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This usage is specifically called centering. The British Standards of practice for falsework, BS5975,1982, until the turn of the 20th century almost all falsework was constructed from timber. To compensate for shortages in different regions and to rationalize labor and material usage. The major developments include the design of devices, transitions to other spanning beams such as steel pipes or profiles or reusable timber beams. During the same period many different scaffolding systems were being developed around the world and these consisted of welded frames that could be slotted or clipped together to form access or support towers. The reduction in time and complexity led to reduced labor costs. Further developments have made scaffolding systems even easier to use, stronger systems have been introduced that either incorporate horizontal restraints at more levels or use stronger tubes or connections. Materials from which falsework systems are manufactured have also diversified from traditional steel, in the UK, BS5975 gives recommendations for the design and use of falsework on construction sites. It was first introduced by the British Standards Institute in March 1982 and was revised in March 1996. The code is currently under revision again, a copy was released in late 2007. Fabrication, Metalworkers fabricate a falsework section from pipe and beams, erection, A section is lifted to a vertical position with the assistance of two forklift operators. Placement, The section is guided into position by a ground crew, completed Falsework, Decking and some formwork has been added. When the supports are complete, wood beams and plywood or reusable metal forms will be placed, reinforcing and tenon conduits added, after curing and any tenon tensioning, wedges will be removed and forms and falsework disassembled. A certain type of bridge, the suspension bridge, must be supported during construction
11.
Bent (structural)
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A bent in American English is a two-dimensional transverse rigid frame. The term is used for the cross-ways support structures in a trestle. In British English this assembly is called a cross frame, the term bent is probably an archaic past tense of the verb to bind, referring to the way the timbers of a bent are joined together. The Dutch word is bint, the Frisian is bynt, compare this with the term bend for a class of knots. Bents are the blocks that define the overall shape and character of a structure. They do not have any sort of pre-defined configuration in the way that a Pratt truss does. Rather, bents are simply cross-sectional templates of structural members, i. e. rafters, joists, posts, pilings, the term bent is not restricted to any particular material. Bents may be formed of piles, timber framing, steel framing. Bents are generally pre-assembled, either at the timber framing companys shop or at the construction site, after the basic post and beam structure of the frame has been set in place, the bents are then lifted and simply dropped into place one by one by the crane. Next, the workers bring in members, purlins, which tie them together. This process is safe and efficient, as it allows a crew to assemble a large portion of the frame without ever stepping off the ground. This, in turn, minimizes the amount of time that the crew must spend several stories in the air clambering along beams not much wider than their own feet. Barn raising Pike pole Gin pole Timber roof truss Tau Beta Pi — engineering society whose seal incorporates a bent Benson, building the Timber Frame House, The Revival of a Forgotten Art. Glossary Useful terms in the timber framing trade, blog Entry Some good pictures and a short narrative about raising bents
12.
Wheel tractor-scraper
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In civil engineering, a wheel tractor-scraper is a piece of heavy equipment used for earthmoving. The rear part of the scraper has a vertically moveable hopper with a sharp horizontal front edge which can be raised or lowered, the front edge cuts into the soil, like a carpenters plane cutting wood, and fills the hopper. When the hopper is full it is raised, closed, with a type called an elevating scraper a conveyor belt moves material from the cutting edge into the hopper. The scraper is a piece of equipment which is used in mining, construction, agriculture. The rear part has a vertically moveable hopper with a sharp horizontal front edge, the hopper can be hydraulically lowered and raised. When the hopper is lowered, the front edge cuts into the soil or clay like a plane, when the hopper is full it is raised, and closed with a vertical blade. The scraper can transport its load to the area where the blade is raised, the back panel of the hopper, or the ejector, is hydraulically pushed forward. Then the empty scraper returns to the cut site and repeats the cycle, elevating scrapers do not require assistance from push-tractors. The pioneer developer of the elevating scraper was Hancock Manufacturing Company of Lubbock, self-propelled scrapers were invented by R. G. LeTourneau in the 1930s. This concept was developed by LeTourneau Westinghouse Company. Most current scrapers have two axles, although historically tri-axle configurations were dominant, scrapers can be very efficient on short hauls where the cut and fill areas are close together and have sufficient length to fill the hopper. The heavier scraper types have two engines, one driving the front wheels, one driving the wheels, with engines up to 400 kW. Multiple scrapers can work together in a fashion but this requires a long cut area. Open bowl, usually requires a push-cat to assist in loading, elevating scraper, self-loading as it uses an elevator to load material, requires no push-cat. Tandem scrapers, separate tractor and scraper engines provide better traction in steep or slippery areas, tandem Push-Pull, concentrates the combined horsepower of two such machines onto one cutting edge. The push-pull attachment allows two individual scrapers to act as a system, typically loading both machines in less than a minute, one after the other. Auger, uses vertically mounted auger in the bowl to pull material upwards, pull type scraper, uses agricultural tractor, articulated dump truck, or bulldozer to pull. Pull type scrapers can be utilized individually or two or three units can be pulled behind a single tractor, fresno scraper, a horse pulled device that is the ancestor of modern scrapers Grader, Resembles a scraper without the hopper that spreads out excess material
13.
Flood control channel
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Flood channels are sometimes built on the former courses of waterways as a way to reduce flooding. They are not to be confused with watercourses which are confined between levees. These structures may be entirely of concrete, with concrete sides and an exposed bottom, with riprap sides. They often contain grade control sills or weirs to prevent erosion, by definition, flood control channels range from the size of a street gutter to a few hundred or even a few thousand feet wide in some rare cases. Flood control channels are found in most heavily developed areas in the world. One city which many of these channels is Los Angeles, as they became mandatory with the passage of the Flood Control Act of 1941. Drop structure Urban runoff Weir Levee LA River Flood Control Channel Guadalupe River Flood Control Channel
14.
Coal trestle
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A coal trestle is a rigid frame trestle supporting train tracks above chutes, used to deliver fuel to boats or trains beneath it. At the top of the trestle, train rolling stock, typically hopper cars, the coal trestles were also used to transfer coal from mining railroads to rail cars on lines traveling further away. Coal trestles were prominent when coal was an important fuel for rail locomotion and steamships, buffalo, New York on Lake Erie. Oswego, New York on Lake Ontario, sodus Point, New York on Lake Ontario
15.
Great Salt Lake
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The Great Salt Lake, located in the northern part of the U. S. state of Utah, is the largest salt water lake in the Western Hemisphere, and the eighth-largest terminal lake in the world. In an average year the lake covers an area of around 1,700 square miles, for instance, in 1963 it reached its lowest recorded size at 950 square miles, but in 1988 the surface area was at the historic high of 3,300 square miles. In terms of area, it is the largest lake in the United States that is not part of the Great Lakes region. The lake is the largest remnant of Lake Bonneville, a prehistoric lake that once covered much of western Utah. The three major tributaries to the lake, the Jordan, Weber, and Bear rivers together deposit around 1.1 million tons of minerals in the each year. As it is endorheic, it has very high salinity, far saltier than seawater, which makes swimming similar to floating and its shallow, warm waters cause frequent, sometimes heavy lake-effect snows from late fall through spring. The Great Salt Lake is a remnant of a larger prehistoric lake called Lake Bonneville. At its greatest extent, Lake Bonneville spanned 22,400 square miles, nearly as large as present-day Lake Michigan, and roughly ten times the area of the Great Salt Lake today. Bonneville reached 923 ft at its deepest point, and covered much of present-day Utah and small portions of Idaho, Lake Bonneville existed until about 16,800 years ago, when a large portion of the lake was released through the Red Rock Pass in Idaho. With the warming climate, the lake began to dry, leaving the Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, Sevier Lake. While the lake was known by local Native Americans, it entered written history through the records of Silvestre Vélez de Escalante. No name was given to it at the time, and it was not shown on the map by Bernardo Miera y Pacheco, in 1824, it was observed, apparently independently, by Jim Bridger and Etienne Provost. Shortly thereafter other trappers saw it and walked around it, most of the trappers, however, were illiterate and did not record their discoveries. As oral reports of their findings made their way to those who did make records, Escalante had been on the shores of Utah Lake, which he named Laguna Timpanogos. It was the larger of the two lakes that appeared on Mieras map, other cartographers followed his lead and charted Lake Timpanogos as the largest lake in the region. As people came to know of the Great Salt Lake, they interpreted the maps to think that Timpanogos referred to the Great Salt Lake, on some maps the two names were used synonymously. In time Timpanogos was dropped from the maps and its association with Utah Lake was forgotten. Fremont led the first scientific expedition to the lake, but with winter coming on and that happened in 1850 under the leadership of Howard Stansbury
16.
