1.
University of Cambridge
–
The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
University of Cambridge
–
Emmanuel College Chapel
University of Cambridge
–
University of Cambridge coat of arms
University of Cambridge
–
Sir Isaac Newton was a student of the University of Cambridge
University of Cambridge
–
Trinity Lane in the snow, with
King's College Chapel (centre),
Clare College Chapel (right), and the
Old Schools (left)
2.
Trinity Street, Cambridge
–
Trinity Street is a street in central Cambridge, England. The street continues north as St Johns Street, and south as Kings Parade, the street is named after Trinity College, which is on its west side. Also on the street, just to the south, is Gonville, St Michaels and St Marys Courts in Gonville and Caius lie across Trinity Street on land surrounding St Michaels Church. St Michaels Court was completed in the 1930s when its south side was built, Trinity Lane leads off Trinity Street to the west, between Trinity College and Gonville and Caius, turning south around the back of Gonville and Caius, and leading to Trinity Hall and Clare College. Heffers bookshop is on the east side of Trinity Street and it is now part of Blackwells. Michaelhouse, a college of the University of Cambridge, was established on Michaelmas Day 1324. It was named after the church of St Michael on the magna strata or High Street. Michaelhouse was combined with Kings Hall to form Trinity College in 1546, Bowes & Bowes was a bookshop and publishing company at 1 Trinity Street, on the corner of Kings Parade. It had a claim to be the oldest bookshop in the United Kingdom, boews & Bowes closed in 1986 and its successor, Sherratt & Hughes, closed in 1992. Since then the site has been occupied by the Cambridge University Press bookshop, the Victorian printer and publisher W. Metcalfe and Son was located in Trinity Street before moving to the adjoining St Marys Street
Trinity Street, Cambridge
–
Looking north along Trinity Street, with
Trinity College on the left and the tower of
St John's College in the distance.
Trinity Street, Cambridge
–
Panoramic view of Trinity Street.
Trinity Street, Cambridge
–
The Great Gate of
Trinity College on Trinity Street.
3.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
4.
Henry VIII of England
–
Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII, Henry is best known for his six marriages and, in particular, his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. Despite his resulting excommunication, Henry remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, domestically, Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England. Besides asserting the supremacy over the Church of England, he greatly expanded royal power during his reign. Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent, and he achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich and his contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive, educated, and accomplished king, and he has been described as one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne. He was an author and composer, as he aged, Henry became severely obese and his health suffered, contributing to his death in 1547. He is frequently characterised in his life as a lustful, egotistical, harsh. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI, born 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Of the young Henrys six siblings, only three – Arthur, Prince of Wales, Margaret, and Mary – survived infancy and he was baptised by Richard Fox, the Bishop of Exeter, at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three, and was inducted into the Order of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony he was created Duke of York, in May 1495, he was appointed to the Order of the Garter. Henry was given an education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin and French. Not much is known about his early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, as Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine. In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15 of sweating sickness, Arthurs death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother, the 10-year-old Henry. After a little debate, Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall in October 1502, Henry VII gave the boy few tasks. Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public, as a result, the young Henry would later ascend the throne untrained in the exacting art of kingship
Henry VIII of England
–
King Henry VIII by
Hans Holbein the Younger,
Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool.
Henry VIII of England
–
Henry's childhood copy of
De Officiis, bearing the inscription in his hand, "Thys boke is myne".
Henry VIII of England
–
An Illumination from a contemporary manuscript thought to depict Henry mourning the loss of his mother (1503). His sisters are also pictured.
Henry VIII of England
–
Eighteen-year-old Henry VIII after his
coronation in 1509
5.
