1.
Motorized tricycle
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Motorized tricycles are three-wheeled vehicles based on the same technology as bicycles or motorcycles, and powered by electric motors, motorcycle, scooter or car engines. Depending on the design of the vehicle, motorized trikes may be categorized as motorcycles, motor scooters, the main difference between a motorcycle trike and a scooter trike is that motorcycles are sat on in a saddle-style seating, with the legs apart, and motorcycles have manual transmissions. Scooters have a step-through seating style, in which the driver sits on a more chair-like seat, with the legs together, as well, motorcycles with sidecars are not usually considered tricycles. It can be harder to categorize three-wheeled automobiles, while some early prototype automobiles were steam tricycles, three-wheeled cars such as the Morgan 3-Wheeler are often classified as cars rather than motorcycles. A motorized tricycles wheels may be arranged in either configuration, delta or tadpole, a delta trike has one wheel in front and two in back, and the tadpole trike has two wheels in front and one in back. Occasionally, rear wheel steering is used, although this increases the turning circle, tadpoles are more stable under braking and more likely to slide instead of roll, front braking hard on a delta requires the vehicle to steer almost straight to avoid tipping. The balance of friction patches and rolling resistance also means that tadpoles tend to oversteer, motor trikes are attractive for those with mobility or balance problems. A common arrangement is to fit chopper-style front forks to a VW Beetle engine and transaxle, similarly, the engine, transmission and rear wheel may be taken from a large motorcycle as a single unit, and used in the construction of a tadpole trike. In Asian and Southeast Asian countries, motorized trikes are used as small freight trucks, nicknamed three-wheelers or tuk-tuks in popular parlance, they are a motorized version of the traditional pulled rickshaw or cycle rickshaw. While they are used as taxis for hire, they are also used for commercial. They are particularly popular in cities where congestion is a problem. The smaller motorized trikes are used as vehicles for lighter loads. The larger trikes, with powerful engines, have larger cargo bays. In the Philippines, a tricycle is an auto rickshaw which is commonly used as a public utility vehicle. Since 2012, electric tricycles known as e-rickshaws have become popular, for vehicles other than electric rickshaw, various locally made configurations are used around India. They fall under the category of Jugaad and serve as passenger and commercial vehicles. The motorized versions are popular because of their low cost as they are put together from salvaged motorcycles, list of motorized trikes Types of motorcycles
2.
Velomobile
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A velomobile, or bicycle car, is a human-powered vehicle enclosed for aerodynamic advantage and protection from weather and collisions. They are derived from recumbent bicycles and tricycles, with the addition of a full fairing, pedal powered faired vehicles with two wheels, intended primarily for racing, are usually called streamliners. Streamliners have set many speed and distance records, there are few velomobile manufacturers, some are home-built. Hybrid vehicles exist which can use human power and assistance by an electric motor. Small three- and four-wheeled motor vehicles are called microcars, before World War I, Charles Mochet built a small four-wheeled bike-car for his son. Mochet built many models of vehicles called Velocar. Some models had two seats, most were powered, but as the years went by, many were fitted with small engines. In the 1970s, the People Powered Vehicle was produced and it was a two-seat, sociable tandem with a steel sub frame and molded plastic body. It was actually designed and relatively light, though weighing over 50 kg but had flaws in the execution that doomed it as a practical. In Sweden, a design called Fantom was sold as blueprints and became very popular, over 100,000 copies of the blueprints were sold. In the 1980s, Fantomen was rediscovered by Carl-Georg Rasmussen, who built a version called Leitra. The downfall of the car came when the economy improved. All current velomobiles are produced in low volume, the only attempt at a mass-produced velomobile, which was in the mid-1980s, flopped. The C5 was a trike with electric assist designed to be mass-produced. The C5 was poorly designed, it was heavy, had only one gear and had no adjustment for the distance between the pedals and the seat, which is important to get a comfortable pedalling position, Velomobiles have also been used in Australian HPV Super Series since 1985. The Milan was used by Christian von Ascheberg, current record holder in the 24 hours and 1000 km category, some velomobiles have been converted to provide electric assist. Electric assist means that a small battery-operated electric-propulsion system is provided to assist the drivers leg muscle effort, while an electric-assist unit does add extra weight to the velomobile, it is somewhat offset by the flexibility it also provides, especially during hill climbs and stop-and-go traffic. The Leitra is currently the velomobile that has been in production for the longest period of time — since 1983. ca Aurora, Borealis, Milan, Milan SL Velomobiles Cargo
3.
Human-powered transport
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Human-powered transport is the transport of person and/or goods using human muscle power. Like animal-powered transport, human-powered transport has existed since time immemorial in the form of walking, running and swimming, modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human-power. Although motorization has increased speed and load capacity, many forms of human-powered transport remain popular for reasons of lower cost, leisure, physical exercise, human-powered transport is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions. In the 1989 Race Across America, one used a experimental device comprising a rear wheel hub, a sensor. The most efficient human-powered land vehicle is the bicycle, compared to the much more common upright bicycle, the recumbent bicycle may be faster on level ground or down hills due to better aerodynamics while having similar power transfer efficiency. Velomobiles are increasingly popular in colder and/or wetter countries due to the protection they offer against the environment, freight bicycles are used to transport cargo. Cycle rickshaws can be used as taxicabs, in 2016, AeroVelo cyclist Todd Reichert achieved the human-powered speed record of 142.04 km/h with a velomobile at Battle Mountain, Nevada. Dutch cyclist Fred Rompelberg set a 268.8 km/h speed record at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah on October 3,1995 while cycling in the wake of a motor dragster pace-car, the wake of the pace-car reduced the aerodynamic drag against which Rompelberg pedalled to almost zero. Greg Kolodziejzyk set two world records recognized by both the International Human Powered Vehicle Association and Guinness World Records on July 17,2006 on a track in Eureka. The first record is for the most distance traveled in 24 hours by human power 1,041 km, and the second for the worlds fastest 1,000 km time trial. Both records were broken on August 6,2010 by Christian von Ascheberg who drove 1,000 km in 19 hours,27 minutes, in the same race he also raised the 12-hour record to 664.97 km, which is an average of 55.41 km/h. In 1969, artists in a small Northern California town began the Kinetic sculpture race which has grown to a 42 mi, three-day all terrain, human-powered sculpture race and it is held every year on the last weekend in May. The Pedaliante flew short distances fully under human power in 1936, the flights were deemed to be a result of the pilots significant strength and endurance, and not attainable by a typical human. Additional attempts were made in 1937 and 1938 using a catapult system, with the catapult launch, the plane successfully traveled the 1 km distance outlined by the competition, but was declined the prize due to the takeoff method. The first officially authenticated regularly feasible take-off and landing of an aircraft was made on 9 November 1961 by Derek Piggott in Southampton Universitys Man Powered Aircraft. Perhaps the best-known human-powered plane is the Gossamer Albatross, which flew across the English Channel in 1979. The current speed record is held by the Monarch B, built by a team at MIT in 1983, the first officially observed human-powered helicopter to have left the ground was the Da Vinci III in 1989. It was designed and built by students at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo in California and it flew for 7.1 seconds and reached a height of 8 in
4.
