1.
Devanagari
–
Devanagari, also called Nagari, is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal. It is written left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared outlines. The Nagari script has roots in the ancient Brāhmī script family, the Nagari script was in regular use by the 7th century CE and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium. Nagari has been the primus inter pares of the Indic scripts, the Devanagari script is also used for classical Sanskrit texts. The Devanagari script is closely related to the Nandinagari script commonly found in ancient manuscripts of South India. Devanagari script has forty-seven primary characters, of which fourteen are vowels, the ancient Nagari script for Sanskrit had two additional consonantal characters. The script has no distinction similar to the capital and small letters of the Latin alphabet, generally the orthography of the script reflects the pronunciation of the language. Devanagari is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet and it is a descendant of the Gupta script, along with Siddham and Sharada. Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of the Nagari-related scripts, with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nagari scripts, the 7th-century Tibetan king Srong-tsan-gambo ordered that all foreign books be transcribed into the Tibetan language. Other closely related scripts such as Siddham Matrka was in use in Indonesia, Vietnam, Japan, Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir. Nāgarī is the Sanskrit feminine of Nāgara relating or belonging to a town or city and it is a phrasing with lipi as nāgarī lipi script relating to a city, or spoken in city. The use of the name devanāgarī is relatively recent, and the older term nāgarī is still common, the rapid spread of the term devanāgarī may be related to the almost exclusive use of this script to publish Sanskrit texts in print since the 1870s. As a Brahmic abugida, the principle of Devanagari is that each letter represents a consonant. This is usually written in Latin as a, though it is represented as in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the letter क is read ka, the two letters कन are kana, the three कनय are kanaya, etc. This cancels the inherent vowel, so that from क्नय knaya is derived क्नय् knay, the halant is often used for consonant clusters when typesetting conjunct ligatures is not feasible. Consonant clusters are written with ligatures, for example, the three consonants क्, न्, and य्, when written consecutively without virāma form कनय, as shown above. Alternatively, they may be joined as clusters to form क्नय knaya, कन्य kanya and this system was originally created for use with the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, which have a very limited number of clusters. When applied to Sanskrit, however, it added a deal of complexity to the script
Devanagari
–
A 19th century
Rigveda manuscript in Devanagari.
Devanagari
–
Devanagiri script (vowels top, consonants bottom) in Chandas font
Devanagari
–
Devanagari text from Vayu Purana.
Devanagari
–
Devanagari देवनागरी
2.
Sanskrit
–
Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
Sanskrit
–
Rigveda (
padapatha) manuscript in
Devanagari, early 19th century
Sanskrit
–
Devi Mahatmya palm-leaf manuscript in an early
Bhujimol script,
Bihar or
Nepal, 11th century
Sanskrit
–
A poem by the ancient Indian poet Vallana (ca. 900 – 1100 CE) on the side wall of a building at the Haagweg 14 in Leiden, Netherlands
Sanskrit
–
Kashmir Shaiva manuscript in the
Śāradā script (c. 17th century)
3.
Deva (Hinduism)
–
Deva means heavenly, divine, anything of excellence, and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. In the earliest Vedic literature, all beings are called Asuras. The concepts and legends evolve in ancient Indian literature, and by the late Vedic period, in post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad. In some medieval Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted with their powerful but malevolent half-brothers. Devas along with Asuras, Yakshas and Rakshasas are part of Indian mythology, Deva is a Sanskrit word found in Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE. Monier Williams translates it as heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of excellence, exalted. The concept also is used to refer to deity or god, the feminine form of *deiwos is *deiwih2, which descends into Indic languages as devi, in that context meaning female deity. The bode of the Devas is Dyuloka, according to Douglas Harper, the etymological roots of Deva mean a shining one, from *div- to shine, and it is a cognate with Greek dios divine and Zeus, and Latin deus god. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, when capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism. Deva is also referred to as Devatā, while Devi as Devika, the word Deva is also a proper name or part of name in Indian culture, where it refers to one who wishes to excel, overcome or the seeker of, master of or a best among-. Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, and Prajapati are gods and hence Devas, saraswati and Ushas are some Devis or goddesses. Many of the deities taken together are worshiped as the Vishvedevas, max Muller states that the Vedic hymns are remarkable in calling every single of different devas as the only one, the supreme, the greatest.163.3, Trita art thou by interior operation. All powerful beings, good or evil, are called Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts, a much studied hymn of the Rigveda states Devav asura, and contrasts it with Asura adevah. They are born from the father, Prajapati, the primordial progenitor, the elder sons are envisioned as the Asuras. The oldest Upanishads mention Devas, and their struggle with the Asuras, the Kaushitaki Upanishad, for example, in Book 4 states that Indra was weaker than the Asuras when he did not know his own Atman. Chandogya Upanishad, in chapter 1.2, describes the battle between Devas and Asuras on various sensory powers, finally, the Deva-Asura battle targets the soul, where Asuras fail and Devas succeed, because soul-force is serene and inherently good, asserts Chandogya Upanishad
Deva (Hinduism)
–
Devas are benevolent supernatural beings in the Vedic era literature, with Indra (above) as their leader. The above gilt copper statue of Indra with inlaid semi-precious stones is from 16th-century
Nepal.
Deva (Hinduism)
–
Bas-relief of a Deva in
Angkor Wat,
Cambodia
Deva (Hinduism)
–
Shiva/Rudra has been a major Deva in Hinduism since the Vedic times. Above is a meditating statue of him in the
Himalayas with Hindus offering prayers.
Deva (Hinduism)
–
The concept of Hindu Devas migrated to East Asia in the 1st millennium, and was adopted by Japanese Buddhist schools as Jūni-ten. These included Indra (Taishaku-ten), Agni (Ka-ten), Yama (Emma-ten), Vayu (Fu-ten), Brahma (Bon-ten) and others. Above is a painting of the 12 Devas protecting Buddha by Tani Bunchō.
4.
Triple deity
–
A triple deity is three deities that are worshipped as one. Such deities are common throughout world mythology, the three has a long history of mythical associations. Carl Jung considered the arrangement of deities into triplets an archetype in the history of religion, in religious iconography or mythological art, three separate beings may represent either a triad who always appear as a group or a single deity known from literary sources as having three aspects. In the case of the Irish Brigid it can be ambiguous whether she is a goddess or three sisters, all named Brigid. The Morrígan also appears sometimes as one being, and at times as three sisters, as do the three Irish goddesses of sovereignty, Ériu, Fódla and Banba. The Matres or Matronae are usually represented as a group of three but sometimes with as many as 27 inscriptions and they were associated with motherhood and fertility. Triads or triple beings are ubiquitous in the Welsh and Irish mythic imagery, the religious iconographic repertoire of Gaul and Britain during the Roman period includes a wide range of triple forms, the most common triadic depiction is that of the triple mother goddess. Peter H. Goodrich interprets the figure of Morgan le Fay as a manifestation of a British triple goddess in the medieval romance Sir Gawain. A modern idea of a Triple Goddess is central to the new movement of Wicca. Georges Dumézils trifunctional hypothesis proposed that ancient Indo-European society conceived itself as structured around three activities, worship, war, and toil, in later times, when slave labor became common, the three functions came to be seen as separate classes, represented each by its own god. Dumézil understood this mythology as reflecting and validating social structures in its content, such a class system is found in ancient Indian, Iranian, Greek. But according to the linguist M. L, at her sacred grove at Aricia, on the shores of Lake Nemi a triplefold Diana was venerated from the late sixth century BCE as Diana Nemorensis. Andreas Alföldi interpreted a late Republican numismatic image as the Latin Diana conceived as a unity of the divine huntress, the Moon goddess. This coin shows that the goddess cult image still stood in the lucus of Nemi in 43 BCE. The Lake of Nemi was Triviae lacus for Virgil, while Horace called Diana montium custos nemoremque virgo, Diana is commonly addressed as Trivia by Virgil and Catullus. Spells and hymns in Greek magical papyri refer to the goddess as triple-sounding, in the mythology of the Sámi, a triad of goddesses are responsible for childbirth and protecting children. Sáhráhkka, who lives in the fireplace, is responsible for pregnancy, juksáhkká, who lives in the area of the back doors, is responsible for turning some children into boys while they are in the womb. Uksáhkká guards the doors, and is responsible for protecting all young children
Triple deity
–
The Greek goddess
Hecate portrayed in triplicate.
Triple deity
–
Terracotta relief of the Matres, from
Bibracte, city of the
Aedui in
Gaul.
Triple deity
–
This part of a 12th-century Swedish tapestry has been interpreted to show, from left to right, the one-eyed
Odin, the hammer-wielding
Thor and
Freyr holding up an ear of corn.
Triple deity
–
Brahma,
Vishnu and
Shiva seated on lotuses with their consorts:
Saraswati,
Lakshmi, and
Paravati respectively. ca 1770.
5.
Hinduism
–
Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
Hinduism
–
Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducing
Vedanta and
Yoga in Europe and USA, raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.
Hinduism
–
Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the
Hoysaleswara temple in
Halebidu, representing the
Trimurti:
Brahma,
Shiva and
Vishnu.
Hinduism
–
The
Rigveda is the first and most important Veda and is one of the oldest
religious texts. This Rigveda
manuscript is in
Devanagari.
Hinduism
–
A wedding is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life. A typical
Hindu wedding is solemnized before Vedic
fire ritual (shown).
6.
Creation ex nihilo
–
Ex nihilo is a Latin phrase meaning out of nothing. In theology, the common phrase creatio ex nihilo, contrasts with creatio ex materia, Creatio continua is the ongoing divine creation. The phrase ex nihilo also appears in the classical philosophical formulation ex nihilo nihil fit, when used outside of religious or metaphysical contexts ex nihilo also refers to something coming from nothing. For example, in a conversation, one might raise a topic ex nihilo if it bears no relation to the topic of discussion. An early conflation of Greek philosophy with the narratives in the Hebrew Bible came from Philo of Alexandria, Philo equated the Hebrew creator-deity Yahweh with Aristotles primum movens in an attempt to prove that the Jews had held monotheistic views even before the Greeks. Theologians debate whether the Bible itself teaches creation ex nihilo, traditional interpreters argue on grammatical and syntactical grounds that this is the meaning of Genesis 1,1, which is commonly rendered, In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. However, other interpreters understand creation ex nihilo as a theological development. According to this view, church fathers opposed notions appearing in pre-Christian creation myths, Jewish thinkers took up the idea, which became important to Judaism, to ongoing strands in the Christian tradition, and—as a corollary—to Islam. The first sentence of the Greek version of Genesis in the Septuagint starts with the words, ἐν ἀρχῇ ἐποίησεν, many ancient texts tend to have similar issues, and those on each side tend to interpret the text according to their understanding. Therefore, an uncaused, personal creator of the universe exists, who without the universe is beginningless, changeless, immaterial, timeless, spaceless, If it is possible for nothing to be, then it must be possible for everything to be. Some scholars have argued that Plethon viewed Plato as positing ex nihilo creation in his Timaeus, eric Voegelin detects in Hesiods chaos a creatio ex nihilo. The School of Chartres understood the creation account in Platos Timaeus to refer to creatio ex nihilo, in The Book of the Articles of Faith and Doctrines of Dogma written by Saadia Gaon the metaphysical problems of the creation of the world and the unity of the Creator are discussed. In this book, Saadia Gaon gives four proofs for the doctrine of the creation of the ex nihilo. To harmonize the biblical statement of the ex nihilo with the doctrine of the primordial elements, the Sefer Yetzirah assumes a double creation, one ideal. The cosmogony of Sefer Yetzirah is even omitted from the discussion of creation in his magnum opus Emunoth ve-Deoth. Several schools of thought stemming from the first cause argument, the following quotations come from Muhammad Asads translation, The Message of The Quran,52,35, Were they created by nothing. Or were they themselves the creators,2,117, The Originator is He of the heavens and the earth, and when He wills a thing to be, He but says unto it, Be—and it is. 19,67, But does man not bear in mind that We have created him aforetime while at one point they were nothing
Creation ex nihilo
–
Tree of Life by Eli Content. The
Tree of Life, or Etz haChayim (עץ החיים) in Hebrew, is a mystical symbol used in the Kabbalah of esoteric Judaism to describe the path to
HaShem and the manner in which He created the world ex nihilo (out of nothing),
Joods Historisch Museum.
7.
Conservation (ethic)
–
Conservation is an ethic of resource use, allocation, and protection. Its primary focus is upon maintaining the health of the world, its fisheries, habitats. Secondary focus is on conservation, including non-renewable resources such as metals, minerals and fossil fuels, and energy conservation. Those who follow the conservation ethic and, especially, those who advocate or work toward conservation goals are termed conservationists, the terms conservation and preservation are frequently conflated outside of the academic, scientific, and professional literatures. Both terms involve a degree of protection, but how that is protection is carried out is the key difference, Conservation is generally associated with the protection of natural resources, while preservation is associated with the protection of buildings, objects, and landscapes. Put simply, conservation seeks the proper use of nature, while preservation seeks protection of nature from use, during the environmental movement of the early 20th century, two opposing factions emerged, conservationists and preservationists. More Utilitarian schools of conservation seek a proper valuation of local and global impacts of human activity upon nature in their effect upon human well being, now and to posterity. How such values are assessed and exchanged among people determines the social, political and this is a view common in the modern environmental movement. These movements have diverged but they have deep and common roots in the conservation movement, in the United States of America, the year 1864 saw the publication of two books which laid the foundation for Romantic and Utilitarian conservation traditions in America. The posthumous publication of Henry David Thoreaus Walden established the grandeur of unspoiled nature as a citadel to nourish the spirit of man, in common usage, the term refers to the activity of systematically protecting natural resources such as forests, including biological diversity. Carl F. Jordan defines the term as, biological conservation as being a philosophy of managing the environment in a manner that does not despoil, exhaust or extinguish. While this usage is not new, the idea of conservation has been applied to the principles of ecology, biogeography, anthropology, economy. The term conservation itself may cover the concepts such as diversity, genetic diversity. These are often summarized as the priority to respect diversity, especially by Greens, much recent movement in conservation can be considered a resistance to commercialism and globalization. Slow food is a consequence of rejecting these as moral priorities, distinct trends exist regarding conservation development. Thus countries like Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, etc, — a long time before there were national parks and national nature reserves. Protected areas in developing countries, where probably as many as 70–80 percent of the species of the live, still enjoy very little effective management. The Adopt A Ranger Foundation has calculated that worldwide about 140,000 rangers are needed for the areas in developing
Conservation (ethic)
–
Satellite photograph of industrial deforestation in the Tierras Bajas project in eastern Bolivia, using
skyline logging and replacement of forests by agriculture
Conservation (ethic)
–
Much attention has been given to preserving the natural characteristics of
Hopetoun Falls,
Australia, while allowing access for visitors.
