1.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
2.
Division of the field
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In heraldry, the field of a shield can be divided into more than one area, or subdivision, of different tinctures, usually following the lines of one of the ordinaries and carrying its name. Shields may be divided this way for differencing or for purposes of marshalling, the lines that divide a shield may not always be straight, and there is a system of terminology for describing patterned lines, which is also shared with the heraldic ordinaries. French heraldry takes a different approach in cases from the one described in this article. g. in letters patent. A field cannot be divided per bordure, but a bordure can, a bordure can be divided or counter-changed. Neither can a field be divided per chief, for similar reasons, and a bordure per chief is shown in the arms of Roy, Canada. A chief is considered a charge in English heraldry and is considered layered atop the field, although it is alleged that per chevron enhanced is called mantled in English, this is a term of rare application. When the term rompu is applied to a division of the field, the arms of Lois Hole show Per chevron rompu Or and Vert, the centre section heightened of two points. A field pily, as in the arms of Baron Marks of Broughton, is similar to a field per fess dancetty, but Scottish heraldry does use tierced in pale A particular type of tiercing, resembling a Y in shape, is called per pall. g. Okakarara Technical Institute, Gules, chapé Azure, on the partition lines respectively a bend, shields may also be divided into three parts by a combination of two methods of division, such as party per fess, in chief per pale. Another example is in the arms of Clive Cheesman, per pale, a shield may also be party per chevron reversed, which is like party per chevron except upside down. With arched or bent lines it is called chaussé ployé, one common reason for dividing the field in heraldry is for purposes of combining two or more coats of arms to express alliance, inheritance, occupation of an office, etc. As this would sometimes yield confusing or misleading results, the practice was supplanted by impalement, according to Fox-Davies, the practice of dimidiation was short-lived and had already reached its peak in the early 14th century, while impalement remains in practice to modern times. Eventually quartering gained usage, and in the height of its popularity during the Victorian era, more usually, however, a quartered coat of arms consisted of four parts, as the name suggests. In the UK heraldries, complex systems of marshalling have developed, if the husband is a knight of any order, however, the ensigns of that order belong only to him and are not shared with his wife. A male peer impales the arms of his wife as described above, but including the supporters, coronet and helmet of the peer, if he is also a knight of any order, the two-shield method is used. It is also worth noting that one form in German-Nordic heraldry is quarterly with a heart. This may have stemmed from the practice of sovereigns placing their own hereditary arms inescutcheon over the arms of their dominions. The arms of Novohrad-Volynskyi, Ukraine, show a form of marshalling quarterly with a heart
3.
Or (heraldry)
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In heraldry, or is the tincture of gold and, together with argent, belongs to the class of light tinctures called metals, or light colours. In engravings and line drawings, it is hatched using a field of evenly spaced dots and it is very frequently depicted as yellow, though gold leaf was used in many illuminated manuscripts and more extravagant rolls of arms. The use of gold for or was a fashion amongst certain heraldic writers in the mid-20th century who attempted to demystify. Or is sometimes spelled with a letter so as not to confuse it with the conjunction or. However, this incorrect heraldic usage is not met with in standard works such as Bernard Burkes General Armory,1884. Fox-Davies advocated leaving all tinctures uncapitalized, a correctly stated blazon should eliminate any possible confusion between the tincture or and the conjunction or, certainly for the reader with a basic competence in heraldry. Sometimes, the different tinctures are said to be connected with special meanings or virtues, even if this is an idea mostly disregarded by serious heraldists throughout the centuries, it may be of anecdotal interest to see what they are, since the information is so often sought after
4.
Azure (heraldry)
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In heraldry, azure is the tincture with the colour blue, and belongs to the class of tinctures called colours. In engraving, it is depicted as a region of horizontal lines or else is marked with either az. or b. as an abbreviation. The term azure derives from the name of the blue stone now called lapis lazuli. The word was adopted into Old French by the 12th century, as an heraldic colour, the word azure simply means blue. So while French-speaking heralds described banners as azure, commoners simply called them blue, because it comes from a French word that simply means blue, a wide range of colour values is used in the depiction of azure in armory and flags. In addition to the standard blue tincture called azure, there is a lighter blue sometimes found that is called bleu celeste or sky blue, neither azure nor bleu celeste is precisely defined as a particular shade of blue, but azure is consistently depicted in a much darker shade. Sometimes, the different tinctures are said to be connected with special meanings or virtues, even if this is an idea mostly disregarded by serious heraldists throughout the centuries, it may be of anecdotal interest to see what they are, since the information is often asked for. Many sources give different meanings, but azure is often said to represent the following, Of jewels, the sapphire Of heavenly bodies, Jupiter Bleu celeste
5.
Broad Street, Oxford
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Broad Street is a wide street in central Oxford, England, located just north of the old city wall. The street is known for its bookshops, including the original Blackwells bookshop at number 50, locally, the street is traditionally known as The Broad. Located in Broad Street are Balliol College, Trinity College, Exeter College, the question is often asked Where is the University. These buildings form the nearest equivalent to the centre of the University, to the west, the street continues as George Street, with Magdalen Street to the north and Cornmarket Street to the south. To the east, the street continues as Holywell Street, with Parks Road to the north, the first city wall was built south of the street in 911. The street was the site where the Protestant Oxford Martyrs, Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley, a cobbled cross in the road opposite Balliol College marks the location. Not far away in St Giles, the events are commemorated with a Victorian stone monument, the Old Ashmolean Building was built in 1683 to house Elias Ashmoles collection. It was the worlds first museum to open to the public, the Clarendon Building was built 1711–1715 to house the Oxford University Presss printing operations. It was designed by Nicholas Hawksmoor, considered Christopher Wrens best pupil, the academic and physician Henry Acland lived in the street at number 40 on the site of the new Weston Library, part of Oxford Universitys Bodleian Library. His daughter, Sarah Angelina Acland, the photography pioneer, was born here. Boswells, now the largest independent department store in Oxford, was established in 1738, thorntons Bookshop, also on the south side of the street at No. 11, was founded by Joseph Thornton in 1835, but closed its shop at the end of 2002, the Victorian photographer Henry Taunt had a shop and studio at 9–10 Broad Street, moving here from Cornmarket Street in 1874. He also established a business in Boxalls Yard, behind the premises. The lease expired in 1894 and he was forced to file for bankruptcy, Blackwells bookshop, on the north side of the street, was founded by Benjamin Henry Blackwell, the son of the first city librarian, in 1879. The shop was only twelve feet square, but quickly grew to include space upstairs, in the cellar. It is now Oxfords most famous and leading bookshop, with other specialist branches elsewhere in Broad Street, the first Oxfam charity shop together with its office were established by Cecil Jackson-Cole at 17 Broad Street in 1947. There is still an Oxfam shop here and a plaque has been placed on the outside wall of the building. Media related to Broad Street, Oxford at Wikimedia Commons
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
7.
Trinity
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The Christian doctrine of the Trinity holds that God is three consubstantial persons or hypostases—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—as one God in three Divine Persons. The three persons are distinct, yet are one substance, essence or nature, in this context, a nature is what one is, whereas a person is who one is. Reflection, proclamation, and dialogue led to the formulation of the doctrine that was felt to correspond to the data in the Bible. The simplest outline of the doctrine was formulated in the 4th century, further elaboration continued in the succeeding centuries. Scripture contains neither the word Trinity, nor an expressly formulated doctrine of the Trinity, rather, according to the Christian theology, it bears witness to the activity of a God who can only be understood in Trinitarian terms. The doctrine did not take its shape until late in the fourth century. During the intervening period, various solutions, some more. Trinitarianism contrasts with nontrinitarian positions which include Binitarianism, Unitarianism, Oneness Pentecostalism or Modalism, the word trinity is derived from Latin trinitas, meaning the number three, a triad. This abstract noun is formed from the adjective trinus, as the word unitas is the noun formed from unus. The corresponding word in Greek is tριάς, meaning a set of three or the number three, the first recorded use of this Greek word in Christian theology was by Theophilus of Antioch in about 170. He wrote, In like manner also the three days which were before the luminaries, are types of the Trinity, of God, and His Word, and His wisdom. And the fourth is the type of man, who needs light, that so there may be God, the Word, wisdom, man. The Ante-Nicene Fathers asserted Christs deity and spoke of Father, Son and Holy Spirit, Trinitarians view these as elements of the codified doctrine. Ignatius of Antioch provides early support for the Trinity around 110, exhorting obedience to Christ, and to the Father, and to the Spirit. Justin Martyr also writes, in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Saviour Jesus Christ, the first of the early church fathers to be recorded using the word Trinity was Theophilus of Antioch writing in the late 2nd century. He defines the Trinity as God, His Word and His Wisdom in the context of a discussion of the first three days of creation, the first defence of the doctrine of the Trinity was in the early 3rd century by the early church father Tertullian. He explicitly defined the Trinity as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, St. Justin and Clement of Alexandra used the Trinity in their doxologies and St. Basil likewise, in the evening lighting of lamps. The highly allegorical exegesis of the Valentinian school inclined it to interpret the relevant scriptural passages as affirming a Divinity that, the Valentinian Gospel of Phillip, which dates to approximately the time of Tertullian, upholds the Trinitarian formula
8.
