1.
Guadalquivir
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The Guadalquivir is the fifth longest river in the Iberian Peninsula and the second longest river with its entire length in Spain. The Guadalquivir river is the only navigable river in Spain. Currently it is navigable to Seville, but in Roman times it was navigable to Córdoba, the Guadalquivir is 657 km long and drains an area of about 58,000 km2. The marshy lowlands at the end are known as Las Marismas. The river borders Doñana National Park reserve, the modern name of Guadalquivir comes from the Arabic al-wādi al-kabīr, great valley. Classical Arabic Wadi is pronounced in present-day Maghrebi Arabic as Oued, there were a variety of names for the Guadalquivir in Classical and pre-Classical times. Baetis was its name to the Romans, and Greek geographers sometimes called it the river of Tartessus, before Phoenician, Greek, and Roman colonists arrived, two indigenous names for the river may have been Kertis/Certis and Rérkēs. The Phoenicians established the first anchorage grounds and dealt in precious metals, the ancient city of Tartessos was said to have been located at the mouth of the Guadalquivir, although its site has not yet been found. The Romans, whose name for the river was Betis Baetis, settled in Hispalis, in the 2nd century BC, by the 1st century BC Hispalis was a walled city with shipyards building longboats to carry wheat. In the 1st century AD the Hispalis was home to entire naval squadrons, ships sailed to Rome with various products, minerals, salt, fish, etc. During Arab rule between 712 and 1248, the Moors left a stone dock and the Torre del Oro, a reconstructed waterwheel is located at Córdoba on the Guadalquivir River. The Molino de la Albolafia waterwheel originally built by the Romans provided water for the nearby Alcázar gardens as well as being used to mill flour. After the discovery of the Americas, Seville became the centre of the Spanish Empire as its port monopolised the trans-oceanic trade. As navigation of the Guadalquivir River became increasingly difficult Sevilles trade monopoly was transferred to Cádiz, the construction of the artificial canal known as the Corta de Merlina in 1794 marked the beginning of the modernisation of the port of Seville. In late November 2010 the new Seville lock began to function as a regulator of the tides after five years of work, the Guadalquivir River Basin occupies an area of 63,085 km2 and has a long history of severe flooding. During the winter of 2010 heavy rainfall caused flooding in rural and agricultural areas in the provinces of Seville, Córdoba. The accumulated rainfall in the month of February was above 250 mm and this was below that recorded in Seville in the flood of 1963 when a volume of 6,000 m3/s. was reached. During August 2010 when flooding occurred in Jaén, Córdoba and Seville, the Doñana disaster, also known as the Aznalcóllar Disaster or Guadiamar Disaster was an industrial accident in Andalusia
2.
Seville
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Seville is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville, Spain. It is situated on the plain of the river Guadalquivir, the inhabitants of the city are known as sevillanos or hispalenses, after the Roman name of the city, Hispalis. Its Old Town, with an area of 4 square kilometres, the Seville harbour, located about 80 kilometres from the Atlantic Ocean, is the only river port in Spain. Seville is also the hottest major metropolitan area in the geographical Western Europe, Seville was founded as the Roman city of Hispalis. It later became known as Ishbiliya after the Muslim conquest in 712, in 1519, Ferdinand Magellan departed from Seville for the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Spal is the oldest known name for Seville and it appears to have originated during the Phoenician colonisation of the Tartessian culture in south-western Iberia and, according to Manuel Pellicer Catalán, meant lowland in the Phoenician language. During Roman rule, the name was Latinised as Hispalis, nO8DO is the official motto of Seville. It is popularly believed to be a rebus signifying the Spanish No me ha dejado, meaning It has not abandoned me, the eight in the middle represents a madeja, or skein of wool. The emblem is present on the flag and features on city property such as manhole covers. Seville is approximately 2,200 years old, the passage of the various civilisations instrumental in its growth has left the city with a distinct personality, and a large and well-preserved historical centre. The city was known from Roman times as Hispalis, important archaeological remains also exist in the nearby towns of Santiponce and Carmona. The walls surrounding the city were built during the rule of Julius Caesar. Following Roman rule, there were successive conquests of the Roman province of Hispania Baetica by the Vandals, the Suebi, Seville was taken by the Moors, Muslims from North of Africa, during the conquest of Hispalis in 712. It was the capital for the kings of the Umayyad Caliphate, the Moorish urban influences continued and are present in contemporary Seville, for instance in the custom of decorating with herbaje and small fountains the courtyards of the houses. However, most buildings of the Moorish aesthetic actually belong to the Mudéjar style of Islamic art, developed under Christian rule and inspired by the Arabic style. Original Moorish buildings are the Patio del Yeso in the Alcázar, the city walls, in 1247, the Christian King Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon began the conquest of Andalusia. The decisive action took place in May 1248 when Ramon Bonifaz sailed up the Guadalquivir, the city surrendered on 23 November 1248. The citys development continued after the Castilian conquest in 1248, Public buildings constructed including churches, many of which were built in the Mudéjar style, and the Seville Cathedral, built during the 15th century with Gothic architecture
3.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
4.
Los Remedios
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Los Remedios is a district of Seville, the regional capital of Andalusia, Spain. It is located on the Isla de La Cartuja, south of the district of Triana and it is linked by bridge to the city centre and the districts of Distrito Sur and Bellavista-La Palmera. From the western side of the island, it is linked by bridge to the city of San Juan de Aznalfarache. The southern tip of La Cartuja is opposite the municipality of Dos Hermanas, Los Remedios its name from a Carmelite convent of the same name found in the district. Before urban development in the half of the 20th century. The Port of Seville has been located in district since silting forced it to leave the El Arenal neighbourhood in the city centre. In 1945 the Avenida de la Republica Argentina was built and was to become, in the 1960s a large-scale urbanization took place, and the new residential construction led to the citys first planned neighbourhood. It is overwhelmingly residential in character, and when it was built it attracted many upper-middle class residents, today the main commercial thoroughfares are the Avenida de la Republica Argentina and Calle Asuncion. The Recinto Ferial, where Sevilles Feria de Abril is held, is located in Los Remedios, a new fairground is being developed, however, in Charco de la Pava in La Cartuja. The Seville Metro currently has 2 stations along the periphery of Los Remedios, Line 1 serves the Parque del Principe and Plaza de Cuba stations, also Line 4 will serve the Virgen de Oliva station. Line 1 runs in a SW-SE arc from one suburb to another, Line 4 will be the sole circular line and is expected to open in 2017
5.
Isla de La Cartuja
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Isla de la Cartuja was an island in the Guadalquivir River at Seville, Spain. The islands name derives from the monastery located on the site, the Monasterio de Santa María de las Cuevas. The worlds fair to celebrate the 500th anniversary of the first Columbian expeditions, before 1992, the island was completely isolated between two Guadalquivir river branches. After the rearrangement of the channel system on the occasion of Expo 92. The former island is connected by bridges, such as the Calatrava designed Puente del Alamillo. Among other infrastructures and buildings located on the Isla de la Cartuja, the most important is Cartuja 93 park, museums in the area include The Centro Andaluz de Arte Contemporáneo ) in the former Monastery of Santa Maria de las Cuevas also known as the Monastery of the Cartuja. The neighbourhood and city district has been the focus of plans for at least a decade. New residential areas and commercial zones have been developed in the neighborhood, and major plans, such as the skyscraper Cajasol Tower, now known as the Sevilla Tower and recently completed
6.
Trajan
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Trajan was Roman emperor from 98 to 117 AD. Born in the city of Italica in the province of Hispania Baetica, Trajans non-patrician family was of Italian, Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian. Serving as a legatus legionis in Hispania Tarraconensis, in 89 Trajan supported Domitian against a revolt on the Rhine led by Antonius Saturninus, in September 96, Domitian was succeeded by Marcus Cocceius Nerva, an old and childless senator who proved to be unpopular with the army. After a brief and tumultuous year in power, culminating in a revolt by members of the Praetorian Guard, Nerva was compelled to adopt the more popular Trajan as his heir and he died on 27 January 98 and was succeeded by his adopted son without incident. Early in his reign, he annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, creating the province of Arabia Petraea and his conquest of Dacia enriched the empire greatly, as the new province possessed many valuable gold mines. However, its position north of the Danube made it susceptible to attack on three sides, and it was later abandoned by Emperor Aurelian. Trajans war against the Parthian Empire ended with the sack of the capital Ctesiphon and his campaigns expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial extent. In late 117, while sailing back to Rome, Trajan fell ill and he was deified by the Senate and his ashes were laid to rest under Trajans Column. He was succeeded by his adopted son Hadrian, as an emperor, Trajans reputation has endured – he is one of the few rulers whose reputation has survived nineteen centuries. Every new emperor after him was honoured by the Senate with the wish felicior Augusto, among medieval Christian theologians, Trajan was considered a virtuous pagan. As far as ancient literary sources are concerned, an extant continuous account of Trajans reign does not exist, only fragments remain of the Getiká, a book by Trajans personal physician Titos Statilios Kriton. The Parthiká, a 17-volume account of the Parthian Wars written by Arrian, has met a similar fate, book 68 in Cassius Dios Roman History, which survives mostly as Byzantine abridgments and epitomes, is the main source for the political history of Trajans rule. Besides this, Pliny the Youngers Panegyricus and Dio of Prusas orations are the best surviving contemporary sources and it is certain that much of text of the letters that appear in this collection over Trajans signature was written and/or edited by Trajans Imperial secretary, his ab epistulis. Therefore, discussion of Trajan and his rule in modern historiography cannot avoid speculation, as well as recourse to sources such as archaeology. Marcus Ulpius Traianus was born on 18 September 53 AD in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica, Trajans birthplace of Italica was founded as a Roman military colony in 206 BC, though it is unknown when the Ulpii arrived there. Trajan was the son of Marcia, a Roman noblewoman and sister-in-law of the second Flavian Emperor Titus, and Marcus Ulpius Traianus, Marcus Ulpius Traianus the elder served Vespasian in the First Jewish-Roman War, commanding the Legio X Fretensis. Trajan himself was just one of many well-known Ulpii in a line that continued long after his own death and his elder sister was Ulpia Marciana, and his niece was Salonina Matidia. The patria of the Ulpii was Italica, in Spanish Baetica, as a young man, he rose through the ranks of the Roman army, serving in some of the most contested parts of the Empires frontier
7.