Lucin Cutoff
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The Lucin Cutoff is a 102-mile railroad line in Utah which runs from Ogden to its namesake in Lucin. The most prominent feature of the cutoff was a 12-mile long railroad trestle crossing the Great Salt Lake, in use from 1904 until the late 1950s, and since replaced by a rock and dirt causeway. By going west across the lake from Ogden to Lucin, it cut 44 miles off the route and also significantly decreased curvature. Built under the direction of SP chief engineer William Hood, a team of 3,000 SP workers worked seven days a week to build the line. When the line opened, it included short causeways extending from the shore of the lake. The cutoff also included a causeway which spanned Bear River Bay from the shore of the lake to Promontory Point. This section included a 600-foot-long trestle to allow Bear River water to flow into the lake, by 1908, five passenger trains and seven freight trains were using the Lucin Cutoff in each direction daily. In 1942, the line was removed between Lucin and Corinne, Utah — with the last Promontory spikes pulled up and the scrap metal donated to the war effort. In 1944 the cutoff was the site of a wreck in which 48 people were killed. The trestle was replaced in the late 1950s with a parallel dirt, the trestle remained in limited use along side the causeway, until about 1975. The railroad eventually sold salvage rights to the trestle and Cannon Structures, Inc. through its Trestlewood division, Trestlewood continues to market and sell the salvaged trestle wood. The causeway would prevent lake water from flowing as freely as the open trestle had, the culverts would allow for boat traffic, and a limited amount of water to flow from the lakes southern arm into the lakes northern arm. In the early 1980s Utah experienced heavy flooding, and much of the water along the Wasatch Front flowed into the Great Salt Lake. This resulted in the lake experiencing historic high levels and flooding nearby landowners. To aid the two culverts in channeling water to the arm, the State of Utah constructed a 300-foot-long bridge at the western end of the causeway. The state breached the causeway under the new bridge on August 1,1984, the continual slow sinking of the causeway has on occasion required more material to raise its height above the lake level. The two culverts were closed in 2012 and 2013, to mitigate the effects of closing the two culverts, the railroad was required to build a bridge and breach the causeway under that bridge. Construction of a 180-foot-long bridge was completed in fall 2016, although the railroad agreed to opening the breach for a few months, due to environmental
17.
Utah
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Utah is a state in the western United States. It became the 45th state admitted to the U. S. on January 4,1896, Utah is the 13th-largest by area, 31st-most-populous, and 10th-least-densely populated of the 50 United States. Utah has a population of more than 3 million, approximately 80% of whom live along the Wasatch Front, Utah is bordered by Colorado to the east, Wyoming to the northeast, Idaho to the north, Arizona to the south, and Nevada to the west. It also touches a corner of New Mexico in the southeast, approximately 62% of Utahns are reported to be members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints or LDS, which greatly influences Utahn culture and daily life. The LDS Churchs world headquarters is located in Salt Lake City, Utah is the only state with a majority population belonging to a single church. The state is a center of transportation, education, information technology and research, government services, mining, in 2013, the U. S. Census Bureau estimated that Utah had the second fastest-growing population of any state. St. George was the metropolitan area in the United States from 2000 to 2005. Utah also has the 14th highest median income and the least income inequality of any U. S. state. A2012 Gallup national survey found Utah overall to be the best state to live in based on 13 forward-looking measurements including various economic, lifestyle, the name Utah is derived from the name of the Ute tribe. It means people of the mountains in the Ute language, according to other sources Utah is derived from the Apache name Yudah which means Tall. These Native American tribes are subgroups of the Ute-Aztec Native American ethnicity and were sedentary, the Ancestral Pueblo people built their homes through excavations in mountains, and the Fremont people built houses of straw before disappearing from the region around the 15th century. Another group of Native Americans, the Navajo, settled in the region around the 18th century, in the mid-18th century, other Uto-Aztecan tribes, including the Goshute, the Paiute, the Shoshone, and the Ute people, also settled in the region. These five groups were present when the first European explorers arrived, the southern Utah region was explored by the Spanish in 1540, led by Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, while looking for the legendary Cíbola. A group led by two Catholic priests—sometimes called the Dominguez-Escalante Expedition—left Santa Fe in 1776, hoping to find a route to the coast of California, the expedition traveled as far north as Utah Lake and encountered the native residents. The Spanish made further explorations in the region, but were not interested in colonizing the area because of its desert nature, in 1821, the year Mexico achieved its independence from Spain, the region became known as part of its territory of Alta California. European trappers and fur traders explored some areas of Utah in the early 19th century from Canada, the city of Provo, Utah was named for one, Étienne Provost, who visited the area in 1825. The city of Ogden, Utah was named after Peter Skene Ogden, in late 1824, Jim Bridger became the first known English-speaking person to sight the Great Salt Lake. Due to the salinity of its waters, Bridger thought he had found the Pacific Ocean
18.
Causeway
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In modern usage, a causeway is a road or railway on top an embankment usually across a broad body of water or wetland. When first used, the word appeared in a such as causey way making clear its derivation from the earlier form causey. This word seems to have come from the source by two different routes. It derives ultimately, from the Latin for heel, calx, anciently, the construction was trodden down, one layer at a time, often by slaves or flocks of sheep. Today, this work is done by machines, the same technique would have been used for road embankments, raised river banks, sea banks and fortification earthworks. The second derivation route is simply the hard, trodden surface of a path, the name by this route came to be applied to a firmly-surfaced road. It is now little-used except in dialect and in the names of roads which were notable for their solidly-made surface. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica states causey, a mound or dam, which is derived, through the Norman-French caucie, from the late Latin via calciata, a road stamped firm with the feet. The word is comparable in both meanings with the French chaussée, from a form of which it reached English by way of Norman French. The French adjective, chaussée, carries the meaning of having given a hardened surface. As a noun chaussée is used on the one hand for a metalled carriageway, other languages have a noun with similar dual meaning. The Welsh is relevant here, as it also has a verb, sarnu, a transport corridor that is carried instead on a series of arches, perhaps approaching a bridge, is a viaduct. In the U. S. a short stretch of viaduct is called an overpass, some low causeways across shore waters become inaccessible when covered at high tide. The modern embankment may be constructed within a cofferdam, two parallel steel sheet pile or concrete retaining walls, anchored to each other with steel cables or rods. This construction may also serve as a dyke that keeps two bodies of water apart, such as bodies with a different water level on each side, or with water on one side. This may also be the purpose of a structure, the road providing a hardened crest for the dike. It also provides access for maintenance as well perhaps, as a public service, notable causeways include those that connect Singapore and Malaysia, Bahrain and Saudi Arabia and Venice to the mainland, all of which carry roadways and railways. In the Netherlands there are a number of prominent dykes which also double as causeways, including the Afsluitdijk, Brouwersdam, in Louisiana, two very long bridges, called the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway, stretch across Lake Pontchartrain for almost 38 km, making them the worlds longest bridges
19.