Churchill College, Cambridge
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Churchill College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England. It has a focus on science, engineering and technology. It is situated on the outskirts of Cambridge, away from the centre of the city. Its 16 hectares of grounds make it physically the largest of all the colleges, Churchill was the first all-male college to decide to admit women, and was among three mens colleges to admit its first women students in 1972. Within 15 years all others had followed suit, the college has a reputation for relative informality compared with other Cambridge colleges, and traditionally admits a larger proportion of its undergraduates from state schools. In 1955, on holiday in Sicily soon after his resignation as Prime Minister, Winston Churchill discussed with Sir John Colville, Churchill wanted a mix of non-scientists to ensure a well rounded education and environment for scholars and fellows. The college therefore admits students to all subjects except Land Economy. The first postgraduate students arrived in October 1960, and the first undergraduates a year later, full College status was received in 1966. Women were not accepted as undergraduates until 1972, the bias to science and engineering remains as policy to the current day, with the statutes requiring approximately 70% science and technology students amongst its student intake each year. The college statutes also stipulate that one third of the students of the college should be studying for postgraduate qualification, Cambridge University Radio broadcast from Churchill College from 1979 until 2011. In 1958, a 42-acre site was purchased to the west of the city centre, after a competition, Richard Sheppard was appointed to design the new college. Building was completed by 1968 with nine main residential courts, separate graduate flats, the dining hall is the largest in Cambridge. It measures 22m square, 9m to the base of the vault beams and it can cater for up to 430 guests in a formal dining arrangement. The main college buildings and courtyards are arranged around a central space. Only a few later, being opened in 1974, an extension to the library building was added to house the Churchill Archives Centre. In 1992, the Møller Centre for Continuing Education was built on the Churchill site and it is a dedicated residential executive training and conference centre, aiming to bring together education and commerce. As well as the main College buildings, Sheppard designed a group of flats, known as the Sheppard flats. These are located to one side of the College grounds, a distance from the main buildings
9.
Colleges of the University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford has 38 Colleges and six Permanent Private Halls of religious foundation. These colleges are not only houses of residence, but have substantial responsibility for student teaching, generally tutorials and classes are the responsibility of colleges, while lectures, examinations, laboratories, and the central library are run by the university. Most colleges take both graduates and undergraduates, but several are for graduates only, undergraduate and graduate students may name preferred colleges in their applications. For the Department of Physics, reallocation is done on a random basis after a shortlist of candidates is drawn upon, for graduate students, many colleges express a preference for candidates who plan to undertake research in an area of interest of one of its fellows. St Hughs College, for example, states that it accepts students in most subjects. College buildings range from the medieval to modern buildings, but most are made up of interlinked quadrangles,2008 saw the first modern merger of colleges, with Green College and Templeton College merging to form Green Templeton College. This reduced the number of Colleges of the University from 39 to 38, the number of PPHs also reduced in 2008, when Greyfriars closed down. The University of Oxfords collegiate system arose because the university came into existence through the agglomeration of independent institutions in the city of Oxford. The first academic houses were monastic halls, of the dozens that were established in Oxford during the 12th to 15th centuries, none survived the Reformation. The modern Dominican permanent private hall of Blackfriars is a descendant of the original, as the University took shape, friction between the hundreds of students living where and how they pleased led to a decree that all undergraduates would have to reside in approved halls. Of the hundreds of Aularian houses that sprang up across the city, what put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges. Often generously endowed and with permanent teaching staff, the colleges were originally the preserve of graduate students, however, once they began accepting fee-paying undergraduates in the 14th century, the halls days were numbered. The fourth oldest college is Exeter, which was founded in 1314 and the fifth is Oriel, the most recent new foundation is Kellogg College, founded in 1990, while the most recent overall is Green Templeton College,2008. Women entered the university for the first time in 1878, becoming members of the University in 1920, womens colleges before integration were Somerville College, Lady Margaret Hall, St Annes, St Hildas, and St Hughs. In 1974 the first mens colleges to admit women as members were Brasenose, Hertford, Jesus College, St Catherines, however, the Hall had begun to admit female postgraduate students from Michaelmas 2014. Some colleges, such as Kellogg, Linacre, Nuffield, St Antonys, St Cross, all Souls College admits only Fellows. Harris Manchester College is intended specifically for students with a minimum age of 21. Each college and permanent private hall has its own arms, although in some cases these were assumed rather than granted by the College of Arms, the blazons below are taken from the Oxford University Calendar unless otherwise indicated
10.
Durham College, Oxford
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Durham College was the name given to a college of the University of Oxford that existed from the late 13th century to the mid 16th century. The college was built to provide a place of learning for Benedictine monks from the abbey in Durham, the site was acquired by the abbey in 1286 or 1291 and the site, which would house six to ten monks, developed over the coming decades. Once selected, the eight scholars would learn philosophy and grammar, all students were expected to remain for seven or eight years to complete their instruction. The running of the College would be overseen by one of the fellows, the funds proved sufficient for the laying out of a quadrangle around which various buildings were constructed, including living quarters, a refectory, a library and a chapel. Several elements of buildings, mostly from the eastern range. Elements of its pre-Reformation fabric also survive on the side of the quad. During the English reformation the site was surrendered twice to the crown, the College was again surrendered to the crown in March 1545, sitting empty thereafter. In 1546, half of the grove, having been leased to St. Bernards College, Oxford. The garden would eventually becoming part of the site of St Johns College, Oxford. Durham College was originally dedicated to the Virgin Mary, St Cuthbert, and the Trinity, drawn from Oxford History Societys Collectanea. Occurs 1316 John de Beverlaco, S. T. P, occurs 1333 R—de C—, between 1340–60. John Aclyff, or de Acley, c.1380 Robert Blaklaw, 1389–1404 William Appylby, 1404-9 Thomas Rome, S. T. P. 1450–53 John Burnby, again, 1453–56 Thomas Caly, S. T. B, -c.1464 c.1475 William Law, S. T. B. Thomas Castell, occurs 1511 Hugh Whitehead, S. T. P,1519 Edward Hyndmer alias Henmarsh, S. T. P. 1541-2 Hopkins, Clare, Trinity,450 years of an Oxford college community, Oxford, ISBN 978-0-19-951896-8 Page, William, ed. Houses of Benedictine monks, Durham College, Oxford, A History of the County of Oxford,2, British History Online, pp. 68–70, retrieved 30 August 2012
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Order of Saint Benedict
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Each community within the order maintains its own autonomy, while the order itself represents their mutual interests. Internationally, the order is governed by the Benedictine Confederation, a body, established in 1883 by Pope Leo XIIIs Brief Summum semper, individuals whose communities are members of the order generally add the initials OSB after their names. The monastery at Subiaco in Italy, established by Saint Benedict of Nursia circa 529, was the first of the monasteries he founded. He later founded the Abbey of Monte Cassino, there is no evidence, however, that he intended to found an order and the Rule of Saint Benedict presupposes the autonomy of each community. It was from the monastery of St. Andrew in Rome that Augustine, the prior, at various stopping places during the journey, the monks left behind them traditions concerning their rule and form of life, and probably also some copies of the Rule. Lérins Abbey, for instance, founded by Honoratus in 375, probably received its first knowledge of the Benedictine Rule from the visit of St. Augustine, in Gaul and Switzerland, it supplemented the much stricter Irish or Celtic Rule introduced by Columbanus and others. In many monasteries it eventually displaced the earlier codes. Largely through the work of Benedict of Aniane, it became the rule of choice for monasteries throughout the Carolingian empire, Monastic scriptoria flourished from the ninth through the twelfth centuries. Sacred Scripture was always at the heart of every monastic scriptorium, as a general rule those of the monks who possessed skill as writers made this their chief, if not their sole active work. In the Middle Ages monasteries were founded by the nobility. Cluny Abbey was founded by William I, Duke of Aquitaine in 910, the abbey was noted for its strict adherence to the Rule of St. Benedict. The abbot of Cluny was the superior of all the daughter houses, one of the earliest reforms of Benedictine practice was that initiated in 980 by Romuald, who founded the Camaldolese community. The English Benedictine Congregation is the oldest of the nineteen Benedictine congregations, Augustine of Canterbury and his monks established the first English Benedictine monastery at Canterbury soon after their arrival in 597. Many of the sees of England were founded and governed by the Benedictines. Monasteries served as hospitals and places of refuge for the weak, the monks studied the healing properties of plants and minerals to alleviate the sufferings of the sick. Germany was evangelized by English Benedictines, willibrord and Boniface preached there in the seventh and eighth centuries and founded several abbeys. In the English Reformation, all monasteries were dissolved and their lands confiscated by the Crown, during the 19th century they were able to return to England, including to Selby Abbey in Yorkshire, one of the few great monastic churches to survive the Dissolution. St. Mildreds Priory, on the Isle of Thanet, Kent, was built in 1027 on the site of an abbey founded in 670 by the daughter of the first Christian King of Kent, currently the priory is home to a community of Benedictine nuns
12.