Conservation (ethic)
–
The
Daintree Rainforest in
Queensland,
Australia
Conservation (ethic)
–
Bachalpsee in the
Swiss Alps; generally mountainous areas are less affected by human activity.
8.
End time
–
The end time is a future time-period described variously in the eschatologies of several world religions, which believe that world events will achieve a final climax. The Abrahamic faiths maintain a linear cosmology, with end-time scenarios containing themes of transformation and redemption, however, other Christians believe that the end time represents the personal tribulation experienced before they become enlightened with the Word of God. In Islam, the Day of Judgement is preceded by the appearance of the Mahdi mounted on a white stallion, with the help of Isa, the Mahdi will triumph over Masih ad-Dajjal. Non-Abrahamic faiths tend to have more cyclical world-views, with end-time eschatologies characterized by decay, redemption, in Hinduism, the end time occurs when Kalki, the final incarnation of Vishnu, descends atop a white horse and brings an end to the current Kali Yuga. In Buddhism, the Buddha predicted that his teachings would be forgotten after 5,000 years, a bodhisattva named Maitreya will appear and rediscover the teaching of dharma. The ultimate destruction of the world will come through seven suns. Theories have included the Big Rip, Big Crunch, Big Bounce, zoroastrian eschatology is the oldest in recorded history, with beliefs paralleling and predating the framework of the major Abrahamic faiths. By the year 500 BC, a fully developed concept of the end of the world was established in Zoroastrianism, and men become more deceitful and more given to vile practices. Honorable wealth will proceed to those of perverted faith, and a dark cloud makes the whole sky night, and it will rain more noxious creatures than water. A Manichaean battle between the righteous and wicked will be followed by the Frashokereti, on earth, the Saoshyant will arrive as the final savior of mankind, and bring about the resurrection of the dead. Ashavan will pass through the river as if it were warm milk. It will then flow down to hell, where it will annihilate Angra Mainyu, the righteous will partake of the parahaoma, which will confer immortality upon them. Humanity will become like the Amesha Spentas, living without food, hunger, thirst, bodies will become so light as to cast no shadow. All humanity will speak a language, and belong to a single nation with no borders. All will share a single purpose and goal, joining with Ahura Mazda for a perpetual, in Judaism, the main textual source for the belief in the end of days and accompanying events is the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible. The Five Books of Moses describe a time when the Jewish people will not be able to keep the Laws of Moses in the Land of Israel, major sources for this scenario include the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Other books of the Hebrew Prophets also elaborate about the end of days, in rabbinic literature, rabbis elaborated and explained the prophecies that were found in the Hebrew Bible, along with oral law and rabbinic traditions about its significance. The main tenets of Jewish eschatology, in no order, include
End time
–
The Antichrist, by
Lucas Cranach the Elder (1521) Here the
Antichrist is shown wearing the triple crown of the Roman papacy.
End time
–
Icon of the Second Coming. Greek, ca. 1700 A.D.
End time
–
A celebratory crowd gathered in
Tel Aviv to hear the Declaration of Independence. The reestablishment of Israel provided impetus to
dispensationalism.
End time
–
William Miller predicted the end of the world in 1843, known as the
Great Disappointment
9.
Personified
–
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, and intentions to non-human entities and is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology. Personification is the attribution of human form and characteristics to abstract concepts such as nations, emotions and natural forces like seasons. Both have ancient roots as storytelling and artistic devices, and most cultures have traditional fables with anthropomorphized animals as characters, people have also routinely attributed human emotions and behavioural traits to wild as well as domestic animals. Anthropomorphism derives from its verb form anthropomorphize, itself derived from the Greek ánthrōpos and it is first attested in 1753, originally in reference to the heresy of applying a human form to the Christian God. One of the oldest known is a sculpture, the Löwenmensch figurine, Germany. It is not possible to say what these prehistoric artworks represent, in either case there is an element of anthropomorphism. This anthropomorphic art has been linked by archaeologist Steven Mithen with the emergence of more systematic hunting practices in the Upper Palaeolithic. In religion and mythology, anthropomorphism refers to the perception of a divine being or beings in human form, ancient mythologies frequently represented the divine as deities with human forms and qualities. They resemble human beings not only in appearance and personality, they exhibited many human behaviors that were used to explain phenomena, creation. The deities fell in love, married, had children, fought battles, wielded weapons and they feasted on special foods, and sometimes required sacrifices of food, beverage, and sacred objects to be made by human beings. Some anthropomorphic deities represented specific concepts, such as love, war, fertility, beauty. Anthropomorphic deities exhibited human qualities such as beauty, wisdom, and power, and sometimes human weaknesses such as greed, hatred, jealousy, Greek deities such as Zeus and Apollo often were depicted in human form exhibiting both commendable and despicable human traits. Anthropomorphism in this case is referred to as anthropotheism, from the perspective of adherents to religions in which humans were created in the form of the divine, the phenomenon may be considered theomorphism, or the giving of divine qualities to humans. Anthropomorphism has cropped up as a Christian heresy, particularly prominently with the Audians in third century Syria, but also in fourth century Egypt and tenth century Italy. This often was based on an interpretation of Genesis 1,27, So God created man in His own image, in the image of God created He him. Some religions, scholars, and philosophers objected to anthropomorphic deities. Ethiopians say that their gods are snub–nosed and blackThracians that they are pale and he said that the greatest god resembles man neither in form nor in mind. Both Judaism and Islam reject an anthropomorphic deity, believing that God is beyond human comprehension, judaisms rejection of an anthropomorphic deity grew during the Hasmonean period, when Jewish belief incorporated some Greek philosophy. Judaisms rejection grew further after the Islamic Golden Age in the tenth century, hindus do not reject the concept of a deity in the abstract unmanifested, but note practical problems
Personified
–
In this illustration by
Milo Winter of
Aesop 's fable, "
The North Wind and the Sun ", an anthropomorphic North Wind tries to strip the cloak off of a traveler
Personified
–
The 40,000-year-old
Löwenmensch figurine
Personified
–
From the
Panchatantra: Rabbit fools Elephant by showing the reflection of the moon
Personified
–
Anthropomorphic
pareidolia by
Giuseppe Arcimboldo
10.
Vishnu
–
Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu
Vishnu
–
Four Armed Vishnu
Vishnu
–
A 4th–6th century CE Sardonyx seal representing Vishnu with a worshipper. The inscription in cursive
Bactrian reads: "
Mihira, Vishnu (right) and
Shiva ".
Vishnu
–
A 13th century
Cambodian statue of Vishnu
Vishnu
–
12th century stone sculpture of God Vishnu flanked by two apsaras one with a fan (left) and the other with
Tumburu (right).
11.
Shiva
–
ShiVa3D is a 3D game engine with a graphical editor designed to create applications and video games for desktop PCs, the web, game consoles and mobile devices. Games made with ShiVa can be exported to over 20 target platforms, numerous applications have been created using ShiVa, including the Prince of Persia 2 remake for Mobiles and Babel Rising published by Ubisoft. With ShiVa 2.0, the version of the Editor is currently under heavy development. ShiVa Editor 1. x runs exclusively on Windows XP/Vista/7/8/8.1, ShiVa 1. x games are being built by the ShiVa Authoring Tool, a free companion product to the Editor, which transforms game packages into native applications. Since not all platforms have SDKs for Windows, the Authoring Tool is available for Mac OS X as well as Windows, ShiVa Editor 2. x runs natively on Windows XP/Vista/7/8/8.1 x86/x8664, Mac OS X x8664 and Linux x8664. ShiVa is proprietary software and licensed under the ShiVa EULA. Several license packages are available, ShiVa Web Edition is free to download, exports are watermarked except for the ShiVa Web Player browser plugin, Adobe Flash and HTML5/WebGL. ShiVa Basic Edition was built for indie developers and small development studios, beta versions may be downloaded and tested. C++ Plugins can be designed and tested, but not exported
Shiva
12.
Avatar
–
An avatar is a concept in Hinduism and it means descent, and refers to the appearance or incarnation of a deity on earth. The term also refers to alight, to make ones appearance. The word avatar does not appear in the Vedic literature, but appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, the Rigveda describes Indra as endowed with a mysterious power of assuming any form at will. The Bhagavad Gita expounds the doctrine of Avatara but with other than avatar. Theologically, the term is most often associated with the Hindu god Vishnu, the avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, avatars of the Devi in different appearances such as Tripura Sundari, Durga, while avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional. The incarnation doctrine is one of the important differences between Vaishnavism and Shaivism traditions of Hinduism, Incarnation concepts similar to avatar are also found in Buddhism, Christianity and others. The Sanskrit noun is derived from the Sanskrit roots ava and tṛī and these roots trace back, states Monier-Williams, to -taritum, -tarati, -rītum. Avatar literally means descent, alight, to ones appearance. The word also implies to overcome, to remove, to bring down, an avatar, states Justin Edwards Abbott, is a saguna embodiment of the nirguna Brahman or Atman. Neither the Vedas nor the Principal Upanishads ever mention the word avatar as a noun, the verb roots and form, such as avatarana, do appear in ancient post-Vedic Hindu texts, but as action of descending, but not as an incarnated person. The related verb avatarana is, states Paul Hacker, used with double meaning, one as action of the divine descending, the term is most commonly found in the context of the Hindu god Vishnu. It is in medieval era texts, those composed after the sixth century CE, that the version of avatar appears. The idea proliferates thereafter, in the Puranic stories for many deities, the term avatar, in colloquial use, is also an epithet or a word of reverence for any extraordinary human being who is revered for his or her ideas. In some contexts, the term avatara just means a place, site of sacred pilgrimage, or just achieve ones goals after effort. The term avatar is not unique to Hinduism and it is found in the Trikaya doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism, in descriptions for the Dalai Lama in Tibetan Buddhism, and many ancient cultures. The manifest embodiment is sometimes referred to as an incarnation, the translation of avatar as incarnation has been questioned by Christian theologists, who state that an incarnation is in flesh and imperfect, while avatar is mythical and perfect. The theological concept of Christ as an incarnation, as found in Christology, according to Oduyoye and Vroom, this is different from the Hindu concept of avatar because avatars in Hinduism are unreal and is similar to Docetism
Avatar
–
Ten avatars of
Vishnu (
Matsya,
Kurma,
Varaha,
Vamana,
Krishna,
Kalki,
Buddha,
Parshurama,
Rama &
Narasimha). Painting from
Jaipur, now at the
Victoria and Albert Museum
Avatar
–
Matsya, fish avatar of Vishnu
Avatar
–
Varaha, the boar avatar of Vishnu (18th-century painting, probably of
Pahari provenance)
Avatar
–
Mohini, the only female avatar of Vishnu (statue in a
Belur temple, Karnataka.)
13.
Dattatreya
–
Dattatreya or Dattā is a paradigmatic Sannyasi and one of the lords of Yoga in Hinduism. In many regions of India and Nepal, he is considered a deity, in Maharashtra, he is a syncretistic deity, considered to be an avatar of the three Hindu gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, collectively known as Trimurti. In other regions, and some versions of such as the Garuda Purana, Brahma Purana and Sattvata Samhita. He is typically dressed as a monk or almost naked, situated in a forest or wilderness suggestive of his renunciation of worldly goods. In paintings and some carvings, he is surrounded by four dogs and a cow. In the temples of southern Maharashtra, Varanasi and in the Himalayas, his iconography shows him with one head and two hands with four dogs and a cow. According to Rigopoulos, in the Nath tradition of Shaivism, Dattatreya is revered as the Adi-Guru of the Adinath Sampradaya of the Nathas, the first Lord of Yoga with mastery of Tantra. According to Mallinson, Dattatreya is not the traditional guru of the Nath sampradaya, he was coopted by the Nath tradition in about the 18th century as a guru, several Upanishads are dedicated to him, as are texts of the Advaita Vedanta-Yoga tradition in Hinduism. One of the most important texts of Advaita Vedanta, namely Avadhuta Gita is attributed to Dattatreya, in Maharashtra, an annual festival in the Hindu calendar month of Mārgaśīrṣa reveres Dattatreya and this is called Datta Jayanti. The mythologies of Dattatreya are diverse and vary by region, in the Puranas, he was born in north Indian hermitage to Anusuya and her husband the Vedic sage Atri traditionally credited with making the largest contribution to the Rigveda. Another states his father lived in southern India, in the western Deccan region, a third claims he was born in Kashmir jungles near the sacred Amarnath. In a fifth myth, sage Atri was very old when young Anusuya married him, the trinity were pleased with them for having brought light and knowledge to the world, simultaneously granted the boon, which led Dattatreya to be born with characteristics of all three. While his origins are unclear and trace to inconsistent mythologies, stories about his life are more consistent and he is described in the Mahabharata as an exceptional Rishi with extraordinary insights and knowledge, who is adored and raised to a Guru and an Avatar of Vishnu in the Puranas. Dattatreya is stated in these texts to having renounced the world, one myth claims he meditated immersed in water for a long time, another has him wandering from childhood and the young Dattatreya footprints have been preserved on a lonely peak at Girnar. The Tripura-rahasya refers to the disciple Parasurama finding Dattatreya meditating on Gandhamadana mountain and this legend has been emblematic in the Hindu belief, particularly among artists and Yogis, that ideas, teachings and practices come from all sources, that self effort is a means to learning. The 24 teachers of Dattatreya are, The appearance of Shri Dattatreya in pictures varies according to traditional beliefs, many older medieval temples of Dattatreya show him with just one head, such as the one in Mahur and another in Pandharpur, both in southern Maharashtra. Texts such as Agni Purana describe the features for building murti. In Varanasi, Nepal, north Himalayan foothill states of India, in western parts of Maharashtra, the syncretic six armed and three faced iconography is more common
Dattatreya
–
Dattatreya painting by
Raja Ravi Varma
Dattatreya
–
An metallic idol of Dattatreya along with four dogs and a cow
Dattatreya
–
Manik Prabhu Maharaj
Dattatreya
–
Ek Mukhi Datta (One Faced Datta) at Narayanpur,Pune
14.