Roller coaster
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A roller coaster is an amusement ride developed for amusement parks and modern theme parks. LaMarcus Adna Thompson obtained a patent regarding roller coasters on January 20,1885, which were out of wood. In essence a specialized railroad system, a roller coaster consists of a track that rises in designed patterns, the track does not necessarily have to be a complete circuit, as shuttle roller coasters demonstrate. Most roller coasters have multiple cars in which passengers sit and are restrained, two or more cars hooked together are called a train. Some roller coasters, notably wild mouse coasters, run with single cars. Built in the 17th century, the slides were built to a height of between 21 and 24 m, consisted of a 50-degree drop, and were reinforced by wooden supports. Some historians say the first roller coaster was built under the orders of Russias Catherine the Great in the Gardens of Oranienbaum in St. Petersburg in the year 1784, other historians believe that the first modern roller coaster was built by the French. The name Russian Mountains to designate a roller coaster is preserved in many Romance languages, however, the Russian term for roller coasters is американские горки, which means American mountains in Russian. In 1827, a company in Summit Hill, Pennsylvania constructed the Mauch Chunk gravity railroad. By the 1850s, the Gravity Road was providing rides to thrill-seekers for 50 cents a ride, Railway companies used similar tracks to provide amusement on days when ridership was low. Using this idea as a basis, LaMarcus Adna Thompson began work on a gravity Switchback Railway that opened at Coney Island in Brooklyn and this track design was soon replaced with an oval complete circuit. In 1885, Phillip Hinkle introduced the first full-circuit coaster with a hill, the Gravity Pleasure Road. Not to be outdone, in 1886 Thompson patented his design of roller coaster that included dark tunnels with painted scenery. Scenic Railways were to be found in amusement parks across the county, by 1919, the first underfriction roller coaster had been developed by John Miller. Soon, roller coasters spread to amusement parks all around the world, perhaps the best known historical roller coaster, Cyclone, was opened at Coney Island in 1927. The Great Depression marked the end of the first golden age of roller coasters and this lasted until 1972, when the Racer was built at Kings Island in Mason, Ohio. Designed by John Allen, the instant success of the Racer began a golden age. In 1959, Disneyland introduced a breakthrough with Matterhorn Bobsleds
20.
Camas Prairie Railroad
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Camas Prairie Railroad Company was a short line railroad in northern Idaho jointly owned and operated by Northern Pacific Railway and Union Pacific Railroad. The Camas Prairie Railroad was known as the railroad on stilts due to the wooden trestles. In one five-mile stretch, there were more than a dozen trestles, the Camas Prairie Railroad was the result of that competition and in many ways, the end of the war. In the end, the railroads co-operated to build the Camas Prairie Railroad, the CSP was built to tap the rolling, fertile hills of the Camas Prairie and the timber of the forested hills and canyonlands of the Clearwater River. The Nez Perce Indian Reservation was opened to settlement in 1895. Service to the terminus of the second subdivision line at Grangeville commenced in December 1908. Parts of the railroad are now operated by the Great Northwest Railroad, the railroad was sold to North American RailNet in April 1998, and it became the subsidiary Camas Prairie RailNet, Inc. After less than two years, CSPR notified the U. S. government in late 1999 that the second line to Grangeville could be subject to abandonment. It made its formal request in May, and it was approved by the Surface Transportation Board in September 2000, the tracks were to be removed shortly thereafter, but that was delayed as a new operator for the line was sought. The tracks from Cottonwood to Grangeville were removed and salvaged in late 2002 and 2003, North American RailNet sold the remainder of the railroad to Watco Companies in March 2004, which renamed it the Great Northwest Railroad. Source, Passenger service on the line along the Clearwater River to Stites. The 1975 film Breakheart Pass starring Charles Bronson was filmed on portions of the railroad and you Tube – Camas Prairie Railroad cab ride trailer You Tube – Tribute to the Camas Prairies 2nd Sub Riegger, Hal. Employer Status Determination, Camas Prairie Railroad Company
21.
North Central Idaho
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North Central Idaho is an area which spans the central part of the state of Idaho and borders Oregon, Montana, and Washington. It is the half of the Idaho Panhandle region and is rich in agriculture. Lewis and Clark travelled through this area on their journey to the Pacific Ocean in 1805-06, the primary cities in this region are Lewiston and Moscow, home of the University of Idaho. North Central Idaho consists of the counties, Clearwater Idaho Latah Lewis Nez Perce With the exception of the southern portion of Idaho County. South of the western-flowing Salmon River, Idaho observes Mountain Time, Lewiston, inland port on the Snake River, first capital of Idaho Territory in 1863. Moscow, home of the University of Idaho, established in 1889
22.
Idaho
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Idaho is a state in the northwestern region of the United States. It borders the state of Montana to the east and northeast, Wyoming to the east, Nevada and Utah to the south, to the north, it shares a small portion of the Canadian border with the province of British Columbia. With a population of around 1.7 million people and an area of 83,569 square miles, Idaho is the 14th largest, the states capital and largest city is Boise. Idaho prior to European settlement was inhabited solely by Native American peoples, in the early 19th century, Idaho was considered part of the Oregon Country, an area disputed between the U. S. and the United Kingdom. Idaho was eventually admitted to the Union on July 3,1890, forming part of the Pacific Northwest, Idaho is divided into several distinct geographic and climatic regions. In the states north, the relatively isolated Idaho Panhandle is closely linked with Eastern Washington, the states south includes the Snake River Plain, while the south-east incorporates part of the Great Basin. Idaho is quite mountainous, and contains several stretches of the Rocky Mountains, additionally, around 38 percent of Idahos land is held by the United States Forest Service, the most of any state. Industries significant for the economy include manufacturing, agriculture, mining, forestry. Idahos agricultural sector supplies a number of different products, but the state is best known for its potato crop, the official state nickname is the Gem State, which references Idahos reputation for gemstones and, more broadly, its many wilderness areas. The exact origin of the remains a mystery. Willing later claimed that he had invented the name. Congress ultimately decided to name the area Colorado Territory when it was created in February 1861, thinking they would get a jump on the name, locals named a community in Colorado Idaho Springs. However, the name Idaho did not fall into obscurity, the same year Congress created Colorado Territory, a county called Idaho County was created in eastern Washington Territory. The county was named after a steamship named Idaho, which was launched on the Columbia River in 1860 and it is unclear whether the steamship was named before or after Willings claim was revealed. Regardless, a portion of Washington Territory, including Idaho County, was used to create Idaho Territory in 1863. Despite this lack of evidence for the origin of the name, the name Idaho may be derived from the Plains Apache word ídaahę́, which means enemy. The Comanches used this word to refer to the Idaho Territory, a 1956 Idaho history textbook says, Idaho is a Shoshoni Indian exclamation. The word consists of three parts, the first is Ee, which in English conveys the idea of coming down
23.
Camas prairie
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Camas bulbs were an important food source for Native Americans. Named for the blue flowering camas—an important food source for all Native Americans in the interior Northwest—the Camas Prairie is a traditional Nez Perce gathering place in north central Idaho. From the Nez Perce National Historical Park, Camas Prairie is interpreted at a highway pullout on the side of U. S. Highway 95. This large prairie was a Nez Perce gathering place, where camas roots were harvested for thousands of years, several nontreaty bands gathered at Tolo Lake in early June 1877 in anticipation of moving to the Nez Perce reservation. In response to the move and other hostile actions, several young Nez Perce people took actions that precipitated the Nez Perce War. Camas Prairie is an area, mostly privately owned, that extends many miles between the Salmon and Clearwater River drainages. Most of the area is agricultural and the section is within the Nez Perce Indian Reservation. Similar to the opening of lands in Oklahoma, the U. S. government opened the reservation for white settlement on November 18,1895, the proclamation had been signed less than two weeks earlier by President Cleveland. The area was home to the subdivision of the Camas Prairie Railroad, known as the railroad on stilts due to its numerous trestles. Breakheart Pass, a 1975 film starring Charles Bronson, was filmed on portions of the railroad on the Camas Prairie, the railroad ceased operations in the late 1990s. Gertrude Monastery of St. Gertrude Glacial Lake Missoula. org – Camas Prairie ripple marks in Montana
24.
Hopper car
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A hopper car is a type of railroad freight car used to transport loose bulk commodities such as coal, ore, grain, and track ballast. Two main types of hopper car exist, covered hopper cars, which are equipped with a roof, and open hopper cars and this type of car is distinguished from a gondola car in that it has opening doors on the underside or on the sides to discharge its cargo. The development of the car went along with the development of automated handling of such commodities. Covered hopper cars are used for cargo such as grain, sugar. Open hopper cars are used for such as coal, which can suffer exposure with less detrimental effect. Hopper cars have used by railways worldwide whenever automated cargo handling has been desired. Ore jennies is predominantly a term for shorter open hopper cars hauling taconite by the Duluth, Missabe, a rotary car dumper permits the use of simpler and more compact gondola cars instead of hoppers. Covered hoppers, though, are still in widespread use, the Coke Express, a unit train of hopper cars loaded with coke, with the words Coke Express painted on the sides of the hoppers. Increase in wheel loads has important implications for the infrastructure needed to accommodate future grain hopper car shipments. The weight of the car is transmitted to the rails and the track structure through these wheel loads. As wheel loads increase, track maintenance expenses increase and the ability of a rail weight, ballast depth. Moreover, the ability of a bridge to handle prolonged rail traffic also decreases as wheel loads increase. Gondola Victorian Railways hopper wagons Union Pacific #7801 – Photos and short history of an example of a typical self-clearing, open-top triple hopper Rail car manufacturing
25.