Durham Cathedral
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The bishopric dates from 995, with the present cathedral being founded in AD1093. The present cathedral replaced the 10th century White Church, built as part of a foundation to house the shrine of Saint Cuthbert of Lindisfarne. The treasures of Durham Cathedral include relics of St Cuthbert, the head of St Oswald of Northumbria, in addition, its Library contains one of the most complete sets of early printed books in England, the pre-Dissolution monastic accounts, and three copies of the Magna Carta. Durham Cathedral occupies a position on a promontory high above the River Wear. From 1080 until the 19th century the bishopric enjoyed the powers of a Bishop Palatine, having military as well as religious leadership, Durham Castle was built as the residence for the Bishop of Durham. The seat of the Bishop of Durham is the fourth most significant in the Church of England hierarchy, signposts for the modern day County Durham are subtitled Land of the Prince Bishops. There are daily Church of England services at the cathedral, with the Durham Cathedral Choir singing daily except Mondays, the cathedral is a major tourist attraction within the region, the central tower of 217 feet giving views of Durham and the surrounding area. The see of Durham takes its origins from the Diocese of Lindisfarne, the see lasted until AD664, at which point it was translated to York. The see was then reinstated at Lindisfarne in AD678 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, after repeated Viking raids, the monks fled Lindisfarne in AD875, carrying St Cuthberts relics with them. The diocese of Lindisfarne remained itinerant until 882, when a community was re-established in Chester-le-Street, the see had its seat here until AD995, when further incursions once again caused the monks to move with the relics. According to local legend, the monks followed two milk maids who were searching for a dun cow and were led into a formed by a loop in the River Wear. At this point Cuthberts coffin became immovable and this trope of hagiography was offered for a sign that the new shrine should be built here. Nevertheless, the leading from The Bailey past the Cathedrals eastern towers up to Palace Green is named Dun Cow Lane due to the miniature cows that used to graze in the pastures nearby. Initially, a simple temporary structure was built from local timber to house the relics of Cuthbert. The shrine was transferred to a sturdier, probably wooden. This church was replaced three years later in 998 by a stone building also known as the White Church, which was complete apart from its tower by 1018. Durham soon became a site of pilgrimage, encouraged by the cult of Saint Cuthbert. King Canute was one early pilgrim, granting privileges and much land to the Durham community
13.
Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
14.
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
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The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of Her Majestys Government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to Parliament, to their political party, the office is one of the Great Offices of State. The current prime minister, Theresa May, leader of the Conservative Party, was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016. The position of Prime Minister was not created, it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective, the origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of political parties, the introduction of mass communication. By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged, prior to 1902, the prime minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Ministers authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process. The Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury, certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury. As the Head of Her Majestys Government the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet, in addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons. As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers, under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. The Prime Minister also acts as the face and voice of Her Majestys Government. The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution, in 1928, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs, In this country we live. Our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the assent of the King, Lords. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, the relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the Prime Ministers executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still vested in the Sovereign
15.
Balliol College, Oxford
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Balliol College /ˈbeɪliəl/, founded in 1263, is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. Among the colleges alumni are three former ministers, five Nobel laureates, and numerous literary and philosophical figures, including Adam Smith, Gerard Manley Hopkins. In 2012 Balliol had an endowment of £62. 5m, Balliol College was founded in about 1263 by John I de Balliol under the guidance of the Bishop of Durham. Under a statute of 1881, New Inn Hall was merged into Balliol College in 1887, Balliol acquired New Inn Halls admissions and other records for 1831–1887 as well as the library of New Inn Hall, which largely contained 18th-century law books. Along with many of the ancient colleges, Balliol has evolved its own traditions and customs over the centuries, the patron saint of the College is Saint Catherine of Alexandria. On her feast day, a dinner is held for all final year students within Balliol. This festival was established by 1550. Another important feast is the Snell Dinner and this dinner is held in memory of John Snell, whose benefaction established exhibitions for students from the University of Glasgow to study at Balliol one of whom was Adam Smith. The feast is attended by fellows of Balliol College, the current Snell Exhibitioners, by far the most eccentric event is The Nepotists carol-singing event organised by the Colleges Arnold and Brackenbury Society. This event happens on the last Friday of Michaelmas term each year, on this occasion, Balliol students congregate in the college hall to enjoy mulled wine and the singing of carols. The evening historically ended with a rendition of The Gordouli on Broad Street, outside the gates of Trinity College, verses of this form are now known as Balliol rhymes. The best known of these rhymes is the one on Benjamin Jowett and this has been widely quoted and reprinted in virtually every book about Jowett and about Balliol ever since. This and 18 others are attributed to Henry Charles Beeching, the other quatrains are much less well known. For many years, there has been a traditional and fierce rivalry shown between the students of Balliol and those of its neighbour to the east, Trinity College. It has manifested itself on the field and the river, in the form of songs sung over the dividing walls. The rivalry reflects that which exists between Trinity College, Cambridge and Balliols sister college, St Johns College, Cambridge. In college folklore, the rivalry back to the late 17th century. In fact, in its form, the rivalry appears to date from the late 1890s
16.
Cuthbert
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Saint Cuthbert was a saint of the early Northumbrian church in the Celtic tradition. He was a monk, bishop and hermit, associated with the monasteries of Melrose, and the South East of Scotland. After his death he became one of the most important medieval saints of Northern England, Cuthbert is regarded as the patron saint of northern England. His feast days are 20 March and 4 September, Cuthbert grew up near Melrose Abbey, a daughter-house of Lindisfarne, today in Scotland. He had decided to become a monk after seeing a vision on the night in 651 that St. Aidan, the founder of Lindisfarne, died, but seems to have seen some military service first. He was quickly made guest-master at the new monastery at Ripon, soon after 655, about 662 he was made prior at Melrose, and around 665 went as prior to Lindisfarne. In 684 he was bishop of Lindisfarne but by late 686 resigned and returned to his hermitage as he felt he was about to die. This was around 635, about the time Cuthbert was born, Cuthbert himself, though educated in the Celtic tradition, followed his mentor Eata in accepting the Roman forms without apparent difficulty after the Synod of Whitby in 664. Unlike Wilfrid, his style of life was austere, and when he was able to he lived the life of a hermit, fostering is possibly a sign of noble birth, as are references to his riding a horse when young. One night while still a boy, employed as a shepherd, he had a vision of the soul of Aidan being carried to heaven by angels, and later found out that Aidan had died that night. Edwin Burton finds a suggestion of lowly parentage in the fact that as a boy he used to tend sheep on the mountain-sides near that monastery and he appears to have had military service but at some point joined the very new monastery at Melrose, under the prior Boisil. Upon Boisils death in 661, Cuthbert succeeded him as prior, Saint Cuthbert was possibly a second cousin of King Aldfrith of Northumbria, which may have been the reason for his later proposal that Aldfrith should be crowned as monarch. Cuthberts fame for piety, diligence, and obedience quickly grew, when Alchfrith, king of Deira, founded a new monastery at Ripon, Cuthbert became its praepositus hospitum or guest master under Eata. When Wilfrid was given the monastery, Eata and Cuthbert returned to Melrose, illness struck the monastery in 664 and while Cuthbert recovered, the prior died and Cuthbert was made prior in his place. He spent much time among the people, ministering to their needs, carrying out missionary journeys, preaching. After the Synod of Whitby, Cuthbert seems to have accepted the Roman customs and he is also said to have founded St Cuthberts Church in Edinburgh. Cuthbert retired in 676, moved by a desire for the contemplative life, shortly afterwards, Cuthbert removed to Inner Farne island off the Northumbrian coast, where he gave himself up to a life of great austerity. At first he received visitors, but later he confined himself to his cell and he could not refuse an interview with the holy abbess and royal virgin Elfleda, the daughter of Oswiu of Northumbria, who succeeded St. Hilda as abbess of Whitby in 680
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History of Trinity College, Oxford