Italica
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Italica is a well-preserved Roman city and the birthplace of Roman Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The modern town of Santiponce overlies part of the pre-Roman Iberian settlement, the name Italica reflected the veterans Italian origins. The old town or urbs vetus dating from the Republican period lies under the present town of Santiponce, the nearby native and Roman city of Hispalis would always remain a larger city, but Italica became an important centre of Roman culture. Italica was later the birthplace of the Roman emperors Trajan and Hadrian and he also added temples, including a Trajaneum venerating Trajan, and rebuilt public buildings. Italica’s amphitheatre was the third largest in the Roman Empire at the time and it seated 25,000 spectators, about half as many as the Colosseum in Rome. In the same period a new quarter was built in the city, with several beautiful houses decorated with splendid mosaics. At the end of the 2nd century AD, the city began to decline for political and economic reasons, a shift of the Guadalquivir River bed, probably due to siltation— a widespread problem in antiquity that followed removal of the forest cover—left Italica isolated, high and dry. The city started to dwindle as early as the 3rd century, Seville continued to grow nearby, and no modern city covered most of Italicas foundations. The result is an unusually well-preserved Roman city of Hispania Baetica, in Italica, cobbled Roman streets are visible, and mosaic floors still in situ. Italica was important enough in late Antiquity to have a bishop of its own, the ruins were later the subject of visits, admiration and despair by many foreign travelers who wrote about and sometimes illustrated their impressions. Italicas prestige, history and fame were not enough, however, to save it from being the subject of continued looting, and a permanent quarry for materials from Ancient times to modern ones. In 1740 the city of Seville ordered demolition of the walls of the amphitheater to build a dam on the Guadalquivir, and in 1796 the urbs vetus was used to build the new Camino Real of Extremadura. The first law of protection for the site took effect in 1810 under the Napoleonic occupation, reinstating its old name of Italica, regular excavation, however, did not materialise until 1839-1840. By Royal Order of 1912 Italica was declared a National Monument, but it was not until 2001 that the site of Italica. The archaeological site of Italica encompasses the urbs nova, following extensive excavations and the building of visitor facilities, Italica is now a popular destination for tourists. The ruins of the city also host a cross country running competition every January. The mass race and childrens competitions attract hundreds of participants each year, the senior international competition has featured numerous world champions and it is one of the worlds foremost annual cross country competitions. Fall 2016 saw film crews filming in Italicas amphitheatre for season 7 of the HBO TV series Game of Thrones, Italica homepage from the Andalusian Council Historical overview from Livius. org
8.
Celtiberian language
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The longest extant Celtiberian inscriptions are those on three Botorrita plaques, bronze plaques from Botorrita near Zaragoza, dating to the early 1st century BC, labelled Botorrita I, III and IV. In the northwest was another Celtic language, Northwestern Hispano-Celtic, that was related to Celtiberian. Enough has been preserved to show that the Celtiberian language could be called Q-Celtic, for some, this has served to confirm that the legendary invasion of Ireland by the Milesians, preserved in the Lebor Gabála Érenn, actually happened. Celtiberian exhibits a fully inflected relative pronoun ios, not preserved in other Celtic languages, as in Welsh, there is an s-subjunctive, gabiseti he shall take, robiseti, auseti. Compare Umbrian ferest he/she/it shall make or Ancient Greek δείξῃ deiksēi / δείξει deiksei he/she/it shall show. Celtiberian was a Celtic language that shows the sound changes of Celtic languages such as, PIE bʰ, dʰ, gʰ > b, d, g. Celtiberian and Gaulish placename element -brigā hill, town, akro-polis < *bʰr̥ǵʰ-eh₂, nebintor they are watered < *nebʰ-i-nt-or. PIE *kʷ > ku, Celtiberian changed the PIE voiceless labiovelar kʷ to ku, on the contrary Brythonic or P-Celtic changed kʷ to p. -kue and < *kʷe, Latin -que, Osco-Umbrian -pe and, neip and not < *ne-kʷe. PIE *kw > ku, ekuo horse < *h₁ekw-os, PIE *gʷ > b, bindis who dictates with legal force, legislator < *gʷiHm-diks. Bovitos cow passage < *gʷow-ito, boustom cowshed < *gʷow-sto, PIE *gʷʰ > gu, guezonto < *gʷʰedʰ-y-ont imploring, pleading. Common Celtic *guedyo ask, plead, pray, OIr. guidid, PIE *p- > *φ- > ∅, Loss of PIE *p, e. g. ro- vs. Ozas sues acc. pl. fem. six foots, unit of measure (< *φodians < *pod-y-ans *sweks, aila stone building < *pl̥-ya, vamos higher < *uφamos < *up-m̥os, vrantiom remainder, rest < *uper-n̥tiyo. PIE *mn > un, as in Lepontic, Brittonic and Gaulish, couneso neighbour < *kom-ness-o < *Kom-nedʰ-to. PIE *pn > un, Klounia < *kleun-y-a < *kleup-ni meadow, however in Latin *pn > mn, damnum damage < *dHp-no. PIE *nm > lm, Only in Celtiberian, melmu < *men-mōn intelligence, Melmanzos gifted with mind < *men-mn̥-tyo (Cfr. Also occurs in modern Spanish, alma soul < *anma < Lat. anima, PIE *ps > *ss / s, usabituz he must excavate < *upsa-bʰiH-tōd, Useizu * < *useziu < *ups-ed-yō highest. The ethnic name contestani in latin, recall the proper name Conteso warm-hearted, in Latin epigraphy that sound its transcript with geminated, Usseiticum of the Usseitici < *Usseito < *upse-tyo. However, in Gaulish *ps > *x, Uxama, PIE *gs > *ks > *ss / s, sues six < *sweks
9.
Hispania Baetica
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Hispania Baetica, often abbreviated Baetica, was one of three Roman provinces in Hispania. Baetica was bordered to the west by Lusitania, and to the northeast by Hispania Tarraconensis, Baetica was part of Al-Andalus under the Moors in the 8th century and approximately corresponds to modern Andalucia. Baetica remained one of the divisions of Hispania under the Visigoths down to 711. Before Romanization, the area that was to become Baetica was occupied by several settled Iberian tribal groups. Celtic influence was not as strong as it was in the Celtiberian north, phoenician Gadira was on an island against the coast of Hispania Baetica. Other important Iberians were the Bastetani, who occupied the Almería, towards the southeast, Punic influence spread from the Carthaginian cities on the coast, New Carthage, Abdera and Malaca. Some of the Iberian cities retained their names in Baetica throughout the Roman era. Granada was called Eliberri, Illiberis and Illiber by the Romans, in Basque, iri-berri or ili-berri, the central and north-eastern Celtiberians soon followed suit. It took Cato the Elder, who became consul in 195 BC and was given the command of the peninsula to put down the rebellion in the northeast. He then marched southwards and put down a revolt by the Turdetani, Cato returned to Rome in 194, leaving two praetors in charge of the two Iberian provinces. In the late Roman Republic, Hispania remained divided like Gaul into a Nearer and a Farther province, as experienced marching overland from Gaul, Hispania Citerior, the battles in Hispania during the 1st century BC were largely confined to the north. In the reorganization of the Empire in 14 BC, when Hispania was remade into the three Imperial provinces, Baetica was governed by a proconsul who had formerly been a praetor. The Senatorial province of Baetica became so secure that no Roman legion was required to be stationed there. Legio VII Gemina was permanently stationed to the north, in Hispania Tarraconensis, so in spite of some social upsets, as when Septimius Severus put to death a number of leading Baetians— including women — the elite in Baetica remained a stable class for centuries. Columella, who wrote a twelve volume treatise on all aspects of Roman farming and knew viticulture, the vast olive plantations of Baetica shipped olive oil from the coastal ports by sea to supply Roman legions in Germania. Amphoras from Baetica have been found everywhere in the Western Roman empire and it was to keep Roman legions supplied by sea routes that the Empire needed to control the distant coasts of Lusitania and the northern Atlantic coast of Hispania. Baetia was Roman until the invasion of the Vandals and Alans passed through in the 5th century. The province formed part of the Exarchate of Africa and was joined to Mauretania Tingitana after Belisarius reconquest of Africa, the Catholic bishops of Baetica, solidly backed by their local population, were able to convert the Arian Visigoth king Reccared and his nobles
10.