Steamship
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A steamship, often referred to as a steamer, is a vessel, typically ocean-faring and seaworthy, that is propelled by one or more steam engines that typically drive propellers or paddlewheels. The first steamships came into usage during the early 1800s, however. Steamships usually use the designations of PS for paddle steamer or SS for screw steamer. As paddle steamers became less common, SS is assumed by many to stand for steam ship, Ships powered by internal combustion engines use a prefix such as MV for motor vessel, so it is not correct to use SS for most modern vessels. The steamship was preceded by smaller vessels designed for insular transportation, once the technology of steam was mastered at this level, steam engines were mounted on larger, and eventually, ocean-going vessels. Becoming reliable, and propelled by screw rather than paddlewheels, the changed the design of ships for faster. Paddlewheels as the main motive source became standard on these early vessels and it was an effective means of propulsion under ideal conditions but otherwise had serious drawbacks. Within a few decades of the development of the river and canal steamboat, the first sea-going steamboat was Richard Wrights first steamboat Experiment, an ex-French lugger, she steamed from Leeds to Yarmouth in July 1813. She carried passengers and freight to Paris in 1822 at an speed of 8 knots. The American ship SS Savannah first crossed the Atlantic Ocean, another claimant is the Canadian ship SS Royal William in 1833. The SS Archimedes, built in Britain in 1839 by Francis Pettit Smith, was the worlds first steamship to be driven by a screw propeller. It had considerable influence on development, encouraging the adoption of screw propulsion by the Royal Navy. The key innovation that made ocean-going steamers viable was the change from the paddle-wheel to the screw-propeller as the mechanism of propulsion and these steamships quickly became more popular, because the propellers efficiency was consistent regardless of the depth at which it operated. Being smaller in size and mass and being submerged, it was also far less prone to damage. The development of screw propulsion relied on the technological innovations. Steam engines had to be designed with the power delivered at the bottom of the machinery, a paddle steamers engines drive a shaft that is positioned above the waterline, with the cylinders positioned below the shaft. SS Great Britain used chain drive to power from a paddlers engine to the propeller shaft - the result of a late design change to propeller propulsion. An effective stern tube and associated bearings were required, the stern tube contains the propeller shaft where it passes through the hull structure
26.
Great Lakes
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Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth, containing 21% of the worlds surface fresh water by volume. The total surface is 94,250 square miles, and the volume is 5,439 cubic miles. Due to their sea-like characteristics the five Great Lakes have also long been referred to as inland seas, Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world by area, and Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country. The southern half of the Great Lakes is bordered by the Great Lakes Megalopolis, the lakes have been a major highway for transportation, migration and trade, and they are home to a large number of aquatic species. Many invasive species have been introduced due to trade, and some threaten the regions biodiversity, though the five lakes reside in separate basins, they form a single, naturally interconnected body of fresh water, within the Great Lakes Basin. The lakes form a chain connecting the interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. From the interior to the outlet at the Saint Lawrence River, water flows from Superior to Huron and Michigan, southward to Erie, the lakes drain a large watershed via many rivers, and are studded with approximately 35,000 islands. There are also several smaller lakes, often called inland lakes. The surface area of the five primary lakes combined is roughly equal to the size of the United Kingdom, while the area of the entire basin is about the size of the UK. Lake Michigan is the one of the Great Lakes that is located entirely within the United States. The lakes are divided among the jurisdictions of the Canadian province of Ontario and the U. S. states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. Both Ontario and Michigan include in their boundaries portions of four of the lakes, Ontario does not border Lake Michigan, New York and Wisconsins jurisdictions extend into two lakes, and the remaining states into one of the lakes. This designation, however, is not universal and those living on the shore of Lake Superior often refer to all the other lakes as the lower lakes, because they are farther south. This corresponds to thinking of Lakes Erie and Ontario as down south, vessels sailing north on Lake Michigan are considered upbound even though they are sailing toward its effluent current. The Chicago River and Calumet River systems connect the Great Lakes Basin to the Mississippi River System through man-made alterations, the St. Marys River, including the Soo Locks, connects Lake Superior to Lake Huron. The Straits of Mackinac connect Lake Michigan to Lake Huron, the St. Clair River connects Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair. The Detroit River connects Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie, the Niagara River, including Niagara Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. The Welland Canal, bypassing the Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, the Saint Lawrence River connects Lake Ontario to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which connects to the Atlantic Ocean
27.
Buffalo, New York
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Buffalo is a city in western New York state and the county seat of Erie County, on the eastern shores of Lake Erie at the head of the Niagara River. As of 2014, Buffalo is New York states 2nd-most populous city after New York City, the metropolitan area has a population of 1.13 million. After an economic downturn in the half of the 20th century, Buffalos economy has transitioned to sectors that include financial services, technology, biomedical engineering. Residents of Buffalo are called Buffalonians, the citys nicknames include The Queen City, The Nickel City and The City of Good Neighbors. The city of Buffalo received its name from a creek called Buffalo Creek. British military engineer Captain John Montresor made reference to Buffalo Creek in his journal of 1764, there are several theories regarding how Buffalo Creek received its name. In 1804, as principal agent opening the area for the Holland Land Company, Joseph Ellicott, designed a radial street and grid system that branches out from downtown like bicycle spokes similar to the street system he used in the nations capital. Although Ellicott named the settlement New Amsterdam, the name did not catch on, during the War of 1812, on December 30,1813, Buffalo was burned by British forces. The George Coit House 1818 and Samuel Schenck House 1823 are currently the oldest houses within the limits of the City of Buffalo, on October 26,1825, the Erie Canal was completed with Buffalo a port-of-call for settlers heading westward. At the time, the population was about 2,400, the Erie Canal brought about a surge in population and commerce, which led Buffalo to incorporate as a city in 1832. In 1845, construction began on the Macedonia Baptist Church, an important meeting place for the abolitionist movement, Buffalo was a terminus point of the Underground Railroad with many fugitive slaves crossing the Niagara River to Fort Erie, Ontario in search of freedom. During the 1840s, Buffalos port continued to develop, both passenger and commercial traffic expanded with some 93,000 passengers heading west from the port of Buffalo. Grain and commercial goods shipments led to repeated expansion of the harbor, in 1843, the worlds first steam-powered grain elevator was constructed by local merchant Joseph Dart and engineer Robert Dunbar. Darts Elevator enabled faster unloading of lake freighters along with the transshipment of grain in bulk from barges, canal boats, by 1850, the citys population was 81,000. At the dawn of the 20th century, local mills were among the first to benefit from hydroelectric power generated by the Niagara River, the city got the nickname City of Light at this time due to the widespread electric lighting. It was also part of the revolution, hosting the brass era car builders Pierce Arrow. President William McKinley was shot and mortally wounded by an anarchist at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo on September 6,1901, McKinley died in the city eight days later and Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in at the Wilcox Mansion as the 26th President of the United States. The Great Depression of 1929–39 saw severe unemployment, especially working class men
28.