Three-wheeler
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A three-wheeler is a vehicle with three wheels. Often such vehicles are owner-constructed using a portion of a rear-engine, other trikes include ATVs that are specially constructed for off road use. Three-wheeled automobiles can have one wheel at the back and two at the front, or one wheel at the front and two at the back. Due to better safety when braking, a popular form is the front-steering tadpole or reverse trike sometimes with front drive. A variant on the one at the front layout was the Scott Sociable, as a result of their light construction and potential better streamlining, three-wheeled cars are usually less expensive to operate. Auto rickshaws are a form of novelty transport in many Eastern countries, early automotive pioneer Karl Benz developed a number of three-wheeled models. One of these, the Benz Patent Motorwagen, is regarded as the first purpose-built automobile, in 1896, John Henry Knight showed a tri-car at The Great Exhibition. In 1897, Edward Butler made the Butler Petrol Cycle, another three-wheeled car, a Conti 6 hp Tri-car competed in a 1907 Peking-to-Paris race sponsored by a French newspaper, Le Matin. This approach was used by the Messerschmitt KR200 and BMW Isetta, alternatively, a more conventional front-engine, front wheel drive layout as is common in four-wheeled cars can be used, with subsequent advantages for transversal stability and traction. Motorcycle-derived designs suffer from most of the weight being towards the rear of the vehicle, for lower wind resistance, a teardrop shape is often used. A teardrop is wide and round at the front, tapering at the back, the three-wheel configuration allows the two front wheels to create the wide round surface of the vehicle. The single rear wheel allows the vehicle to taper at the back, examples include the Aptera 2 Series and Myers Motors NmG. Having one wheel in front and two in the rear for power reduces the cost of the mechanism, but greatly decreases lateral stability when cornering while braking. This type, if not tipped, also has a tendency to spin out when handled roughly. The disadvantage of a configuration is lateral instability - the car will tip over in a turn before it will slide. To improve stability some three-wheelers are designed as tilting three-wheelers so that they lean while cornering like a motorcyclist would do, the tilt may be controlled manually, mechanically or by computer. A tilting three-wheelers body and or wheels tilt in the direction of the turn, such vehicles can corner safely even with a narrow track. Some tilting three-wheelers could be considered to be forms of feet forwards motorcycles, or cabin motorcycles, two front wheels and one rear, where all three wheels tilt, use the acronym 2F3T
5.
Cycle rickshaw
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The cycle rickshaw is a small-scale local means of transport, it is also known by a variety of other names such as bike taxi, velotaxi, pedicab, bikecab, cyclo, beca, becak, trisikad, or trishaw. As opposed to rickshaws pulled by a person on foot, cycle rickshaws are human-powered by pedaling, another type of rickshaw is the auto rickshaw. They are a type of tricycle designed to carry passengers on a for-hire basis, Cycle rickshaws are widely used in major cities around the world, but most commonly in cities of South, Southeast and East Asia. The first cycle rickshaws were built in the 1880s, and they were first used widely in 1929 in Singapore, six years later they outnumbered pulled rickshaws. By 1950 cycle rickshaws were found in south and east Asian country. By the late 1980s there were an estimated 4 million cycle rickshaws in the world, the vehicle is generally pedal-driven by a driver, though some are equipped with an electric motor to assist the driver. The vehicle is usually a tricycle, though some models exist. Some cycle rickshaws have gas or electric motors, the configuration of driver and passenger seats varies. Generally the driver sits in front of the passengers to pedal the rickshaw, there are some designs, though, where the cyclist driver sits behind the passengers. In many Asian countries, like India and China, the seat is located behind the driver, while in Indonesia, Malaysia. In the Philippines, the seats are usually located beside the driver in a side car. Similarly, in the trishaw in Singapore and the sai kaa in Burma the passengers sit alongside the driver, the cycle rickshaw is a small-scale local means of transport, it is also known by a variety of other names, such as, velotaxi and bikecab. Cyclo is used in Vietnam and Cambodia, Pedicab is used in the United Kingdom and United States. In Buffalo, New York, this type of vehicle is known as a bike taxi, beca, becak, trisikad, or trishaw are non-English names used in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Cycle rickshaws are used in Asian countries, but also in countries outside Asia, such as large European, Cycle rickshaws used outside Asia often are mechanically more complex, having multiple gears, more powerful brakes, and in some cases electrical motors to provide additional power. In Madagascar rickshaws, including cycle rickshaws or cyclo-pousse, are a form of transportation in a number of cities. Rickshaws are known as pousse-pousse, meaning push-push, reportedly for the pulled rickshaws that required a person to push the vehicles up hills. Cycles are more common in the areas, like Toamasina
6.
Cargo
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Multi-modal container units, designed as reusable carriers to facilitate unit load handling of the goods contained, are also referred to as cargo, specially by shipping lines and logistics operators. Similarly, aircraft ULD boxes are also documented as cargo, with associated packing list of the contained within. When empty containers are shipped each unit is documented as a cargo and when goods are stored within, seaport terminals handle a wide range of maritime cargo. Automobiles are handled at many ports and are carried on specialized roll-on/roll-off ships. Break bulk cargo is typically stacked on pallets and lifted into. The volume of bulk cargo has declined dramatically worldwide as containerization has grown. One way to secure break bulk and freight in intermodal containers is by using Dunnage Bags, bulk cargo, such as salt, oil, tallow, and scrap metal, is usually defined as commodities that are neither on pallets nor in containers. Bulk cargoes are not handled as individual pieces, the way heavy-lift, alumina, grain, gypsum, logs, and wood chips, for instance, are bulk cargoes. Neo-bulk cargo comprises individual units that are counted as they are loaded and unloaded, in contrast to bulk cargo that is not counted, containers are the largest and fastest growing cargo category at most ports worldwide. Containerized cargo includes everything from auto parts, machinery and manufacturing components to shoes and toys to frozen meat, air cargo, commonly known as air freight, is collected by firms from shippers and delivered to customers. Aircraft were first used for carrying mail as cargo in 1911, eventually manufacturers started designing aircraft for other types of freight as well. There are many commercial aircraft suitable for carrying cargo such as the Boeing 747 and the bigger An‑124, such large aircraft employ quick-loading containers known as unit load devices, much like containerized cargo ships. The ULDs are located in the front section of the aircraft, most nations own and utilize large numbers of military cargo aircraft such as the C‑17 Globemaster III for logistical needs. Popular commercial aircraft transformed to an aircraft such as Saab 340A is designed for high revenue. Trains are capable of transporting a number of containers that come from shipping ports. Trains are also used for the transportation of water, cement, grain, steel, wood and they are used because they can carry a large amount and generally have a direct route to the destination. Under the right circumstances, freight transport by rail is more economic and energy efficient than by road, the main disadvantage of rail freight is its lack of flexibility. For this reason, rail has lost much of the business to road transport
7.