Al-Andalus
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Al-Andalus, also known as Muslim Spain or Islamic Iberia, was a medieval Muslim territory and cultural domain occupying at its peak most of what are today Spain and Portugal. At its greatest geographical extent in the century, southern France—Septimania—was briefly under its control. Rule under these kingdoms led to a rise in cultural exchange, a number of achievements that advanced Islamic and Western science came from al-Andalus including major advances in trigonometry, astronomy, surgery, pharmacology, and other fields. Al-Andalus became an educational center for Europe and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea as well as a conduit for culture. For much of its history, al-Andalus existed in conflict with Christian kingdoms to the north, after the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented into a number of minor states and principalities. Attacks from the Christians intensified, led by the Castilians under Alfonso VI, the Almoravid empire intervened and repelled the Christian attacks on the region, deposing the weak Andalusi Muslim princes and included al-Andalus under direct Berber rule. In the next century and a half, al-Andalus became a province of the Berber Muslim empires of the Almoravids and Almohads, ultimately, the Christian kingdoms in the north of the Iberian Peninsula overpowered the Muslim states to the south. In 1085, Alfonso VI captured Toledo, starting a gradual decline of Muslim power, with the fall of Córdoba in 1236, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule and the Emirate of Granada became a tributary state of the Kingdom of Castile two years later. In 1249, the Portuguese Reconquista culminated with the conquest of the Algarve by Afonso III, finally, on January 2,1492, Emir Muhammad XII surrendered the Emirate of Granada to Queen Isabella I of Castile, completing the Christian Reconquista of the peninsula. The toponym al-Andalus is first attested to by inscriptions on coins minted by the new Muslim government in Iberia, the etymology of the name has traditionally been derived from the name of the Vandals. A number of proposals since the 1980s have contested this, Vallvé proposed a corruption of the name Atlantis, halm derives the name from a Gothic term *landahlauts. Bossong suggests derivation from a pre-Roman substrate and they crossed the Pyrenees and occupied Visigothic Septimania in southern France. Most of the Iberian peninsula became part of the expanding Umayyad Empire and it was organized as a province subordinate to Ifriqiya, so, for the first few decades, the governors of al-Andalus were appointed by the emir of Kairouan, rather than the Caliph in Damascus. Visigothic lords who agreed to recognize Muslim suzerainty were allowed to retain their fiefs, resistant Visigoths took refuge in the Cantabrian highlands, where they carved out a rump state, the Kingdom of Asturias. In the 720s, the al-Andalus governors launched several raids into Aquitaine. At the Battle of Poitiers in 732, the al-Andalus raiding army was defeated by Charles Martel, in 734, the Andalusi launched raids to the east, capturing Avignon and Arles and overran much of Provence. In 737, they climbed up the Rhône valley, reached as far as Burgundy, Charles Martel of the Franks, with the assistance of Liutprand of the Lombards, invaded Burgundy and Provence and expelled the raiders by 739. Relations between Arabs and Berbers in al-Andalus had been tense in the years after the conquest
11.
Pontoon bridge
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A pontoon bridge, also known as a floating bridge, uses floats or shallow-draft boats to support a continuous deck for pedestrian and vehicle travel. The buoyancy of the limits the maximum load they can carry. Most pontoon bridges are temporary, used in wartime and civil emergencies, permanent floating bridges are useful for sheltered water-crossings where it is not considered economically feasible to suspend a bridge from anchored piers. Such bridges can require a section that is elevated, or can be raised or removed, a pontoon bridge is a collection of specialized, shallow draft boats or floats, connected together to cross a river or canal, with a track or deck attached on top. The water buoyancy supports the boats, limiting the load to the total. The supporting boats or floats can be open or closed, temporary or permanent in installation, the decking may be temporary or permanent, and constructed out of wood, modular metal, or asphalt or concrete over a metal frame. The spelling ponton in English dates from at least 1870, the use continued in references found in U. S. patents during the 1890s. It continued to be spelled in that fashion through World War II, U. S. combat engineers commonly pronounced the word ponton rather than pontoon and U. S. military manuals spelled it using a single o. The original word was derived from Old French ponton, from Latin ponto, when designing a pontoon bridge, the civil engineer must take into consideration the Archimedes principle looking at the maximum amount of load that it is intended to support. Each pontoon can support an equal to the mass of the water that it displaces. If the maximum load of a section is exceeded, one or more pontoons become submerged. The roadway across the pontoons must also be able to support the load, survey to determine the best location. The connection to shore often causes problems, requiring the design of approaches that are not too steep, keep the bank from crumbling, Floating bridges were typically constructed using wood. Such a wooden floating bridge could be built in a series of sections, Pontoons were formed using boats, several barrels lashed together, rafts of timbers, or some combination of these. Each bridge section consisted of one or more pontoons, which were maneuvered into position and then anchored, using underwater and these pontoons were then linked together using wooden stringers called balks. The balks were then covered by a series of cross planks called chesses to form a surface. Some bridges have been designed and survived much longer, in Hobart a long pontoon bridge built in 1943 was only replaced after 21 years. The fourth Galata Bridge that spans the Golden Horn in Istanbul, Turkey was built in 1912, precautions are needed to protect a pontoon bridge from becoming damaged
12.
Abu Yaqub Yusuf
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Abu Yaqub Yusuf or Yusuf I was the second Almohad Amir or caliph. He reigned from 1163 until 1184 in Marrakech and he had the Giralda in Seville built as well as Koutoubia in Marrakech and Hassan Tower in Rabat. Yusuf was the son of Abd al-Mumin, the first caliph of the Almohad dynasty, originally hailing from North Africa, Yusuf and his bloodline were descended from the Zenata Berbers. Like a number of Almohad rulers, Yusuf favored the Zahirite or literalist school of Muslim jurisprudence and was a scholar in his own right. Respected men of such as Ibn Rushd and Ibn Tufayl were entertained at his court. Yusuf favored Cordoban polymath Ibn Maḍāʾ as his judge, during the Almohad reforms. Yusufs son al-Mansur would eventually take the reforms even further, actually burning non-Zahirite books instead of banning them. In 1170 he invaded Iberia, conquering al-Andalus and ravaging Valencia and Catalonia, the following year he established himself in Seville. He ordered the construction of buildings, such as the Alcazar, the Buhaira palace. Abu Yaqub Yusuf was defeated by Afonso I of Portugal at the Siege of Santarém, in which he died, his body was sent from Seville to Tinmel where he was buried
13.
Ferdinand III of Castile
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Ferdinand III, called the Saint, was King of Castile from 1217 and King of León from 1230 as well as King of Galicia from 1231. He was the son of Alfonso IX of León and Berenguela of Castile, through his second marriage he was also Count of Aumale. Ferdinand was canonized in 1671 by Pope Clement X and, in Spanish, he is known as Fernando el Santo, the exact date of Ferdinands birth is unclear. It has been proposed to have been as early as 1199 or even 1198, Ferdinand was born at the Monastery of Valparaíso. Ferdinand has other royal ancestors from his paternal grandmother Urraca of Portugal and his maternal grandmother Eleanor of England a daughter of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. From his birth to 1204 Ferdinand was designated heir to his fathers kingdom of Leon with the support of his mother and the kingdom of Castile despite the fact that he was Alfonso IXs second son. Alfonso IX already had a son and two daughters from his first marriage to Teresa of Portugal but at the time he never acknowledge his first son as his heir, however, the Castilians saw the elder Ferdinand as a potential rival and threat to Berengarias son. The marriage of Ferdinands parents was annulled by order of Pope Innocent III in 1204, Berengaria then took their children, including Ferdinand, to the court of her father, King Alfonso VIII of Castile. In 1217, her brother, Henry I, died and she succeeded him on the Castilian throne with Ferdinand as her heir. When Ferdinands father, Alfonso IX of León, died in 1230, his will delivered the kingdom to his older daughters Sancha and Dulce, but Ferdinand contested the will, and claimed the inheritance for himself. Ferdinand thus became the first sovereign of both kingdoms since the death of Alfonso VII in 1157, early in his reign, Ferdinand had to deal with a rebellion of the House of Lara. Since the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 halted the advance of the Almohads in Spain, a series of truces had kept Castile and the Almohad dominions of al-Andalus more-or-less at peace. However, a crisis of succession in the Almohad Caliphate after the death of Yusuf II in 1224 opened to Ferdinand III an opportunity for intervention, al-Adils rebellious cousin, Abdallah al-Bayyasi, appealed to Ferdinand III for military assistance against the usurper. In 1225, a Castilian army accompanied al-Bayyasi in a campaign, ravaging the regions of Jaén, vega de Granada and, in payment, al-Bayyasi gave Ferdinand the strategic frontier strongholds of Baños de la Encina, Salvatierra and Capilla. When al-Bayyasi was rejected and killed by an uprising in Cordoba shortly after. The crisis in the Almohad Caliphate, however, remained unresolved, in 1228, a new Almohad pretender, Abd al-Ala Idris I al-Mamun, decided to abandon Spain, and left with the last remnant of the Almohad forces for Morocco. Al-Andalus was left fragmented in the hands of local strongmen, only led by Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Hud al-Judhami. There were no great battle encounters - Ibn Huds makeshift Andalusian army was destroyed early on, the Christian armies romped through the south virtually unopposed in the field
14.
Catholic Monarchs
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The Catholic Monarchs is the joint title used in history for Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon. They married on October 19,1469, in the city of Valladolid, Isabella was eighteen years old and it is generally accepted by most scholars that the unification of Spain can essentially be traced back to the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella. The court of Ferdinand and Isabella was constantly on the move, the title of Catholic King and Queen was bestowed on Ferdinand and Isabella by Pope Alexander VI in 1494, in recognition of their defence of the Catholic faith within their realms. Catholic monarchs or kings can also be used in a generic sense, Isabella was named heir to the throne of Castile by her half brother Henry IV of Castile in the Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando. She became Queen of Castile in 1474 and her niece, Joanna of Castile, attempted to gain the throne by bringing in the foreign help of Afonso V of Portugal, leading to the War of Castilian Succession. More recently, some speculate that Joanna was the legitimate successor, Isabellas supporters came out ahead in good part due to Aragons support through Ferdinand, and she officially won in 1479 via the Treaty of Alcáçovas. Ferdinand became the King of Aragon in 1479, the Catholic Monarchs set out to restore royal authority in Spain. To accomplish their goal, they first created a group named the Holy Brotherhood and these men were used as a judicial police force for Castile, as well as to attempt to keep Castilian nobles in check. To establish a more uniform system, the Catholic Monarchs created the Royal Council. This establishment of authority is known as the Pacification of Castile. Even after his death and the union of the crowns under one monarch, the Aragonese, Catalan, further, the monarchs continued ruling through a form of medieval contractualism, which made their rule pre-modern in a few ways. One of those is that they traveled from town to town throughout the kingdom in order to promote loyalty, another is that each community and region was connected to them via loyalty to the crown, rather than bureaucratic ties. Ferdinand and Isabella were noted for being the monarchs of the newly united Spain at the dawn of the modern era and they had a goal of conquering the Muslim kingdom of Granada and completing the Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula. The beginnings of a series of known as the Granada War began with the attack on Alhama de Granada. The attack was led by two Andalusian nobles, Rodrigo Ponce de León and Diego de Merlo, the city fell to Andalusian forces in 1482. The Granada War was aided by Pope Sixtus IV by granting a tithe, after 10 years of fighting the Granada War ended in 1492 when Emir Boabdil surrendered the keys of the Alhambra Palace in Granada to the Castilian soldiers. After a number of revolts, Ferdinand and Isabella ordered the expulsion from Spain of all Jews, the Inquisition had been created in the twelfth century by Pope Lucius III to fight heresy in the south of what is now France and was constituted in a number of European kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs decided to introduce the Inquisition to Castile, the bull gave the monarchs exclusive authority to name the inquisitors
15.