Lake Erie
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Lake Erie is the fourth-largest lake of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the thirteenth-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area. It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes, at its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 feet deep. Lake Eries northern shore is bounded by the Canadian province of Ontario, with the U. S. states of Ohio, Pennsylvania and these jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake by water boundaries. The lake was named by the Erie people, a Native Americans people who lived along its southern shore and that Iroquoian tribe called it Erige because of its unpredictable and sometimes violently dangerous nature. It is a matter of whether the lake was named after the tribe. Situated below Lake Huron, Eries primary inlet is the Detroit River, Lake Erie has a mean elevation of 571 feet above sea level. It has an area of 9,990 square miles with a length of 241 statute miles. The warm summer of 1999 caused lake temperatures to come close to the 85 °F limit necessary to keep the plants cool, also because of its shallowness, and in spite of being the warmest lake in the summer, it is also the first to freeze in the winter. The waves build very quickly, according to other accounts, after being trapped for an hour-and-a-half, Baker was back on dry land, exhausted and battered but alive. This area is known as the thunderstorm capital of Canada with breathtaking lightning displays. Lake Erie is primarily fed by the Detroit River and drains via the Niagara River, navigation downstream is provided by the Welland Canal, part of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Other major contributors to Lake Erie include the Grand River, the Huron River, the Maumee River, the Sandusky River, the Buffalo River, the drainage basin covers 30,140 square miles. Point Pelee National Park, the southernmost point of the Canadian mainland, is located on a peninsula extending into the lake. Several islands are found in the end of the lake, these belong to Ohio except for Pelee Island and eight neighboring islands. Major cities along Lake Erie include Buffalo, Erie, Pennsylvania, Toledo, Ohio, Islands tend to be located in the western side of the lake and total 31 in number. The island-village of Put-in-Bay on South Bass Island attracts young crowds who sometimes wear red hats and are prone to break off cartwheels in the park. Pelee Island is the largest of Eries islands, accessible by ferry from Leamington, Ontario and Sandusky, songbirds migrate to Pelee in spring, and monarch butterflies stop over during the fall. Lake Erie has a retention time of 2.6 years
29.
Sodus Point, New York
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Sodus Point is a village in Wayne County, New York, United States. The population was 900 at the 2010 census, the name is derived from a nearby body of water, Sodus Bay. It is considered within the larger Rochester metropolitan area, the Village of Sodus Point is in the northeastern part of the Town of Sodus. This is a lakeside community surrounded on three sides by water, in 1794, the village was the site of the first European-American settlement in Sodus town. Before the American Revolution, the area for centuries was the territory of the Onondaga Nation, during the War of 1812, the village was burned by a British raiding party, leaving all but one building demolished. The area became an important port on Lake Ontario in the 19th Century, as the Erie Canal shifted state transportation patterns, the villages function as a port declined. In the later 19th century, it became a vacation resort, especially for people from Chicago. Sodus Point was incorporated in 1957, the schooner Lotus, Customs House, and Sodus Point Light are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Writer Elizabeth F. Ellet was a native of the town, Sodus Point is located at 43°16′10″N 76°59′15″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has an area of 1.5 square miles. The village is on the shore of Lake Ontario on a point of land on the northwest edge of Sodus Bay, the name Sodus reportedly is derived from a native word meaning gleam on the water. Another possible origin is the Iroquois Land of Silver Waters, County Road 101 leads into the village from the west. New York State Route 14 has its terminus at the village. As of the census of 2010, there were 900 people,425 households, the population density was 600 people per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 93% White, 3% Black or African American,0. 3% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander, 1% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 3% of the population. 31. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.59. In the village, the population was out with 15. 2% under the age of 18,65. 2% from 18 to 64. The median age was 52 years, the median income for a household in the village was $59,583, and the median income for a family was $61,000
30.
Oswego, New York
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Oswego /ɒsˈwiːɡoʊ/ is a city in Oswego County, New York, United States. The population was 18,142 at the 2010 census, Oswego is located on Lake Ontario in north-central New York and promotes itself as The Port City of Central New York. It is the county seat of Oswego County, the city of Oswego is bordered by the towns of Oswego, Minetto, and Scriba to the west, south, and east, respectively, and by Lake Ontario to the north. Oswego Speedway is a nationally known automobile racing facility, the State University of New York at Oswego is located just outside the city on the lake. Oswego is the namesake for communities in Montana, Oregon, Illinois, the British established a trading post in the area in 1722 and fortified it with a log palisade later called Fort Oswego. The first fortification on the site of the current Fort Ontario was built by the British in 1755, Fort Ontario was destroyed by the French upon capturing it in the Battle of Fort Oswego, during the French and Indian War. Construction of a second British fort began on the site in 1759. During the American Revolution, the British abandoned the Fort, and in 1778, in 1782, the British reoccupied Fort Ontario, and didnt forfeit it to the U. S. until 1796, thirteen years after the cessation of hostilities in the Revolution. During the War of 1812, a weaker American garrison at Fort Oswego was overwhelmed by superior British forces, throughout the 19th Century, the U. S. military maintained a presence at Fort Ontario. During WWII the Fort was used to house interned persons, mainly Jewish refugees, in 1946, the Fort was transferred to the state of New York. At that time, it was used to house veterans and their families during the post-war period, development of the fort as a historic site began in 1949, which included the Safe Haven Museum. The current fort was built between 1839 and 1844, major masonry improvements to the forts outer wall were undertaken, but left incomplete when in 1872, Congress canceled its funding. By 1901, the old fort was abandoned, today, Fort Ontario is being restored to its 1867–1872 appearance. Costumed interpreters recreate the lives of the officers, men, during the Second World War, the new fort was used as a Safe Haven. This was a refugee center for victims of the Nazi Holocaust. This was the attempt by the United States government to shelter Jewish refugees during the war. Approximately 1,000 war refugee families were here from Italy. They were all fleeing from the Nazis and they were deliberately chosen so that some were non-Jewish to allay anti-semitic fears
31.
Lake Ontario
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Lake Ontario is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. Ontario, Canadas most populous province, was named for the lake, in the Wyandot language, ontarío means “Lake of Shining Waters”. Its primary inlet is the Niagara River from Lake Erie, the last in the Great Lakes chain, Lake Ontario serves as the outlet to the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence River. Lake Ontario is the easternmost of the Great Lakes and the smallest in surface area and it is the 14th largest lake in the world. When its islands are included, the lake has a shoreline that is 712 miles long. As the last lake in the Great Lakes hydrologic chain, Lake Ontario has the lowest mean elevation of the lakes at 243 feet above sea level,326 feet lower than its neighbor upstream. Its maximum length is 193 statute miles and its width is 53 statute miles. The lakes average depth is 47 fathoms 1 foot, with a depth of 133 fathoms 4 feet. The lakes primary source is the Niagara River, draining Lake Erie, the drainage basin covers 24,720 square miles. As with all the Great Lakes, water levels both within the year and among years. These water level fluctuations are a part of lake ecology. The lake also has an important freshwater fishery, although it has negatively affected by factors including over-fishing, water pollution. Baymouth bars built by prevailing winds and currents have created a significant number of lagoons and sheltered harbors, mostly near Prince Edward County, Ontario, perhaps the best-known example is Toronto Bay, chosen as the site of the Upper Canada capital for its strategic harbour. Other prominent examples include Hamilton Harbour, Irondequoit Bay, Presquile Bay, the bars themselves are the sites of long beaches, such as Sandbanks Provincial Park and Sandy Island Beach State Park. These sand bars are associated with large wetlands, which support large numbers of plant and animal species. Presquile, on the shore of Lake Ontario, is particularly significant in this regard. The lake basin was carved out of soft, weak Silurian-age rocks by the Wisconsin ice sheet during the last ice age, the action of the ice occurred along the pre-glacial Ontarian River valley which had approximately the same orientation as todays basin. As the ice sheet retreated toward the north, it still dammed the St. Lawrence valley outlet and this stage is known as Lake Iroquois
32.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
33.