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The history of Trinity College, Oxford documents the 450 years from the foundation of Trinity – a collegiate member of the University of Oxford – on 8 March 1554/5. The fourteenth oldest surviving college, it reused and embellished the site of the former Durham College, opening its doors on 30 May 1555, its founder Sir Thomas Pope created it as a Catholic college teaching only theology. It has been co-educational since 1979, in 1553, King Edward VI awarded the buildings and much of the grounds of the former Durham College, Oxford to Dr George Owen of Godstow and William Martyn of Oxford. Two years later, on 20 February 1555, Owen and Martyn sold the property on to self-made politician Sir Thomas Pope, the political climate was also favourable, the new Queen Mary I was taking a great interest in reviving Oxford as a place of Catholic study. As well as gaining influence with Mary, Pope may also have seen the potential for ensuring that his family lived on. On 8 March 1555, sixteen days after acquiring the Broad Street site, the new statutes drawn up named the new establishment as The College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity in the University of Oxford, of the Foundation of Thomas Pope, a name which persists. Durham College had been dedicated to the Virgin Mary, St Cuthbert, and the Trinity, the original statutes of the college provided for a President, twelve fellows, eight scholars and twenty commoners, making it one of Oxfords smallest colleges even at the time of its inception. The fellows were to study theology, a point insisted upon by Pope, all the relevant property was transferred to the new college during Popes only visit on 28 March 1555. Tuition for undergraduates included that in texts, philosophy and astronomy. Despite a delay whilst fellows were found, on 25 March 1556 revenues from the estates began to be transferred to the college, on 1 May the statutes officially came into force and 29 days later Trinity College Oxford opened its doors to its first students. Trinitys early problems centred on its finances, especially after Pope decided to establish places for four additional scholars, in total, these generated a rent of approximately £200, which was augmented by £65 from other smaller land holdings. In 1558 Pope swapped in extra lands at Great Waltham and took back Sewell and he also sent large consignments of furnishings for the chapel, as well as sixty-three books for the library and various utensils for the refectory. After various teething problems, the statutes were amended and finalised in the same year, on 29 January 1559, Thomas Pope died, leaving the new college without a protector at court. Johns and for a residence outside the city to act as a safe-house during the frequent times of plague, any remarriage on Elizabeths part was to be accompanied by a large gift of furnishings to the college, a clause which was belatedly adhered to in 1564. Contrary to his will, however, Popes body was moved to the chapel around the same time. Trinitys Catholicism made for a relationship with the Crown following Popes death. The new Protestant Queen Elizabeth, who succeeded to the throne in 1558, had the Catholic Slythurst removed from his post almost immediately, fortunately for Trinity, his replacement, while hardly an avid Protestant, proved sufficiently pragmatic to retain his post for the next forty years. Over that time Trinity reluctantly moved with the times, and, threatened by the Crown, melted down its church plate, Fellows who disagreed with the changes left the college, this they did in significant numbers
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Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
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Holy orders
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In the Christian churches, Holy Orders are ordained ministries such as bishop, priest or deacon. Except for Lutherans and some Anglicans, these churches regard ordination as a sacrament, the Anglo-Catholic tradition within Anglicanism identifies more with the Roman Catholic position about the sacramental nature of ordination. Denominations have varied conceptions of Holy Orders, in the Anglican churches and some Lutheran churches the traditional orders of bishop, priest and deacon are bestowed using ordination rites. The extent to which ordination is considered sacramental in these traditions has, however, many other denominations do not consider ministry as being sacramental in nature and would not think of it in terms of holy orders as such. Historically, the word order designated a civil body or corporation with a hierarchy. The word holy refers to the Church, in context, therefore, a holy order is set apart for ministry in the Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church considers ordination to be a Sacred Mystery, although all other mysteries may be performed by a presbyter, ordination may only be conferred by a bishop, and ordination of a bishop may only be performed by several bishops together. Cheirotonia always takes place during the Divine Liturgy and it was the mission of the Apostles to go forth into all the world and preach the Gospel, baptizing those who believed in the name of the Holy Trinity. In the Early Church those who presided over congregations were referred to variously as episcopos or presbyteros and this link is believed to continue in unbroken succession to this day. Over time, the ministry of bishops and presbyters or priests came to be distinguished, in Orthodox terminology, priesthood or sacerdotal refers to the ministry of bishops and priests. A bishop is the Teacher of the Faith, the carrier of Sacred Tradition, a bishop is consecrated through the laying on of hands by several bishops. The consecration of a bishop takes place near the beginning of the Liturgy, since a bishop can, in addition to performing the Mystery of the Eucharist, also ordain priests and deacons. Customarily, the consecrated bishop ordains a priest and a deacon at the Liturgy during which he is consecrated. A priest may serve only at the pleasure of his bishop, a bishop bestows faculties giving a priest chrism and an antimins, he may withdraw faculties and demand the return of these items. After the Aër is taken from the candidate to cover the chalice and diskos, the candidate is then taken to the southeast corner of the Holy Table and kneels on both knees, resting his forehead on the edge of the Holy Table. Afterwards, the bishop brings the newly ordained priest to stand in the Holy Doors and he then clothes the priest in each of his sacerdotal vestments, at each of which the people sing, Worthy. A deacon may not perform any Sacrament and performs no liturgical services on his own but serves only as an assistant to a priest and may not even vest without the blessing of a priest. After being vested as a deacon and given a liturgical fan, the Anglican churches hold their bishops to be in apostolic succession, although there is some difference of opinion with regard to whether ordination is to be regarded as a sacrament
20.
Brideshead Revisited (TV serial)
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Brideshead Revisited is a 1981 British television serial starring Jeremy Irons and Anthony Andrews, and produced by Granada Television for broadcast by the ITV network. The serial is an adaptation of Evelyn Waughs novel Brideshead Revisited, the bulk of the serial was directed by Charles Sturridge, with a few sequences filmed by Michael Lindsay-Hogg. In 2000, the serial was 10th on a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes compiled by the British Film Institute, in 2007, the serial was listed as one of TIME magazines 100 Best TV Shows of All-Time. In 2010, it was second in The Guardian newspapers list of the top 50 TV dramas of all time, in 2015, The Telegraph listed it as #1 in the greatest television adaptations, stating that Brideshead Revisited is television’s greatest literary adaptation, bar none. Its utterly faithful to Evelyn Waughs novel yet its somehow more than that, Episode 2, Home and Abroad At Brideshead, Charles is introduced to Sebastians younger sisters Julia and Cordelia and his older brother Brideshead. The two young men decide to accept an invitation to Venice extended by Sebastians father, Lord Marchmain, Episode 3, The Bleak Light of Day Back at Oxford, Sebastian learns his mother has arranged for him to be tutored - and carefully supervised - by Mr. Samgrass. Lady Marchmain visits the university and implores Charles to be an influence on her rowdy son. Invited to a charity ball in London by Julia, Charles, after a drunken Sebastian crashes their car, the political and social power of ambitious MP Rex Mottram and Mr. Samgrass result in Sebastian being let off with only a fine. Episode 4, Sebastian Against the World Sebastians rapid descent into alcoholism leads him into constant trouble, during Easter holiday at Brideshead, Charles tries to reason with a constantly inebriated Sebastian, who accuses him of being a spy for Lady Marchmain. Sebastians failure to reform leads to his dismissal from Oxford, Episode 5, A Blow Upon a Bruise Charles returns from his art studies in Paris and journeys to Brideshead for the 1925 New Years celebration. Sebastian agrees to participate in a fox hunt although he plans to make an escape to a pub, so he asks Charles for money. When Sebastian returns home heavily inebriated at the end of the day, learning he financed Sebastians drinking binge, she rebukes him for enabling him, and Charles leaves Brideshead, fully expecting never to return. Episode 6, Julia Charles returns to Paris, where he is visited by Rex Mottram, who is searching for Sebastian, Rex discusses the financial woes of the Marchmain family and announces he intends to marry Julia nonetheless. Lady Marchmain reluctantly consents to the marriage as long as Rex converts to Catholicism, Episode 7, The Unseen Hook In May 1926, Charles returns to England to volunteer his services during the General Strike. While delivering milk in the East End, he encounters Boy Mulcaster, at a party they encounter Anthony Blanche who tells how Sebastian is living in Fez. Julia tells Charles her dying mother is anxious to make amends with her prodigal son and he discovers Sebastian has been living with Kurt, a German ex-soldier discharged from the French Foreign Legion after deliberately shooting himself in the foot. Sebastian is an alcoholic and has been hospitalized with pneumonia. Charles finds his friend emaciated and dissipated, unwilling to follow doctors orders, before Charles departs Morocco, he learns Lady Marchmain has died
21.
The Last Enchantments
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The Last Enchantments is a novel by American author Charles Finch. It was published by St. Martin’s Press and released on January 28,2014, the Last Enchantments tells the story of American graduate student Will Baker, and his relationships with friends and paramours, during his time at the University of Oxford. The book follows them through an academic year at the fictional Fleet College, which is based in equal parts on Lady Margaret Hall, Trinity College, Oxford. A vividly evocative love letter to his alma mater, Finchs first contemporary novel. Often reads less like fiction than as memoir, and will be enjoyed by readers of both. ”Kirkus Reviews wrote “Finch brings each character to life with striking effectiveness as they struggle with issues of class, the political climate, academics and their futures. A portrait of university life that’s contemplative and nostalgic. ”Information from St. Martin’s Press about the novel Leaving Victorian England Winning Over James Wood
22.