Recreation
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Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time. The need to do something for recreation is an element of human biology and psychology. Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasure and are considered to be fun. The term recreation appears to have used in English first in the late 14th century, first in the sense of refreshment or curing of a sick person. Other factors that account for a role of recreation are affluence, population trends. This direction of thought has even extended to the view that leisure is the purpose of work, and a reward in itself. Leisure is considered a right under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Recreation is difficult to separate from the concept of play. Children may playfully imitate activities that reflect the realities of adult life, a traditional view holds that work is supported by recreation, recreation being useful to recharge the battery so that work performance is improved. Many activities may be work for one person and recreation for another, or, at a level, over time recreational activity may become work. Thus, for a musician, playing an instrument may be at one time a profession, similarly, it may be difficult to separate education from recreation as in the case of recreational mathematics. Recreation is an part of human life and finds many different forms which are shaped naturally by individual interests. Recreational activities can be communal or solitary, active or passive, outdoors or indoors, healthy or harmful, a significant section of recreational activities are designated as hobbies which are activities done for pleasure on a regular basis. Some recreational activities - such as gambling, recreational use, or delinquent activities - may violate societal norms. Public space such as parks and beaches are venues for many recreational activities. Tourism has recognized that many visitors are attracted by recreational offerings. In support of recreational activities government has taken an important role in their creation, maintenance, and organization, many recreational activities are organized, typically by public institutions, voluntary group-work agencies, private groups supported by membership fees, and commercial enterprises. Examples of each of these are the National Park Service, the YMCA, the Kiwanis, Recreation has many health benefits, and, accordingly, Therapeutic Recreation has been developed to take advantage of this effect
8.
Shopping
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A retailer or a shop is a business that presents a selection of goods and offers to trade or sell them to customers for money or other goods. Shopping is an activity in which a customer browses the available goods or services presented by one or more retailers with the intent to purchase a selection of them. In some contexts it may be considered an activity as well as an economic one. The B2C process has made it easy for consumers to select any product online from a website and have it delivered to the consumer within no time. The consumer does not need to consume his energy by going out to the stores and saves his time and cost of travelling. The shopping experience can range from delightful to terrible, based on a variety of factors including how the customer is treated, convenience, the type of goods being purchased, the shopping experience can also be influenced by other shoppers. According to a 2000 report, in the U. S. state of New York, women purchase 80% of all consumer goods, in ancient Greece, the agora served as a marketplace where merchants kept stalls or shops to sell their goods. Ancient Rome utilized a similar marketplace known as the forum, for example, there was Trajans Market with tabernae that served as retailing units. Shopping lists are known to have used by Romans, as one was discovered near Hadrians wall dated back to 75–125 CE written for a soldier. Fairs and markets were established to facilitate the exchange of goods, people would shop for goods at a weekly market in nearby towns. The modern phenomenon of shopping is closely linked to the emergence of the society in the 18th century. Over the course of the two centuries from 1600 onwards, the power of the average Englishman steadily rose. Sugar consumption doubled in the first half of the 18th century, marketplaces dating back to the Middle Ages, expanded as shopping centres, such as the New Exchange, opened in 1609 by Robert Cecil in the Strand. Shops started to become important as places for Londoners to meet and socialise, restoration London also saw the growth of luxury buildings as advertisements for social position with speculative architects like Nicholas Barbon and Lionel Cranfield. Much pamphleteering of the time was devoted to justifying conspicuous consumption and these trends were vastly accelerated in the 18th century, as rising prosperity and social mobility increased the number of people with disposable income for consumption. The pottery inventor and entrepreneur, Josiah Wedgewood, pioneered the use of marketing techniques to influence, as the century wore on a tremendous variety of goods and manufactures were steadily made available for the urban middle and upper classes. This growth in consumption led to the rise of shopping - a proliferation of shops selling particular goods. Specific streets and districts became devoted to retail, including the Strand, the first display windows in shops were installed in the late 18th century in London
9.
Physical exercise
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Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness. Frequent and regular physical exercise boosts the immune system and helps prevent diseases of such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes. Childhood obesity is a global concern, and physical exercise may help decrease some of the effects of childhood. Some care providers call exercise the miracle or wonder drug—alluding to the variety of benefits that it can provide for many individuals. Aside from the advantages, these benefits may include different social rewards for staying active while enjoying the environment of one’s culture. Many individuals choose to exercise publicly outdoors where they can congregate in groups, socialize, in the United Kingdom two to four hours of light activity are recommended during working hours. The goal of aerobic exercise is to increase cardiovascular endurance, examples of aerobic exercise include cycling, swimming, brisk walking, skipping rope, rowing, hiking, playing tennis, continuous training, and long slow distance training. Anaerobic exercise, which includes strength and resistance training, can firm, strengthen, and tone muscles, as well as improve bone strength, balance, examples of strength moves are push-ups, pull-ups, lunges, and bicep curls using dumbbells. Anaerobic exercise also include training, functional training, eccentric training, Interval training, sprinting. Flexibility exercises stretch and lengthen muscles, activities such as stretching help to improve joint flexibility and keep muscles limber. The goal is to improve the range of motion which can reduce the chance of injury, Physical exercise can also include training that focuses on accuracy, agility, power, and speed. Sometimes the terms dynamic and static are used, dynamic exercises such as steady running, tend to produce a lowering of the diastolic blood pressure during exercise, due to the improved blood flow. Conversely, static exercise can cause the pressure to rise significantly. Some studies indicate that exercise may increase life expectancy and the quality of life. People who participate in moderate to high levels of exercise have a lower mortality rate compared to individuals who by comparison are not physically active. Moderate levels of exercise have been correlated with preventing aging by reducing inflammatory potential, the majority of the benefits from exercise are achieved with around 3500 metabolic equivalent minutes per week. A lack of physical activity causes approximately 6% of the burden of disease from coronary disease, 7% of type 2 diabetes, 10% of breast cancer. Overall, physical inactivity causes 9% of premature mortality worldwide, individuals can increase fitness following increases in physical activity levels
10.
Senior adults
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Old age refers to ages nearing or surpassing the life expectancy of human beings, and is thus the end of the human life cycle. Terms and euphemisms for old people include, old people, seniors, senior citizens, older adults, the elderly, Old people often have limited regenerative abilities and are more susceptible to disease, syndromes, and sickness than younger adults. The organic process of ageing is called senescence, the study of the aging process is called gerontology. The elderly also face other social issues around retirement, loneliness, Old age is a social construct rather than a definite biological stage, and the chronological age denoted as old age varies culturally and historically. In 2011, the United Nations proposed a human rights convention that would specifically protect older persons, definitions of old age include official definitions, sub-group definitions, and four dimensions as follows. Old age comprises the part of life, the period of life after youth. At what age old age begins cannot be defined because it differs according to the context. Most developed-world countries have accepted the chronological age of 65 years as a definition of elderly or older person, the United Nations has agreed that 60+ years may be usually denoted as old age and this is the first attempt at an international definition of old age. However, for its study of old age in Africa, the World Health Organization set 50 as the beginning of old age. At the same time, the WHO recognized that the world often defines old age, not by years. Most developed Western countries set the age of 60 to 65 for retirement, being 60–65 years old is usually a requirement for becoming eligible for senior social programs. However, various countries and societies consider the onset of old age as anywhere from the mid-40s to the 70s, the definitions of old age continue to change especially as life expectancy in developed countries has risen to beyond 80 years old. Gerontologists have recognized the different conditions that people experience as they grow older within the years defined as old age. In developed countries, most people in their 60s and early 70s are still fit, active, however, after 75, they will become increasingly frail, a condition marked by serious mental and physical debilitation. Therefore, rather than lumping together all people who have defined as old. One study distinguishes the young old, the old. Another study’s sub-grouping is young-old, middle-old, and oldest-old, a third sub-grouping is “young old”, “old”, and old-old. Delineating sub-groups in the 65+ population enables an accurate portrayal of significant life changes
11.