1915 Galveston hurricane
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The 1915 Galveston hurricane was a deadly hurricane that struck Leeward Islands, Hispaniola, Cuba and Texas, in mid August of the 1915 Atlantic hurricane season. The 1915 storm caused a deal of destruction in its path, leaving 275-400 people dead. A Cape Verde type hurricane, the 1915 Hurricane was detected as a storm moving westward on August 5. Then it was observed on August 10 as a Category 1 hurricane. By that time, the storm was centered north of Barbados, on August 11, the eye of the hurricane passed south of the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. A weather station in San Juan recorded a 29.60 inch pressure reading, the hurricane continued to move westward between 18 and 20 mph where it brushed Haiti and made landfall in Jamaica. A barometric pressure reading of 29.68 inch was reported in Jamaica, the 1915 hurricane then turned slightly west-northwest, brushing Cuba as it went along. Unfazed by the landfall on Jamaica, the hurricane rapidly intensified and was located near Isle of Pines, on the 15th, the hurricane was in the central Gulf of Mexico still moving in a northwesterly direction. On August 16, the center of the storm was approaching the east coast of Texas, on the 17th, the hurricane made landfall southwest of Galveston, Texas. Atmospheric pressure at landfall was at 27.76 inches and 135 mph winds, after leaving Galveston, the weakening storm took a turn to the northeast and passed Houston as a Category 1 hurricane before dropping to tropical storm status later that day. On August 20, the storm passed over Missouri and the Ohio Valley before finally becoming extratropical on August 23. Forecasters began to issue advisories to weather stations in the United States when the storm was detected on August 5, forecasters then began to issue warnings to Haiti and Cuba on August 11. Evacuation reports in both Cuba and Haiti, however, are unavailable, after the storm hit Jamaica, forecasters predicted the storm might hit southern and western Cuba. Between August 12 and 13, forecasters began to issue storm warnings to the Florida Keys and Miami. By August 13, the hurricane trekked westward as forecast, at 5 PM, the tropical storm warnings were then changed to hurricane warnings which extended to the Florida Panhandle. On the 14th, however, the hurricane did not recurve north and warnings for Miami and later the Florida Keys were dropped, because the 1915 hurricane was large, forecasters began to issue tropical storm warnings from coastal Louisiana to the Florida Panhandle. In addition, warnings were issued in Brownsville, Texas, since it was clear that the hurricane would make landfall in Texas, the warnings were changed for the entire Texas coastline. After the hurricane made landfall, officials continued to issue warnings until the storm dissipated on August 23, when the hurricane made landfall in Galveston, it brought heavy rains and strong winds, leaving $921 million in damage
34.
Montana
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Montana /mɒnˈtænə/ is a state in the Western region of the United States. The states name is derived from the Spanish word montaña, Montana has several nicknames, although none official, including Big Sky Country and The Treasure State, and slogans that include Land of the Shining Mountains and more recently The Last Best Place. Montana has a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It also borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, Montana is ranked 4th in size, but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges, smaller island ranges are found throughout the state. In total,77 named ranges are part of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern half of Montana is characterized by western prairie terrain and badlands. The economy is based on agriculture, including ranching and cereal grain farming. Other significant economic activities include oil, gas, coal and hard rock mining, lumber, the health care, service, and government sectors also are significant to the states economy. Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park, the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, the name Montana comes from the Spanish word Montaña and the Latin word Montana, meaning mountain, or more broadly, mountainous country. Montaña del Norte was the name given by early Spanish explorers to the mountainous region of the west. The name was changed by Representatives Henry Wilson and Benjamin F. Harding, when Ashley presented a bill to establish a temporary government in 1864 for a new territory to be carved out of Idaho, he again chose Montana Territory. This time Rep. Samuel Cox, also of Ohio, objected to the name, Cox complained that the name was a misnomer given most of the territory was not mountainous and that a Native American name would be more appropriate than a Spanish one. Other names such as Shoshone were suggested, but it was decided that the Committee on Territories could name it whatever they wanted, with an area of 147,040 square miles, Montana is slightly larger than Japan. It is the fourth largest state in the United States after Alaska, Texas, and California, the largest landlocked U. S. state, and the worlds 56th largest national state/province subdivision. To the north, Montana shares a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, the states topography is roughly defined by the Continental Divide, which splits much of the state into distinct eastern and western regions. Most of Montanas 100 or more named mountain ranges are in the western half. The Absaroka and Beartooth ranges in the states south-central part are part of the Central Rocky Mountains
35.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
36.
Cornwall Railway viaducts
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The Cornwall Railway company constructed a railway line between Plymouth and Truro, England, opening in 1859, and extended it to Falmouth in 1863. The topography of Cornwall is such that the route, which is generally east-west, at the time of construction of the line, money was in short supply due to the collapse in confidence following the railway mania, and the company sought ways of reducing expenditure. This unusual method of construction substantially reduced the first cost of construction compared to an all-masonry structure, replacement of the timber viaducts by all-masonry structures began in the 1870s but a few remained in service until the 1930s. The Cornwall Railway linked Plymouth with Falmouth, the section from Plymouth to Truro was opened on 4 May 1859, and the remainder to Falmouth on 24 August 1863. Although the line had been designed by Brunel, this was after his death and it was built as a single-track 7 ft broad gauge line. The 70 miles of railway crossed 45 rivers and deep valleys, of these 43 were spanned by viaducts of various types built partly or entirely from timber. Workshops were established at Lostwithiel where timber could arrive on barges to be preserved, the offcuts from the timbers used for the viaducts and track were then used for the construction of the railways buildings. The choice of timber was made to keep costs down. Replacement of the started in 1875 but led to a dispute in 1884 between the Cornwall Railway and the Great Western Railway which was leasing the line. Following the amalgamation of the two companies on 1 July 1889 all the viaducts on the main line to Truro were replaced. Most were either rebuilt in situ or by a replacement viaduct built immediately alongside, between Saltash and St Germans, a deviation line was built in 1908, eliminating the wooden viaducts on by-passed section of line. Those on the Falmouth branch were all replaced between 1923 and 1934, the distinctive timber viaducts were constructed using yellow pine which was preserved by Kyanising, or sometimes by Burnettising in the workshops at Lostwithiel. The various timbers were seated in cast iron chairs, and wrought iron was used for parts of the bridge which would be in tension, Five distinct types of viaduct were built to suit local conditions at each site. Peter John Margaryo0, the Cornwall Railway engineer from 1868 to 1891, Class A, The majority of viaducts were constructed on stone piers that rose to about 34 feet below track level. From the tops of these radiated three fans of struts to support the beams beneath the track, one fan on each side. The struts radiated at around 55,75,105 and 125 degrees from horizontal and this gave piers spaced at about 65-foot centres. Class B, A stronger support was given to St Pinnock, Largin and these joined the outer fans at the top of the pier and met each other at the top, giving a W form when viewed across the width of the piers. Class C, The soft ground of the valleys at Weston Mill, Forder, Wivelscombe
37.
Afon Mawddach
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The Afon Mawddach is a river in Gwynedd, Wales, which has its source in a wide area SH820300 north of Dduallt in Snowdonia. It is 28 miles in length, and is much branched, the catchment area is bounded to the east by the Aran Fawddwy massif and to the west and north by the Harlech dome which forms a watershed just south of Llyn Trawsfynydd. The Mawddach has been the site of significant industrialisation and land management, the river is also very flashy - prone to very rapid rise and fall in level depending on rainfall. Rainfall can also be very heavy and it falls on very base-poor soils leading to episodes of strongly depressed pH, despite this, the river sustains an important salmon and trout fishery and the countryside through which it flows is some of the most spectacular and scenic in the UK. The main tributaries starting in the west and working clockwise are, Afon Gamlan which joins at Ganllwyd after following a tumultuous valley through ancient Oak woods before descending towards the main river down Rhaeadr Ddu. This valley has one of the more important moss and liverwort communities in the southern UK, Afon Eden, its headwaters known as Afon Crawcwellt- a large tributary draining from below Llyn Trawsfynydd and closely following the A470 through the Coed-y-Brenin forest. This tributary has been impacted by industrialisation in the past including gold mining. Afon Gain - a large tributary has also impacted by similar problems to the Eden and is very acidic. Afon Wen which joins south of the Gain is similar but smaller, Afon Wnion is a major tributary joining from the east and which drains a large area out towards Aran Fawddwy Below Dolgellau the river enters a wide and sandy estuary of great beauty. At its mouth is the town of Barmouth and its railway bridge and it is managed by the Snowdonia National Park Authority as a leisure route for walkers and cyclists, and is part of the Sustrans Cross-Wales Cycling Route. The estuary of the Mawddach was a centre of ship building in the 18th century
38.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
39.