Halebidu
–
Halebidu is located in Hassan District, Karnataka, India. Halebidu was the capital of the Hoysala Empire in the 12th century. It is home to some of the best examples of Hoysala architecture, most notable are the ornate Hoysaleshwara and Kedareshwara temples. The city got the name Halebidu because it was ransacked two times during the invasion of Malik Kafur, Halebidu was the 12th-13th century capital of the Hoysala empire. The Hoysaleshwara temple was built during this time by Ketamala and attributed to King Vishnuvardhana and it is believed to have been completed around 1160 AD by Kedaroja, the chief architect of Vishnuvardhanas son and successor Narasimha I. It enshrines Hoysaleshwara and Shantaleshwara, named after King Vishnuvardhana Hoysala, the town was sacked by the armies of Malik Kafur in the early 14th century, after which it fell into a state of disrepair and neglect. The temple complex comprises two Hindu temples, the Hoysaleshwara and Kedareshwara temples and two Jain basadi, in front of these temples there is a large lake. The two Nandi images on the sides of the Hoysaleshwara temple are monoliths, soapstone was used for the construction of these temples. There is a museum in the temple complex. The Hoysaleshwara temple, dating back to the 1121 C. E. is astounding for its wealth of sculptural details, the walls of the temple are covered with an endless variety of depictions from Hindu mythology, animals, birds and shilabalikas or dancing figures. No two sculptures of the temple are the same and this temple, guarded by a Nandi bull, was never completed, despite 86 years of labour. The Jain basadi nearby are equally rich in sculptural detail, the Parshvanatha Basadi was built by Boppadeva in 1133AD during the reign of Vishnuvardhana by Boppana, the son of the famous Gangaraja who was a minister under Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana. There is an 18 ft tall Parshvanatha tirthankara statue inside the Basadi made of granite stone. Sculpture of Yaksha Dharanendra and Yakshi Padmavati present in mahamantapa, the Shantinatha Basadi was built around 1192 A. D. during the reign of Ballala II. There is an 18 ft. tall statue of Shantinatha and this temple is now being proposed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Adinatha Basadi is a small Jain basadi built in 12th century, the temple houses an idol of Adinatha and Hindu goddess Saraswati. Halebidu is 16 km away from the one more historical place Belur and it is well connected by road and rail to Bengaluru, Mysuru and Mangaluru. There are regular buses to Hassan, the distance is 149 km to Mysore and 31 km to Hassan
Halebidu
–
Read view of Hoysaleshwara Temple, Halebidu
Halebidu
–
Lakshminarayana image at Halebidu
Halebidu
–
The decorated outer wall of the main temple
Halebidu
15.
Puranas
–
The word Puranas literally means ancient, old, and it is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in languages, several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva. The Puranas genre of literature is found in both Hinduism and Jainism, the content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of authors over the centuries, in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated. There are 18 Maha Puranas and 18 Upa Puranas, with over 400,000 verses, the first versions of the various Puranas were likely composed between the 3rd- and 10th-century CE. The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism and they have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism. The religious practices included in them are considered Vaidika, because they do not preach initiation into Tantra, the Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of non-dualistic tenor. The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in India, vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is hagiographically credited as the compiler of the Puranas. The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas and they existed in an oral form before being written down, and were incrementally modified well into the 16th century. An early occurrence of the term purana is found in the Chandogya Upanishad, translated by Patrick Olivelle as the corpus of histories, importantly, the most famous form of itihāsapurāṇaṃ is the Mahabharata. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda 11.7.24, the extant Puranas, states Coburn, are not identical to the original Puranas. In the 19th century, F. E. Pargiter believed the original Purana may date to the time of the redaction of the Vedas. Wendy Doniger, based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas and she dates Markandeya Purana to c.250 CE, Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c.350 CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c.450 CE, 350–950 CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c, 550–850 CE, and Linga Purana to c. Of the many texts designated Puranas the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or the major Puranas and these are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way. The difference between Upapuranas and Mahapuranas has been explained by Rajendra Hazra as, a Mahapurana is well known, the Upapuranas are eighteen in number, with disagreement as to which canonical titles belong in that list of eighteen. The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga, has become a basic text for Devi worshipers
Puranas
–
Purana Manuscripts from 15th- to 18th-century
Puranas
Puranas
Puranas
–
The Goddess
Durga Leading the Eight
Matrikas in Battle Against the Demon
Raktabija, Folio from
Devi Mahatmyam, Markandeya Purana.
16.
Vedic period
–
The Vedic period was the period in Indian history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryans settled into northern India, scholars consider Vedic civilisation to have been a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of large, around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of the main constituents of the so-called Hindu synthesis. The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE, after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which ended c.1900 BCE, groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda-samhita, which was composed between c and they brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the zone between the Zeravshan River and Iran. It was a mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra, Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug probably borrowed from the BMAC religion and his rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. These migrations may have been accompanied with violent clashes with the people who inhabited this region. The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus, the Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices or obey the commandments of gods. Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. Internecine military conflicts between the tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rig Veda. Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni. The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes— Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Bhalanas, Paktha, Siva, Vishanin. Bharatas lived around the regions of the river Saraswati, while Purus, their western neighbours. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab, division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war
Vedic period
–
Aryans settling in India
Vedic period
–
Vedic period
Vedic period
–
Modern replica of utensils and
falcon shaped altar used for
Agnicayana, an elaborate
srauta ritual originating from the
Kuru Kingdom, around 1000 BCE.
Vedic period
–
Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli,
Malwa, 1300 BCE.
17.
Vedic Brahmanism
–
Brahmanism is the religion that developed out of the historical Vedic religion in ancient India. The term is different from Brahminism, the latter is used to identify a ritualistic system led by the Brahmin priests in the Hindu society. The term Brahmanism is considered synonymous with Hinduism, by some scholars, of the major traditions that emerged from Brahmanism are the six darshanas, particular the Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism. There were other schools of thought in ancient India, those that disagreed with Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism, indian religions History of India History of Hinduism
Vedic Brahmanism
–
Indo-European migrations
Vedic Brahmanism
–
Map of
North India in the late Vedic period. The location of
shakhas is labeled in green; the
Thar Desert is dark yellow.
Vedic Brahmanism
–
A
Śrauta yajna being performed in South India.
18.
Shaivism
–
Shaivism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism that reveres Shiva as the Supreme Being or its metaphysical concept of Brahman. The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivas or Saivas, like much of Hinduism, the Shaiva have many sub-traditions, ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-oriented monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism. It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology, Shaivism has ancient roots, traceable in the Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE, but this is in the form of the Vedic deity Rudra. In the early centuries of the era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism. Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE and it arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions. In the contemporary era, Shaivism is one of the aspects of Hinduism. Shaivism theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, destroyer to being the same as the Atman within oneself and it is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples. It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, Shaivism is one of the largest traditions within Hinduism. Shiva literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious, as a proper name, it means The Auspicious One. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, the Sanskrit word śaiva or Shaiva means relating to the god Shiva, while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism. The reverence for Shiva is one of the traditions, found widely across India, Sri Lanka. While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex religion, Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism, with a theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in philosophy, Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools, ranging from nondualism, dualism, and mixed schools. The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars, some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization, which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE. Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that appears like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal, which scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals. This Pashupati seal has been interpreted by scholars as a prototype of Shiva
Shaivism
–
The Development of the Saiva Traditions. Source: Gavinf Flood (1997), An Introduction to Hinduism, p.152.
Shaivism
–
1008 Lingas carved on a rock surface. Photograph is taken at the shore of the river
Tungabhadra,
Hampi, India
Shaivism
–
Shaivism Groupings. Source: Gavin Flood (2006), The Tantric Body, p.59.
Shaivism
–
History
19.
Vaishnavism
–
Vaishnavism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism, its followers are called Vaishnavas, the tradition is notable for its avatar doctrine, wherein Vishnu is revered in one of many distinct incarnations. Of these, ten avatars of Vishnu are the most studied, Krishna, Rama, Narayana, Vāsudeva, Hari, Vithoba, Kesava, Madhava, Govinda and Jagannath are among the popular names used for the same supreme. The tradition has traceable roots to the 1st millennium BCE, as Bhagavatism, later developments led by Ramananda created a Rama-oriented movement, now the largest monastic group in Asia. The Vaishnava tradition has many sampradayas ranging from the medieval era Dvaita school of Madhvacharya to Vishishtadvaita school of Ramanuja, new Vaishnavism movements have been founded in the modern era such as the ISKCON of Prabhupada. The tradition is known for the devotion to an avatar of Vishnu. Key texts in Vaishnavism include the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Pancaratra texts, Krishnaism becomes associated with bhakti yoga in the medieval period. Although Vishnu was a Vedic solar deity, he is mentioned less often compared to Agni, Indra and other Vedic deities, other scholars state that there are other Vedic deities, such as water deity Nara, who together form the historical roots of Vaishnavism. The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, the evidence inconsistent, according to Dalal, the origins may be in Vedic deity Bhaga, who gave rise to Bhagavatism. According to Preciado-Solís, the Vedic deities Nara and Narayana form one of the Vedic roots of Vaishnavism, according to Dandekar, Vaishnavism may have emerged from merger of several ancient theistic traditions, where the various deities were integrated as different avatars of the same god. In Dandekar theory, Vaishnavism emerged at the end of the Vedic period, closely before the urbanisation of northern India. This earliest phase was established the time of Pāṇini who, in his Astadhyayi and this was followed by a merger with the cult of Gopala-Krsna of the cowherd community of the Abhıras at the 4th century CE. The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic, according to Dandekar, such mergers consolidated the position of Krishnaism between the heterodox sramana movement and the orthodox Vedic religion. The Greater Krsnaism, states Dandekar, then merged with the Rigvedic Vishnu, syncretism of various traditions and Vedism resulted in Vaishnavism. At this stage that Vishnu of the Rig Veda was assimilated into non-Vedic Krishnaism, the appearance of Krishna as one of the Avatars of Vishnu dates to the period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The Bhagavad Gita was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text for Krishnaism, finally, the Narayana-cult was also included, which further brahmanized Vaishnavism. The Nara-Narayana cult may have originated in Badari, a ridge of the Hindu Kush. Purusa Narayana may have later turned into Arjuna and Krsna
Vaishnavism
–
Vaishnavite Brahmin students at a theological seminary in
Tanjore. Source: The National Geographic Magazine, Nov 1909
Vaishnavism
–
Krishna murti (left) with Radha
20.
Shaktism
–
Shaktism is a major tradition of Hinduism, wherein the metaphysical reality is considered feminine and the Devi is supreme. It includes a variety of goddesses, all considered aspects of the supreme goddess. Shaktism has different sub-traditions, ranging from those focussed on gracious Lakshmi to fierce Kali, the Sruti and Smriti texts of Hinduism are an important historical framework of the Shaktism tradition. In addition, it reveres the texts Devi Mahatmya, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, the Devi Mahatmya in particular, is considered in Shaktism to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita. Shaktism is known for its various sub-traditions of Tantra, as well as a galaxy of goddesses with respective systems and it consists of the Vidyapitha and Kulamārga. The pantheon of goddesses in Shaktism grew after the decline of Buddhism in India, wherein Hindu and Buddhist goddesses were combined to form the Mahavidya, the most common aspects of Devi found in Shaktism include Durga, Kali, Amba, Lakshmi, Parvati and Tripurasundari. The goddess-focussed tradition is popular in West Bengal, Assam, Tripura, Nepal and the neighboring regions. Yet, they are declared equivalent aspects of gender neutral Brahman, of Prajapati, the goddesses often mentioned in the Vedic layers of text include the Ushas, Vac, Sarasvati, Prithivi, Nirriti, Shraddha. Goddesses such as Uma appear in the Upanishads as another aspect of Brahman, hymns to goddesses are in the ancient Hindu epic Mahabharata, particularly in the later added Harivamsa section of it. The archaeological and textual evidence implies, states Thomas Coburn, that the Goddess had become as much a part of the Hindu tradition, as God, by about the third or fourth century. The literature on Shakti theology grew in ancient India, climaxing in one of the most important texts of Shaktism called the Devi Mahatmya, the Devi-Mahatmya is not the earliest literary fragment attesting to the existence of devotion to a goddess figure, states Thomas B. Coburn – a professor of Religious Studies, but it is surely the earliest in which the object of worship is conceptualized as Goddess, with a capital G. Other important texts of Shaktism include the Shakta Upanishads, as well as Shakta-oriented Upa Puranic literature such as the Devi Purana and Kalika Purana, the Lalita Sahasranama. The Tripura Upanishad is historically the most complete introduction to Shakta Tantrism, along with the Tripura Upanishad, the Tripuratapini Upanishad has attracted scholarly bhasya in the second half of 2nd-millennium, such as by Bhaskararaya, and by Ramanand. These texts link the Shakti Tantra tradition as a Vedic attribute, Shaktas conceive the Goddess as the supreme, ultimate, eternal reality of all existence, or same as the Brahman concept of Hinduism. She is considered to be simultaneously the source of all creation, its embodiment and the energy that animates and governs it, according to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar – a professor of Indian history, in Shaktism theology Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman. Shaktism views the Devi as the source, essence and substance of everything in creation and its texts such as the Devi-Bhagavata Purana states, I am Manifest Divinity, Unmanifest Divinity, and Transcendent Divinity. I am Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, as well as Saraswati, Lakshmi, I am the Sun and I am the Stars, and I am also the Moon
Shaktism
–
Shiva and
Shakti in the half-male, half-female form of
Ardhanari (
Elephanta caves, 5th century CE,
Mumbai, India)
Shaktism
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Sri Amritananda Natha Saraswathi, a Shakta adept and guru, performing the Navavarana
Puja, a central ritual in
Srividya Tantric Shaktism, at the Sahasrakshi Meru Temple at
Devipuram,
Andhra Pradesh,
India, 2005.
Shaktism
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Devi Shakthi at
Parashakthi Temple, Pontiac, USA adorned as Goddesses Lakshmi, Durga and Saraswathi during
Navaratri
Shaktism
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Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth.