Bicycle
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A bicycle, often called a bike or cycle, is a human-powered, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A bicycle rider is called a cyclist, or bicyclist, Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century in Europe and as of 2003, more than 1 billion have been produced worldwide, twice as many as the number of automobiles that have been produced. They are the means of transportation in many regions. They also provide a form of recreation, and have been adapted for use as childrens toys, general fitness, military and police applications, courier services. The basic shape and configuration of an upright or safety bicycle, has changed little since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885. But many details have been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and these have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for many types of cycling. The bicycles invention has had an effect on society, both in terms of culture and of advancing modern industrial methods. The word bicycle first appeared in English print in The Daily News in 1868, to describe Bysicles and trysicles on the Champs Elysées, the word was first used in 1847 in a French publication to describe an unidentified two-wheeled vehicle, possibly a carriage. The design of the bicycle was an advance on the velocipede, Other words for bicycle include bike, pushbike, pedal cycle, or cycle. In Unicode, the point for bicycle is 0x1F6B2. The entity 🚲, in HTML produces
12.
Recumbent bicycle
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A recumbent bicycle is a bicycle that places the rider in a laid-back reclining position. Most recumbent riders choose this type of design for ergonomic reasons, on a traditional upright bicycle, the body weight rests entirely on a small portion of the sitting bones, the feet, and the hands. Most recumbent models also have an advantage, the reclined. A variant with three wheels is a recumbent tricycle, Recumbents can be categorized by their wheelbase, wheel sizes, steering system, faired or unfaired, and front-wheel or rear-wheel drive. Within these categories are variations, intermediate types, and even convertible designs – there is no standard recumbent, the rear wheel of a recumbent is usually behind the rider and may be any size, from around 16 inches to the 700c of an upright racing cycle. The front wheel is smaller than the rear, although a number of recumbents feature dual 26-inch, ISO571, ISO622. Larger diameter wheels generally have lower rolling resistance but a higher profile leading to air resistance. Another advantage of both wheels being the size is that the bike requires only one size of inner tube. One common arrangement is an ISO559 rear wheel and an ISO406 or ISO451 front wheel. The small front wheel and large rear wheel combination is used to keep the pedals and front wheel clear of each other, a pivoting-boom front-wheel drive configuration also overcomes heel strike since the pedals and front wheel turn together. PBFWD bikes may have dual 26-inch wheels or larger, steering for recumbent bikes can be generally categorized as over-seat or above seat steering, under-seat, or center steering or pivot steering. Chopper-style bars are seen on LWB bikes. USS is usually indirect — the bars link to the headset through a system of rods or cables, center steered or pivot steered recumbents, such as Flevobikes and Pythons, may have no handlebars at all. In addition, some such as the Sidewinder have used rear-wheel steer. They can provide good maneuverability at low speeds, but have been reported to be unstable at speeds above 25 mph. Most recumbents have the attached to a boom fixed to the frame. However, due to the proximity of the crank to the front wheel, front wheel drive can be an option, one style requires the chain to twist slightly to allow for steering. Another style, Pivoting-boom FWD, has the crankset connected to, in addition to the much shorter chain, the advantages to PBFWD are use of a larger front wheel for lower rolling resistance without heel strike and use of the upper body when sprinting or climbing
13.
Center of mass
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The distribution of mass is balanced around the center of mass and the average of the weighted position coordinates of the distributed mass defines its coordinates. Calculations in mechanics are simplified when formulated with respect to the center of mass. It is a point where entire mass of an object may be assumed to be concentrated to visualise its motion. In other words, the center of mass is the equivalent of a given object for application of Newtons laws of motion. In the case of a rigid body, the center of mass is fixed in relation to the body. The center of mass may be located outside the body, as is sometimes the case for hollow or open-shaped objects. In the case of a distribution of separate bodies, such as the planets of the Solar System, in orbital mechanics, the equations of motion of planets are formulated as point masses located at the centers of mass. The center of mass frame is a frame in which the center of mass of a system is at rest with respect to the origin of the coordinate system. The concept of center of mass in the form of the center of gravity was first introduced by the ancient Greek physicist, mathematician, and engineer Archimedes of Syracuse. He worked with simplified assumptions about gravity that amount to a uniform field, in work on floating bodies he demonstrated that the orientation of a floating object is the one that makes its center of mass as low as possible. He developed mathematical techniques for finding the centers of mass of objects of uniform density of various well-defined shapes, Newtons second law is reformulated with respect to the center of mass in Eulers first law. The center of mass is the point at the center of a distribution of mass in space that has the property that the weighted position vectors relative to this point sum to zero. In analogy to statistics, the center of mass is the location of a distribution of mass in space. Solving this equation for R yields the formula R =1 M ∑ i =1 n m i r i, solve this equation for the coordinates R to obtain R =1 M ∭ Q ρ r d V, where M is the total mass in the volume. If a continuous mass distribution has density, which means ρ is constant. The center of mass is not generally the point at which a plane separates the distribution of mass into two equal halves, in analogy with statistics, the median is not the same as the mean. The coordinates R of the center of mass of a system, P1 and P2, with masses m1. The percentages of mass at each point can be viewed as projective coordinates of the point R on this line, another way of interpreting the process here is the mechanical balancing of moments about an arbitrary point
14.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
15.
Wheelchair
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A wheelchair, often abbreviated to just chair, is a chair with wheels, used when walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. Wheelchairs come in a variety of formats to meet the specific needs of their users. They may include specialized seating adaptions, individualized controls, and may be specific to particular activities, as seen with sports wheelchairs and beach wheelchairs. The earliest records of wheeled furniture are an inscription found on a slate in China. The first records of wheeled seats being used for transporting disabled people date to three centuries later in China, the Chinese used early wheelbarrows to move people as well as heavy objects. A distinction between the two functions was not made for several hundred years, around 525 CE, when images of wheeled chairs made specifically to carry people begin to occur in Chinese art. Later records show the use of technology in Europe by the Renaissance. The invalid carriage or Bath chair brought the technology into more common use from around 1760, in 1887, wheelchairs were introduced to Atlantic City so invalid tourists could rent them to enjoy the Boardwalk. Soon, many healthy tourists also rented the decorated rolling chairs and servants to them as a show of decadence. In 1933 Harry Jennings and his disabled friend Herbert Everest, both engineers, invented the first lightweight, steel, collapsible wheelchair. Everest had previously broken his back in a mining accident, Everest and Jennings saw the business potential of the invention and went on to become the first mass-market manufacturers of wheelchairs. Their x-brace design is still in use, albeit with updated materials. There are a variety of types of wheelchair, differing by propulsion method, mechanisms of control. Some wheelchairs are designed for everyday use, others for single activities. The iBot is perhaps the best known example of this in recent years, a self-propelled manual wheelchair incorporates a frame, seat, one or two footplates and four wheels, usually two caster wheels at the front and two large wheels at the back. There will generally also be a seat cushion. As this causes friction and heat build-up, particularly on long downslopes, everyday manual wheelchairs come in two major varieties, folding or rigid. Folding chairs are generally low-end designs, whose predominant advantage is being able to fold, however this is largely an advantage for part-time users who may need to store the wheelchair more often than use it
16.