Trinity
–
The Christian doctrine of the Trinity holds that God is three consubstantial persons or hypostases—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—as one God in three Divine Persons. The three persons are distinct, yet are one substance, essence or nature, in this context, a nature is what one is, whereas a person is who one is. Reflection, proclamation, and dialogue led to the formulation of the doctrine that was felt to correspond to the data in the Bible. The simplest outline of the doctrine was formulated in the 4th century, further elaboration continued in the succeeding centuries. Scripture contains neither the word Trinity, nor an expressly formulated doctrine of the Trinity, rather, according to the Christian theology, it bears witness to the activity of a God who can only be understood in Trinitarian terms. The doctrine did not take its shape until late in the fourth century. During the intervening period, various solutions, some more. Trinitarianism contrasts with nontrinitarian positions which include Binitarianism, Unitarianism, Oneness Pentecostalism or Modalism, the word trinity is derived from Latin trinitas, meaning the number three, a triad. This abstract noun is formed from the adjective trinus, as the word unitas is the noun formed from unus. The corresponding word in Greek is tριάς, meaning a set of three or the number three, the first recorded use of this Greek word in Christian theology was by Theophilus of Antioch in about 170. He wrote, In like manner also the three days which were before the luminaries, are types of the Trinity, of God, and His Word, and His wisdom. And the fourth is the type of man, who needs light, that so there may be God, the Word, wisdom, man. The Ante-Nicene Fathers asserted Christs deity and spoke of Father, Son and Holy Spirit, Trinitarians view these as elements of the codified doctrine. Ignatius of Antioch provides early support for the Trinity around 110, exhorting obedience to Christ, and to the Father, and to the Spirit. Justin Martyr also writes, in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Saviour Jesus Christ, the first of the early church fathers to be recorded using the word Trinity was Theophilus of Antioch writing in the late 2nd century. He defines the Trinity as God, His Word and His Wisdom in the context of a discussion of the first three days of creation, the first defence of the doctrine of the Trinity was in the early 3rd century by the early church father Tertullian. He explicitly defined the Trinity as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, St. Justin and Clement of Alexandra used the Trinity in their doxologies and St. Basil likewise, in the evening lighting of lamps. The highly allegorical exegesis of the Valentinian school inclined it to interpret the relevant scriptural passages as affirming a Divinity that, the Valentinian Gospel of Phillip, which dates to approximately the time of Tertullian, upholds the Trinitarian formula
Trinity
–
The Holy Trinity by unknown Portuguese master (16th cent.). Museu Diocesano de Santarém, Portugal
Trinity
–
The "
Shield of the Trinity " or Scutum Fidei diagram of traditional medieval Western Christian symbolism, since 12th-century CE.
Trinity
–
The earliest known depiction of the Trinity,
Dogmatic Sarcophagus, 350 AD
Vatican Museums
Trinity
–
The Baptism of Christ, by
Piero della Francesca, 15th century
6.
Christ Church, Oxford
–
Christ Church is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. The college is associated with Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, which serves as the college chapel and it is the second wealthiest Oxford college by financial endowment with an endowment of £436m as of 2015. Christ Church has produced thirteen British prime ministers, more than any other Oxbridge college, the college was the setting for parts of Evelyn Waughs Brideshead Revisited, as well as a small part of Lewis Carrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland. More recently it has used in the filming of the movies of J. K. Rowlings Harry Potter series. Distinctive features of the architecture have been used as models by a number of other academic institutions, including the National University of Ireland, Galway. The University of Chicago and Cornell University both have reproductions of Christ Churchs dining hall, christChurch Cathedral in New Zealand, after which the City of Christchurch is named, is itself named after Christ Church, Oxford. Stained glass windows in the cathedral and other buildings are by the Pre-Raphaelite William Morris group with designs by Edward Burne-Jones, Christ Church is also partly responsible for the creation of University College Reading, which later gained its own Royal Charter and became the University of Reading. The first female undergraduates matriculated at Christ Church in 1980 and he planned the establishment on a magnificent scale, but fell from grace in 1529, with the buildings only three-quarters complete, as they were