Lewis (TV series)
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Lewis is a British television detective drama produced for ITV. It is a spin-off from Inspector Morse and, like that series, Kevin Whately reprises his character Robert Robbie Lewis, who was Morses sergeant in the original series. Lewis has now promoted to detective inspector and is assisted by DS James Hathaway, portrayed by Laurence Fox. The series also stars Clare Holman as forensic pathologist Dr Laura Hobson, likewise reprising her role from Inspector Morse, and Angela Griffin as DS Lizzie Maddox. On 2 November 2015, ITV announced that the show would end after its series, following the decision made by Kevin Whately. Whately announced that the show had gone on long enough, with his character having done many stories between Morse and Lewis after he took on the role 30 years ago. Kevin Whately as Detective Inspector Robert Lewis, Widowed after his wife was killed in a car accident. He often shows an uncanny intuition in solving murder cases and he is the father of two children, including daughter Lynn who is married and expecting a baby at one point in the series. Laurence Fox as Detective Sergeant James Hathaway, James Hathaway is a private person, often hiding his feelings or past from Lewis. This tendency has caused tension between the two. Educated at Cambridge, Hathaway is the more erudite of the pair, often knowing the source of various quotations, prior to joining the police force, Hathaway had originally moved to Oxford to enter a Catholic seminary but left for reasons that become clear later in the second series. Hathaway was a sergeant until the eighth season, in which he is promoted to the rank of detective inspector following a short break from the police. Hathaway is forced to confront his past in the season, with father Philip Hathaway. In Series 9, he is the lead in criminal investigations with Lizzie Maddox and Lewis. Clare Holman as Dr. Laura Hobson, Romantic tensions simmer between forensic pathologist Dr. Hobson and Lewis throughout the series, Hobson is single and childless, and like Lewis and Hathaway, is dedicated to her job to a point that it interrupts many of her personal plans. She and Lewis become a couple during the seventh season, rebecca Front as Chief Superintendent Jean Innocent, She is the senior officer supervising Lewis and Hathaway. When Lewis returned from his overseas secondment, Innocent was not convinced that he would be of value, Innocent is frequently at odds with Lewis over his investigation style. In Series 9, it is revealed that she has gone to work for Suffolk Constabulary, Angela Griffin as Detective Sergeant Lizzie Maddox, She becomes Hathaways DS, following his promotion to detective inspector
23.
Endeavour (TV series)
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Endeavour is a British television detective drama series. It is a prequel to the long-running Inspector Morse and, like that series, is set primarily in Oxford, Shaun Evans portrays a young Endeavour Morse beginning his career as a Detective Constable with the Oxford City Police CID. The series is produced for ITV by Mammoth Screen and Masterpiece co-production for ITV Studios, following a pilot episode in 2012, the first series was broadcast in 2013, the second in 2014 and the third in January 2016. A fourth series was ordered by ITV, began filming in late spring 2016, ITV broadcast a television film in the UK on 2 January 2012, in the United States, PBS aired it on 1 July 2012. It starred Shaun Evans as the police detective in his early career. Abigail Thaw, daughter of original Morse actor John Thaw, played the part of Dorothea Frazil in a scene at the Oxford Mail newspaper, ITV commissioned a first series of four new episodes, filmed during summer 2012, and aired them from 14 April to 5 May 2013. It was announced on 5 June 2013 that due to the success of Series 1, including high ratings. Filming commenced in Oxford in September 2013, on 24 September 2014, ITV confirmed that a third series of Endeavour had been ordered. Before that third season of Endeavour screened on ITV, Evans told the Oxford Mail, Its not like we have a six-year contract and its day by day, year by year. I think this one is really good, well know when it airs if theres an audience for it and if we feel theres another place to take these characters. In February 2016, ITV announced that a series of Endeavour had been commissioned. To mark the 30th anniversary of Morse on television, the series feature several early Morse characters. The fourth series debuted on January 8,2017 and it was announced the season will be shown in 2018. Having studied at Oxford gives Morse advantages and disadvantages when dealing with Oxfords town and gown divide, Series 1 begins with Morse transferring to the Oxford City Police in 1965 following a double-murder investigation that took place during the pilot episode. Morse is taken under the wing of Inspector Thursday, Morse displays his obvious genius in solving intricate murders, including several with opera connections. In the Series 1 finale, Morse is shot attempting to apprehend a murderer and is placed on light-duty. At the same time, Morse comes to terms with the death of his cold and unfeeling father in December 1965. Series 2 begins in 1966 with Morse returning to duty at Cowley Police Station, after spending several months on light duty at Oxfordshire Polices Witney Station
24.
Ivor Roberts (diplomat)
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Sir Ivor Anthony Roberts KCMG is former British diplomat and the current President of Trinity College, Oxford. He was previously British Ambassador to Yugoslavia, Ireland, and Italy, born in Liverpool, Roberts was educated at St Marys College, Crosby and the University of Oxford, graduating with a degree in Modern Languages in 1968 and proceeded to take his MA in 1972. Roberts joined the Foreign and Commonwealth Office as Third Secretary in 1968 and he went to study Arabic at MECAS in the Lebanon in 1969, and was posted to Paris in 1970. He was appointed First Secretary at the British High Commission in Canberra in 1978, in 1980 he was posted temporarily to the newly independent Pacific state of Vanuatu as Political Adviser at the time of a rebellion. He returned to Canberra as Head of the Economic and Commercial Department and he then returned to London and took up the post of Deputy Head of News Department in the FCO. From 1989 to 1993 he was Minister in the British Embassy in Madrid and he was appointed Chargé dAffaires and Consul-General in Belgrade in March 1994, and after recognition of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia by the United Kingdom, he became Ambassador. During his time at Belgrade he conducted negotiations on behalf of the international mediators with both the Yugoslav authorities and the Bosnian Serbs, Roberts was also involved in the negotiations for the release of British soldiers held hostage by the Bosnian Serbs in May/June 1995. He left Belgrade at the end of 1997, in 1998-99 he took a sabbatical year as Senior Associate Member of St Antonys College, Oxford. Roberts returned as Ambassador to Ireland 1999–2003, and to Italy from March 2003 until his retirement in 2006, after Sir Ivor retired from HM Diplomatic Service in September 2006 he took up his post as President of Trinity College, Oxford. In April 2007, The Independent confirmed the story, Sir Ivor is the Chairman of the Council of the British School at Rome and a Patron of the Venice in Peril Fund. He also chairs the Board of the Kings College Group in Madrid and is a Member of the International Advisory Board of The Independent News, Roberts is an advisory board member of the Counter Extremism Project. Roberts married Elizabeth Smith, a scholar of French poetry and formerly a diplomat in the Australian Foreign Service, the couple have two sons and a daughter. Lady Roberts is a writer and lecturer on Balkan politics, in 2009, Roberts edited the sixth edition of Satows Diplomatic Practice, originally written in 1917 by Sir Ernest Satow and widely used in embassies throughout the world. It was reviewed by Sir Jeremy Greenstock later the same year, list of Ambassadors from the United Kingdom to Ireland Website of the British Embassy in Rome New appointments and honours, Oxford Today, The University Magazine,18,1, p.6 Debretts People of Today
25.
Trinity College, Cambridge
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Trinity College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. With around 600 undergraduates,300 graduates, and over 180 fellows, by combined student numbers, it is second to Homerton College, Cambridge. Members of Trinity have won 32 Nobel Prizes out of the 91 won by members of Cambridge University, five Fields Medals in mathematics were won by members of the college and one Abel Prize was won. Other royal family members have studied there without obtaining degrees, including King Edward VII, King George VI, along with Christs, Jesus, Kings and St Johns colleges, it has also provided several of the well known members of the Apostles, an intellectual secret society. In 1848, Trinity hosted the meeting at which Cambridge undergraduates representing private schools such as Westminster drew up the first formal rules of football, Trinitys sister college in Oxford is Christ Church. Like that college, Trinity has been linked with Westminster School since the schools re-foundation in 1560, the college was founded by Henry VIII in 1546, from the merger of two existing colleges, Michaelhouse, and Kings Hall. At the time, Henry had been seizing church lands from abbeys, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, being both religious institutions and quite rich, expected to be next in line. The King duly passed an Act of Parliament that allowed him to any college he wished. The universities used their contacts to plead with his sixth wife, the Queen persuaded her husband not to close them down, but to create a new college. The king did not want to use royal funds, so he combined two colleges and seven hostels to form Trinity. Contrary to popular belief, the lands granted by Henry VIII were not on their own sufficient to ensure Trinitys eventual rise. In its infancy Trinity had owed a great deal to its college of St Johns. Its first four Masters were educated at St Johns, and it took until around 1575 for the two colleges application numbers to draw even, a position in which they have remained since the Civil War. Bentley himself was notorious for the construction of a hugely expensive staircase in the Masters Lodge, most of the Trinitys major buildings date from the 16th and 17th centuries. Thomas Nevile, who became Master of Trinity in 1593, rebuilt and this work included the enlargement and completion of Great Court, and the construction of Neviles Court between Great Court and the river Cam. Neviles Court was completed in the late 17th century when the Wren Library, in the 20th century, Trinity College, St Johns College and Kings College were for decades the main recruiting grounds for the Cambridge Apostles, an elite, intellectual secret society. In 2011, the John Templeton Foundation awarded Trinity Colleges Master, Trinity is the richest Oxbridge college, with a landholding alone worth £800 million. Trinity is sometimes suggested to be the second, third or fourth wealthiest landowner in the UK – after the Crown Estate, the National Trust, in 2005, Trinitys annual rental income from its properties was reported to be in excess of £20 million
26.