Bike boom
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The term bike boom or bicycle craze refers to any of several specific historic periods marked by increased bicycle enthusiasm, popularity, and sales. Prominent examples include 1819 and 1868, as well as the decades of the 1890s and 1970s — the latter especially in North America and 2010s in the United Kingdom. The first period which may be called a bicycle craze refers to a precursor of the bicycle which was pushed along by the feet on the ground as in walking. But none of these achieved much popularity, in the early 1860s the first true bicycle was created in Paris, France, by attaching rotary cranks and pedals to the front wheel hub of a dandy-horse. They began the first mass-production of bicycles in 1868, as the first real bicycle craze had begun the year before, reaching full force all over Europe, but exactly as with the dandy-horse, pedestrians complained about them, and the craze again faded quickly. Again, England was the place where the concept remained popular during the early 1870s. But the design changed drastically, with the front wheel becoming larger and larger, front-wheel sizes quickly grew to as much as 5 feet, and the bicycles were considered by the general public to be quite dangerous. In addition, they were expensive, and thus riders were mostly young men who formed an elite brotherhood. However, bicycle races were staged and well-attended by the public, albert Pope purchased Lallements original patent and created his Columbia bicycle in the U. S. in 1878, and went on to manufacture thousands of bicycles. Experiments with chain-drive had been attempted in 1869 and 1879, very quickly, the penny-farthing passed out of fashion, and multitudes of people all over the world began riding the safety. Coney Island wanted one, and the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago featured one, several others were built for amusement in Atlantic City, Ocean City and Gloucester City, NJ. In the year 1896, there was simultaneously an increase in bicycle popularity, bicycles were one of the few areas of the economy where sales were growing, people were buying bicycles whether they could afford them or not. This attracted hundreds of manufacturers into the bicycle business and this increase in production resulted in a downward spiral of market saturation, over-supply and intense price competition. Many bicycle manufacturers, faced with excess inventory and prices too low to make a profit, several dozen bicycle companies consolidated into the American Bicycle Company in 1899. Seven million bicycles were sold in the U. S. in 1970, of those, 5½ million were childrens bikes,1.2 million were coaster brake, balloon-tired adult bicycles, and only 200,000 were lightweight 3-speed or derailleur-equipped bikes. Time magazine reported in 1971 that for the first time since the 1890s, the boom received a kick start in the mid 60s with the advent of the Schwinn Sting-Ray and other wheelie bikes. Sales reached 4 million units per year for the first time, at the height of the boom, in 1972,1973, and 1974, more bicycles than automobiles were sold in the U. S. Additional factors contributing to the U. S, the United Kingdom experienced a mountain bike boom during the 1990s
17.
Rational dress
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Dress reformists were largely middle class women involved in the first wave of feminism in the United States and in Britain, from the 1850s through the 1890s. The movement emerged in the Progressive Era along with calls for temperance, womens education, suffrage, dress reform called for emancipation from the dictates of fashion, expressed a desire to “cover the limbs as well as the torso adequately, ” and promoted rational dress. The movement had its greatest success in the reform of womens undergarments, dress reformers were also influential in persuading women to adopt simplified garments for athletic activities such as bicycling or swimming. The movement was less concerned with mens clothing, although it initiated the widespread adoption of knitted wool union suits or long johns. Some proponents of the movement established dress reform parlors, or storefronts, fashions in the 1850s through 1880s accented large crinolines, cumbersome bustles and padded busts with tiny waists laced into ‘steam-moulded corsetry’. The obvious health risks, including damaged and rearranged internal organs, compromised fertility, weakness, eventually, the reformers critique of the corset joined a throng of voices clamoring against tightlacing, which became gradually more common and extreme as the 19th century progressed. American women active in the anti-slavery and temperance movements, with experience in public speaking, despite these protests, little changed in restrictive fashion and undergarments by 1900. The Edwardian Era featured a decadence of fashion following the shape of the Gibson Girl. Skirts weighed from the hips, high collars chaffed the neck, invariably, the ideal image of feminine attractiveness that a Victorian woman saw around her was of a wasp-waisted, firmly-corseted lady. Dress reformers promoted the emancipation waist, or liberty bodice, as a replacement for the corset, the emancipation bodice was a tight sleeveless vest, buttoning up the front, with rows of buttons along the bottom to which could be attached petticoats and a skirt. The entire torso would support the weight of the petticoats and skirt, the bodices had to be fitted by a dressmaker, patterns could be ordered through the mail. Physician Alice Bunker Stockham railed against the corset and said of the pregnancy corset, the emancipation union under flannel was first sold in America in 1868. It combined a waist and drawers in the form we now know as the union suit, while first designed for women, the union suit was also adopted by men. Indeed, it is sold and worn today, by both men and women, as winter underclothing. In 1878, a German professor named Gustav Jaeger published a book claiming that only clothing made of hair, such as wool. A British accountant named Lewis Tomalin translated the book, then opened a shop selling Dr Jaeger’s Sanitary Woollen System and these were soon called Jaegers, they were widely popular. It is not clear how many women, in either the Americas or on the Continent, most famous product of the dress reform era is the bloomers suit. She displayed her new clothing to temperance activist and suffragist Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who found it sensible and becoming, in this garb, she visited yet another activist, Amelia Bloomer, the editor of the temperance magazine The Lily
18.
Diamond frame
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A bicycle frame is the main component of a bicycle, onto which wheels and other components are fitted. The modern and most common design for an upright bicycle is based on the safety bicycle. This is known as the diamond frame, Frames are required to be strong, stiff and light, which they do by combining different materials and shapes. A frameset consists of the frame and front fork of a bicycle and sometimes includes the headset, frame builders will often produce the frame and fork together as a paired set. Besides the ubiquitous diamond frame, many different frame types have developed for the bicycle. In the diamond frame, the triangle is not actually a triangle because it consists of four tubes. The rear triangle consists of the seat tube joined by paired chain stays, the head tube contains the headset, the interface with the fork. The top tube connects the head tube to the tube at the top. The top tube may be positioned horizontally, or it may slope downwards towards the seat tube for additional stand-over clearance, the down tube connects the head tube to the bottom bracket shell. The rear triangle connects to the fork ends, where the rear wheel is attached. It consists of the tube and paired chain stays and seat stays. The chain stays run connecting the bottom bracket to the fork ends. The seat stays connect the top of the tube to the rear fork ends. Historically, womens bicycle frames had a top tube that connected in the middle of the seat instead of the top. This was to allow the rider to dismount while wearing a skirt or dress, the design has since been used in utility bikes to facilitate easy mounting and dismounting for both genders, and is also known as a step-through frame or an open frame. Another style that accomplishes similar results is the mixte, in a cantilever bicycle frame the seat stays continue past the seat post and curve downwards to meet with the down tube. Cantilever frames are popular on the bicycle, the lowrider bicycle. In many cantilever frames the only straight tubes are the seat tube, the uncommon prone bike moves the cranks to the rear of the rider, resulting in a head-forward, chest-down riding position
19.