21.
R. C. Majumdar
–
Ramesh Chandra Majumdar was a respected historian and professor of Indian history. Born at Khandarpara, in Faridpur District on 4 December 1888, to Haladhar Majumdar and Bidhumukhi, in 1905, he passed his Entrance Examination from Ravenshaw College, Cuttack. In 1907, he passed F. A. with first class scholarship from Ripon College and joined Presidency College, Calcutta. Graduating in B. A. in 1909 and MA from Calcutta University in 1911 and he started his teaching career as a Lecturer at Dacca Government Training College. Since 1914, he spent seven years as a professor of history at the University of Calcutta and he got his doctorate for his thesis Corporate Life in Ancient India. In 1921 he joined the newly established University of Dacca as Professor of History and he also served, until he became its Vice Chancellor, as the Head of the Department of History as well as the Dean of the Faculty of Arts. Between 1924 and 1936 he was Provost of Jagannath Hall, then he became the Vice Chancellor of that University, for five years from 1937 to 1942. From 1950, he was Principal of the College of Indology and he was elected the General President of the Indian History Congress and also became the Vice President of the International Commission set up by the UNESCO for the history of mankind. He started his research on ancient India, after extensive travels to Southeast Asia and research, he wrote detailed histories of Champa, Suvarnadvipa and Kambuja Desa. On the initiative of Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, he took up the mantle of editing a multi-volume tome on Indian History. Starting in 1951, he toiled for twenty six years to describe the history of the Indian people from the Vedic Period to the present day in eleven volumes. In 1955 Majumdar became the founder-principal of the College of Indology of Nagpur University, in 1958-59 he taught Indian history in the Universities of Chicago and Pennsylvania. He was also the president of the Asiatic Society and the vangiya sahitya parisad, for some time he was also the Sheriff of Calcutta. When the final volume of The History and Culture of the Indian People was published in 1977 and he also edited the three-volume history of Bengal published by Dacca University. His last book was Jivaner Smritidvipe, when the Government of India set up an editorial Committee to author a history of the freedom struggle of India, he was its principal member. But, following a conflict with the then Education Minister Maulana Abul Kalam Azad on the Sepoy Mutiny, he left the government job, the Sepoy Mutiny & Revolt of 1857. According to him the origins of Indias freedom struggle lie in the English-educated Indian middle-class and his views on the freedom struggle are found in his book History of the Freedom Movement in India. He was an admirer of Swami Vivekananda and Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, the Early History of Bengal, Dacca,1924
R. C. Majumdar
–
Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1888-1980)
22.
Brahman
–
In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, the Ultimate Reality in the universe. In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the material, efficient and it is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman as a concept is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe. Brahman is a Vedic Sanskrit word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, Brahman is a key concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads. The Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principle, in the Upanishads, it has been variously described as Sat-cit-ānanda and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality. Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of Atman, personal, impersonal or Para Brahman, or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school. In dualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman in each being, Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self, puligandla states it as the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world, while Sinar states Brahman is a concept that cannot be exactly defined. In Vedic Sanskrit, Brahma, brahman from root bṛh-, means to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote. Brahmana, from stems brha + Sanskrit -man- from Indo-European root -men- which denotes some manifested form of power, inherent firmness. In later Sanskrit usage, Brahma, brahman means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, the concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta, this is discussed below. Brahm is another variant of Brahman, Brahmā, Brahman, means the deity or deva Prajāpati Brahmā. He is one of the members of the Hindu trinity and associated with creation, but does not have a cult in present-day India. This is because Brahmā, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i. e. Brahmā gets absorbed back into Purusha at the end of an aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new kalpa. These are distinct from, A brāhmaṇa, is a commentary on the Vedic mantras—an integral part of the Vedic literature. A brāhmaṇa, means priest, in this usage the word is rendered in English as Brahmin. This usage is found in the Atharva Veda. Ishvara, in Advaita, is identified as a partial manifestation of the ultimate reality
Brahman
–
Impact of a drop of water in water, a common analogy for Brahman and the
Ātman
Brahman
–
Swan (Hansa, हंस) is the symbol for Brahman-Atman in Hindu iconography.
Brahman
23.
Arthur Llewellyn Basham
–
Arthur Llewellyn Basham was a noted historian and indologist and author of a number of books. As a Professor at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London in the 1950s, Arthur Llewellyn Basham was born on 24 May 1914, in Loughton, Essex, the son of Abraham Arthur Edward Basham and Maria Jane Basham née Thompson. Although an only child, he grew up in Essex with his adopted sister and his mother was also a journalist and short story writer further instilling a love of language and literature. As a child, he was introduced to music and learnt to play the piano to a high standard. As an undergrad at ANU in the 1970s I well remember attending his Asian Civilizations lectures in the HC Coombs lecture theatre, one morning in 1974 we noticed that an upright piano had been left from a performance the previous evening. Upon arrival for his lecture, Prof Basham calmly strolled over to the piano, sat down, a standing ovation from his students followed. I can still see him striding across the campus, pipe-in-mouth, Basham developed a keen interest in religion which began with the Christianity he was brought up with and then extended into Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam. He went on to take a BA in Sanskrit from the School of Oriental and African Studies, after the war he returned to SOAS and began researching for a Ph. D under Professor L. D. For his research into the History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas he received a scholarship and he became a lecturer in 1948, attained the Ph. D in 1950, became a Reader in 1954, and in 1958 was promoted to Professorship. When the Head of the Department of History, Professor C. H, after retiring from ANU in 1979, Basham accepted a series of one year visiting professorships with various universities. Basham was one of the first western historians to critically gauge the impact of Swami Vivekananda from a global perspective, Basham was appointed Swami Vivekananda Professor in Oriental Studies at the Asiatic Society of Calcutta in September 1985. He died in Calcutta in India in 1986, an annual public lecture series is given at the ANU in his memory. Possibly his most popular book is The Wonder That was India - published seven years after the 1947 Independence of India, revised editions of the book were released in 1963 and then 1967. Rupa & Co, New Delhi brought out an edition in 1981. London, brought out an edition in 1985. By 2001, the version was in its 37th edition. Amazon. com staff review/book description reads most widely used introduction to Indian civilization, although first published in 1954, it has remained a classic interpretation. In book he mention that man can escape from Law of Gravity as well as passage of Time but not from his deeds. Basham also wrote History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas, based on his PhD work done under L. D. Barnett, several of his key papers on Hinduism were edited as the book The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism by Kenneth G. Zysk
Arthur Llewellyn Basham
–
Arthur Llewellyn Basham
Arthur Llewellyn Basham
–
Group Photograph showing
T. V. Venkatachala Sastry (first from right) with A. L. Basham (third from left) during a meet at University of Mysore.
24.
Maitri Upanishad
–
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad is an ancient Sanskrit text that is embedded inside the Yajurveda. It is also known as the Maitri Upanishad, and is listed as number 24 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad is associated with the Maitrayanas school of the Yajurveda. The chronology of Maitrayaniya Upanishad is contested, but generally accepted to be a late period Upanishadic composition, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad consists of seven Prapathakas. The content and structure of the Upanishad is also different in various manuscript recensions, the etymological root of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad are unclear. This has historically led to a variety of names and spellings for this Upanishad, Maitra and Maitri are related words which literally mean kindly, benevolent, good will, amity, friend of all creatures. The likely root for the Upanishad is probably the name of an ancient Indian scholar, Maitra, sometimes spelled Maitri or Maitreya, the ancient scholar is also credited with a school of thought, thus giving the text the name Maitrayaniya Upanishad. Olivelle includes Maitri Upanishad among the list of principal Upanishads that were composed last, mahony suggests an earlier date, placing Prashna along with Maitri and Mandukya Upanishads, as texts that probably emerged about early fourth century BCE. Jayatilleke states, Buddhism is not far removed in time from, though it is prior to, nakamura states that although Buddhistic influence can be seen in the Maitri Upanishad, the particular terms and modes of expression of Mahayana Buddhism do not yet appear. Phillips, in contrast, lists Maitri Upanishad before and about the time the first Buddhist Pali canonical texts were composed, ranade posits a view similar to Phillips, placing Maitris chronological composition in the fifth group of ancient Upanishads and last of the Principal Upanishads. The extant recension of the text consists seven Prapāṭhakas, of several sections are Khilas added later. The last two are called as khila by medieval era Indian scholar Ramatirtha, others consider the last three sections as supplements and appendices. Other discovered manuscript versions of the Maitri Upanishad present different number of sections, ranging from 1 to 4, there are also differences in style, structure and content among the discovered manuscripts when the text contains the same number of sections. The text is a prose style Upanishad, with a collection of different sized paragraphs. The first section has four paragraphs, the second has seven, as appendices, the fifth lesson has two paragraphs, while the sixth Prapathaka is the longest section with thirty eight paragraphs. The last supplementary section, or the seventh Prapāṭhaka has eleven paragraphs some with many sub-paragraphs, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad is embedded after the Brahmana text of Yajur Veda, and in its opening passages refers to rituals contained therein. It contextually belongs to the Sannyasa Upanishads corpus, hume includes it among his list of Thirteen Principal Upanishads. Maitri Upanishad deals with the concept and nature of Atman, the question of how is joy possible, and how one can achieve moksha. in later sections it offers a debate on possible answers. Therefore, let such man, after he has laid those fires, meditate on the Self, to become complete, but who is to be meditated on
Maitri Upanishad
–
The significance of Om symbol is discussed in many Principal Upanishads, including the Maitri.
25.
Baroli Temples
–
The Baroli Temples Complex, also known as the Badoli temples, is located in Baroli village in Rawatbhata town in Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan, India. The complex of eight temples is situated within a walled enclosure and they are built in the Pratihara style of temple architecture dated to the tenth century A. D. All nine temples are under the control of the Archaeological Survey of India for conservation and protection. A well known art critic characterised the creations of Badoli as the most perfect of their age that he had encountered within that part of the country and, the Baroli Temples Complex is located in Baroli village in Rawatbhata town in Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan, India. The complex is located close to the bank of the Chambal River,45 kilometres south east of Kota. Set around a fountain, they are positioned in two zones in the midst of a forest containing peepal, kadamba, mango, and jamun trees. Though the history of the Baroli Temples is not very clear and they are one of the earliest temple complexes in Rajasthan. A carved stone image of the god Nataraja was stolen from the Baroli temple complex in 1998 and it has been traced to a private collector in London. However, the statue has not been recovered so far, the 10th-century Baroli Temples are of great architectural interest, consisting of temple structures built in the Gurjara-Pratihara architectural style, with exquisitely carved stonework. They are in differing stages of upkeep, with some in a semi-ruined state, there are 8 major temples in Baroli and a ninth about one kilometre away. Four temples are dedicated to Shiva, two to Durga and one each to Shiva-Trimurti, Vishnu and Ganesha, the Nataraja images carved in these temples are similar to those seen at Upramala. The sculpture has 16 arms and its headdress is matted, there is a large diadem carved at the centre top of the skull, which is garnished with beaded swags. The facial features are fine, with high arched brows. The Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple is the most prominent and the largest in the complex, the main temple structure comprises the sanctum and the mukhamandapa, a front mandapa or hall. Dated to the early 10th century, it is a structure which has the god Shiva depicted in the form of five lingas. One linga appears like an inverted ghata or pot, and hence the given to the temple of Ghateshwara. The sanctum has a ceiling in the form of a blossoming lotus. The temple has a finely carved shikara above the sanctum, the superstructure has been described as a latina and the pinnacle is a phamsana
Baroli Temples
–
Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple, Baroli Temples Complex
Baroli Temples
–
Sringar Chauri of the 10th-century Ghateshwara Mahadeva Temple
Baroli Temples
–
A typical architectural feature in the temples of the complex
Baroli Temples
–
Temple of
Ganesha
26.
Elephanta Caves
–
Elephanta Caves are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island, or Gharapuri in Mumbai Harbour,10 kilometres to the east of the city of Mumbai in the Indian state of Maharashtra. The island, located on an arm of the Arabian Sea, consists of two groups of caves—the first is a group of five Hindu caves, the second. The Hindu caves contain rock cut sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect. The rock cut architecture of the caves has been dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries, although the identity of the builders is still a subject of debate. The caves are hewn from basalt rock. All the caves were originally painted in the past. The main cave was a Hindu place of worship until Portuguese rule began in 1534 and this cave was renovated in the 1970s after years of neglect, and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 to preserve the artwork. It is currently maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India, Elephanta Island, or Gharapuri, is about 11 km east of the Apollo Bunder on the Mumbai Harbour and 10 km south of Pir Pal in Trombay. The island covers about 10 km2 at high tide and about 16 km2 at low tide, Gharapuri is small village on the south side of the island. The Elephanta Caves can be reached by a ferry from the Gateway of India, Mumbai, the cave is closed on Monday. The island is 2.4 km in length with two hills that rise to a height of about 150 m, a deep ravine cuts through the heart of the island from north to south. On the west, the hill rises gently from the sea and stretches east across the ravine and this hill is known as the Stupa hill. Forest growth with clusters of mango, tamarind, and karanj trees cover the hills with scattered palm trees, rice fields are seen in the valley. The fore shore is made up of sand and mud with mangrove bushes on the fringe, landing quays sit near three small hamlets known as Set Bunder in the north-west, Mora Bunder in the northeast, and Gharapuri or Raj Bunder in the south. One of the caves on the hill is unfinished. It is an island with a buffer zone according to a Notification issued in 1985. Since no inscriptions on any of the island have been discovered, pandavas, the heroes of the Indian epic Mahabharata, and Banasura, the demon devotee of Shiva, are both credited with building temples or cut caves to live. Local tradition holds that the caves are not man-made, the Elephanta caves are of unknown date and attribution
Elephanta Caves
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20 feet (6.1 m) high Trimurti sculpture
Elephanta Caves
–
The hills of the Elephanta Islands
Elephanta Caves
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Caves of Elephanta, c. 1905. Note the broken pillars, which were restored in the 1970s.
Elephanta Caves
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The elephant sculpture from Elephanta is currently installed at the
Jijamata Udyaan
27.