St John's College, Cambridge
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St Johns College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college was founded by Lady Margaret Beaufort, in constitutional terms, the college is a charitable corporation established by a charter dated 9 April 1511. The aims of the college, as specified by its Statutes, are the promotion of education, religion, learning, the colleges alumni include the winners of ten Nobel Prizes, seven prime ministers and twelve archbishops of various countries, at least two princes, and three Saints. HRH Prince William was affiliated with St Johns while undertaking a course in 2014. St Johns College is also known for its choir, its members success in a wide variety of inter-collegiate sporting competitions. In 2011 the college celebrated its quincentenary, an event marked by a visit of HM Queen Elizabeth II and HRH Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. The college was founded on the site of the 13th-century Hospital of St John in Cambridge at the suggestion of Saint John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester and chaplain to Lady Margaret Beaufort. However, Lady Margaret died without having mentioned the foundation of St Johns in her will, and it was largely the work of Fisher that ensured that the college was founded. He had to obtain the approval of King Henry VIII of England, the Pope through the intermediary Polydore Vergil, the college received its charter on 9 April 1511. In November 1512 the Court of Chancery allowed Lady Margarets executors to pay for the foundation of the college from her estates, when Lady Margarets executors took over they found most of the old Hospital buildings beyond repair, but repaired and incorporated the Chapel into the new college. A kitchen and hall were added, and a gate tower was constructed for the College Treasury. The doors were to be closed each day at dusk, sealing the monastic community from the outside world. Over the course of the five hundred years, the college expanded westwards towards the River Cam, and now has eleven courts. The first three courts are arranged in enfilade, St Johns College first admitted women in October 1981, when K. M. Wheeler was admitted to the fellowship, along with nine female graduate students. The first women undergraduates arrived a year later, St Johns distinctive Great Gate follows the standard contemporary pattern employed previously at Christs College and Queens College. The gatehouse is crenelated and adorned with the arms of the foundress Lady Margaret Beaufort, above these are displayed her ensigns, the Red Rose of Lancaster and Portcullis. The college arms are flanked by curious creatures known as yales, mythical beasts with elephants tails, antelopes bodies, goats heads, and swivelling horns. Above them is a tabernacle containing a figure of St John the Evangelist
27.
Folklore
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Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. These include oral traditions such as tales, proverbs and jokes and they include material culture, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore, the forms and rituals of celebrations like Christmas and weddings, folk dances, each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next, for folklore is not taught in a formal school curriculum or studied in the fine arts. Instead these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another either through verbal instruction or demonstration, the academic study of folklore is called folkloristics. To fully understand folklore, it is helpful to clarify its component parts and it is well-documented that the term was coined in 1846 by the Englishman William Thoms. He fabricated it to replace the contemporary terminology of popular antiquities or popular literature, the second half of the compound word, lore, proves easier to define as its meaning has stayed relatively stable over the last two centuries. Coming from Old English lār instruction, and with German and Dutch cognates, it is the knowledge and traditions of a particular group, the concept of folk proves somewhat more elusive. When Thoms first created this term, folk applied only to rural, frequently poor, a more modern definition of folk is a social group which includes two or more persons with common traits, who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions. Folk is a concept which can refer to a nation as in American folklore or to a single family. This expanded social definition of folk supports a view of the material, i. e. the lore. These now include all things people make with words, things they make with their hands, Folklore is no longer circumscribed as being chronologically old or obsolete. The folklorist studies the traditional artifacts of a group and how they are transmitted. Transmission is a part of the folklore process. Without communicating these beliefs and customs within the group over space and time, for folklore is also a verb. These folk artifacts continue to be passed along informally, as a rule anonymously, the folk group is not individualistic, it is community-based and nurtures its lore in community. As new groups emerge, new folklore is created… surfers, motorcyclists, in direct contrast to high culture, where any single work of a named artist is protected by copyright law, folklore is a function of shared identity within the social group. Having identified folk artifacts, the professional folklorist strives to understand the significance of these beliefs, customs, for these cultural units would not be passed along unless they had some continued relevance within the group
28.
Ralph Bathurst
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Ralph Bathurst, FRS was an English theologian and physician. He was born in Hothorpe, Northamptonshire in 1620 and educated at King Henry VIII School and he graduated with a B. A. degree from Trinity College, Oxford in 1638, where he had a family connection with the President, Ralph Kettell. He originally intended a career in the Church of England, and was ordained in 1644, but his prospects were disrupted by the English Civil War, and he turned to medicine. He collaborated with Thomas Willis, and it was to Bathurst that Willis dedicated his first medical publication, Bathurst was active in the intellectual ferment of the time, and very well connected. In the account given by John Wallis of the groups to the Royal Society of London. Also in that group were Willis, William Petty and Seth Ward, in the celebrated case of Anne Greene, who survived a hanging, the physicians intending to dissect the cadaver were Bathurst, Petty, Willis, and Henry Clerke. He worked in medicine under the physician Daniel Whistler. This was during the First Anglo-Dutch War of 1652 to 1654 and he theorised fruitfully in 1654 on respiration, in a dissertation for his higher medical degree, and his ideas were later taken up, by Boyle and John Mayow. On the English Restoration in 1660 he reverted to a career in the church, there is a story that he had acted as archdeacon and deputy to Robert Skinner, Bishop of Oxford, who was imprisoned by the Parliamentarians. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1663, and was made President of Trinity College in 1664, where he initiated building work to designs by Christopher Wren and he also swayed Samuel Parker from Presbyterian views to an Anglican outlook. In 1670, he was Dean of Wells Cathedral, for three years from 1673, he was Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford, earning a complimentary reference in a John Dryden poem. John Harris, a Trinity College student in the 1680s, wrote about the intellectual, a biography was written by Thomas Warton. He was one of thirteen sons of George Bathurst and this large royalist family suffered greatly in the Civil War, with six of Ralph Bathursts brothers being killed. Theodore Bathurst, known as a poet, was a nephew. Another nephew was Ralph Bohun, a poet and experimentalist
29.
Mesopotamian campaign
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The Ottoman Empire had conquered the region in the early 16th century, but never fully gained complete control. Regional pockets of Ottoman control through local rulers maintained the Ottomans reach throughout Mesopotamia. With the turn of the 19th century came reforms, work began on a Baghdad Railway in 1888, by 1915 it had only four gaps, and travel time from Istanbul to Baghdad had fallen to 21 days. The Anglo-Persian Oil Company had obtained rights to petroleum deposits throughout the Persian Empire, except in the provinces of Azerbaijan, Ghilan, Mazendaran, Asdrabad. In 1914, before the war, the British government had contracted with the company for oil for the navy, the operational area of the Mesopotamian campaign was limited to the lands watered by the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. The main challenge was moving troops and supplies through the swamps, shortly after the European war started, the British sent a military force to protect Abadan, the site of one of the worlds earliest oil refineries. British operational planning included landing troops in the Shatt-al-Arab, the reinforced 6th Division of the British Indian Army was assigned the task, designated as Indian Expeditionary Force D. At first the campaign was run by the India Office and Indian Army, the Ottoman Fourth Army was located in the region. It was composed of two corps, the XII Corps, with the 35th and 36th Divisions at Mosul, and XIII Corps, on 29 October 1914, after the pursuit of Goeben and Breslau, Breslau bombarded the Russian Black Sea port of Theodosia. On 30 October the High Command in Istanbul changed the force distribution, on 2 November Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha expressed regret to the Allies for the actions of the navy. Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs Sergey Sazonov said it was too late, the Cabinet tried to explain that hostilities were begun without its sanction by German officers serving in the navy. The Ottoman Committee of Union and Progresss official Declaration of War came on 14 November, when the Caucasus Campaign became a reality with the Bergmann Offensive, Enver Pasha sent the 37th Division and XIII Corps Headquarters to the Caucasus in support of the Third Army. The entire XII Corps was deployed to the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, Fourth Army Headquarters was sent to Syria, to replace the Second Army Headquarters, which was sent to Istanbul. In place of the Fourth Army was the Iraq Area Command with only the 38th Division under its command, Mesopotamia was a low priority area for the Ottomans, and they did not expect any major action in the region. Regiments of the XII and XIII Corps were maintained at low levels in peacetime, lieutenant Colonel Süleyman Askerî Bey became the commander. He redeployed portions of the 38th Division at the mouth of Shatt-al-Arab, the rest of the defensive force was stationed at Basra. The Ottoman General Staff did not even possess a proper map of Mesopotamia and they tried to draw a map with the help of people who had worked in Iraq before the war, although this attempt failed. Enver Pasha bought two German maps scaled 1/1,500,000, on 6 November 1914, British offensive action began with the naval bombardment of the old fort at Fao, located at the point where the Shatt-al-Arab meets the Persian Gulf
30.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
31.