Spanish Inquisition
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The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition, commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition, was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and to replace the Medieval Inquisition and it became the most substantive of the three different manifestations of the wider Christian Inquisition along with the Roman Inquisition and Portuguese Inquisition. The Inquisition was originally intended primarily to ensure the orthodoxy of those who converted from Judaism, the regulation of the faith of the newly converted was intensified after the royal decrees issued in 1492 and 1502 ordering Jews and Muslims to convert or leave Spain. The Inquisition was not definitively abolished until 1834, during the reign of Isabella II, the Spanish Inquisition is often stated in popular literature and history as an example of Catholic intolerance and repression. Modern historians have tended to question earlier accounts concerning the severity of the Inquisition, Henry Kamen asserts that the myth of the all-powerful, torture-mad inquisition is largely an invention of nineteenth century Protestant authors with an agenda to discredit the Papacy. Although records are incomplete, about 150,000 persons were charged with crimes by the Inquisition and about 3,000 were executed. The Inquisition was created through papal bull, Ad Abolendam, issued at the end of the century by Pope Lucius III as a way to combat the Albigensian heresy in southern France. There were a number of tribunals of the Papal Inquisition in various European kingdoms during the Middle Ages. In the Kingdom of Aragon, a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition was established by the statute of Excommunicamus of Pope Gregory IX, in 1232, during the era of the Albigensian heresy. With time, its importance was diluted, and, by the middle of the fifteenth century, there was never a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition in Castile. Members of the episcopate were charged with surveillance of the faithful, during the Middle Ages, in Castile, little attention was paid to heresy by the Catholic ruling class. Jews and Muslims were tolerated and generally allowed to follow their traditional laws, however, by law, they were considered inferior to Catholics and were subject to discriminatory legislation. The Spanish Inquisition can be seen as an answer to the nature of Spanish society following the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslim Moors. After invading in 711, large areas of the Iberian Peninsula were ruled by Muslims until 1250, when they were restricted to Granada, which fell in 1492. However, the Reconquista did not result in the expulsion of Muslims from Spain, since they. The Jews, who had previously thrived under Muslim rule, now suffered similar maltreatment, however, as Henry Kamen notes, so-called convivencia was always a relationship between unequals. Despite their legal inequality, there was a tradition of Jewish service to the crown of Aragon and Jews occupied many important posts. Castile itself had an unofficial rabbi, ferdinands father John II named the Jewish Abiathar Crescas to be Court Astronomer
16.
Levee
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A levee, dike, dyke, embankment, floodbank or stopbank is an elongated naturally occurring ridge or artificially constructed fill or wall, which regulates water levels. It is usually earthen and often parallel to the course of a river in its floodplain or along low-lying coastlines, the word levee, from the French word levée, is used in American English. It originated in New Orleans a few years after the founding in 1718 and was later adopted by English speakers. The name derives from the trait of the ridges being raised higher than both the channel and the surrounding floodplains. The modern word dike or dyke most likely derives from the Dutch word dijk, the 126 kilometres long Westfriese Omringdijk was completed by 1250, and was formed by connecting existing older dikes. The Roman chronicler Tacitus even mentions that the rebellious Batavi pierced dikes to flood their land, the word dijk originally indicated both the trench and the bank. It is closely related to the English verb to dig, in Anglo-Saxon, the word dic already existed and was pronounced as dick in northern England and as ditch in the south. Similar to Dutch, the English origins of the lie in digging a trench. This practice has meant that the name may be given to either the excavation or the bank, thus Offas Dyke is a combined structure and Car Dyke is a trench though it once had raised banks as well. In the midlands and north of England, and in the United States, a dike is what a ditch is in the south, a property boundary marker or small drainage channel. Where it carries a stream, it may be called a dike as in Rippingale Running Dike. The Weir Dike is a dike in Bourne North Fen, near Twenty and alongside the River Glen. In the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads, a dyke may be a ditch or a narrow artificial channel off a river or broad for access or mooring, some longer dykes being named. In parts of Britain, particularly Scotland, a dyke may be a field wall, Levees can be mainly found along the sea, where dunes are not strong enough, along rivers for protection against high-floods, along lakes or along polders. Furthermore, levees have been built for the purpose of empoldering, the latter can be a controlled inundation by the military or a measure to prevent inundation of a larger area surrounded by levees. Levees have also built as field boundaries and as military defences. More on this type of levee can be found in the article on dry-stone walls, Levees can be permanent earthworks or emergency constructions built hastily in a flood emergency. When such a bank is added on top of an existing levee it is known as a cradge
17.
Flamenco
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Flamenco, in its strictest sense, is a professionalized art-form based on the various folkloric music traditions of Southern Spain. It includes cante, toque, baile, jaleo, palmas, the oldest record of flamenco dates to 1774 in the book Las Cartas Marruecas by José Cadalso. The genre originated in the music and dance styles of Andalusia, Flamenco has been influenced by and become associated with the Romani people in Spain, however, unlike Romani music in Eastern Europe, its origin and style is uniquely Andalusian. In recent years, flamenco has become popular all over the world and is taught in many countries, especially the United States. In Japan, there are more flamenco academies than there are in Spain, on November 16,2010, UNESCO declared flamenco one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. There are many suggestions for the origin of the word flamenco as a musical term, the word was not recorded as a musical and dance term until the late 18th century. The Spanish word flamenco could have been a derivative of fire or flame, the word flamenco may have come to be used for fiery behaviour, which could have come to be applied to the Gitano players and performers. Palos are flamenco styles, classified by criteria such as rhythmic pattern, mode, chord progression, stanzaic form, there are over 50 different palos, some are sung unaccompanied while others have guitar or other accompaniment. Some forms are danced while others are not, there are many ways to categories Palos but they traditionally fall into three classes, the most serious is known as cante jondo, while lighter, frivolous forms are called cante chico. Forms that do not fit either category are classed as cante intermedio, Cante jondo has clear traces of Arabic and Spanish folk melodies, as well as vestiges of Byzantine, Christian and Jewish religious music. Each song of a set of verses, which are punctuated by guitar interludes called falsetas, the guitarist also provides a short introduction which sets the tonality, compás and tempo of the cante. Flamenco uses the Flamenco mode, in addition to the major and minor scales used in modern Western music. The Phrygian mode occurs in such as soleá, most bulerías, siguiriyas. A typical chord sequence, usually called the Andalusian cadence may be viewed as in a modified Phrygian, according to Manolo Sanlúcar E is here the tonic, F has the harmonic function of dominant while Am and G assume the functions of subdominant and mediant respectively. Guitarists tend to use two basic inversions or chord shapes for the tonic chord, the open 1st inversion E. Montoya also created a new palo as a solo for guitar, later guitarists have further extended the repertoire of tonalities, chord positions and scordatura. There are also palos in major mode, most cantiñas and alegrías, guajiras, some bulerías and tonás, the minor mode is restricted to the Farruca, the milongas, and some styles of tangos, bulerías, etc. In general traditional palos in major and minor mode are limited harmonically to two-chord or three-chord progressions, however modern guitarists have introduced chord substitution, transition chords, and even modulation
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Romani people
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The Romani are widely known among English-speaking people by the exonym Gypsies, which some people consider pejorative due to its connotations of illegality and irregularity. Romani are dispersed, with their populations in Europe – especially Central, Eastern and Southern Europe including Turkey, Spain. Since the 19th century, some Romani have also migrated to the Americas, there are an estimated one million Roma in the United States, and 800,000 in Brazil, most of whose ancestors emigrated in the nineteenth century from eastern Europe. Brazil also includes some Romani descended from people deported by the government of Portugal during the Inquisition in the colonial era, in migrations since the late nineteenth century, Romani have also moved to other countries in South America and to Canada. In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the Government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora, the Romani language is divided into several dialects, which add up to an estimated number of speakers larger than two million. The total number of Romani people is at least twice as large, many Romani are native speakers of the language current in their country of residence, or of mixed languages combining the two, those varieties are sometimes called Para-Romani. French bohème, bohémien, from the Kingdom of Bohemia, whence they came, Rom means man or husband in the Romani, it has the variants dom and lom, related with the Sanskrit words dam-pati, dama, lom, lomaka loman, roman. Another possible origin is from Sanskrit डोम doma, Sanskrit सिनधु is a river or stream of water in general. In particular, it denotes the river Indus and the country around it, in the Romani language, Rom is a masculine noun, meaning man of the Roma ethnic group or man, husband, with the plural Roma. The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni, however, in most cases, in other languages Rom is now used for people of all genders. Romani is the adjective, while Romano is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies use Rom or Roma as a name, while others do not use this term as a self-ascription for the entire ethnic group. Sometimes, rom and romani are spelled with a r, i. e. rrom. In this case rr is used to represent the phoneme /ʀ/, the rr spelling is common in certain institutions, or used in certain countries, e. g. Romania, to distinguish from the endonym/homonym for Romanians. In the English language, Rom is a noun and an adjective, while Romani is also a noun, both Rom and Romani have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy. Romani was initially spelled Rommany, then Romany, while today the Romani spelling is the most popular spelling, occasionally, the double r spelling mentioned above is also encountered in English texts. The term Roma is increasingly encountered during recent decades, as a term for the Romani people
19.