Prambanan
–
The temple compound is located approximately 17 kilometres northeast of the city of Yogyakarta on the boundary between Central Java and Yogyakarta provinces. The temple compound, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the largest Hindu temple site in Indonesia and it is characterized by its tall and pointed architecture, typical of Hindu architecture, and by the towering 47-metre-high central building inside a large complex of individual temples. Prambanan attracts many visitors from around the world, the Prambanan temple is the largest Hindu temple of ancient Java, and the first building was completed in the mid-9th century. It was likely started by Rakai Pikatan as the Hindu Sanjaya Dynastys answer to the Buddhist Sailendra Dynastys Borobudur, the construction of this massive Hindu temple signifies that the Medang court had shifted its patronage from Mahayana Buddhism to Shaivite Hinduism. A temple was first built at the site around 850 CE by Rakai Pikatan and expanded extensively by King Lokapala, according to the Shivagrha inscription of 856 CE, the temple was built to honor Lord Shiva, and its original name was Shiva-grha or Shiva-laya. According to the Shivagrha inscription, a water project to change the course of a river near Shivagrha Temple was undertaken during the construction of the temple. The river, identified as the Opak River, now runs north to south on the side of the Prambanan temple compound. Historians suggest that originally the river was curved further to east and was deemed too near to the main temple, the project was done by cutting the river along a north to south axis along the outer wall of the Shivagrha Temple compound. The former river course was filled in and made level to create a space for the temple expansion. Some archaeologists propose that the statue of Shiva in the garbhagriha of the temple was modelled after King Balitung, serving as a depiction of his deified self after death. The temple compound was expanded by successive Mataram kings, such as Daksa and Tulodong, Prambanan served as the royal temple of the Kingdom of Mataram, with most of the states religious ceremonies and sacrifices being conducted there. At the height of the kingdom, scholars estimate that hundreds of brahmins with their disciples lived within the wall of the temple compound. The urban center and the court of Mataram were located nearby, in the 930s, the court was shifted to East Java by Mpu Sindok, who established the Isyana Dynasty. An eruption of Mount Merapi volcano, located north of Prambanan in central Java and that marked the beginning of the decline of the temple. It was soon abandoned and began to deteriorate, the temples collapsed during a major earthquake in the 16th century. Although the temple ceased to be an important center of worship, the statues and the ruins become the theme and the inspiration for the Loro Jonggrang folktale. As a result, the locals developed tales and legends to explain the origin of temples, infused with myths of giants, and a cursed princess. They gave Prambanan and Sewu a wondorous origin, these were said in the Loro Jonggrang legend to have created by a multitude of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso
Prambanan
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Prambanan
–
The Prambanan temple compound amid the morning mist.
Prambanan
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The ruins of Prambanan c. 1895, soon after their rediscovery.
28.
Western Chalukya architecture
–
Western Chalukyan political influence was at its peak in the Deccan Plateau during this period. The centre of cultural and temple-building activity lay in the Tungabhadra region and these monuments, regional variants of pre-existing dravida temples, defined the Karnata dravida tradition. Temples of all built by the Chalukyan architects during this era remain today as examples of the architectural style. The surviving Western Chalukya monuments are built in the Shaiva, Vaishnava. None of the military, civil, or courtly architecture has survived, being built of mud, brick and wood, the centre of these architectural developments was the region encompassing the present-day Dharwad district, it included areas of present-day Haveri and Gadag districts. In these districts, about fifty monuments have survived as evidence of the temple building of the Western Chalukyan workshops. The influence of this style extended beyond the Kalyani region in the northeast to the Bellary region in the east, in the Bijapur–Belgaum region to the north, the style was mixed with that of the Hemadpanti temples. Although a few Western Chalukyan temples can be found in the Konkan region, though the basic plan of the Western Chalukya style originated from the older dravida style, many of its features were unique and peculiar to it. One of these features of the Western Chalukyan architectural style was an articulation that can still be found throughout modern Karnataka. The only exceptions to this motif can be found in the area around Kalyani, the Western Chalukya temples were smaller than those of the early Chalukyas, a fact discernible in the reduced height of the superstructures which tower over the shrines. During the first phase, temples were built in the Aihole-Banashankari-Mahakuta region and Ron in the Gadag district, a few provisional workshops built them in Sirval in the Gulbarga district and Gokak in the Belgaum district. The mature and latter phase reached its peak at Lakkundi, a seat of the imperial court. From the mid-11th century, the artisans from the Lakkundi school moved south of the Tungabhadra River, thus the influence of the Lakkundi school can be seen in some of the temples of the Davangere district, and in the temples at Hirehadagalli and Huvinahadgalli in the Bellary district. Sometimes called the Gadag style of architecture, Western Chalukya architecture is considered a precursor to the Hoysala architecture of southern Karnataka and this influence occurred because the early builders employed by the Hoysalas came from pronounced centres of medieval Chalukya art. Further monuments in this style were not only by the Western Chalukya kings but. A typical Western Chalukya temple may be examined from three aspects – the basic plan, the architectural articulation, and the figure sculptures. The basic floor plan is defined by the size of the shrine, the size of the sanctum, the distribution of the building mass, architectural articulation refers to the ornamental components that give shape to the outer wall of the shrine. These include projections, recesses, and representations that can produce a variety of patterns and outlines, either stepped, stellate, if stepped, these components form five or seven projections on each side of the shrine, where all but the central one are projecting corners
Western Chalukya architecture
–
Dodda Basappa Temple at
Dambal, a unique 24-pointed, uninterrupted stellate (star-shaped), 7-tiered dravida plan, 12th century CE
Western Chalukya architecture
–
Core area of Western Chalukya architectural activity in modern
Karnataka state, India
Western Chalukya architecture
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Mallikarjuna temple at Kuruvatti, 11th century CE
Western Chalukya architecture
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Kaitabhesvara temple at Kubatur, 4-tiered plan, 1100 CE
29.
Surya
–
Surya means the Sun in Nepal and India. Synonyms of Surya in ancient Indian literature include Aditya, Arka, Bhanu, Savitr, Pushan, Ravi, Martanda, Mitra and Vivasvan. Surya also connotes the solar deity in Hinduism, particularly in the Saura tradition found in such as Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand. He is one of the five deities considered as equivalent aspects and his iconography is often depicted riding a chariot harnessed by horses, often seven in number which represent the seven colour rays of the rainbow. In medieval Hinduism, Surya is also an epithet for the major Hindu gods Shiva, in some ancient texts and arts, Surya is presented syncretically with Indra, Ganesha or others. Surya as a deity is found in the arts and literature of Buddhism and Jainism. Surya is one of the nine houses in the zodiac system of Hindu astrology. Surya or Ravi is the basis of Ravivara, or Sunday, major festivals and pilgrimages in reverence of Surya include Makar Sankranti, Pongal and Kumbh Mela. However, the usage is context specific, in some hymns, the word Surya simply means sun as an inanimate object, a stone or a gem in the sky, while in others it refers to a personified deity. The Vedas assert Sun to be the creator of the material universe, in the Brahmanas layer of Vedic literature, Surya appears with Agni in the same hymns. Surya is revered for the day, while Agni for its role during the night, the idea evolves, states Kapila Vatsyayan, where Surya is stated to be Agni as the first principle and the seed of the universe. It is in the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas, and the Upanishads that Surya is explicitly linked to the power of sight, to visual perception and knowledge. In the Ramayana, Surya is described as father of the King Sugriva, the Suryavanshi dynasty of kings, Rama being one of them, also claims descent from Surya. Eastern kingdom of mahabharta and ramayana are called to be of Suryas potential, in the Mahabharata, Karna is the son of Surya and unmarried princess Kunti. The epic describes Kuntis trauma as a mother, then abandonment of Karna. Baby Karna is found, adopted and grows up to one of the central characters in the great battle of Kurukshetra where he fights his step brothers. Surya is celebrated as a deity in Buddhist artwork, such as the ancient works attributed to Ashoka, for example, Surya appears in Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya, riding in a chariot pulled by four horses. Sun is a deity is ancient and medieval cultures found in South America, Europe, Africa
Surya
–
Surya
Surya
Surya
–
Surya sculpture
Surya
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Sun Temple, Modhera
30.
Agni
–
Agni means fire, and connotes the Vedic fire god of Hinduism. Agni also refers to one of the deities of direction. In the Vedic literature, Agni is a major and oft invoked god along with Indra, Agni is considered as the mouth of the gods and goddesses, and the medium that conveys offerings to them in a homa. He is conceptualized in ancient Hindu texts to exist at three levels, on earth as fire, in atmosphere as lightning, and in the sky as sun and this triple presence connects him as the messenger between gods and human beings in the Vedic thought. Agni is a term that appears extensively in Buddhist texts, the Sanskrit word Agni means fire. In the early Vedic literature, Agni primarily connotes the fire as a god, one reflecting the primordial powers to consume, transform and convey. In the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas, such as in section 5.2.3 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Agni represents all the gods, the etymology of Agni is uncertain and contested. According to the 5th-century BCE Sanskrit text Nirukta-Nighantu in section 7, from root aj, which in Sanskrit means to drive and mirrors in Indo-European languages in the sense of nimble, agile. There are many theories about the origins of the god Agni, some tracing it to Indo-European mythologies, the origin myth found in many Indo-European cultures is one of a bird, or bird like being, that carries or brings fire from the gods to mankind. Alternatively, this brings a elixir of immortality from heaven to earth. In either case, the bird returns everyday with sacrificial offerings for the gods, Agni is molded in similar mythical themes, in some hymns with the phrase the heavenly bird that flies. Agni originated from the forehead of Prajapati, assert these texts, with the creation of Agni came light, and with that were created day and night. Agni, state these Samhitas, is the same as the Brahman, the truth, Agni is originally conceptualized as the ultimate source of the creator-maintainer-destroyer triad, then one of the trinities, as the one who ruled the earth. His twin brother Indra ruled the atmosphere as the god of storm, rain and war, while Surya ruled the sky and his position and importance evolves over time, in the creator-maintainer-destroyer aspects of existence in Hindu thought. In the Vedic pantheon, Agni occupies, after Indra, the most important position, Agni is prominent in the hymns of the Vedas and particularly the Brahmanas. In the Rig Veda there are over 200 hymns that praise Agni and his name or synonyms appear in nearly a third of 1,028 hymns in the Rigveda. The Rigveda opens with a hymn inviting Agni, who is addressed later in the hymn as the guardian of Ṛta. The Vedas describe the parents of Agni as two kindling fire sticks, whose loving action creates him, just born, he is poetically presented as a tender baby, who needs loving attention lest he vanishes
Agni
–
Agni, the fire god
Agni
–
Agni with his consort
Svaha.
Agni
–
A
Hindu Marriage Ceremony in progress.
Agni
–
Yajna being performed at Vishnu Yangna Kunda on the occasion of
Kumbhabhishekam of renovated Gunjanarsimhaswamy Temple at
Tirumakudal Narsipur.
31.
Vayu
–
Vāyu is a primary Hindu deity, the lord of the winds, the father of Bhima and the spiritual father of Hanuman. He is also known as Vāta, Pavana, and sometimes Prāṇa, the word for air or wind is one of the classical elements in Hinduism. The Sanskrit word Vāta literally means blown, Vāyu blower, hence, the primary referent of the word is the deity of Life, who is sometimes for clarity referred to as Mukhya-Vāyu or Mukhya Prāna. Sometimes the word vāyu, which is generally used in the sense of the physical air or wind, is used as a synonym for prāna. Vāta, a name for Vāyu, is the root of the Sanskrit and Hindi term for atmosphere. Pavan is also a fairly common Hindu name, Pavana played an important role in Anjanas begetting Hanuman as her child so Hanuman is also called Pavanaputra son of Pavana and Vāyuputra. In the Mahabharata, Bhima was the son and an incarnation of Vāyu and he utilised his huge power and skill with the mace for supporting Dharma. In the hymns, Vayu is described as having exceptional beauty and moving noisily in his shining coach, a white banner is his main attribute. Like the other deities, he is a fighter and destroyer, powerful. In the Upanishads, there are numerous statements and illustrations of the greatness of Vāyu, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states that the gods who control bodily functions once engaged in a contest to determine who among them is the greatest. When a deity such as that of vision would leave a mans body, one by one the deities all took their turns leaving the body, but the man continued to live on, though successively impaired in various ways. This caused the other deities to realize that they can only when empowered by Vayu. In another episode, Vāyu is said to be the only deity not afflicted by demons of sin who were on the attack, the Chandogya Upanishad states that one cannot know Brahman except by knowing Vāyu as the udgitha. Mukhya-Vāyu also incarnated as Madhvacharya to teach worthy souls to worship the Supreme God Vishnu, the first Avatar of Vayu is considered to be Hanuman. His exploits are elucidated in Ramayana, the second Avatar of Vayu is Bheema, one of the Pandavas appearing in the epic, Mahabharata. The Third Avatar is traditionally ascribed to Madhvacharya, a 13th Century Indian philosopher, in the Buddhism of the Far East, Vayu is one of the twelve Devas, as guardian deities, who are found in or around Buddhist shrines. In Japan, he has been called Fu-ten and he joins these other eleven Devas of Buddhism, found in Japan and other parts of southeast Asia, Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirrti, Vayu, Ishana, Kubera, Varuna Brahma, Prithvi, Surya, Chandra. List of wind deities Vayu-Vata - in his Zoroastrian context Maruts, attendants of Indra, rudra, the Vedic wind or storm God
Vayu
–
Vayu, on his mount, the
gazelle symbolizing swiftness
32.