Left-wing politics
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Left-wing politics supports social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy and social inequality. The term left wing can also refer to the radical, reforming, use of the term Left became more prominent after the restoration of the French monarchy in 1815 when it was applied to the Independents. The word wing was appended to Left and Right in the late 19th century, usually with disparaging intent, throughout the 19th century in France, the main line dividing left and right was between supporters of the French Republic and those of the Monarchy. The June Days Uprising during the Second Republic was an attempt by the Left to assert itself after the 1848 Revolution, in the mid-19th century, nationalism, socialism, democracy, and anti-clericalism became features of the French Left. After Napoleon IIIs 1851 coup and the subsequent establishment of the Second Empire, Marxism began to rival radical republicanism, the influential Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, published in 1848, asserted that all human history is the history of class struggle. They predicted that a revolution would eventually overthrow bourgeois capitalism and create a classless, stateless. It was in period that the word wing was appended to both Left and Right. Following a split between supporters of Marx and Mikhail Bakunin, anarchists formed the International Workers Association, the Second International became divided over the issue of World War I. Those who opposed the war, such as Vladimir Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg, in the United States after Reconstruction, the phrase the Left was used to describe those who supported trade unions, the civil rights movement and the anti-war movement. More recently in the United States, left-wing and right-wing have often used as synonyms for Democratic and Republican. Since the Right was populist, both in the Western and the Eastern Bloc, anything viewed as art was called leftist in all Europe. The following positions are typically associated with left-wing politics, during the industrial revolution, leftists supported trade unions. At the beginning of the 20th century, many leftists advocated strong government intervention in the economy, leftists continue to criticize what they perceive as the exploitative nature of globalization, the race to the bottom, and unjust lay-offs. Other leftists believe in Marxian economics, which are based on the theories of Karl Marx. Marxian economics does not exclusively rely upon Marx, it draws from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist sources, the political relevance of farmers has divided the left. In Das Kapital, Marx scarcely mentioned the subject, Mao Zedong believed that it would be rural peasants, not urban workers, who would bring about the proletarian revolution. Both Karl Marx and the early socialist William Morris arguably had a concern for environmental matters, according to Marx, Even an entire society, a nation, or all simultaneously existing societies taken together. Are not owners of the earth and they are simply its possessors, its beneficiaries, and have to bequeath it in an improved state to succeeding generations
32.
India Office
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The India Office was a British government department created in 1858 to oversee the administration, through a Viceroy and other officials, of the Provinces of British India. These territories comprised most of the nations of Bangladesh, Burma, India. The department was headed by the Secretary of State for India, a member of the British cabinet, upon the partition of British India in 1947 into the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan, the India Office was closed down. Responsibility for the United Kingdoms relations with the two new countries was transferred to the Commonwealth Relations Office, the Company soon established a network of factories throughout the south and east Indies in Asia. Over a period of 250 years the Company underwent several changes in its basic character. A period of rivalry between the Old and New Companies after 1698 resulted in the formation in 1709 of the United Company of Merchants Trading to the East Indies. The Company continued to exercise responsibility, under the supervision of the Board, the Board of Control maintained its separate office close to the Government buildings in Westminster. Other groups of involvement have also resulted from India Office interest in the status of Indian emigrants to the West Indies, south and east Africa, establishment of Burma Office 1947 Birth of India and Pakistan. The official archives of the India Office Records are complemented by over 300 collections, the comprise 14 kilometres of shelves of volumes, files and boxes of papers, together with 70,000 volumes of official publications and 105,000 manuscript and printed maps. Secretary of State for India Under-Secretary of State for India Governor-General of India History of India History of West Bengal Datta, the India Office Library, Its History, Resources, and Functions, Library Quarterly, 36#2 pp. 99–148, Arnold P. Kaminsky. The India Office Library, Who Owns It,1,1966, pp. 1–10 Moir, Martin. A General Guide to the India Office Records 331 pages Seton, the India Office 299 pages Williams, Donovan
33.
Presidencies and provinces of British India
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Provinces of India, earlier Presidencies of British India and still earlier, Presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in the subcontinent. Collectively, they were called British India, in one form or other they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods. During 1612–1757, the East India Company set up factories in several locations, mostly in coastal India and its rivals were the merchant trading companies of Holland and France. By the mid-18th century, three Presidency towns, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta had grown in size, during the period of Company rule in India, 1757–1858, the Company gradually acquired sovereignty over large parts of India, now called Presidencies. However, it increasingly came under British government oversight, in effect sharing sovereignty with the Crown. At the same time it gradually lost its mercantile privileges, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Companys remaining powers were transferred to the Crown. In the new British Raj, sovereignty extended to a few new regions, increasingly, however, unwieldy presidencies were broken up into Provinces. In 1608, the English East India Company established a settlement at Surat, and it was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast, and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal. Company rule in Bengal, however, ended with the Government of India Act 1858 following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857 and these rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for British suzerainty. British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population, in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of the area, in addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan, the latter also including East Bengal, present-day Bangladesh. The term British India also applied to Burma for a time period, starting in 1824, a small part of Burma. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma commenced being administered as a separate British colony, British India did not apply to other countries in the region, such as Sri Lanka, which was a British Crown colony, or the Maldive Islands, which were a British protectorate. It also included the Colony of Aden in the Arabian Peninsula, the original seat of government was at Allahabad, then at Agra from 1834 to 1868. Bombay Presidency, East India Companys headquarters moved from Surat to Bombay in 1687, the East India Company, which was incorporated on 31 December 1600, established trade relations with Indian rulers in Masulipatam on the east coast in 1611 and Surat on the west coast in 1612. The company rented a trading outpost in Madras in 1639, meanwhile, in eastern India, after obtaining permission from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to trade with Bengal, the Company established its first factory at Hoogly in 1640. Almost a half-century later, after Emperor Aurengzeb forced the Company out of Hooghly, by the mid-18th century the three principal trading settlements, now called the Madras Presidency, the Bombay Presidency, and the Bengal Presidency were each administered by a Governor. After Robert Clives victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in 1772, the Company also obtained the Nizāmat of Bengal and thereby full sovereignty of the expanded Bengal Presidency
34.
Racism
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Racism is discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. Today, the use of the term racism does not easily fall under a single definition, the Holocaust is the classic example of institutionalized racism which led to the death of millions of people based on their race. Ethnicity is often used in a close to one traditionally attributed to race. Therefore, racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, according to a United Nations convention on racial discrimination, there is no distinction between the terms racial and ethnic discrimination. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life, Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, in the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, the origin of the root word race is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French, a recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ras, which means head, beginning, origin or the Hebrew rosh, which has a similar meaning. Early race theorists generally held that some races were inferior to others and these early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions, the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism. To date, there is evidence in human genome research indicating that race can be defined in such a way as to be useful in a genetic classification of humans. An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary defines racialism simply as An earlier term than racism, but now superseded by it. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term racism in a quote from the year,1903. It was first defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as he theory that human characteristics and abilities are determined by race. Additionally, the Oxford English Dictionary records racism as a synonym of racialism, as its history indicates, popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into usage in the Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, garner summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups, second, a set of ideas about racial differences, and, third, the UDHR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form a part of humanity
35.
Sotho people
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The Basotho are a Bantu ethnic group whose ancestors have lived in southern Africa since around the fifth century. Most Basotho today live in South Africa, as the area of the Orange Free State was originally part of Moshoeshoes nation, pastoralist Bantu-speaking peoples settled in the territory of modern South Africa by about 500 CE, displacing the aboriginal inhabitants of Southern Africa. The separation from the Tswana is assumed to have taken place by the 14th century, the first historical references to the Basotho date to the 19th century. By that time, a series of Basotho kingdoms covered the portion of the plateau. In 1823, those pressures caused one group of Basotho, the Kololo, to north, past the Okavango Swamp and across the Zambezi into Barotseland. In 1845, the Kololo conquered Barotseland, at about the same time, the Boers began to encroach upon Basotho territory. At the time of these developments, Moshoeshoe I gained control of the Basotho kingdoms of the southern Highveld, universally praised as a skilled diplomat and strategist, he was able to wield the disparate refugee groups escaping the Difaqane into a cohesive nation. His capital was moved to Thaba Bosiu To deal with the encroaching voortrekker groups. Missionaries sent by the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society provided the King with foreign affairs counsel, aside from acting as state ministers, missionaries played a vital role in delineating Sesotho orthography and printing Sesotho language materials between 1837 and 1855. The first Sesotho translation of the Bible appeared in 1878, local chieftains retained power over internal affairs while Britain was responsible for foreign affairs and the defence of the protectorate. In 1869, the British sponsored a process by which the borders of Basutoland were finally demarcated, britains protection ensured that repeated attempts by the Orange Free State, and later, the Republic of South Africa, to absorb part or all of Basutoland, were unsuccessful. In 1966, Basutoland gained its independence from Britain, becoming the Kingdom of Lesotho, internal migration explains why Sesotho is widely spoken throughout the sub-continent. To enter the economy, Basotho men often migrated to large cities in South Africa to find employment in the mining industry. Migrant workers from the Free State and Lesotho thus helped to spread Sesotho to the areas of South Africa. While men tended to find employment within the sector, women gravitated towards employment as agricultural or domestic workers. In terms of religion, the role that Christian missionaries played in helping Moshoeshoe I secure his kingdom helped to ensure widespread conversion among Basotho people to Christianity. Today, the bulk of Sesotho speakers practice a form of Christianity that blends elements of traditional Christian dogma with local, officially, the majority of Lesothos population is Catholic. Basothos heartland is the Free State province in South Africa and neighboring Lesotho, both of these largely rural areas are characterized by widespread poverty and underdevelopment
36.