Ackermann steering geometry
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It was invented by the German carriage builder Georg Lankensperger in Munich in 1817, then patented by his agent in England, Rudolph Ackermann in 1818 for horse-drawn carriages. Erasmus Darwin may have a claim as the inventor dating from 1758. The intention of Ackermann geometry is to avoid the need for tyres to slip sideways when following the path around a curve, the geometrical solution to this is for all wheels to have their axles arranged as radii of circles with a common centre point. As the rear wheels are fixed, this point must be on a line extended from the rear axle. Intersecting the axes of the front wheels on this line as well requires that the front wheel is turned. Rather than the preceding turntable steering, where both front wheels turned around a pivot, each wheel gained its own pivot, close to its own hub. A linkage between these hubs pivots the two together, and by careful arrangement of the linkage dimensions the Ackermann geometry could be approximated. This was achieved by making the linkage not a simple parallelogram, as the steering moved, the wheels turned according to Ackermann, with the inner wheel turning further. If the track rod is placed ahead of the axle, it should instead be longer in comparison, thus preserving this same toe out. The steering pivot points are joined by a bar called the tie rod which can also be part of the steering mechanism, in the form of a rack. With perfect Ackermann, at any angle of steering, the point of all of the circles traced by all wheels will lie at a common point. Note that this may be difficult to arrange in practice with simple linkages, modern cars do not use pure Ackermann steering, partly because it ignores important dynamic and compliant effects, but the principle is sound for low-speed manoeuvres. Some racing cars use reverse Ackermann geometry to compensate for the difference in slip angle between the inner and outer front tyres while cornering at high speed. The use of such geometry helps reduce tyre temperatures during high-speed cornering, rcTek article about Ackermann steering geometry 2002 technical paper on Ackermann steering linkage design Ackerman
20.
Aerodynamic drag
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In aerodynamics, aerodynamic drag is the fluid drag force that acts on any moving solid body in the direction of the fluid freestream flow. Alternatively, calculated from the perspective, the drag force results from three natural phenomena, shock waves, vortex sheet, and viscosity. The pressure distribution acting on a surface exerts normal forces on the body. Those forces can be summed and the component of force that acts downstream represents the drag force, D p r. The nature of these normal forces combines shock wave effects, vortex system generation effects, the viscosity of the fluid has a major effect on drag. That is to say, the work the body does on the airflow, is reversible and is recovered as there are no effects to convert the flow energy into heat. Pressure recovery acts even in the case of viscous flow, viscosity, however results in pressure drag and it is the dominant component of drag in the case of vehicles with regions of separated flow, in which the pressure recovery is fairly ineffective. The friction drag force, which is a force on the aircraft surface, depends substantially on boundary layer configuration. The net friction drag, D f, is calculated as the projection of the viscous forces evaluated over the bodys surface. The sum of friction drag and pressure drag is called viscous drag and this drag component is due to viscosity. In a thermodynamic perspective, viscous effects represent irreversible phenomena and, therefore, the calculated viscous drag D v use entropy changes to accurately predict the drag force. When the airplane produces lift, another drag component results, induced drag, symbolized D i, is due to a modification of the pressure distribution due to the trailing vortex system that accompanies the lift production. An alternative perspective on lift and drag is gained from considering the change of momentum of the airflow, the wing intercepts the airflow and forces the flow to move downward. This results in an equal and opposite force acting upward on the wing which is the lift force, induced drag tends to be the most important component for airplanes during take-off or landing flight. Another drag component, namely wave drag, D w, results from shock waves in transonic and supersonic flight speeds, the shock waves induce changes in the boundary layer and pressure distribution over the body surface. The idea that a moving body passing through air or another fluid encounters resistance had been known since the time of Aristotle, louis Charles Breguets paper of 1922 began efforts to reduce drag by streamlining. Breguet went on to put his ideas into practice by designing several record-breaking aircraft in 1920s and 1930s, ludwig Prandtls boundary layer theory in the 1920s provided the impetus to minimise skin friction. A further major call for streamlining was made by Sir Melvill Jones who provided the concepts to demonstrate emphatically the importance of streamlining in aircraft design
21.
Handcycle
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A handcycle is a type of human-powered land vehicle powered by the arms rather than the legs, as on a bicycle. Most handcycles are tricycle in form, with two coasting rear wheels and one steerable powered front wheel, despite usually having three wheels, they are also known as handbikes. Many manufacturers have designed and released hand-powered recumbent trikes, or handcycles, Handcycles are a regular sight at HPV meets and are beginning to be seen on the streets. They commonly follow a design with front wheels driven by standard derailleur gearing powered by hand cranks. Brake levers are mounted on the handholds which are usually mounted in phase, unlike pedal cranks. This allows the rider to easily use their torso to help propel the cycle. The entire crank assembly and the front wheel turn together, allowing the rider to steer, some designs use two front wheels and a single rear wheel, while others use lean-steer designs. A handcycle is not a wheelchair, handcycle has a crank and gears, Handcycles come in a variety of styles, making them accessible to people with a wide variety of disabilities. There are also hybrids between a handcycle, a recumbent bike and a tricycle, fork steer handcycles represent the majority of handcycles sold. Manufacturers of this type of handcycle include Invacare, Intrepid Equipment, Varna, Schmicking, riders turn lean steer handcycles by leaning into the turn. There is a learning curve with lean steer handcycles and they are significantly less stable at high speed. The lean steer system feels similar to skiing, using your whole body to steer the handcycle. Lean steer handcycles can work well for lower-level injuries, although, manufacturers of this type of handcycle include Lighting Handcycles and Brike International Ltd. The off road is different from other handcycles in that there are two wheels in front and one behind, and it has a gear ratio range. This gives the cycle the ability to tackle steep slopes and permits handcycle mountain biking, the addition of a wider tire with suitable tread makes some mountain biking possible on standard road bikes. Handcycles have also used for touring, and to better accommodate this interest, some manufacturers incorporate mudguards. As handcycles have evolved they have become lighter, and they have better gearing for long climbs
22.
Para-cycling
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Para-cycling is the sport of cycling adapted for cyclists who have various disabilities. It is governed by the Union Cycliste Internationale, the sport consists of seven different events which include road and track races. The worlds elite para-cyclists compete at Worlds Championships, the Paralympic Games, para-cycling originated in the 1980s, starting visually impaired riders who competed on a tandem with a sighted partner. It entered the Summer Paralympic Games in 1984, where it consisted of road races for riders with cerebral palsy. By 1996 track cycling was included and a variety of disabilities in various functional categories, handcycling was included in the 2000 Paralympics in Sydney Australia as an exhibition event. These are subdivided into 14 functional categories for men and women, riders are placed in the appropriate category according to their functional ability
23.
Zigo
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Zigo is a brand of carrier bike designed by US company SOMA Cycle, Inc. located in South Orange, NJ. The product is convertible into a stroller, the forward-located position of the child carrier is similar to existing products in Europe. The design of the Zigo Leader carrier bike was conceived by Michael Ehrenreich in 2004, Zigo Leader X1 Carrier Bicycle - one child carrier bicycle. Zigo Leader X2 Carrier Bicycle - Two child carrier bicycle, Zigo Mango - Jogging stroller/bike trailer - incompatible with the Zigo® Cycle LeaderLink® System. Will NOT function as a front-mounted carrier bicycle, Zigo Cycle - a stand-alone 3- or 7-speed small wheel bicycle compatible with the Zigo ChildPod and Mango. Zigo Website Article from Bicycle Retailer & Industry News
24.