Barmouth Bridge
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It sits between Morfa Mawddach and Barmouth in Gwynedd and caters for rail, foot and cycle traffic. The bridge opened in 1867, and originally included a section at its north end for tall ships to pass. In 1980, woodworm threatened the safety of the bridge, which needed repairs to avoid closure. Tolls were collected for foot and cycle traffic until 2013, the bridge is a Grade II* listed structure, and has one of the longest timber viaducts still in regular use in Britain. The bridge crosses the estuary of the River Mawddach from Morfa Mawddach near Arthog northwards to the edge of Barmouth, the line is operated by Arriva Trains Wales, with connecting services south to Aberystwyth and east to Welshpool and Shrewsbury. The section containing the bridge is on the Cambrian Coast railway between Machynlleth and Pwllheli, the bridge is a Grade II* listed structure about 699 metres long and contains 113 wooded trestles supported by a series of cast iron piers. It is one of the longest timber viaducts still standing in Britain, a footbridge is incorporated on the eastern side and pedestrians, cyclists and motorcycles can cross the estuary by the side of the track. Since 1996, this has formed part of the National Cycle Route that links North and South Wales. The footbridge is owned by Network Rail but an agreement is in place with Gwynedd County Council, most of the bridge is built on a gravel bed covered by shifting sand. The north end by the bridge section is next to the rock of Figle Fawr at the base of Cadair Idris. The first two spans here are built directly onto the rock, there is no nearby crossing for road traffic. The nearest spanning the Afon Mawddach is a bridge at Penmaenpool about 5 miles further upstream. Heavier vehicles must use the first public bridge, which is at Dolgellau about 10 miles from Barmouth. The bridge was first proposed as part of the Cambrian Line between Aberystwyth and Pwllheli by the Aberystwyth and Welsh Coast Railway around 1861 -2 and it was designed by Benjamin Piercy and Henry Conybeare in 1864, and opened on 10 October 1867. Conybeare decided to construct the viaduct from timber as it would be cheaper to import by sea than iron, as built, it included a wooden lifting drawbridge section at the northern end to permit the passage of tall ships. It was never in use since the opening of the railway killed off competition from boat traffic. In 1899, the arrangement was changed to the current swing bridge arrangement. It is still theoretically in operation, though it has not been opened since 1987 as part of a test operation, in 1946, the bridge was nearly destroyed after a live naval mine washed ashore close to the bridge during stormy weather
40.
Penmaenpool
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Penmaenpool is a hamlet on the south side of estuary of the River Mawddach in Wales, near Dolgellau. Penmaenpool toll bridge - wooden toll bridge built in 1879 to replace the ferry crossing. It is Cadw-registered and Grade II listed, the George III Inn was originally two buildings, a ship chandler serving the boat building industry, and a pub. It dates from 1650 and is Grade II listed, gerard Manley Hopkins reputedly wrote the poem entitled Penmaen Pool in the visitors book. Penmaenpool railway station signal box was an RSPB observation centre, the Mawddach Trail passes through the hamlet. Fifteen people, including four children, were drowned on July 22,1966, the ferry had been taking 39 people on a pleasure trip from Barmouth to the hotel in the village. The then hotel proprietor, John Antony Hall, with his chef, David Jones assisted by the barman, without their hard work and effort, many more people would have drowned that day. None was recognised for their bravery, a Memorial was held by the signal box 50 years later in 2016
41.
Cambrian Line
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The Cambrian Line is a railway that runs from Shrewsbury to Aberystwyth and Pwllheli, both on the west coast of Wales. The line from Dovey Junction to Pwllheli is sometimes called the Cambrian Coast Line, the railway is scenic, it runs through the Cambrian Mountains in central Wales and along the coast of Cardigan Bay. The line includes sections of rural single track and is designated as a community rail partnership. From Shrewsbury, the line heads west through northern Powys, serving the towns of Welshpool, from Buttington Junction west became part of the Cambrian Railways in 1864. The Cambrian Railways became part of the Great Western Railway, on nationalisation these lines were operated first by the Western Region of British Railways and later by the London Midland Region. In a later reorganisation, passenger services were operated by the Regional Railways Central sector, following privatisation in the mid 1990s, passenger services were first operated by Central Trains, then by Wales & Borders from 2001 and, since late 2003, by Arriva Trains Wales. Although the line survived the Beeching Axe, many stations were closed from the 1960s onwards, the Cambrian line was not directly threatened with closure in the 1963 Beeching Report. Later threats to the part of the route, from Dovey Junction to Pwllheli, were subsequently withdrawn – despite the disproportionately high cost of maintaining it. It is recognised as having an important public role, it connects communities around coastal estuaries which have poor road links. Its tourism role is as a widely recognised scenic route, as well as linking many coastal resorts, the coastal areas served are predominantly Welsh-speaking. As a result, because of the political thought to be attendant on railway closures. With long sections of line and limited passing points, minor disruptions on the Cambrian Line quickly lead to compound delays. This, combined with short times at each end of the route. The extension of the service to Birmingham International in late 2008 has helped address this by eliminating the tight turnarounds at the heavily-congested Birmingham New Street station, maintenance changes and additional padding in public timetables has also helped improve performance figures overall. In Arriva Trains Wales performance statistics the Cambrian Line was routinely the worst-performing service group between 2003 and 2008, in October 2006, it was announced that Network Rail would pilot the European Rail Traffic Management System on the Cambrian Line. The ERTMS allows headways between trains using the track to be reduced without affecting safety, allowing a more frequent service. Should the pilot scheme be successful, the system is expected to be rolled out on other key rural routes within the UK. The upgrade was expected to cost £59 million and was to be completed by December 2008, three signallers from the Machynlleth signalling centre and seven drivers were trained to operate the new equipment
42.
Cardigan Bay
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Cardigan Bay is a large inlet of the Irish Sea, indenting the west coast of Wales between Bardsey Island, Gwynedd in the north, and Strumble Head, Pembrokeshire at its southern end. It is the largest bay in Wales, Cardigan Bay has numerous beaches, and a unique marine life. Smaller coastal villages include Cwmtydu, Nanternis and Llangrannog, major rivers flowing into the bay include the Afon Glaslyn, Teifi, Rheidol, Dyfi, Aeron, Dysynni, and Mawddach. Until the early 20th century, Cardigan Bay supported a strong maritime industry. Cardigan is located at the mouth of the River Teifi – hence the Welsh name, Aberteifi, and at the turn of the 19th century, at this time more than 300 ships were registered at Cardigan—seven times as many as Cardiff, and three times as many as Swansea. The central and northern areas of the Bay are the location of the legendary Cantrer Gwaelod, due to climate change and rising sea levels, the forest was buried under layers of peat, sand and saltwater. The Cardigan Bay Special Area of Conservation was set up to preserve the wildlife in the area. Other mammals, such as whales, Rissos dolphins and common dolphins, together with many species of sea birds, such as puffin. Since the late 1990s and early 2000s, the Bay has been invaded by spider crabs, not a seafood normally consumed by British people, since 2010 the local fishermen have supplied the Michelin-starred restaurants of Raymond Blanc. A military testing range was first established in Cardigan Bay during the Second World War, the range is controlled from a main operating base located near Aberporth, known as MOD Aberporth. Historically, the Range has played a significant part in the development, today the Ministry of Defence range within Cardigan Bay provides a large secure safety area for the testing of air launched weapons and unmanned aerial systems. The Range is a significant employer in the West Wales area, the staff also work closely with the local communities to foster good relationships, which are vital to ensure the successful operation of the Range. The Range Danger Area covers some 6,500 km2 of Cardigan Bay from sea level to unlimited height, to supplement the safe operation of the Range, there are a number of small outposts located on the edge of Cardigan Bay and the Llŷn Peninsula. These outposts contain equipment that enables the Range to effectively assess the performance of weapons, qinetiq operates the Cardigan Bay/Aberporth Range on behalf of the MOD under the terms of a Long Term Partnering Agreement. The purpose of the agreement is to deliver defence test, evaluation and training services to ensure air launched weapon systems, associated sub-systems and UAS are safe
43.