Moorish Revival architecture
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The Moorish garden structures built at Sheringham Hall, Norfolk, ca. By the mid-19th century, the style was adopted by the Jews of Central Europe, as a consequence, Moorish Revival spread around the globe as a preferred style of synagogue architecture. In Spain, the country conceived as the place of origin of Moorish ornamentation, in Catalonia, Antoni Gaudís profound interest in Mudéjar heritage governed the design of his early works, such as Casa Vicens or Astorga Palace. In Andalusia, the Neo-Mudéjar style gained belated popularity in connection with the Ibero-American Exposition of 1929 and was epitomized by Plaza de España, a Spanish nobleman built the Palazzo Sammezzano, one of Europes largest and most elaborate Moorish Revival structures, in Tuscany between 1853 and 1889. Another exception was Bosnia, where, after its occupation by Austria-Hungary and this included application of ornamentations and other Moorish design strategies neither of which had much to do with prior architectural direction of indigenous Bosnian architecture. The central post office in Sarajevo, for example, follows distinct formal characteristics of design like clarity of form, symmetry, constructed in 1848 and destroyed by fire ten years later, this architectural extravaganza sprouted bulbous domes and horseshoe arches. After the American Civil War, Moorish or Turkish smoking rooms achieved some popularity, there were Moorish details in the interiors created for the Henry Osborne Havemeyer residence on Fifth Avenue by Louis Comfort Tiffany. The 1914 Pittock Mansion in Portland, Oregon incorporates Turkish design features, as well as French, English, and Italian ones, the smoking room in particular has notable Moorish revival elements. The 1891 Tampa Bay Hotel, whose minarets and Moorish domes are now the pride of the University of Tampa, was a particularly extravagant example of the style, other schools with Moorish Revival buildings include Yeshiva University in New York City. George Washington Smith used the style in his design for the 1920s Isham Beach Estate in Santa Barbara, Immaculate Conception Church, is a striking example of Moorish Revival Architecture. Across the street was the College of the Immaculate Conception, housing a chapel with two stained glass domes, the chapel was disassembled and about half of it was installed in the present Jesuit High School. The Shriners, an organization, often chose a Moorish Revival style for their Temples. C. El Zaribah Shrine Auditorium, Phoenix, Arizona Medinah Temple, Chicago, murat Shrine, Indianapolis, Indiana, the largest Shrine temple in North America, now officially known as Old National Centre. Augustine, FL,1883 Campo Pequeno bullring, Lisbon,1892 Henry B, south Melbourne, Australia,1976 Moorish Revival in New York Architecture
20.
Juan Belmonte
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Juan Belmonte García was a Spanish bullfighter. Born in Seville, his family moved to the Triana neighbourhood when he was three, according to the biographer A. Diaz Canabate, Belmonte began his bullfighting career in 1908, touring around Spain in a childrens bullfighting group called Los Niños Sevillanos. He killed his first bull on July 24,1910, as a result of this daring technique, Belmonte was frequently gored, sustaining many serious wounds. One such incident occurred during a November,1927 bullfight in Barcelona, Belmonte was gored through his chest and pinned against a wall. Among the spectators that day were the King and Queen of Spain, Belmontes rivalry with Joselito, another contender for the appellation greatest matador of all time, from 1914 to 1920 is known as the Golden Age of Bullfighting. The era was cut short when Joselito was fatally gored on May 16,1920, at the age of 25, at a bullfight in Talavera de la Reina, a small town not far from Madrid. Belmonte then had to carry alone the weight of the whole bullfighting establishment, which proved to be unbearable, the Mexican matador Carlos Arruza fought 108 corridas in one season but it is said that he refused to pass Belmontes record out of respect for the maestro. After his third and final retirement in 1935, Belmonte moved to a 3, 500-acre ranch in Andalusia, where he lived the life of a gentleman bull-breeder. Written by Manuel Chaves Nogales and published in 1937, it was called Juan Belmonte, matador de toros, su vida y sus hazañas, the book was translated into English by Leslie Charteris as Juan Belmonte, Killer of Bulls. Belmonte was also a friend of author Ernest Hemingway. Like Hemingway, Belmonte committed suicide by gunshot, Juan Belmonte was the single matador that changed the style of bullfighting. Born with slightly deformed legs, he could not run or jump like other boys and so when he began his career as a matador, he firmly planted his feet on the ground. He forced the bull to go around him, whereas others until then had jumped all over the place like circus performers, during his bullfighting career he received 24 serious wounds and countless minor ones. Shortly before his death he learned that he had lung cancer, after a final morning ride, he returned home to his ranch house, took his 6. 35mm pistol from a drawer in his study and shot himself. He died within a week of his 70th birthday, berman and Wallace suggest that this may have been a copycat suicide, on hearing of his friend Hemingways suicide in 1961, Belmonte is said to have answered Well done. The circumstances surrounding his death are the source of some controversy and he ordered that his favourite horse be brought to him, took a handful of cigars, two bottles of his favourite wine and rode out to his finca. A1995 film about his life, Belmonte, was directed by Juan Sebastián Bollaín and he is interred at the cemetery of Seville,20 yards from the grave of his rival of seven seasons, Joselito. His wish was to be buried with the robe of his Holy Week fraternity, the cofradías of Seville have their religious roots in the guilds of the Middle Ages
21.
Modern art
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Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the style and philosophy of the art produced during that era. The term is associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation. Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with ideas about the nature of materials. A tendency away from the narrative, which was characteristic for the traditional arts, more recent artistic production is often called contemporary art or postmodern art. Matisses two versions of The Dance signified a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting, analytic cubism was jointly developed by Picasso and Georges Braque, exemplified by Violin and Candlestick, Paris, from about 1908 through 1912. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé, the notion of modern art is closely related to modernism. Although modern sculpture and architecture are reckoned to have emerged at the end of the 19th century, the beginnings of modern painting can be located earlier. The date perhaps most commonly identified as marking the birth of art is 1863. Earlier dates have also proposed, among them 1855 and 1784. In the words of art historian H, harvard Arnason, Each of these dates has significance for the development of modern art, but none categorically marks a completely new beginning. A gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years, the strands of thought that eventually led to modern art can be traced back to the Enlightenment, and even to the 17th century. The important modern art critic Clement Greenberg, for instance, called Immanuel Kant the first real Modernist but also drew a distinction, The Enlightenment criticized from the outside. The French Revolution of 1789 uprooted assumptions and institutions that had for centuries been accepted with little question and this gave rise to what art historian Ernst Gombrich called a self-consciousness that made people select the style of their building as one selects the pattern of a wallpaper. The pioneers of art were Romantics, Realists and Impressionists. By the late 19th century, additional movements which were to be influential in art had begun to emerge. The advocates of realism stood against the idealism of the academic art that enjoyed public. The most successful painters of the day worked either through commissions or through public exhibitions of their own work. There were official, government-sponsored painters unions, while governments regularly held exhibitions of new fine
22.
Dominican Order
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Members of the order, who are referred to as Dominicans, generally carry the letters O. P. after their names, standing for Ordinis Praedicatorum, meaning of the Order of Preachers. Membership in the order includes friars, nuns, active sisters, the order is famed for its intellectual tradition, having produced many leading theologians and philosophers. The Dominican Order is headed by the Master of the Order, in the year 2000, there were 5,171 Dominican friars in solemn vows,917 student brothers, and 237 novices. By the year 2013 there were 6,058 Dominican friars, a number of other names have been used to refer to both the order and its members. In England and other countries the Dominican friars are referred to as Black Friars because of the black cappa or cloak they wear over their white habits, Dominicans were Blackfriars, as opposed to Whitefriars or Greyfriars. They are also distinct from the Augustinian Friars who wear a similar habit and their identification as Dominicans gave rise to the pun that they were the Domini canes, or Hounds of the Lord. The Dominican Order came into being in the Middle Ages at a time when religion began to be contemplated in a new way, men of God were no longer expected to stay behind the walls of a cloister. Instead, they travelled among the people, taking as their examples the apostles of the primitive Church. Out of this emerged two orders of mendicant friars, one, the Friars Minor, was led by Francis of Assisi, the other. Dominics new order was to be an order, trained to preach in the vernacular languages. Rather than earning their living on vast farms as the monasteries had done, at the same time, Dominic inspired the members of his order to develop a mixed spirituality. They were both active in preaching, and contemplative in study, prayer and meditation, the brethren of the Dominican Order were urban and learned, as well as contemplative and mystical in their spirituality. While these traits affected the women of the order, the nuns especially absorbed the latter characteristics, in England, the Dominican nuns blended these elements with the defining characteristics of English Dominican spirituality and created a spirituality and collective personality that set them apart. The orders origins in battling heterodoxy influenced its development and reputation. Many later Dominicans battled heresy as part of their apostolate, indeed, many years after St. Dominic reacted to the Cathars, the first Grand Inquistor of Spain, Tomás de Torquemada, would be drawn from the Dominican Order. As an adolescent, he had a love of theology. During his studies in Palencia, Spain, he experienced a famine, prompting Dominic to sell all of his beloved books. At the age of twenty-four or twenty-five, he was ordained to the priesthood, at that time the south of France was the stronghold of the Cathar or Albigensian heresy, named after the Duke of Albi, a Cathar sympathiser and opponent to the subsequent Albigensian Crusade
23.
Baroque
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The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, and spread to most of Europe. The aristocracy viewed the dramatic style of Baroque art and architecture as a means of impressing visitors by projecting triumph, power, Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. However, baroque has a resonance and application that extend beyond a reduction to either a style or period. It is also yields the Italian barocco and modern Spanish barroco, German Barock, Dutch Barok, others derive it from the mnemonic term Baroco, a supposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica. The Latin root can be found in bis-roca, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is elaborate, with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word Baroque, like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th, the term Baroque was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music. Another hypothesis says that the word comes from precursors of the style, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and he did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has remained in critical favour. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of modern taste, William Watson describes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese ritual bronzes of the 11th century BC as baroque. The term Baroque may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, the appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of Michelangelo. Even more generalised parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style, see the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace whose construction began in 1752. In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures, less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, Baroque poses depend on contrapposto, the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail, Baroque style featured exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona, the most prominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was Diego Velázquez. The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo, while the Baroque nature of Rembrandts art is clear, the label is less often used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while continuing to produce the traditional categories
24.