Rickshaw
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Rickshaw began as a two or three-wheeled passenger cart, called a pulled rickshaw, generally pulled by one man with one passenger. The first known use of the term was in 1887, over time, cycle rickshaws, auto rickshaws, and electric rickshaws were invented. Pulled rickshaws created a form of transportation, and a source of employment for male laborers. Their appearance was related to newly acquired knowledge of ball-bearing systems and their popularity declined as cars, trains and other forms of transportation became widely available. Auto rickshaws are becoming popular in some cities in the 21st century as an alternative to taxis because of their low cost. The word rickshaw originates from the Japanese word jinrikisha, which literally means human-powered vehicle, rickshaws were invented in Japan about 1869, after the lifting of a ban on wheeled vehicles from the Tokugawa period, and at the beginning of a rapid period of technical advancement in Japan. There are several theories about the inventor, jonathan Scobie, an American missionary to Japan, is also said to have invented the rickshaw around 1869 to transport his invalid wife through the streets of Yokohama. An American blacksmith Albert Tolman is said to have invented the rickshaw, or man drawn lorry, in 1846 in Worcester, Massachusetts, for a South American bound missionary. In New Jersey, the Burlington County Historical Society claims an 1867 invention by carriage maker James Birch, Japan historian Seidensticker wrote of the theories, Though the origins of the rickshaw are not entirely clear, they seem to be Japanese, and of Tokyo specifically. The most widely accepted theory offers the name of three inventors, and gives 1869 as the date of invention, the vehicle had a wooden carriage that rode on superior Western wheels and was a dramatic improvement over earlier modes of transportation. Whereas the earlier sedan chairs required two people, the rickshaw generally only required one, more than one person was required for hilly or mountainous areas. It also provided a ride for the passenger. Other forms of vehicles at the time were drawn by animals or were wheelbarrows, the Powerhouse Museum has had a rickshaw in its collection for 120 years. Finished in black lacquer-ware over timber, it was drawn by a single rickshaw runner and it became an inexpensive, popular mode of transportation across Asia. Peasants who migrated to large Asian cities often worked first as a rickshaw runner and it was the deadliest occupation in the East, the most degrading for human beings to pursue. Starting in 1870, the Tokyo government issued a permit to build and sell 人力車 to the trio that are believed in Asia to be the inventors, Izumi Yosuke, Takayama Kosuke. In order to operate a rickshaw in Tokyo, a seal was required from these men, by 1872, they replaced the palanquins and became the main mode of transportation in Japan, with about 40,000 rickshaws in service. At that time man-power was much cheaper than horse-power, horses were only used by the military
25.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
26.
Florida
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Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St
27.
Hydraulics
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Hydraulics is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids or fluids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the version of pneumatics. Fluid mechanics provides the foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the applied engineering using the properties of fluids. In fluid power, hydraulics are used for the generation, control, hydraulic topics range through some parts of science and most of engineering modules, and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control circuitry, pumps. The principles of hydraulics are in use naturally in the body within the heart. Free surface hydraulics is the branch of hydraulics dealing with surface flow, such as occurring in rivers, canals, lakes, estuaries. Its sub-field open channel flow studies the flow in open channels, the word hydraulics originates from the Greek word ὑδραυλικός which in turn originates from ὕδωρ and αὐλός. Early uses of water power date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, other early examples of water power include the Qanat system in ancient Persia and the Turpan water system in ancient Central Asia. The Greeks constructed sophisticated water and hydraulic power systems, an example is the construction by Eupalinos, under a public contract, of a watering channel for Samos, the Tunnel of Eupalinos. An early example of the usage of hydraulic wheel, probably the earliest in Europe, is the Perachora wheel, notable is the construction of the first hydraulic automata by Ctesibius and Hero of Alexandria. Hero describes a number of working machines using hydraulic power, such as the force pump, in ancient China there was Sunshu Ao, Ximen Bao, Du Shi, Zhang Heng, and Ma Jun, while medieval China had Su Song and Shen Kuo. Du Shi employed a waterwheel to power the bellows of a blast furnace producing cast iron, Zhang Heng was the first to employ hydraulics to provide motive power in rotating an armillary sphere for astronomical observation. In ancient Sri Lanka, hydraulics were used in the ancient kingdoms of Anuradhapura. The discovery of the principle of the tower, or valve pit. By the first century AD, several irrigation works had been completed. The coral on the rock at the site includes cisterns for collecting water. They were among the first to use of the siphon to carry water across valleys. They used lead widely in plumbing systems for domestic and public supply, hydraulic mining was used in the gold-fields of northern Spain, which was conquered by Augustus in 25 BC
28.
Disc brake
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The energy of motion is converted into waste heat which must be dispersed. Hydraulic disc brakes are the most commonly used form of brake for motor vehicles, compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping performance because the disc is more readily cooled. As a consequence discs are less prone to the brake fade caused when brake components overheat, disc brakes also recover more quickly from immersion. Most drum brake designs have at least one leading shoe, which gives a servo-effect and this tends to give the driver better feel and helps to avoid impending lockup. Drums are also prone to bell mouthing and trap worn lining material within the assembly, the brake disc is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be made of composites such as reinforced carbon–carbon or ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle, friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. The development of disc-type brakes began in England in the 1890s, successful application began in airplanes before World War II, and even the German Tiger tank was fitted with discs in 1942. The Jaguar racing team won, using disc brake equipped cars, mass production began with the 1955 Citroën DS. Development of disc brakes began in England in the 1890s, the first caliper-type automobile disc brake was patented by Frederick William Lanchester in his Birmingham factory in 1902 and used successfully on Lanchester cars. However, the choice of metals in this period meant that he had to use copper as the braking medium acting on the disc. The poor state of the roads at this time, no more than dusty, rough tracks, successful application began in airplanes and tanks before and during World War II. At Germanys Argus Motoren, Hermann Klaue had patented disc brakes in 1940, Argus supplied wheels fitted with disc brakes e. g. for the Arado Ar 96. The German Tiger I heavy tank, was introduced in 1942 with a 55 cm Argus-Werke disc on each drive shaft, the American Crosley Hot Shot is often given credit for the first production disc brakes. For six months in 1950, Crosley built a car with these brakes, lack of sufficient research caused reliability problems, such as sticking and corrosion, especially in regions using salt on winter roads. Drum brake conversions for Hot Shots were quite popular, the Crosley disc was a Goodyear development, a caliper type with ventilated disc, originally designed for aircraft applications. Chrysler developed a braking system, offered from 1949 to 1953. Instead of the disc with caliper squeezing on it, this system used twin expanding discs that rubbed against the surface of a cast-iron brake drum. The discs spread apart to create friction against the drum surface through the action of standard wheel cylinders
29.