Dolgellau
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Dolgellau is a market town in Gwynedd, north-west Wales, lying on the River Wnion, a tributary of the River Mawddach. It was the county town of Merionethshire before that became a part of the county of Gwynedd, Dolgellau is the main base for climbers of Cader Idris. The site of Dolgellau was, in the pre-Roman Celtic period, part of the lands of the Ordovices. Although a few Roman coins from the reigns of Emperors Hadrian and Trajan have been found near Dolgellau, there are, however, three hill forts in the vicinity of Dolgellau, of uncertain origin. A church was built in the 12th century, although Cymer Abbey, founded in 1198 in nearby Llanelltyd, Dolgellau gained in importance from this period onwards, and was mentioned in the Survey of Merioneth ordered by Edward I. In 1404 it was the location of a council of chiefs under Owain Glyndŵr, after a visit by George Fox in 1657, many inhabitants of Dolgellau converted to Quakerism. Persecution led a number of them to emigrate to Pennsylvania in 1686, under the leadership of Rowland Ellis. The Pennsylvanian town of Bryn Mawr, home to a womens liberal arts college, is named after Elliss farm near Dolgellau. The woollen industry was long of the greatest importance to the economy, by the end of the 18th century. The industry declined in the first half of the 19th century, another important contributor to the local economy was tanning, which continued into the 1980s in Dolgellau, though on a much reduced scale. The town was the centre of a gold rush in the 19th century. At one time the gold mines employed over 500 workers. Clogau St. Davids mine in Bontddu and Gwynfynydd mine in Ganllwyd have supplied gold for many royal weddings. Dolgellau was the county town of Merionethshire until 1974 when, following the Local Government Act of 1972, it became the centre of Meirionnydd. This was abolished in 1996 by the Local Government Act 1994, today, the economy of Dolgellau relies chiefly on tourism, although agriculture still plays a role, a farmers market is held in the town centre on the third Sunday of every month. It is believed that Dolgellau Cricket Club, founded in 1869 by Frederick Temple, is one of the oldest cricket clubs in Wales, for nearly a century Dolgellau was the home of Dr Williams School, a pioneering girls secondary school. This was funded from the legacy of Daniel Williams the Welsh nonconformist of the 17th/18th century. The name of the town is of uncertain origin, although dôl is Welsh for meadow or dale, and gelli means grove or spinney and this would seem to be the most likely derivation, giving the translation Grove Meadow
44.
Crumlin, Caerphilly
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Crumlin is famous for its former railway viaduct. Work by the designer and contractor Thomas W. Kennard commenced in autumn 1853, nearby were the railway stations, both at high and valley levels. Plans for preservation were discussed, but the state of repair made this impossible. Even while demolition work was in progress, scenes for the film Arabesque which starred Sophia Loren, as of 2008 the abutments remain visible on the valley sides adjoining Kier Hardie Terrace. Crumlin was the terminus of the Crumlin Arm of the Monmouthshire canal. The canal was built from Crumlin southwards towards Newport, opening in 1794, tramroads from the ironworks at Ebbw Vale and Nantyglo were built to the canal at Crumlin basin, where the iron was transhipped into canal boats. When the viaduct was built, the canal was shortened as one of the pillars needed to be located in its path, the canal is no longer in evidence as it was filled in the late 1960s for the construction of the A467 road. The Navigation Colliery was in Crumlin, sinking commenced in 1907 and completed in 1911, and it was finally closed in 1967. Some mine buildings remain preserved to the north of the town, the Mine Rescue Station was opened in Station Road, Crumlin in 1910 and closed in 1986. It was the first in the South Wales Coalfield, in 1914 the South Wales and Monmouthshire School of Mines at Treforest established a sister school for part-time students at Crumlin Hall, which later became the Crumlin Mining and Technical College. Crumlin Hall was previously Thomas Kennards home, a mural in the town centre by Kenneth and Oliver Budd depicts the history of the town and the Ebbw Valley. The viaduct is shown running along the top of a number of the panels, the Mural Crumlin is the base for Braces Bakery, a third-generation owned family bakery. In the 1980s, Marcheast Ltd. made the Land Master, conway Stewart, the pen manufacturer moved to Crumlin in 1968, but the plant was closed in 1975. Crumlin is home to the snack, Pot Noodle. As of 2006 it appeared in a series of TV adverts for the product, the main manufacturing plant, offices and distribution centre are situated there. Crumlin is home to rugby union club, Crumlin RFC, the team is a member of the Welsh Rugby Union and was founded in 1880, Crumlin Cricket Club is the local cricket team and it is a member of the Welsh Cricket Association. Crumlin is represented in Caerphilly Borough Council as a two-member ward, current representatives are K. Lloyd of Plaid Cymru - The Party Of Wales, and A. Lewis of Welsh Labour/Llafur Cymru
45.
Belah Viaduct
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It was completed in 1860 and has been demolished. The viaduct was designed by Thomas Bouch and the ironwork was supplied and erected by Gilkes Wilson and it had lattice girders on cast iron columns, and was constructed at a cost of £31,630. The foundation stone was laid in November 1857, the first locomotive crossed the viaduct in November 1860, and the line opened on 7 August 1861. It was 347 yards long,24 feet wide, with 16 spans, post-WWII, weight limitations on the aging viaduct and its limited maintenance led to a ban on double heading across both Belah and Deepdale Viaducts. As two light locomotives were still needed to haul trains up the inclines of the Tebay line, one worked as a banker at the rear and this also caused problems if the breakdown crane from Darlington was needed. This 45 ton crane itself had a weight of 156 tons, hauling it across the viaducts required it to be spaced from the locomotive by at least three empty wagons, to distribute the load. The iron structure of the viaduct was demolished in the summer of 1963, the stone abutments at either side of the Belah valley still remain. Charles Davis wrote a verse about the viaduct, which was buried in the column of the eighth pier on 6 September 1859. The lines quoted in Dows Dictionary of Railway Quotations are, See, time will roll on, and mortals may increase When those who see it now, we hope will rest in peace. Dows Dictionary includes another verse, cited only as having been quoted in The Railway Magazine vol XLVI,1920, Gilkes Wilson, with his eighty men, Raised Belahs Viaduct oer the glen. The Story of Belah Viaduct, Dont look down, a personal account of the viaduct Painting of the viaduct, by John Osborn Brown
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Meldon Viaduct
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Meldon Viaduct carried the London and South Western Railway across the West Okement River at Meldon on Dartmoor in Devon, South West England. The truss bridge, which was constructed from iron and cast iron not stone or brick arches, was built under the direction of the LSWRs chief engineer. After taking three years to build, the bridge opened to rail traffic in 1874. Usage was limited to classes of locomotive because the viaduct had an axle load limit. Although regular services were withdrawn in 1968, the bridge was used for shunting by a local quarry, in the 1990s the remaining single line was removed after the viaduct was deemed to be to weak to carry rail traffic. The crossing is now used by The Granite Way, a cycle track across Dartmoor. The viaduct, which is a Scheduled Monument, is now one of two such surviving railway bridges in the United Kingdom that uses wrought iron lattice piers to support the cast iron trusses. In the 19th century, the LSWR was in competition with the Great Western Railway to provide trains from London to Devon. But as the South Devon Railway, an associate of the GWR, had built a line from Exeter St Davids to Plymouth along the south coast under the direction of Isambard Kingdom Brunel. The LSWR, and its engineer, William Galbraith, were left with a route that would have to cross the uplands of Dartmoor. Work began on Meldon Viaduct in 1871, when it opened on 12 October 1874 it was part of the LSWRs routes to Plymouth and Bude via Okehampton. The construction of the line was conducted whilst the original line remained open. In order to dispense with the need for scaffolding, the trestles were erected by means of derricks mounted on the original structure. Each truss could be installed within around two hours and thirty minutes, meaning that the work could be arranged around the railway timetable to avoid the need to close the line at any stage. The method, devised by engineer T Wrightson and supervised on site by W Jacomb, worked well, on 5 May 1931 a carpenter, F. Rook, was killed in an accident whilst replacing timber decking on the down line. In 1970, a road was built across the viaduct to permit access to the Meldon Dam construction site. The bridge was assessed in 1990 as being too weak to carry trains, six years later, the viaduct was refurbished and re-opened as part of The Granite Way, a combined cycle and foot path. It is now a scheduled monument, the viaduct is now owned by the Meldon Viaduct Company, a not-for-profit organisation set up in February 1999 to safeguard the viaduct
Media related to Trestle bridges at Wikimedia Commons