The Five Red Herrings
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The Five Red Herrings is a 1931 novel by Dorothy L. Sayers. It was retitled Suspicious Characters for its first publication in the United States, Sayers points out in the preface that all the places in the story are real places, and it is a fact that almost all the locations can be recognised and visited to this day. The story is set in Galloway, a part of Scotland popular with artists because of its landscapes, sandy Campbell is a talented painter, but also a notoriously quarrelsome drunkard. When he is dead in a stream, with a half-finished painting on the bank above, it is assumed at first that he fell in accidentally. Lord Peter Wimsey, who is in the region on a fishing holiday, Campbells death is now a murder case. Whoever killed Campbell also executed the painting in Campbells distinctive style, six other nearby artists are talented enough to achieve this and also had recent public brawls with Campbell. Now Wimsey must figure out who done it and who the five red herrings are and this is difficult, because almost all the suspects behave suspiciously, some leave the district unexpectedly and without explanation, others give obviously inaccurate statements or conceal facts. The policemen investigating other aspects of the come up against inexplicable dead ends. The Five Red Herrings is the Peter Wimsey story most obviously set as a puzzle for the reader and he nevertheless resolves to uncover the truth, so that the five innocent artists should not live under lifelong suspicion. The plot is told from the viewpoint of Wimsey, and of the police investigating the case. Parker is involved because a suspect is in hiding in London, large parts of the book follow the various Scottish police officers, who are shown as highly intelligent and competent, and for a time seem to overshadow Wimsey. In contrast, Bunter plays a role in this than in other Wimsey novels. Wimsey works in close co-operation with the police throughout the book, indeed, the six suspects are all eventually traced and give statements in which they deny killing Campbell. Some have convincing alibis, others have none, finally, Wimsey, the Procurator Fiscal, the Chief Constable and the police officers involved in the investigation meet to review the evidence. Working from the knowledge the reader has been given, the police put forward several theories, asked for his opinion, Wimsey finally reveals to the reader exactly what alerted him to the murder, and points the finger at the true killer. The killer finally realises that the case against him is unbreakable and confesses, when the case is tried, the jury decide that he is guilty of manslaughter rather than premeditated murder. A work that grows on rereading and remains in the mind as one of the richest, most colorful of her group studies. The Scottish setting, the artists in the colony, the puzzle
37.
Lord Peter Wimsey
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Lord Peter Death Bredon Wimsey is the fictional protagonist in a series of detective novels and short stories by Dorothy L. Sayers in which he solves mysteries—usually murders. A dilettante who solves mysteries for his own amusement, Wimsey is an archetype for the British gentleman detective. Born in the year 1890 and ageing in real time, Wimsey is described as being of height, with straw-coloured hair, a beaked nose. He also possessed considerable intelligence and athletic ability, evidenced by his playing cricket for Oxford University while earning a First, among Lord Peters hobbies, in addition to criminology, is collecting incunabula, books from the earliest days of printing. He is an expert on matters of food, male fashion and he excels at the piano, including Bachs works for keyboard instruments. One of Lord Peters cars is a 12-cylinder 1927 Daimler four-seater, Lord Peter Wimseys ancestry begins with the 12th-century knight Gerald de Wimsey, who went with King Richard the Lionheart on the Third Crusade and took part in the Siege of Acre. The family coat of arms is blazoned as Sable,3 mice courant, argent, crest, the family motto, displayed under its coat of arms, is As my Whimsy takes me. Lord Peter was the second of the three children of Mortimer Wimsey, 15th Duke of Denver, and Honoria Lucasta Delagardie, who lives on throughout the novels as the Dowager Duchess of Denver. The Dowager Duchess is witty and intelligent, and strongly supports her son, whom she plainly prefers over his less intelligent, more conventional older brother, Gerald. Geralds snobbish wife, Helen, who detests Wimsey, and their heir, Viscount St. George. So does Lady Mary, the sister of the Duke and Lord Peter. Lord Peter Wimsey is called Lord by courtesy as the son of a Duke and he is not a peer and has no right to sit in the House of Lords, nor does this courtesy usage pass on to any offspring he may have. As a boy, the young Peter Wimsey was, to the distress of his father, strongly attached to an old. According to the novels, Lord Peter was educated at Eton College and Balliol College, Oxford and he was also an outstanding cricketer, whose performance would still be well remembered decades later, leading to the near unmasking of his incognito in Murder Must Advertise. Though not taking up a career, he was left with an enduring. To his uncles disappointment, Peter fell deeply in love with a woman named Barbara. When the First World War broke out, he hastened to join the British Army, the girl later married another, less principled, officer. Wimsey served on the Western Front from 1914 to 1918, reaching the rank of Major in the Rifle Brigade and he was appointed an Intelligence Officer, and on one occasion he infiltrated the staff room of a German officer
38.
Dorothy L. Sayers
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Dorothy Leigh Sayers was a renowned English crime writer, poet, playwright, essayist, translator, and Christian humanist. She was also a student of classical and modern languages, however, Sayers herself considered her translation of Dantes Divine Comedy to be her best work. She is also known for her plays, literary criticism, Sayers was an only child, born on 13 June 1893 at the Headmasters House, Christ Church Cathedral School, Oxford. Her father, the Rev. Henry Sayers, M. A. was a chaplain of Christ Church, when she was six, he started teaching her Latin. She grew up in the village of Bluntisham-cum-Earith in Huntingdonshire after her father was given the living there as rector. From 1909 she was educated at the Godolphin School, a school in Salisbury. Her father later moved to the living of Christchurch, in Cambridgeshire. In 1912, Sayers won a scholarship to Somerville College, Oxford where she studied modern languages and she finished with first-class honours in 1915. Women could not be awarded degrees at that time, but Sayers was among the first to receive a degree when the position changed a few years later and her experience of Oxford academic life eventually inspired her penultimate Peter Wimsey novel, Gaudy Night. Her father was from Littlehampton, West Sussex, and her mother was born at The Chestnuts, Millbrook, Hampshire, to Frederick Leigh, Sayerss Aunt Amy, her mothers sister, married Henry Richard Shrimpton. Sayerss first book of poetry was published in 1916 as OP, I by Blackwell Publishing in Oxford. Her second book of poems, Catholic Tales and Christian Songs, was published in 1918, later, Sayers worked for Blackwells and then as a teacher in several locations, including Normandy, France. Sayerss longest employment was from 1922 to 1931 as a copywriter at S. H, bensons advertising agency, located at International Buildings, Kingsway, London. Sayers was quite successful as an advertiser and her collaboration with artist John Gilroy resulted in The Mustard Club for Colmans Mustard and the Guinness Zoo advertisements, variations of which still appear today. One famous example was the Toucan, his bill arching under a glass of Guinness, with Sayerss jingle and she used the advertising industry as the setting of Murder Must Advertise, where she describes the role of truth in advertising. The firm of Pyms Publicity, Ltd, now, Mr. Pym is a man of rigid morality—except, of course, as regards his profession, whose essence is to tell plausible lies for money— How about truth in advertising. Of course, there is truth in advertising. Theres yeast in bread, but you cant make bread with yeast alone, is like leaven, which a woman hid in three measures of meal
39.
Murder Must Advertise
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Murder Must Advertise is a Lord Peter Wimsey mystery novel by Dorothy L. Sayers, published in 1933. Most of the takes place in an advertising agency, a setting with which Sayers was very familiar. One of her colleagues, Bobby Bevan, was the inspiration for the character Mr Ingleby. Wimsey accepts an offer from the highly respectable management of Pyms Publicity, Ltd. to investigate a mystery, under the pseudonym of Death Bredon, Wimsey goes to work at Pyms. He takes over Deans office and learns his trade while investigating the office staff and he discovers a talent for copywriting and promotion, and produces a campaign which will become one of the firms most successful. He also investigates Deans social life, Dean, for a short time, socialised with the De Momerie crowd, the cronies of dissolute socialite Dian de Momerie, most of them heavy cocaine users. He meets De Momeries companion, Major Milligan, who appears to be the supplier for the group. Milligan is linked to a big cocaine-selling ring which Wimseys friend, Milligan, hearing that Dean worked at Pyms, spoke to him assuming that Dean was the rings man at Pyms. Dean was surprised, and Milligan shut up – but Dean guessed that someone else at Pyms was indeed involved, hence the letter to the management. By day he is Bredon, an illegitimate, impoverished Wimsey cousin who works for a living, but on some evenings, Bredon dresses up as a masked harlequin, and by various wild stunts draws the attention and company of Dian de Momerie – annoying Major Milligan. Junior newspaper reporter Hector Puncheon has a beer in a pub and he must have blundered into a distribution operation, but there is no further sign of anything at that pub. Apparently the ring holds each weeks distribution at a different location, Wimsey continues his probing at Pyms, and learns that one of the senior copywriters, Tallboy, seems to have large amounts of cash. Puncheon recognises a man who was in the pub the night he was given the cocaine, Puncheon gets knocked out, and the man accidentally falls in front of a moving train. The dead man had money but no job or assets, which fits a drug dealer and his effects include a telephone directory with the names of many pubs ticked off. One of the marked pubs is the one where Puncheon was given the cocaine. Other clues turn up, a scarab in Deans desk, a pebble in the stairwell, a catapult belonging to office boy Ginger Joe. One of Pyms major clients runs a newspaper advertisement every Friday morning. The text is approved a few days earlier, the first letter of the advertisements text indicates the pub to be used that week