Hub gear
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A hub gear, internal-gear hub, or just gear hub is a gear ratio changing system commonly used on bicycles that is implemented with planetary or epicyclic gears. The gears and lubricants are sealed within the shell of the hub gear, in contrast with derailleur gears where the gears, changing the gear ratio was traditionally accomplished by a shift lever connected to the hub with a Bowden cable, and twist-grip style shifters have become common. Hub gear systems generally have a long and largely maintenance-free life though some are not suitable for use in competitions or hilly. Many commuter or urban cycles such as European city bikes are now fitted with 7-speed gear-hubs. Older or less costly utility bicycles often use 3-speed gear-hubs, such as in bicycle sharing systems, many folding bicycles use 3-speed gear-hubs. Modern developments with up to 14 gear ratios are available, before epicyclic gears were used in bicycle hubs, they were used on tricycles. Patents for epicyclic hubs date from the mid-1880s, the first patent for a compact epicyclic hub gear was granted in 1895 to the American machinist Seward Thomas Johnson of Noblesville, Indiana, U. S. A. This was a 2-speed but was not commercially successful, in 1896, William Reilly of Salford, England patented a 2-speed hub which went into production in 1898 as The Hub. It was a success, remaining in production for a decade. It rapidly established the practicality of compact epicyclic hub gears, by 1902, Reilly had designed a 3-speed hub gear. He parted company with the manufacturer of The Hub but had signed away to them the rights to his future gear designs. To circumvent this problem, the patents for Reillys 3-speed were obtained in the name of his colleague, meanwhile, well-known English journalist and inventor Henry Sturmey had also invented a 3-speed hub. In 1903, Frank Bowden, head of the Raleigh Bicycle Company, formed The Three-Speed Gear Syndicate, Reillys hub went into production as the first Sturmey Archer 3-speed. In 1902, Mikael Pedersen patented a 3-speed hub gear and this was produced in 1903 and this was said to be based on the counter shaft principle but was arguably an unusual epicyclic gear, in which a second sun was used in place of a ring gear. In 1904 the Fichtel & Sachs company produced a hub gear under license to Wanderer, by the 1930s, hub gears were used on bicycles all over the world. They were particularly popular in the UK, The Netherlands, the German-speaking countries, the cheaper and stronger derailleur system have now started to appear and offer a wider gear range. By 1987, Sturmey-Archer made only 3- and 5-speed hubs, and Fichtel & Sachs and Shimano made only 2-, in that year, the first book for some 80 years dealing solely with epicyclic bicycle gears was published. Since then, there has been a slow but steady increase in interest in hub gears, in 1995, Sachs introduced the Elan, the first hub gear with 12 speeds, and an overall range of 339%
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Shanghai
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Shanghai is the most populous city proper in the world, with a population of more than 24 million as of 2014. As one of the four direct-controlled municipalities of the Peoples Republic of China, it is a financial centre and transport hub. Located in the Yangtze River Delta in East China, Shanghai sits on the edge of the mouth of the Yangtze in the middle portion of the eastern Chinese coast. The municipality borders the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the north, south and west, as a major administrative, shipping and trading city, Shanghai grew in importance in the 19th century due to trade and recognition of its favourable port location and economic potential. The city was one of five treaty ports forced open to foreign trade following the British victory over China in the First Opium War, the subsequent 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1844 Treaty of Whampoa allowed the establishment of the Shanghai International Settlement and the French Concession. The city then flourished as a center of commerce between China and other parts of the world, and became the financial hub of the Asia-Pacific region in the 1930s. However, with the Communist Party takeover of the mainland in 1949, trade was limited to other socialist countries, and the citys global influence declined. In the 1990s, the reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping resulted in an intense re-development of the city, aiding the return of finance. The two Chinese characters in the name are 上 and 海, together meaning Upon-the-Sea. The earliest occurrence of this dates from the 11th-century Song Dynasty, at which time there was already a river confluence. There are disputes as to exactly how the name should be understood, Shanghai is officially abbreviated 沪 in Chinese, a contraction of 沪渎, a 4th- or 5th-century Jin name for the mouth of Suzhou Creek when it was the main conduit into the ocean. This character appears on all motor vehicle license plates issued in the municipality today, another alternative name for Shanghai is Shēn or Shēnchéng, from Lord Chunshen, a third-century BC nobleman and prime minister of the state of Chu, whose fief included modern Shanghai. Sports teams and newspapers in Shanghai often use Shen in their names, such as Shanghai Shenhua F. C. Huating was another early name for Shanghai. In AD751, during the dynasty, Huating County was established at modern-day Songjiang. Today, Huating appears as the name of a hotel in the city. The city also has various nicknames in English, including Pearl of the Orient, during the Spring and Autumn period, the Shanghai area belonged to the Kingdom of Wu, which was conquered by the Kingdom of Yue, which in turn was conquered by the Kingdom of Chu. During the Warring States period, Shanghai was part of the fief of Lord Chunshen of Chu and he ordered the excavation of the Huangpu River. Its former or poetic name, the Chunshen River, gave Shanghai its nickname of Shen, two important events helped promote Shanghais development in the Ming dynasty
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Freight bicycle
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Freight bicycles, carrier cycles, freight tricycles, cargo bikes, box bikes, or cycletrucks are human powered vehicles designed and constructed specifically for transporting loads. The frame and drivetrain must be constructed to handle loads larger than those on an ordinary bicycle, the first freight bicycles were used by tradesmen to deliver mail, bread and milk amongst other things. Early freight bicycles were heavy-duty standard bicycles, with carriers at front or rear. During the early part of the 20th century these were used by tradesmen for local deliveries. In the UK this style is sometimes known as a butchers bike or delibike. With the domination of the combustion engine in the industrialized countries after World War II. In the rest of the world, however, they continued to be manufactured, in the 1980s in Europe, and the 1990s in the US, ecologically-minded designers and small-scale manufacturers initiated a revival of the freight bike manufacturing sector. These limitations might in some cases some people from using cargo bikes, whereas others still find them useful. Some cargo bike makers and users utilize power assist motors to complement the power of the cyclist, power assist can increase the payload and range of cargo bikes, but also increases the cost of the bicycle and requires on-board fuel or other energy storage. Technical efforts to improve conditions are hampered by the need for low weight, in Amsterdam and Copenhagen, freight bikes are extremely popular. In Amsterdam many residents simply fit large front carriers to sturdy city bicycles, varieties used elsewhere include a platform, basket etc. instead of the box, the loading area between two rear wheels, small-wheel two-wheelers loading both back and front. An occasional four-wheeler can also be seen, especially within a plant, warehouse or the like, the Cycle truck refers to a type of freight bicycle with a smaller front wheel than rear, typically 26 inches rear and 20 inches front. Also referred to as a Bakers bike, however this style of bicycle was popular with a wide variety of trades during the first half of the 20th century. Typically, they would have a basket or storage box mounted within a framework which was fixed to the front of the bike, often, they would also feature a sign advertising the business concerned, which would be attached within the main triangle of the bicycle frame. Their popularity declined significantly towards the end of the 1950s, with the increase of motorised transport, a boda-boda is a two-wheeled bicycle or motorcycle taxi, originally in East Africa. Boda Boda is also the name of Yuba Bicycles compact cargo bike introduced in 2012, the Long John Bicycle is a freight bicycle with the cargo area in front of the rider and some linkage connecting the steering to the front wheel. Capacity is usually about 220 pounds, a traditional Long John will have a smaller front wheel and a 23 or 26 in rear wheel and a 30–40 in long platform or basket located low in front of the handlebars. Vintage Long Johns are becoming collectible, recently the term Bakfiets has sometimes been used to describe Long Johns and for cargo bikes in general
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