Gharapuri Island
–
Elephanta Island is one of a number of islands in Mumbai Harbour, east of Mumbai, India. This island is a popular tourist destination because of the cave temples, the Elephanta Caves. The island is accessible by ferry from Mumbai, being about 10 kilometres from the south east coast of the island city. Boats leave daily from the Gateway of India, taking about an hour each way, the tickets for these can be bought at the Gateway itself. The first ferry leaves at 9 am and the last at 2 pm, from the boat landing stage on the island, a walkway leads to steps that go up to the famous caves. There is also a toy train from the boat area on the dock to the base of the steps leading up to the caves. Along the path, hawkers sell souvenirs like necklaces, anklets, showpieces, there are also stalls to buy food and drinks. Small monkeys play along the sides of the path, occasionally thieving items from the hawkers, trashcans and tourists. Known in ancient times as Gharapuri, the name Elephanta island, was given by 16th century Portuguese explorers and they decided to take it home but ended up dropping it into the sea because their chains were not strong enough. Later, this sculpture was moved to the Victoria and Albert Museum in Mumbai and this island was once the capital of a powerful local kingdom. In Manuscript F by Leonardo da Vinci there is a note in which he says Map of Elephanta in India which Antonello the heberdasher has and it is unclear who this Florentine travelle Antonello might have been. The island has an area of 16 km2 and it is located at approximately 18. 95°N72. 93°E /18.95,72.93. The area comes under the jurisdiction of the Raigad district in Maharashtra State, the island is thickly wooded with palm, mango, and tamarind trees. It has a population of about 1,200, the inhabitants are mainly involved in growing rice, fishing, and repairing boats. There are two British-era cannons at the top, quite recently, a small dam has been built so as to hold rainwater but that part of the island is privately owned and not accessible for tourists. There are a total of three villages, Shentbandar, Morabandar, and Rajbandar, of which Rajbandar is the capital, Caves and stalls can be seen in Shentbandar. Staying overnight is not permitted for tourists, the first return ferry leaves at 12, 30pm and the last at 5, 30pm. Elephanta Elephanta caves UNESCO World Heritage Site Going’s tough at Gharapuri Duffers Guide to Elephanta, Mid-Day, Feb 22,2007, pg A14
Gharapuri Island
–
The island as seen from close to the boat landing
Gharapuri Island
–
View of Elephanta island jetty, from
Elephanta Caves.
Gharapuri Island
–
Sculpture inside a cave.
Gharapuri Island
–
Boats of fishermen living on the island.
33.
Shaivites
–
Shaivism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism that reveres Shiva as the Supreme Being or its metaphysical concept of Brahman. The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivas or Saivas, like much of Hinduism, the Shaiva have many sub-traditions, ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-oriented monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism. It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology, Shaivism has ancient roots, traceable in the Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE, but this is in the form of the Vedic deity Rudra. In the early centuries of the era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism. Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE and it arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions. In the contemporary era, Shaivism is one of the aspects of Hinduism. Shaivism theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, destroyer to being the same as the Atman within oneself and it is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples. It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, Shaivism is one of the largest traditions within Hinduism. Shiva literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious, as a proper name, it means The Auspicious One. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, the Sanskrit word śaiva or Shaiva means relating to the god Shiva, while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism. The reverence for Shiva is one of the traditions, found widely across India, Sri Lanka. While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex religion, Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism, with a theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in philosophy, Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools, ranging from nondualism, dualism, and mixed schools. The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars, some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization, which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE. Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that appears like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal, which scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals. This Pashupati seal has been interpreted by scholars as a prototype of Shiva
Shaivites
–
The Development of the Saiva Traditions. Source: Gavinf Flood (1997), An Introduction to Hinduism, p.152.
Shaivites
–
1008 Lingas carved on a rock surface. Photograph is taken at the shore of the river
Tungabhadra,
Hampi, India
Shaivites
–
Shaivism Groupings. Source: Gavin Flood (2006), The Tantric Body, p.59.
Shaivites
–
History
34.
Shaiva
–
Shaivism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism that reveres Shiva as the Supreme Being or its metaphysical concept of Brahman. The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivas or Saivas, like much of Hinduism, the Shaiva have many sub-traditions, ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-oriented monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism. It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology, Shaivism has ancient roots, traceable in the Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE, but this is in the form of the Vedic deity Rudra. In the early centuries of the era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism. Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE and it arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions. In the contemporary era, Shaivism is one of the aspects of Hinduism. Shaivism theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, destroyer to being the same as the Atman within oneself and it is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples. It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, Shaivism is one of the largest traditions within Hinduism. Shiva literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious, as a proper name, it means The Auspicious One. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, the Sanskrit word śaiva or Shaiva means relating to the god Shiva, while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism. The reverence for Shiva is one of the traditions, found widely across India, Sri Lanka. While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex religion, Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism, with a theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in philosophy, Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools, ranging from nondualism, dualism, and mixed schools. The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars, some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization, which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE. Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that appears like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal, which scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals. This Pashupati seal has been interpreted by scholars as a prototype of Shiva
Shaiva
–
The Development of the Saiva Traditions. Source: Gavinf Flood (1997), An Introduction to Hinduism, p.152.
Shaiva
–
1008 Lingas carved on a rock surface. Photograph is taken at the shore of the river
Tungabhadra,
Hampi, India
Shaiva
–
Shaivism Groupings. Source: Gavin Flood (2006), The Tantric Body, p.59.
Shaiva
–
History
35.
Sadyojata
–
According to Śaiva Agama, Lord Shiva performs five actions - creation, preservation, dissolution, concealing grace, and revealing grace. Each of the five actions corresponds to a name and form of Shiva with varying attributes and these five names are, Names with Relation to Action Performed, Direction Faced, and Associated Element, Sadyojāta - Creation. Though bearing each a different name, form, and set of qualities, these are all aspects of a one Supreme Being - Śiva and this face of Śiva will give both happiness and sadness to all creatures. This face of Śiva can potentially evoke curse and anger from Śiva, one billion mantras are trying to describe this face of Śiva. This aspect is attained by solitude and practices that transcend conventional structures, vāmadeva, Represents Citta rūpa and Citta rūpiṇi of Śiva. This is Turīya, attained by getting acquainted with primordial energy of the sun and this face of Śiva has special powers to heal both mentally and physically of any creature. Two billion mantras are trying to describe this face of Śiva, blood red in color it represents unmatched force that is capable of transforming all elements of the cosmos. Predominates the energy of life force. It represents indescribable amount of brightness of light, only those established in yoga can contain it within their physical forms, otherwise the mortal frame sheds itself immediately resulting in union with Vamadeva. The adepts contain energy of creation of elements within themselves and it is function of Prakṛti and Parā Śaktī. This face of Śiva is Buddhi rūpa, one billion mantras are trying to describe this face of Śiva. It represents our balanced aspect of Ahaṃkāra Tattva and it represents the forces of Rudra. Two billion mantras are trying to describe this face of Śiva, If you have severe difficulty in focusing on any subject, you should meditate this face of Śiva. Īśāna, Represents the Citta Śaktī of Śiva, starts from your Mūlādhāra to Anahata to Ajna to Sahasrara leading to Brahma Randra in your body. One billion mantras are trying to describe this face of Śiva, the individual is from very less to not at all receptive to social structures. Possesses excellent qualities of controlling mortal and divine beings with ease, the individual has reduced his ego to ashes signifying absolute love for the universe and has been freed from cosmic law. Depending on your Rāśi, Lagna, Daśā, Antardaśā, Janma Nakṣatra, If your resultant is south, you can mediate Southern face of Śiva i. e. Aghora. Depending on the area of life, Kendra, Koṇa, Duṣṭhāna, Trikoṇa
Sadyojata
–
History
36.
Vamadeva
–
In Hinduism, Vamadeva is the name of the preserving aspect of the God Siva, one of six aspects of the universe he embodies. On a six-faced Sivalingam, Vamadeva appears on the hand side. This face/aspect of Śiva is considered the peaceful, graceful and poetic one — the lord of the aspect of it is associated with water. The Brahman splits into male and female and manifests as the universe, the parashiva has six aspects, Sadyojata — west-aspect that propagates manifest Brahman, associated with Brahma, represents earth. Tatpurusha — east-aspect that reveals, associated with Rishi, Muni, Jnani, yogi, Vamadeva — north-aspect that sustains manifest Brahman, associated with Vishnu, represents water. Isana — internal-aspect that conceals, associated with all that exist, aghora — south-aspect that rejuvenates manifest Brahman, associated with Rudra, represents fire. Thiruvadhanam Six-faced Kartikeya was created by God Siva using his third eye of all the six faces. The name comes from Sanskrit vāma = left, which is the seat of the Śakti and normally associated with beauty and the female, as a Gods name it is a karmadharaya and means beautiful God. As a mans name it is probably a bahuvrihi and means he whose God is beautiful, Brahma created Vamadevas, after he saw, that manasputras, created by him, are not focused on creation and instead focused on meditation and ascese. Vamadeva created lightning, thunderbolt, clouds, rainbows, varieties of all of which are immortals. They are also known as Rudras as they created immortals, Brahma then request Rudras to only create the mortals and not the immortals. Rudra saying that they could create the immortals, stopped the work of creation. Eleven Rudras were created by Brahma, each carry Trishula in their hand, the eleven Vamadeva are Ajaykapada, Ahirbudhanya, Virukapsa, Raivata, Hara, Bahurupa, Triambaka, Savitra, Jayanta, Pinaki and Aparajita. The name Rudra literally means immortal is associated with Shiva. Unlike Sadyojata, Vamadeva is considered as the embodiment of power over elements of creation, Vamadeva is also the name of a rishi, credited with most of Mandala 4 of the Rigveda. He is mentioned prominently in the Upanishads as well, particularly the Brihadaranyaka and his father was Gautama Maharishi, said to be one of the Saptarishi or seven great sages, and his brother Nodhas also has hymns in the Rigveda. Represents Citta rūpa and Citta rūpiṇi of Śiva and this is Turīya, attained by getting acquainted with primordial energy of the sun. This face of Śiva has special powers to heal both mentally and physically of any creature, two billion mantras are trying to describe this face of Śiva
Vamadeva
–
History
37.
Bhairava
–
Bhairava is a Hindu deity, a fierce manifestation of Shiva associated with annihilation. Bhairava originated in Hindu legends and is sacred to Hindus and Jains alike and he is worshiped throughout India and Nepal. Bhairava is the form of Lord Shiva and they guard the cardinal points. These 64 Bhairavas are grouped under 8 categories and each category is headed by one major Bhairava, the major eight Bhairavas are called Aṣṭāṅga Bhairavas. The Ashta Bhairavas control the 8 directions of this universe, each Bhairava has eight sub Bhairavas under them, totaling 64 Bhairavas. All of the Bhairavas are ruled and controlled by Maha Swarna Kala Bhairava otherwise known as Kala Bhairava, Bhairavi is the consort of Kala Bhairava Bhairava is also called as protector, as he guards the eight directions of the universe. In all Hindu temples, there will be a Bhairava idol and this Bhairava is the protector of the temple. In Shiva temples, when the temple is closed, the keys are placed before Bhairava, Bhairava is also described as the protector of women. He is described as the protector of the timid and in women who are timid in nature. Bhairava originates from the word bhīru, which means fearful and its also known as one who destroys fear or one who is beyond fear. The right interpretation is he protects his devotees from dreadful enemies, greed, lust, Bhairava protects his devotees from these enemies. These enemies are dangerous as they never allow us to seek God within, bha means creation, ra means sustenance and va means destruction. Therefore, Bhairava is the one who creates, sustains and dissolves the three stages of life, therefore, he becomes the ultimate or the supreme. The origin of Bhairava can be traced to a conversation between Brahma and Vishnu which is recounted in the Shiva Mahapuranam, in it, Vishnu inquired of Brahma, Who is the supreme creator of the Universe. Arrogantly, Brahma told Vishnu to worship him as Supreme Creator, one day, Brahma thought I have five heads. I can do everything that Shiva does and therefore I am Shiva, Brahma became a little egotistical as a result of this. Additionally, he began to forge the work of Shiva and also started interfering in what Shiva was supposed to be doing, consequently, Mahadeva threw a small nail from his finger which assumed the form of Kala Bhairava and casually went to cut off one of Brahmas heads. The skull of Brahma is held in the hands of Kala Bhairava, Brahma Kapala in the hands of Kala Bhairava and Brahma’s ego was destroyed, from then on, he became useful to himself, to the world and deeply grateful to Shiva
Bhairava
–
Bhairava
Bhairava
–
Kaal Bhairab, Kathmandu, Nepal
Bhairava
–
Bhairava with his consort,
Bhairavi
Bhairava
–
Shri Swarna Kala Bhairava consecrated at Kaga Ashram,
Thiruvannamalai, India
38.
Adi Parashakti
–
According to Shaktism and Hindu mythology, Adi Para Shakti—the Goddess, Devi—is the Supreme Being. She is also referred to as Adi Shakti, Parama Shakti, Maha Shakti, Mahadevi. Parama means absolute, Satya means the Truth as per many shakta texts, the Devi Bhagawata Mahapurana states that Adi Parashakti is the original creator, observer and destroyer of the whole universe. As per Shaktism, Adi Parashakti appeared as Divine Pure Eternal Consciousness i. e. Shoonya Bindu, the divine feminine energy. Hence Adi Parashakti is Parama Prakriti, Goddess Lalita Tripura Sundari is the original manifested form of Mother Adi-Parashakti. Goddess Parvati/Durga is Adi- Parashakti herself and is the incarnation of Lalita Tripura Sundari. Goddess Lalita Tripura Sundari, the goddess of power, is considered as her saguna svarupa and that is, Lalita Tripura Sundari is the truest material form of the Goddess, possessing the three qualities. However, the Goddess Adi Para Shakti is also considered to be truly supreme spirit without form and she is the Great Goddess, and therefore the source of all other goddesses. She is supreme and regarded as the Absolute Truth in Shaktism, Adi Parashakti means The Eternally Limitless Power. That is, she is the Power beyond this universe and she is the active energy that both creates and dissolves the entire universe. When there was nothing, suddenly a light emerged then that light took the form of adishakti and she had three eyes, carring trishul, shield, mace, bow, arrow, chakra, longsword and one hand as abhaya mudra. She looked here and there but saw nothing, after seeing nothing she took the form of kushmanda. She was seated on a lioness, when she opened her left eye mahakali was born. When she opened her third eye mahasaraswati was born and when she opened her right eye mahalakshmi was born, before she opened her eyes she smiled a bit and from the smile all universes were created. In the Devi Gita, it is suggested that before incarnating as Parvati, she appeared to King Himalaya and revealed divine and she explained herself, in the words of the Vedas, as having neither beginning nor end. She is the only, eternal truth, the whole universe is her creation. She is the victor and the manifestation of victory itself. She is a manifested, unmanifested and transcendent divinity, except for Shakta Puranas, Adi Shakti has never been mentioned with the name Adi Shakti
Adi Parashakti
–
Divine Mother, God as Mother
Adi Parashakti
–
Goddess Adi ParaShakthi is the Presiding Deity at the
Parashakthi Temple in Pontiac, USA
Adi Parashakti
–
Sri Lalita-Tripurasundari enthroned with her left foot upon the
Sri Chakra, holding her traditional symbols, the sugarcane bow, flower arrows, noose, and goad.She is seated on a chair constituted by Brahma,Vishnu,Shiva,Maheswara and Sadashiva.Lakshmi and Sarswati fanning her
Adi Parashakti
–
Devi
39.