Holy Week in Seville
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Holy Week in Seville is known as Semana Santa de Sevilla. It is one of the two biggest annual festivals, the other being the Feria de Abril, which follows two weeks later. Of the sculptures are of great antiquity and are considered artistic masterpieces, there are up to three pasos in each procession. The pasos dedicated to Jesus use figures of wood, wax, and wire to depict scenes from the Passion, the pasos dedicated to the Virgin Mary are usually covered in silver, and depict Mary weeping for her Son and sometimes holding Him in her arms. The processions are organized by hermandades and cofradías, religious brotherhoods, members precede the pasos dressed in penitential robes with capirotes, tall, pointed hoods with eye-holes. The capirotes were designed so the faithful could repent in anonymity, nearly 70 cofradias take part, each with their own image, as well as colourful misterios, on elaborately-decorated pasos. They may be accompanied by brass bands, the processions follow a designated route from their homes, churches and chapels to the Cathedral, usually via a central viewing area and back. The ones from the suburban barrios may take 14 hours to return to their home churches, the processions continue from Palm Sunday to Easter Sunday morning. The climax of the week is the night of Holy Thursday, the core events in Semana Santa are the processions of the brotherhoods, known as estación de penitencia, from their home church or chapel to the Cathedral of Seville and back. The last section before arriving to the Cathedral is common to all brotherhoods and is called the Carrera Oficial, the standard structure of a procession is, A great cross is carried at the beginning of each procession. A number of people dressed in a habit and with the distinctive pointed hood, colours, forms and details of the habit are distinctive for each brotherhood - and sometimes for different locations within the procession. Usually the Nazarenos march in pairs, and are grouped behind insignia, moving between the lines are diputados de tramo, guardians who keep the formations organized. A group of boys, acolytes, dressed in vestments, with chandeliers and incense. When applicable, the group follows or precedes the paso A number of penitentes, carrying wooden crosses. They wear the habit and the hood of the brotherhood, and this structure repeats itself depending of the number of pasos. A procession can be made up from a few hundred to near 3,000 Nazarenos and last anywhere from 4 to 14 hours, depending how far the home church is from the Cathedral. The largest processions can take over an hour and a half to one particular spot At the centre of each procession are the pasos. The first one would be a scene of the sorrowfull Mysteries of the Rosary
25.
Gothic art
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Gothic art was a style of medieval art that developed in Northern France out of Romanesque art in the 12th century AD, led by the concurrent development of Gothic architecture. It spread to all of Western Europe, and much of Southern and Central Europe, in the late 14th century, the sophisticated court style of International Gothic developed, which continued to evolve until the late 15th century. In many areas, especially Germany, Late Gothic art continued well into the 16th century, primary media in the Gothic period included sculpture, panel painting, stained glass, fresco and illuminated manuscripts. The earliest Gothic art was monumental sculpture, on the walls of Cathedrals, Christian art was often typological in nature, showing the stories of the New Testament and the Old Testament side by side. Increased literacy and a body of secular vernacular literature encouraged the representation of secular themes in art. Gothic art emerged in Île-de-France, France, in the early 12th century at the Abbey Church of St Denis built by Abbot Suger, monastic orders, especially the Cistercians and the Carthusians, were important builders who disseminated the style and developed distinctive variants of it across Europe. Gothic art was often typological in nature, reflecting a belief that the events of the Old Testament pre-figured those of the New, Old and New Testament scenes were shown side by side in works like the Speculum Humanae Salvationis, and the decoration of churches. The Gothic period coincided with a resurgence in Marian devotion. Images of the Virgin Mary developed from the Byzantine hieratic types, through the Coronation of the Virgin, to human and initimate types. Artists like Giotto, Fra Angelico and Pietro Lorenzetti in Italy, and Early Netherlandish painting, brought realism, Western artists, and their patrons, became much more confident in innovative iconography, and much more originality is seen, although copied formulae were still used by most artists. Even in Last Judgements Christ was now usually shown exposing his chest to show the wounds of his Passion, the word Gothic for art was initially used as a synonym for Barbaric, and was therefore used pejoratively. Its critics saw this type of Medieval art as unrefined and too remote from the aesthetic proportions, Renaissance authors believed that the Sack of Rome by the Gothic tribes in 410 had triggered the demise of the Classical world and all the values they held dear. Gothic art was criticized by French authors such as Boileau, La Bruyère, Rousseau, before becoming a recognized form of art. Molière would famously comment on Gothic, The besotted taste of Gothic monuments, These odious monsters of ignorant centuries, in its beginning, Gothic art was initially called French work, thus attesting the priority of France in the creation of this style. Painting in a style that can be called Gothic did not appear until about 1200, or nearly 50 years after the origins of Gothic architecture and sculpture. Then figures become more animated in pose and facial expression, tend to be smaller in relation to the background of scenes, and are arranged more freely in the pictorial space, where there is room. This transition occurs first in England and France around 1200, in Germany around 1220, painting during the Gothic period was practiced in four primary media, frescos, panel paintings, manuscript illumination and stained glass. Frescoes continued to be used as the pictorial narrative craft on church walls in southern Europe as a continuation of early Christian
26.
Alfonso X of Castile
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Alfonso X, called the Wise, was the King of Castile, León and Galicia from 30 May 1252 until his death. During the Imperial election of 1257, a dissident faction chose him to be King of the Romans on 1 April and he renounced his imperial claim in 1275, and in creating an alliance with England in 1254, his claim on Gascony as well. Alfonso X fostered the development of a court that encouraged learning. Jews, Muslims, and Christians had prominent roles in his court, Alfonso was a prolific author of Galician poetry, such as the Cantigas de Santa Maria, which are equally notable for their musical notation as for their literary merit. Alfonsos scientific interests—he is sometimes nicknamed the Astrologer —led him to sponsor the creation of the Alfonsine tables, as a legislator he introduced the first vernacular law code in Spain, the Siete Partidas. He created the Mesta, an association of farmers in the central plain. He fought a war with Portugal, but a less successful one with Granada. The end of his reign was marred by a war with his eldest surviving son, the future Sancho IV. Born in Toledo, Kingdom of Castile, Alfonso was the eldest son of Ferdinand III of Castile and his mother was the paternal cousin of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, to whom Alfonso is often compared. His maternal grandparents were Philip of Swabia and Irene Angelina, little is known about his upbringing, but he was most likely raised in Toledo. For the first nine years of his life Alfonso was only heir to Castile until his paternal grandfather king Alfonso IX of Leon died and his father united the kingdoms of Castile and Leon. He began his career as a soldier, under the command of his father, after the election of Theobald I as king of Navarre, his father tried to arrange a marriage for Alfonso with Theobalds daughter, Blanche of Navarre, but the move was unsuccessful. At the same time, he had a relationship with Mayor Guillén de Guzmán. In 1240, he married Mayor Guillén de Guzmán, but the marriage was later annulled, in the same period he conquered several Muslim strongholds in Al-Andalus alongside his father, such as Murcia, Alicante and Cadiz. In 1249, Alfonso married Violante of Aragon, the daughter of King James I of Aragon and Yolande of Hungary, Alfonso succeeded his father as King of Castile and León in 1252. The following year he invaded Portugal, capturing the region of the Algarve, King Afonso III of Portugal had to surrender, but he gained an agreement by which, after he consented to marry Alfonso Xs daughter Beatrice of Castile, the land would be returned to their heirs. In 1263 he returned Algarve to the King of Portugal and signed the Treaty of Badajoz, in 1254 Alfonso X signed a treaty of alliance with the King of England and Duke of Aquitaine, Henry III, supporting him in the war against Louis IX of France. In 1256, at the death of William II of Holland, Alfonsos descent from the Hohenstaufen through his mother, Alfonsos election as King of the Romans by the imperial prince-electors misled him into complicated schemes that involved excessive expense but never succeeded
27.