Mahasaraswati
–
Saraswati is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, arts, wisdom and learning worshipped throughout Nepal and India. She is a part of the trinity of Saraswati, Lakshmi, all the three forms help the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva to create, maintain and regenerate-recycle the Universe respectively. The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in the Rigveda and she has remained significant as a goddess from the Vedic period through modern times of Hindu traditions. Some Hindus celebrate the festival of Vasant Panchami in her honour, the Goddess is also revered by believers of the Jain religion of west and central India, as well as some Buddhist sects. Saraswati who is revered as a goddess of knowledge, music and arts is found outside Nepal and India, such as in Japan, Vietnam, Bali. It is also a Sanskrit composite word of surasa-vati which means one with plenty of water, the word Saraswati appears both as a reference to a river and as a significant deity in the Rigveda. In initial passages, the word refers to Sarasvati River and mentioned with other northwestern Indian rivers such as Drishadvati, Saraswati then connotes a river deity. In Book 2, Rigveda calls Saraswati as the best of mothers, of rivers, –Translated by John Muir In Vedic literature, Saraswati acquires the same significance for early Indians as that accredited to the river Ganges by their modern descendants. In hymns of Book 10 of Rigveda, she is declared to be the possessor of knowledge. In Upanishads and Dharma Sastras, Saraswati is invoked to remind the reader to meditate on virtue, virtuous emoluments, the meaning, Saraswati is known by many names in ancient Hindu literature. Some examples of synonyms for Saraswati include Brahmani, Brahmi, Bharadi, Vani and Vachi, Varnesvari, in Nepali language, her name is written Nepali, सरस्वती. In the Telugu, Sarasvati is also known as Chaduvula Thalli, in Konkani, she is referred to as Shārada, Veenapani, Pustaka dharini, Vidyadāyini. In Kannada, variants of her name include Sharade, Sharadamba, in Tamil, she is also known as Kalaimagal, Kalaivāni, Vāni, Bharathi. She is also addressed as Shāradā, Veenā pustaka dharani, Vākadevi, Vāni, Varadhanāyaki, in India she is locally spelled as Bengali, সরস্বতী, Saraswati. Malayalam, സരസ്വതി, Saraswati. and Tamil, சரஸ்வதி, Sarasvatī, outside Nepal and India, she is known in Burmese as Thurathadi or Tipitaka Medaw, in Chinese as Biàncáitiān, in Japanese as Benzaiten and in Thai as Suratsawadi or Saratsawadi. Saraswati is found in almost every major ancient and medieval Indian literature between 1000 BC to 1500 AD, in Hindu tradition, she has retained her significance as a goddess from the Vedic age up to the present day. In Shanti Parva of the Hindu epic Mahabharata, Saraswati is called the mother of the Vedas, in Book 2 of Taittiriya Brahmana, she is called the mother of eloquent speech and melodious music. Saraswati is the energy and power of Brahma
Mahasaraswati
–
Saraswati by
Raja Ravi Varma
Mahasaraswati
–
Saraswati idol carved of black stone from
Chalukya dynasty (12 century CE). Idol on display in
Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai.
Mahasaraswati
–
Vajra Sarada,
Pala Period ca. 8th Century,
Nalanda Archaeological Museum,
Bihar.
Mahasaraswati
–
Saraswati goddess is found in temples of Southeast Asia, islands of Indonesia and Japan. In
Japan, she is known as
Benzaiten (shown). She is depicted with a musical instrument in Japan, and is a deity of knowledge, music, and everything that flows.
40.
Mahalaxmi
–
Lakshmi is the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity. She is the wife and shakti of Vishnu, a god in Hinduism. Lakshmi is also an important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples, Lakshmi was also a goddess of abundance and fortune for Buddhists, and was represented on the oldest surviving stupas and cave temples of Buddhism. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal and southeast Asia, goddess Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics, Lakshmi is also called Sri or Thirumagal because she is endowed with six auspicious and divine qualities, or gunas, and is the divine strength of Vishnu. In Hindu religion, she was born from the churning of the primordial ocean, when Vishnu descended on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi descended as his respective consort Sita and Rukmini. In the ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi, the marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband is the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu weddings. Lakshmi is considered another aspect of the supreme goddess principle in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism. She typically stands or sits like a yogin on a pedestal and holds lotus in her hand. Her iconography shows her with four hands, which represent the four goals of life considered important to the Hindu way of life, dharma, kāma, artha. Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for Lakshmi by the 1st millennium BCE, Lakshmis iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout southeast Asia, estimated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima are celebrated in her honor, Lakshmi is one of many Hindu deities whose meaning and significance evolved in ancient Sanskrit texts. Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda, but the context suggests that the word does not mean goddess of wealth and fortune, the good are welcomed, while the bad urged to leave. In some chapters of Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as wife of Viṣṇu. For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri is part of one of many theories, in ancient India, about the creation of universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges from Prajapati, after his meditation on creation of life. Sri is described as beautiful, resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy, the gods were bewitched, desire her and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, Prajapati refuses, tells the gods that males should not kill females and that they can seek her gifts without violence. The hymns of Shatapatha Brahmana thus describe Sri as a goddess born with and personifying a diverse range of talents, in the Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches, beauty, happiness, loveliness, grace, charm and splendour
Mahalaxmi
–
Raja Ravi Varma 's Lakshmi
Mahalaxmi
–
Bharhut Stupa, 2nd century BC
Mahalaxmi
–
Coins of
Gandhara, 1st century BC
Mahalaxmi
–
Coinage of
Gupta Empire
41.
Mahakali
–
Mahakali, literally translated as Great Kali, is the Hindu Goddess of time and death, considered to be the consort of Mahakala the God of consciousness, the basis of Reality and existence. Mahakali in Sanskrit is etymologically the feminized variant of Mahakala or Great Time, Mahakali is the form of Adi parashakti, who is beyond time and space. Kali is the force of anger of Adi parashakti and therefore her color is black and she is the greatest aspect of Kali whom many Hindus hold as a Divine Mother. Mahakalis history is contained in various Puranic and Tantric Hindu Scriptures, in these She is variously portrayed as the Adi-Shakti-Goddess Durga, the Primeval Force of the Universe, identical with the Ultimate Reality or Brahman. In this interpretation Mahakali represents Tamas or the force of inertia, Mahakali is most often depicted as blue in popular Indian art. Her most common four armed iconographic image shows each hand carrying variously a sword, a trishul, a severed head and a bowl or skull-cup catching the blood of the severed head. Her eyes are described as red with intoxication and in rage, Her hair is shown disheveled, small fangs sometimes protrude out of Her mouth. Her ten headed image is known as Dasa Mahavidya Mahakali, and she is depicted in this form as having ten heads, ten arms, and ten legs but otherwise usually conforms to the four armed icon in other respects. The implication is that Mahakali subsumes and is responsible for the powers that these deities possess and this is in line with the interpretation that Mahakali is identical with Brahman. While not displaying ten heads, an ekamukhi or one headed image may be displayed with ten arms, signifying the same concept, in either one of these images she is shown standing on the prone, inert or body of Shiva. The short letter i represents the power or Shakti that activates Creation. This is often the explanation for why She is standing on Shiva, who is either Her husband and complement in Shaktism, the Supreme Godhead in Shaivism
Mahakali
–
Ekamukhi or "One-Faced"
Murti of Mahakali displaying ten hands holding the signifiers of various Devas.
Mahakali
–
The ten-headed Mahakali.
Mahakali
–
Mahakali
Yantra
Mahakali
–
Devi
42.
Smartism
–
Smarta tradition is a movement in Hinduism that developed and expanded with the Puranas genre of literature. This Puranic religion is notable for the worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal – Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Surya. The Smarta tradition contrasted with the older Shrauta tradition, which was based on elaborate rituals, there has been considerable overlap in the ideas and practices of the Smarta tradition with other significant historic movements within Hinduism, namely Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism. The Smarta tradition developed during Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, the Smarta tradition is aligned with Advaita Vedanta, and regards Adi Shankara as its founder or reformer. Shankara championed the ultimate reality is impersonal and Nirguna and any symbolic god serves the same equivalent purpose, inspired by this belief, the Smarta tradition followers, along with the five Hindu gods include a sixth impersonal god in their practice. The tradition has been called by William Jackson as advaitin, monistic in its outlook, the term also refers to Brahmins who specialize in the Smriti corpus of texts named the Grihya Sutras, in contrast to Shrauta Sutras. Smarta Brahmins with their focus on the Smriti corpus, contrast from Srauta Brahmins who specialize in the Sruti corpus, Smarta is an adjective derived from Smriti. Smarta is specially associated with a founded by Shankaracharya, states Monier Williams. The Vedanga texts include the Kalpa texts consisting of the Srautasutras, Grihyasutras and Dharmasutras, the Grihyasutras and Dharmasutras, states Hiltebeitel, were composed between 600 BCE and 400 CE, and these are sometimes called the Smartasutras, the roots of the Smriti tradition. The Smriti texts accept the knowledge in the Sruti, but they interpret it in a number of ways, of the two Smarta traditions, Mimamsa focussed on Vedic ritual traditions, while Vedanta focussed on Upanishadic knowledge tradition. The revived Smarta Tradition attempted to integrate varied and conflicting devotional practices, the growth of this Smarta Tradition began in the Gupta period, and likely was dominated by Dvija classes, in particular the Brahmins, of the early medieval Indian society. This Smarta Tradition competed with other traditions of Hinduism such as Shaivism, Vaishnavism. Medieval era scholars such as Vedanta Desika and Vallabhacharya recognized Smarta Tradition as competing with Vaishnavism, the adjective Smārta is also used to classify a Brahmin who adheres to the Smriti corpus of texts. Smarta Brahmins specialize in the Smriti corpus of texts, are differentiated from Srauta Brahmins who specialize in the Sruti corpus of such as the Brahmanas layer embedded inside the Vedas. Smarta Brahmins are also differentiated from Brahmins who specialize in the Agamic literature such as the Adi Shaiva Brahmins, Sri Vaishnava Brahmins, however, these identities are not clearly defined, and active groups such as Agamic Smarta Saiva Brahmins have thrived. According to Smartism, supreme reality, Brahman, transcends all of the forms of personal deity. The Smartas follow an orthodox Hindu philosophy, which means they accept the Vedas, the Smarta Tradition accepts two concepts of Brahman, which are the saguna Brahman – the Brahman with attributes, and nirguna Brahman – the Brahman without attributes. The nirguna Brahman is the unchanging Reality, however, the saguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing this nirguna Brahman, the Smartas evolved a kind of worship which is known as Panchayatana puja
Smartism
–
The five prime deities of Smartas in a Ganesha-centric Panchayatana: Ganesha (centre) with Shiva (top left), Devi or Durga (top right), Vishnu (bottom left) and Surya (bottom right).
Smartism
–
Smartha Brahmins in western India (c. 1855-1862).
43.
Adi Shankara
–
Adi Shankara was a philosopher and theologian from India who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta. He is credited with unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in Hinduism and his works in Sanskrit discuss the unity of the ātman and Nirguna Brahman brahman without attributes. He wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon in support of his thesis and his works elaborate on ideas found in the Upanishads. Shankaras publications criticised the ritually-oriented Mīmāṃsā school of Hinduism and he also explained the key difference between Hinduism and Buddhism, stating that Hinduism asserts Atman exists, while Buddhism asserts that there is no Soul, no Self. Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers and he established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the Mīmāṃsā school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. He is reputed to have founded four mathas, which helped in the development, revival. Adi Shankara is believed to be the organiser of the Dashanami monastic order and he is also known as Adi Shankaracharya, Shankara Bhagavatpada, sometimes spelled as Sankaracharya, Śaṅkarācārya, Śaṅkara Bhagavatpāda and Śaṅkara Bhagavatpādācārya. There are at least fourteen different known biographies of Adi Shankaras life, many of these are called the Śankara Vijaya, while some are called Guruvijaya, Sankarabhyudaya and Shankaracaryacarita. Of these, the Brhat-Sankara-Vijaya by Citsukha is the oldest hagiography but only available in excerpts, other significant biographies are the Mādhavīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ, the Cidvilāsīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ, and the Keraļīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ. Some biographies are probably forgeries by those who sought to create a basis for their rituals or theories. Adi Shankara died in the thirty third year of his life, the Sringeri records state that Shankara was born in the 14th year of the reign of VikramAditya, but it is unclear as to which king this name refers. This conforms to the chronology calculated based off the Hindu Puranas, 44–12 BCE, the commentator Anandagiri believed he was born at Chidambaram in 44 BCE and died in 12 BCE. 6th century CE, Telang placed him in this century, sir R. G. Bhandarkar believed he was born in 680 CE. 788–820 CE, This was proposed by early 20th scholars and was accepted by scholars such as Max Müller, Macdonnel, Pathok, Deussen and Radhakrishna. The date 788–820 is also among those considered acceptable by Swami Tapasyananda, sometime between 700-750 CE, late 20th-century scholarship has questioned the 788-820 CE dates, placing Adi Shankaras life of 32 years in the first half of the 8th century. The popularly accepted dating places Adi Shankara to be a scholar from the first half of the 8th century CE and his father died while Shankara was very young. Shankaras upanayanam, the initiation into student-life, had to be delayed due to the death of his father, Shankaras hagiography describe him as someone who was attracted to the life of Sannyasa from early childhood. A story, found in all hagiographies, describe Shankara at age eight going to a river with his mother, Sivataraka, to bathe, Shankara called out to his mother to give him permission to become a Sannyasin or else the crocodile will kill him
Adi Shankara
–
Adi Shankara with Disciples, by
Raja Ravi Varma (1904)
Adi Shankara
–
The birthplace of Adi Shankara at
Kalady
Adi Shankara
–
Idol of Adi Shankara at his
Samadhi Mandir, behind
Kedarnath Temple, in
Kedarnath, India
44.
Ganesha
–
Ganesha, also known as Ganapati and Vinayaka, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon. His image is found throughout India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Hindu sects worship him regardless of affiliations. Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains and Buddhists, although he is known by many attributes, Ganeshas elephant head makes him easy to identify. Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles, the patron of arts and sciences, as the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions, several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography. Ganesha emerged as a deity in the 4th and 5th centuries AD, during the Gupta period. He was formally included among the five deities of Smartism in the 9th century. A sect of devotees called the Ganapatya arose, who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity, the principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Brahma Purana and Brahmanda Purana are other two Puranic genre encyclopedic texts that deal with Ganesha, Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati and Vighneshvara. The Hindu title of respect Shri is often added before his name, the name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana, meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and isha, meaning lord or master. The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, the term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation. Some commentators interpret the name Lord of the Gaņas to mean Lord of Hosts or Lord of created categories, Ganapati, a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning group, and pati, meaning ruler or lord. Though the earliest mention of the word Ganapati is found in hymn 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCE Rigveda, it is however uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha. The Amarakosha, an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha, Vinayaka, Vighnarāja, Dvaimātura, Gaṇādhipa, Ekadanta, Heramba, Lambodara, Vinayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak, the names Vighnesha and Vighneshvara refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles. A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai or Pillaiyar, a. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a child while pillaiyar means a noble child. He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify tooth or tusk, also elephant tooth or tusk. Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have meant the young of the elephant
Ganesha
–
Basohli miniature, circa 1730.
National Museum,
New Delhi.
Ganesha
–
Ganesha as 'Shri Mayureshwara' with consorts Buddhi and Siddhi,
Morgaon,
Maharashtra (the central shrine for the regional
Ashtavinayak complex)
Ganesha
–
A 13th-century statue of Ganesha,
Mysore District,
Karnataka
Ganesha
–
A typical four-armed form. Miniature of
Nurpur school (circa 1810)
45.
Devi
–
Devī is the Sanskrit word for goddess, the masculine form is Deva. Devi – the feminine form, and Deva – the masculine form, mean heavenly, divine, anything of excellence, and are also gender specific terms for a deity in Hinduism. The concept and reverence for goddesses appears in the Vedas, which were composed in the 2nd millennium BC, however, goddesses such as Saraswati and Usha have continued to be revered into the modern era. The divine feminine has the strongest presence as Devi in Hinduism, among major world religions, the goddess is viewed as central in Shakti and Saiva Hindu traditions. Devi and Deva are Sanskrit terms found in Vedic literature of the 2nd millennium BC, Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi. Monier Williams translates it as heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of excellence, exalted. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, when capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism. Deva is also referred to as Devatā, while Devi as Devika, according to Douglas Harper, the etymological root Dev- means a shining one, from *div- to shine, and it is a cognate with Greek dios divine and Zeus, and Latin deus. The Devi Sukta of the Rigveda 10.125.1 through 10.125, however, the goddesses are not discussed as frequently as gods. Sri, also called Lakshmi, appears in late Vedic texts dated to be pre-Buddhist, Devi is the supreme being in the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, while in the Smarta Tradition, she is one of the five primary forms of Brahman revered. She is the power of Shiva, and this theme is also found in the Tripura Upanishad, Bahvricha Upanishad. Devi asserts that she is creator of earth and heaven and resides there and her creation of sky as father, seas as mother is reflected as the Inner Supreme Self. Her creations are not prompted by any Higher being and she resides in all her creations and she is, states Devi, the eternal and infinite consciousness engulfing earth and heaven, and all forms of bliss and non-bliss, knowledge and ignorance, Brahman and Non-Brahman. The tantric aspect in Devi Upanishad, states June McDaniel is the usage of the yantra, bindu, bija, mantra, shakti. Among the major religions, the concept of goddess in Hinduism as the divine feminine, has had the strongest presence since the ancient times. Parvati is the Hindu goddess of love, fertility and devotion and she is the gentle and nurturing aspect of the Hindu goddess. She is the goddess in Hinduism and has many attributes. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over 100 names in regional Hindu mythologies of India, along with Lakshmi and Saraswati, she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses
Devi
–
12th-century Parvati sculpture
Devi
–
Durga (left) killing the demon
Mahishasura. In her most ferocious form, Durga metamorphoses into Kali (right).
Devi
–
Lakshmi
Devi
–
An image of goddess Saraswati
46.
Kartikeya
–
Karthikeya is the Hindu god of war. He is the Commander-in-Chief of the army of the devas and he is also the primary deity of the Kaumaram sect of Hinduism. Murugan is worshiped primarily in areas of Tamil speaking populations, including Tamil Nadu in India, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Réunion. It is one of the few sites in Sri Lanka that is venerated by, Hindu Sri Lankan Tamils, Sinhalese people. In northern India, he is known as Kartikeya. He is known as Subrahmanya, Muruga or Palani Andava in Tamil Nadu and he was also known as Mahasena and the Kadamba dynasty worshiped him by this name. The Shatapatha Brahmana refers to him as the son of Rudra, the Taittiriya Aranyaka contains the Gayatri Mantra for Shanmukha. The Chandogya Upanishad refers to Skanda as the way leads to wisdom. Baudhāyanas Dharmasūtra calls Skanda Mahāsena Having a Great Army and Subrahmaṇya beloved of Brahmins, the āraṇyaparvan of the Mahabharata relates the legend of Kartikeya Skanda in considerable detail. The Skanda Purana is devoted to the narrative of Kartikeya, the Upanishads also constantly make a reference to a Supreme Being called Guha, the indweller. The Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai is a devotional poem included in the Pattuppāṭṭu ten idylls of the age of the third Sangam. In the Tirumurukāṟtruuppaṭai, he is described as a god of youth, His face shines a myriad rays light. Other Sangam period works in Tamil that refer to Murugan in detail include the Paripāṭal, the Akananūru, the first elaborate account of Kartikeyas origin occurs in the Mahabharata. In a complicated story, he is said to have been born from Agni and Svaha, the actual wives then become the Pleiades. The Lord asked him what kind of boon he required, in reply to which he asked that no power in the universe should destroy him except the Lords power itself. Lord Shiva granted the boon to him, after succeeding in his penance, Suraabaathman began to torture humans as well as the devas. He then conquered the Indraloka and made Indra captive, one day, upon losing her husband as a prisoner, Indraani prayed to Lord Shiva in earth to help her. Meanwhile, Ajaamukhi was in search of Indraani to produce her as a prize for her brother Suraabaathman as a result of victory of their war against the devas, Ajaamughi along with her servant finally found Indraani praying to Lord Shiva
Kartikeya
–
Murugan with his wives by
Raja Ravi Varma
Kartikeya
–
Indra gives
Devasena as wife to Kartikeya; scene from the Mahabharata.
Kartikeya
–
Kartikeya (right),
Ganesha,
Shiva, and
Parvati.
Kartikeya
–
Kartikeya, by Surendra Nath Ganguly, circa 1913
47.
Monistic
–
Monism is the view that attributes oneness or singleness to a concept. Substance monism is the view that a variety of existing things can be explained in terms of a single reality or substance. Another definition states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them and this is often termed priority monism, and is the view that only one thing is ontologically basic or prior to everything else. Another distinction is the difference between substance and existence monism, or stuff monism and thing monism, substance monism posits that only one kind of stuff exists, although many things may be made out of this stuff. Existence monism posits that, strictly speaking, there only a single thing. The restricted definition, this not only unity of origin. Although the term monism is derived from Western philosophy to typify positions in the mind–body problem, in modern Hinduism, the term absolute monism is being used for Advaita Vedanta. The mind–body problem in philosophy examines the relationship between mind and matter, and in particular the relationship between consciousness and the brain and it was later also applied to the theory of absolute identity set forth by Hegel and Schelling. Thereafter the term was more used, for any theory postulating a unifying principle. The opponent thesis of dualism also was broadened, to include pluralism, according to Urmson, as a result of this extended use, the term is systematically ambiguous. According to Jonathan Schaffer, monism lost popularity due to the emergence of Analytic philosophy in the twentieth century. Carnap and Ayer, who were proponents of positivism, ridiculed the whole question as incoherent mysticism. Monism is also relevant to the philosophy of mind, where various positions are defended. g. Metaphysical nihilism, negates any of the above categories, eliminative Materialism, according to which everything is physical and mental things do not exist b. Moreover, they do not define the meaning of real, while the lack of information makes it difficult in some cases to be sure of the details, the following pre-Socratic philosophers thought in monistic terms, Thales, Water. Reality is some, one thing, but we know what. Parmenides argued that Being or Reality is a perfect sphere, unchanging. Neopythagorians such as Apollonius of Tyana centered their cosmologies on the Monad or One, Stoics taught that there is only one substance, identified as God
Monistic
–
Adi Shankara with Disciples, by
Raja Ravi Varma (1904)
Monistic
–
The circled dot was used by the Pythagoreans and later Greeks to represent the first metaphysical being, the
Monad or
The Absolute.
48.
Lakshmi
–
Lakshmi is the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity. She is the wife and shakti of Vishnu, a god in Hinduism. Lakshmi is also an important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples, Lakshmi was also a goddess of abundance and fortune for Buddhists, and was represented on the oldest surviving stupas and cave temples of Buddhism. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal and southeast Asia, goddess Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics, Lakshmi is also called Sri or Thirumagal because she is endowed with six auspicious and divine qualities, or gunas, and is the divine strength of Vishnu. In Hindu religion, she was born from the churning of the primordial ocean, when Vishnu descended on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi descended as his respective consort Sita and Rukmini. In the ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi, the marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband is the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu weddings. Lakshmi is considered another aspect of the supreme goddess principle in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism. She typically stands or sits like a yogin on a pedestal and holds lotus in her hand. Her iconography shows her with four hands, which represent the four goals of life considered important to the Hindu way of life, dharma, kāma, artha. Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for Lakshmi by the 1st millennium BCE, Lakshmis iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout southeast Asia, estimated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima are celebrated in her honor, Lakshmi is one of many Hindu deities whose meaning and significance evolved in ancient Sanskrit texts. Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rigveda, but the context suggests that the word does not mean goddess of wealth and fortune, the good are welcomed, while the bad urged to leave. In some chapters of Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Sri and regarded as wife of Viṣṇu. For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be composed between 800 BCE and 300 BCE, Sri is part of one of many theories, in ancient India, about the creation of universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Sri emerges from Prajapati, after his meditation on creation of life. Sri is described as beautiful, resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy, the gods were bewitched, desire her and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajapati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, Prajapati refuses, tells the gods that males should not kill females and that they can seek her gifts without violence. The hymns of Shatapatha Brahmana thus describe Sri as a goddess born with and personifying a diverse range of talents, in the Epics of Hinduism, such as in Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches, beauty, happiness, loveliness, grace, charm and splendour
Lakshmi
–
Raja Ravi Varma 's Lakshmi
Lakshmi
–
Bharhut Stupa, 2nd century BC
Lakshmi
–
Coins of
Gandhara, 1st century BC
Lakshmi
–
Coinage of
Gupta Empire
49.
Ananta Shesha
–
In Hinduism, Shesha, also known as Sheshanaga or Adishesha, is the nagaraja or king of all nāgas and one of the primal beings of creation. In the Puranas, Shesha is said to all the planets of the universe on his hoods. He is sometimes referred to as Ananta Shesha, which translates as endless-Shesha or Adishesha first Shesha and it is said that when Adishesa uncoils, time moves forward and creation takes place, when he coils back, the universe ceases to exist. Vishnu is often depicted as resting on Shesha, Shesha is considered a servant and a manifestation of Vishnu. He is said to have descended to Earth in two forms or avatars, Lakshmana, brother of Rama, Balarama, brother of Krishna. Shesha in Sanskrit texts, especially relating to mathematical calculation. But in Sanskrit it also means 6 shesham as the sheshanaga has been depicted to have many heads, Shesha is generally depicted with a massive form that floats coiled in space, or on the ocean of bliss, to form the bed on which Vishnu lies. Sometimes he is shown as five-headed or seven-headed, but more commonly as a many thousand-headed serpent and his name means that which remains, from the Sanskrit root śiṣ, because when the world is destroyed at the end of the kalpa, Shesha remains as he is. In the Bhagavadgita of Chapter 10, verse 29, Shri Krishna while describing 75 of his common manifestations, declares, anantaś ca asmi nāgānāṁ, Of the nagas, as per the Mahabharata, Shesha was born to sage Kashyap and his wife Kadru. Kadru gave birth to a snakes, of which Shesha was the eldest. After Shesha, Vasuki, Airavata and Takshaka were born, in order, a lot of Sheshas brothers were cruel and were bent upon inflicting harm on others. They were even unkind to Garuda, who was Kashyapa’s son through Vinatha, Shesha, disgusted by the cruel acts of his brothers, left his mother and kin, and took to austere penances. He lived on air and meditated in places including Gandhamadhana, Badrikashrama, Gokarna, Pushkara and his penances were so severe that his flesh, skin and muscles dried up and merged with his frame. Brahma, convinced of his Sheshas will, asked Shesha to request a boon, Shesha asked that he be able to keep his mind under control so that he could continue to perform ascetic penances. Brahma then asked a favour of Shesha, to go beneath the unstable earth, Shesha agreed and went to the netherworld and stabilized her with his hood. He is known to support her even today, thus making Patala his perennial residence, Shesha is also depicted as floating in the ocean of the changing world, forming the bed of Maha Vishnu. Since he is known as Adishesha and because he is Anantashesha or simply Ananta and he is said to live since before the creation of the universe. When the universe is towards its end, he creates 11 rudras from him to destroy the universe for a new one to be created and he expands himself as garbhodakshayi-vishnu in the beginning of the universe to create Brahma
Ananta Shesha
–
Vishnu resting on Ananta-Shesha, together with his consort
Lakshmi, who is massaging his feet
Ananta Shesha
–
Vishnu resting on Ananta-Shesha, with his consort
Lakshmi massaging his feet
Ananta Shesha
–
Ananta Vishnu
Ananta Shesha
–
Sheshanarayana by
Raja Ravi Varma.
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