Altarpiece
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An altarpiece is an artwork such as a painting, sculpture or relief representing a religious subject made for placing behind the altar of a Christian church. Altarpieces were one of the most important products of Christian art especially from the late Middle Ages to the era of the Counter-Reformation. Large number of altarpieces are now removed from their settings, and often their elaborate sculpted frameworks. Altarpieces seem to have begun to be used during the 11th century, the reasons and forces that led to the development of altarpieces are not generally agreed upon. The habit of placing decorated reliquaries of saints on or behind the altar, as well as the tradition of decorating the front of the altar with sculptures or textiles, an elaborate example of such an early altarpiece is the Pala dOro in Venice. The appearance and development of these first altarpieces marked an important turning point both in the history of Christian art and Christian religious practice, the autonomous image now assumed a legitimate position at the centre of Christian worship. Painted panel altars emerged in Italy during the 13th century, in the 13th century, it is not uncommon to find frescoed or mural altarpieces in Italy, mural paintings behind the altar function as visual complements for the liturgy. These altarpieces were influenced by Byzantine art, notably icons, which reached Western Europe in greater numbers following the conquest of Constantinople in 1204. During this time, altarpieces began to be decorated with an outer. Vigoroso da Sienas altarpiece from 1291 display such an altarpiece and this treatment of the altarpiece would eventually pave the way for the emergence, in the 14th century, of the polyptych. The sculpted elements in the emerging polyptychs often took inspiration from contemporary Gothic architecture, in Italy, they were still typically executed in wood and painted, while in northern Europe altarpieces were often made of stone. The early 14th century saw the emergence, in Germany, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, the Baltic region, by hinging the outer panels to the central panel and painting them on both sides, the motif could be regulated by opening or closing the wings. The pictures could thus be changed depending on liturgical demands, the earliest often displayed sculptures on the inner panels, i. e. displayed when open, and paintings on the back of the wings, displayed when closed. With the advent of winged altarpieces, a shift in imagery also occurred, instead of being centred on a single holy figure, altarpieces began to portray more complex narratives linked to the Christian concept of salvation. As the Middle Ages progressed, altarpieces began to be commissioned more frequently, in Northern Europe, initially Lübeck and later Antwerp would develop into veritable export centres for the production of altarpieces, exporting to Scandinavia, Spain and northern France. By the 15th century, altarpieces were often commissioned not only by churches but also by individuals, families, guilds, the 15th century saw the birth of Early Netherlandish painting in the Low Countries, henceforth panel painting would dominate altarpiece production in the area. In Germany, sculpted wooden altarpieces were instead generally preferred, while in England alabaster was used to a large extent, in England, as well as in France, stone retables enjoyed general popularity. In Italy both stone retables and wooden polyptychs were common, with painted panels and often with complex framing in the form of architectural compositions
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Nightclub
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A nightclub is an entertainment venue and bar which serves alcoholic beverages that usually operates late into the night. Another distinction is that whereas many pubs and sports bars aim at a market, nightclubs typically aim at a niche market of music and dancing enthusiasts. The upmarket nature of nightclubs can be seen in the inclusion of VIP areas in some nightclubs, for celebrities, nightclubs are much more likely than pubs or sports bars to use bouncers to screen prospective clubgoers for entry. Some nightclub bouncers do not admit people with ripped jeans or other clothing or gang apparel as part of a dress code. The busiest nights for a nightclub are Friday and Saturday night, most clubs or club nights cater to certain music genres, such as house music or gothic rock. A nightclub may also be called a discothèque, disco, or dance club, from about 1900 to 1920, working class Americans would gather at honky tonks or juke joints to dance to music played on a piano or a jukebox. Webster Hall is credited as the first modern nightclub, being built in 1886 and starting off as a hall, originally functioning as a home for dance. During Prohibition in the United States, nightclubs went underground as illegal speakeasy bars, with Webster Hall staying open, with rumors circulating of Al Capones involvement and police bribery. With the repeal of Prohibition in February 1933, nightclubs were revived, such as New Yorks 21 Club, Copacabana, El Morocco, in Germany, possibly the first discothèque was Scotch-Club. These discothèques were also patronized by anti-Vichy youth called zazous, there were also underground discothèques in Nazi Germany patronized by anti-Nazi youth called the swing kids. In Harlem, Connies Inn and the Cotton Club were popular venues for white audiences, before 1953 and even some years thereafter, most bars and nightclubs used a jukebox or mostly live bands. The Whisky à Gogo set into place the elements of the modern post World War II discothèque-style nightclub. At the end of the 1950s, several of the bars in Soho introduced afternoon dancing. In the early 1960s, Mark Birley opened a members-only discothèque nightclub, Annabels, in Berkeley Square, in 1962, the Peppermint Lounge in New York City became popular and is the place where go-go dancing originated. However, the first rock and roll generation preferred rough and tumble bars and taverns to nightclubs, disco has its roots in the underground club scene. It brought together people from all walks of life and backgrounds and these clubs acted as safe havens for homosexual partygoers to dance in peace and away from public scrutiny. Disco allowed patrons to explore sexuality and push the envelope on the dance floor, disco clubs acted as an escape from such depressing environments and acted as the fantasy marginalized peoples could escape to forget oppression and racism. Disco clubs originally functioned as liberated party spaces and were seen as places of political statement, a smooth mix of long single records to keep people dancing all night long
29.
Monastery of Santa Maria de las Cuevas
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The Monastery of Santa María de las Cuevas, also known as the Monastery of the Cartuja, is a religious building on the Isla de La Cartuja in Seville, southern Spain. The Andalusian Contemporary Art Center is now located on this site and it prompted the construction of a chapel of Santa María de las Cuevas to house the venerated icon. In the 15th century, the archbishop of Seville, aided by the family of Medina. Later constructions were patronized by don Perafán de Ribera, in the 15th century, monks of the cloistered order of Saint Bruno were housed in the monastery. Christopher Columbus remains were first interred at Valladolid, then at the Monastery of the Cartuja by the will of his son Diego, in 1542 the remains were transferred to Colonial Santo Domingo. During the Napoleonic invasion, the monastery was sacked and used as barracks, after returning in 1812, the monastery was finally vacated with the general closure of monasteries in 1835–36. Following the confiscation of church property decreed by Juan Alvarez Mendizabal, Englishman Charles Pickman, the initial success of the factory led to La Cartuja de Sevilla becoming one of the most popular brands in Europe and in Latin American countries. Charles Pickman is also distinguished by his admission to the Most Noble Order of the British Garter, the bottle shaped kilns and tall chimney are the legacy of the ceramics factory. Restorations were made for the Seville Expo 92, directed by Bartolomé Ruiz González, in 1997, the older part of the monastery became the site of a museum of contemporary art, the Centro Andaluz de Arte Contemporáneo. The Centro Andaluz de Arte Contemporáneo was created in February 1990 with the aim of giving the community an institution for the research. In 1997 the Cartuja Monastery became the centres headquarters, the CAAC, an autonomous organisation dependent on the Andalusian Government, took over the collections of the former Conjunto Monumental de la Cartuja and the Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Sevilla. One of the aims of the centre has been to develop a programme of activities attempting to promote the study of contemporary international artistic creation in all its facets. Temporary exhibitions, seminars, workshops, concerts, meetings, recitals, the permanent collection includes pieces by Luis Gordillo, Candida Hofer, Rebecca Horn, Pablo Palazuelo, Joseph Kosuth and Louise Bourgeois. It focuses in particular on the history of contemporary Andalusian creativity, history of La Cartuja de Sevilla The Centro Andaluz de Arte Contemporáneo Museo de la Cerámica de Triana, Sevilla
30.
Seville Fair
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The Seville Fair is held in the Andalusian capital of Seville, Spain. The fair generally begins two weeks after the Semana Santa, or Easter Holy Week, the fair officially begins at midnight on Monday, and runs six days, ending on the following Sunday. During past fairs, however, many activities have begun on the Saturday prior to the official opening, for the duration of the fair, the fairgrounds and a vast area on the far bank of the Guadalquivir River are totally covered in rows of casetas. These casetas usually belong to prominent families of Seville, groups of friends, clubs, trade associations and this fair also has an amusement park that comes with it and has lots of games to play along with roller coasters to ride. The Fair dates back to 1847 when it was organized as a livestock fair by two councillors born in Northern Spain, Basque José María Ybarra and Catalonian Narciso Bonaplata. Queen Isabel II agreed to the proposal, and on 18 April 1847 the first fair was held at the Prado de San Sebastian, during the 1920s, the fair reached its peak and became the spectacle that it is today. Since 1973, the Feria de Abril takes place at the de la feria. In 2012 there were 1048 casetas, the streets of the Real are named after famous bullfighters such as Juan Belmonte and Pascual Márquez. Next to the Real is the Calle del Infierno, an amusement park which offers recreational activities. Construction of the portada starts months in advance, and it takes weeks to clear the place after the end of the Fair. Plans to relocate the Fair to the Charco de la Pava have existed for the past 20 years, for years the Charco de la Pava has been used as the main parking lot for Fair attendees. Monday night in the Feria de Abril is referred to as la noche del pescaíto due to the fact that fish is the dish to have for dinner. Celebrations officially start at midnight between Monday and Tuesday when the lights of the portada are turned on and this event is called the alumbrao. People gather in front of the portada to watch the alumbrao and then go to the casetas to have dinner and spend the whole night at the Real. La Feria de Abril is accompanied by men and women dressed up in their finery, ideally the traditional traje corto for men, the men traditionally wear hats called cordobés. Nowadays, standard suits have replaced trajes cortos as mens most common outfit, Feria de Abril de Sevilla Photos Seville Fair 2008 Feria de Abril Seville Fair 2008 video in Youtube
31.
Sherry
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Sherry is a fortified wine made from white grapes that are grown near the town of Jerez de la Frontera in Andalusia, Spain. Sweet dessert wines are made from Pedro Ximenez or Moscatel grapes. The word Sherry is an anglicisation of Xeres, Sherry was previously known as sack, from the Spanish saca, meaning extraction from the solera. In 1933 the Jerez Denominación de Origen was the first Spanish denominación to be recognised in this way. Jerez-Xeres-Sherry and sharing the same governing council as D. O, after fermentation is complete, the base wines are fortified with grape spirit in order to increase their final alcohol content. Wines classified as suitable for aging as Fino and Manzanilla are fortified until they reach an alcohol content of 15.5 per cent by volume. As they age in barrel, they develop a layer of flor—a yeast-like growth that helps protect the wine from excessive oxidation and those wines that are classified to undergo aging as Oloroso are fortified to reach an alcohol content of at least 17 per cent. They do not develop flor and so oxidise slightly as they age, because the fortification takes place after fermentation, most sherries are initially dry, with any sweetness being added later. In contrast, port wine is fortified halfway through its fermentation, Sherry is regarded by many wine writers as underappreciated and a neglected wine treasure. Jerez has been a centre of viniculture since wine-making was introduced to Spain by the Phoenicians in 1100 BC, the practice was carried on by the Romans when they took control of Iberia around 200 BC. The Moors conquered the region in AD711 and introduced distillation, during the Moorish period, the town was called Sherish, from which both Sherry and Jerez are derived. Wines similar in style to Sherry have traditionally made in the city of Shiraz in mid-southern Iran. Wine production continued through five centuries of Arab Empires rule, in 1264 Alfonso X of Castile took the city. From this point on, the production of sherry and its export throughout Europe increased significantly, by the end of the 16th century, sherry had a reputation in Europe as the worlds finest wine. Christopher Columbus brought sherry on his voyage to the New World, Sherry became very popular in Great Britain, especially after Francis Drake sacked Cadiz in 1587. At that time Cadiz was one of the most important Spanish seaports, among the spoils Drake brought back after destroying the fleet were 2,900 barrels of sherry that had been waiting to be loaded aboard Spanish ships. This helped to popularize Sherry in the British Isles, because sherry was a major wine export to the United Kingdom, many English companies and styles developed. Many of the Jerez cellars were founded by British families, in 1894 the Jerez region was devastated by the insect phylloxera
32.
Sevillanas
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Sevillanas are a type of folk music and dance of Seville and its region. They were derived from the Seguidilla, an old Castilian folk music, in the nineteenth century they were influenced by Flamenco. They have a relatively limited musical pattern but are rich in lyrics based on life, virgins, country towns, neighborhoods, pilgrimage. They are sung by a plethora of groups, like the Los Romeros de la Puebla, Los Amigos de Gines, Las Corraleras de Lebrija, Cantores de Hispalis. Every year, dozens of new sevillanas on CD are published, Sevillanas can be heard mainly in fairs and festivals, including the famous Seville Fair, La Feria de Abril. There is a dance for the music, Baile por sevillanas. One can find schools teaching baile por sevillanas in nearly every town in Spain, Sevillanas Rocieras are a religiously oriented genre of the Sevillana, with particular emphasis on the Virgin of the Rocío. They are sung in religious and cultural events in the South of the country. Sevillanas are danced by couples of all ages and sexes during celebrations, often by whole families, Sevillana choreography is very stable and knowing it is very useful, since it is a festival dance. This is why those intending to dance flamenco usually start by learning sevillanas, they are easier to master and there are occasions for practice. The rhythm of Sevillanas can be interpreted as 3/4, although it is generally 6/8, each sevillana is composed of 4 or sometimes 7 parts, with each part divided into 3 coplas and with each copla made up of 6 movements. During festivals and shows, it is often the Sevillana dancing visitors to Andalusia mistakenly take as Flamenco, as it is a vivid style, fandango Bolero Waltz Get to know the flamenco forms, the Sevillanas at the Wayback Machine
33.
Greasy pole
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Greasy pole, grease pole or greased pole refers to a pole that has been made slippery and thus difficult to grip. More specifically, it is the name of events that involve staying on, climbing up. This kind of event exist in several variations around the world, the Queens Grease Pole is a metal football goalpost stolen by Queens engineering students in 1955 from University of Torontos Varsity Stadium. As of 14 September 2015, the Grease Pole resides somewhere in the University of Toronto after the Brute Force Committee was able to steal the Pole from the Queens freshmen welcome events. The Bear River Cherry Carnival in Bear River, Nova Scotia offers $100 every year to the first person to walk out their greased pole and grab a Canada flag nailed to the end of the pole. The greased pole is held at a different time every year as they have to schedule it for high tide so there will be water below the pole for competitors to fall into. After the first round, competitors have to make it over the red ribbon to continue on. That is, competitors who grab the pole when falling are immediately disqualified, david Isles of Bear River added his fourth win on July 13,2013. In the city of St. Julians there is a yearly il-ġostra, during the greasy pole game a 10m wooden beam is attached to a pier at a 45 degree angle and extended over the sea. Flags are attached to the pole, which is then greased, the aim of the game is to run to the end of the pole and grab the flag. This is no feat to do and most who try fail. But the festival and the game footage outcomes are broadcast by many press agencies each year because it is visually intriguing to watch. The prize for climbing the 30-foot-long pole was originally a hat but from 1852 became a side of mutton – which if there are no winners is cut up and distributed to the poor. Since 2004 the greasy pole has been discontinued as an event at Egremont Crab Fair, due to high insurance cover costs, as of 19 January 2008 Egremont is the proud home of the new Greasy Pole. A 30-foot-long sculpture by Turner Prize winning artist Jeremy Deller and collaborator Alan Kane and this is the teams first piece of public art and marks the re-introduction of the Greasy Pole as a crab fair event. The phrase to climb the pole means reaching the upper echelons of any hierarchy. A slight variation is provided at the annual Seaview Regatta on the Isle of Wight, here the greasy pole is horizontal over the sea and competitors walk along it, the one who walks the furthest before falling into the sea is the winner. Blakeney in North Norfolk also has a pole over water that is erected each year for the Blakeney regatta
34.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
35.
Districts and neighbourhoods of Seville
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Seville, the capital of the region of Andalusia in Spain, has 11 districts, further divided into 108 neighbourhoods. The Casco Antiguo is the old quarter of Seville, located in the centre of the city on the east bank of the Guadalquivir river. Principal tourist attractions are located here, such as the cathedral, the Alcázar, the Torre del Oro, the City Hall, the Palace of San Telmo, the Archivo General de Indias and the Metropol Parasol. The University of Seville is mainly based in the former Royal Tobacco Factory in the south of the Casco Antiguo, the citys bullring is in El Arenal. Neighbourhoods, The Distrito Sur lies to the south of the Casco Antiguo on the east bank of the Guadalquivir, neighbourhoods, According to legend, Triana is named after the Roman Emperor Trajan, who was born in Italica, a Roman city north of modern Seville. Triana is known as a working-class and gypsy district and it was a centre for the ceramics industry. Like other districts that were split from the main city. The district is placed in a position between two branches of the Guadalquivir west of the Casco Antiguo, narrowly linked to the mainland in the north. This district has many buildings, such as the Santa Ana Church. The old quarter of the district offers a view of Sevilles city centre. At the north of the district is the island of La Cartuja, the Isla Mágica amusement park is on the island, as is the 60, 000-seater Estadio de La Cartuja, built for Sevilles unsuccessful bids for the 2000 and 2004 Summer Olympics. Neighbourhoods, Macarena is the traditional and historical name of the area of Seville located north of the Casco Antiguo on the bank of the Guadalquivir. Nowadays, La Macarena is the name of the placed on both sides of the north city wall, but also a much bigger administrative district of Seville. Among other monuments, the Basilica of Nuestra Señora de la Esperanza Macarena, the Macarena Gate, El Rinconcillo, a tapas bar built in the 1670s in the Macarena, is the oldest tapas bar in Seville and likely to be the oldest specifically-built tapas bar in the world. The 45-metre-high Torre de Perdigones has been converted into a Camera Obscura with views of the city centre, neighbourhoods, Nervión is in the east of Seville. The district is an important commercial district of the city, where much of the regional capitals business takes place, the Estadio Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán is home to Sevilla FC, one of Sevilles two football teams in the top flight of La Liga. The areas name is the origin of one of Sevilla FCs nicknames Los Nervionenses, the Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales of the University of Seville is located in this district. Neighbourhoods, The Distrito Norte occupies an area to the north of the Macarena on the east bank of the Guadalquivir, the Puente del Alamillo was built before Expo 92 to link across the river to the main Expo sites on the far north of the Isla de La Cartuja
36.
Bellavista-La Palmera
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Bellavista-La Palmera is a district of the city of Seville, the regional capital of the Spanish region of Andalusia. It is situated on the bank of the Guadalquivir river. The district is bordered by the Distrito Sur to the north, to the west, across the river on the Isla de La Cartuja, it borders the district of Los Remedios. The neighbouring municipality of Dos Hermanas borders the district to the east, the Guadaira river flows through the district before joining the Guadalquivir. The only territory in the whole of Seville to the south of the Guadaira is the neighbourhood of Bellavista, the science and technology enterprise Abengoa is based in the district. The professional top-flight football club Real Betis play in the neighbourhood of Heliópolis, the source of their nickname Los Heliopitanos
37.
Casco Antiguo
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The Casco Antiguo is the city centre district of Seville, the capital of the Spanish region of Andalusia. It lies on the east bank of the Guadalquivir river, the Casco Antiguo borders the Macarena to the north, Nervión and San Pablo-Santa Justa to the east and the Distrito Sur to the south. Bridges across the Guadalquivir link the Casco Antiguo to Triana and Los Remedios on the Isla de La Cartuja, there are three UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the district, the Cathedral of Seville, the Alcazar and the Archivo General de Indias. The Gothic Cathedral was built in 1403 on the site of a mosque of which the Almohad minaret. It is the largest Gothic building in Europe, and houses the tomb of Christopher Colombus, the Alcázar, built by the Moors in 712, was converted into a Christian royal residence in 1248. The Archive of the Indies was designed as an exchange of American treasures by Juan de Herrera under the orders of King Phillip II of Spain. It was never used in that role and in 1784 King Charles III of Spain decided to all documents relating to the conquest of the Americas. Other buildings in the include the Torre del Oro, the City Hall, the Palace of San Telmo. The University of Seville is mainly based in the former Royal Tobacco Factory in the south of the Casco Antiguo, the citys bullring is in El Arenal
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Macarena, Seville
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La Macarena is the traditional and historical name of the area of Seville located north of the city center. Nowadays, La Macarena is the name of the placed on both sides of the north city wall, but also a much bigger administrative district of Seville. The origin of the toponym Macarena is disputed, whereas some authors think that it is derived from Arabic, others maintain that it is from Latin. Regarding Latin, Macarena would be derived from the male name Macarius and it is supposed that a patrician named Macarius would have been an important Roman landowner in this area. On the other hand, it is known that during Muslim rule, the still existing city-wall gate was named Bab-al-Makrin, the neighbourhood of La Macarena lends its name to the sculpture of Virgin of Hope of Macarena, sometimes known simply as La Macarena. Many Sevillian women are named after this statue and it should be noted that this is, in origin, the reason for the name of Los del Ríos Spanish-language song Macarena. The neighborhood is known for housing the Basilica of Nuestra Señora de la Esperanza Macarena, the procession in the early morning of Good Friday is one of the largest, most popular, and fervent in the whole of Spain. The wooden statue of Our Lady of Hope Macarena dates from the 17th century, the Neobaroque Basilica was built by Aurelio Gómez Millán in the 20th century. The largest remaining portion of the Almohad city walls persists in La Macarena neighbourhood. It spans between two of the old city gates, from the monumental Puerta de la Macarena at west, next to the Basilica, to the Puerta de Cordoba at east, the Parliament of Andalusia is housed in the old building of the Hospital de las Cinco Llagas. Dated from 16th century, it is one of the best examples of Andalusian Mannerism, the Torre de los Perdigones, placed in Los Perdigones gardens next to the Guadalquivir river, is the last remain of a foundry building from the late 19th century. Since 2007 it contains a panoramic room-sized camera obscura, in the nearby Feria street is located the oldest marketplace of Seville, the Mercado de la Feria. The building dates from 18th century and the greengrocers, butchers and fishmongers stalls constitute a traditional, one can get to and from La Macarena by bus. The TUSSAM C3/C4 lines are circular, running clockwise and counter clockwise all along the periphery of the historical center, lines C1/C2 are also circular, and connect La Macarena with outer neighbourhoods, such as Nervión, La Cartuja and Los Remedios
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