to remain for 140 years. In 1531 the college was suppressed, but it was refounded in 1532 as King Henry VIIIs College by Henry VIII. Since the time of Queen Elizabeth I the college has also associated with Westminster School. The dean remains to this day an ex member of the schools governing body. Major additions have made to the buildings through the centuries. To this day the bell in the tower, Great Tom, is rung 101 times at 9 pm at the former Oxford time every night, in former times this was done at midnight, signalling the close of all college gates throughout Oxford. Since it took 20 minutes to ring the 101, Christ Church gates, unlike those of other colleges, when the ringing was moved back to 9,00 pm, Christ Church gates still remained open until 12.20,20 minutes later than any other college. Although the clock itself now shows GMT/BST, Christ Church still follows Oxford time in the timings of services in the cathedral, King Charles I made the Deanery his palace and held his Parliament in the Great Hall during the English Civil War. In the evening of 29 May 1645, during the siege of Oxford. During the Commonwealth, John Owen attained considerable eminence, the Visitor of Christ Church is the reigning British sovereign, and the Bishop of Oxford is unique among English bishops in not being the Visitor of his own cathedral. The head of the college is the Dean of Christ Church, There are a senior and a junior censor the former of whom is responsible for academic matters, the latter for undergraduate discipline
Christ Church, Oxford
–
Colleges and
halls of the
University of Oxford Christ Church
Christ Church, Oxford
–
The Hall of Christ Church
Christ Church, Oxford
–
Christ Church's library in the early 19th century.
Christ Church, Oxford
7.
Colleges of the University of Cambridge
–
This is a list of the colleges within the University of Cambridge. They also provide funding, accommodation, or both, for some of the research posts in the University. They are self-governed charities in their own right, with their own endowments, until the mid-19th century, both Cambridge and Oxford comprised a group of colleges with a small central university administration, rather than universities in the common sense. The University of Cambridge has 31 colleges, founded between the 13th and 20th centuries, the oldest college is Peterhouse, founded in 1284, and the newest is Robinson, founded in 1977. Homerton, which was first founded in the century as a dissenting academy. All 16 of the old colleges and 7 of the 15 new ones admit both male and female students as undergraduates and postgraduates, without any age restrictions. No colleges are all-male, although most originally were, darwin, founded in 1964, was the first mixed college, while in 1972 Churchill, Clare and Kings colleges were the first previously all-male colleges to admit women. The last all-male college to become mixed was Magdalene, in 1988, in 1973 Hughes Hall became the first all-female college to admit men, and Girton admitted men in 1976. Lucy Cavendish also places restrictions on the admission of staff members, the same is true of Newnham, but not Murray Edwards. Key, U–undergraduates, P–postgraduates, Abb-Official abbreviation used in the Reporter, there are also several theological colleges in Cambridge that are affiliated with the university through the Cambridge Theological Federation. Most colleges are led by a Master, even when the Master is female, Girton College has always had a Mistress, even though male candidates have been able to run for the office since 1976. These include, Ayerst Hostel, founded in the 1880s, renamed as St Edmunds House in 1896, buckingham College, founded in 1428 as a Benedictine hall, refounded as Magdalene in 1542. Bull College, a college for US GIs returning from World War II, existing in Michaelmas 1945. Cavendish College, founded in 1873, an attempt to allow students to sit the Tripos examinations. Clare Hall was the name of Clare College between 1338 and 1856, Clare College founded a new college named Clare Hall in 1966. Gonville Hall, founded in 1348, and re-founded in 1557 as Gonville, gods House, founded in 1437, and re-founded in 1505 as Christs College. Kings Hall, founded in 1317, and combined with Michaelhouse to form Trinity College in 1546, Michaelhouse, founded in 1324, and combined with Kings Hall to form Trinity College in 1546. List of Oxbridge sister colleges List of fictional Cambridge colleges Colleges of the University of Oxford Colleges of Durham University Colleges of the University of York
Colleges of the University of Cambridge
–
Arms of the
University of Cambridge
8.
Graduate student
–
A graduate school is a school that awards advanced academic degrees with the general requirement that students must have earned a previous undergraduate degree with a high grade point average. The distinction between schools and professional schools is not absolute, as various professional schools offer graduate degrees. Also, some graduate degrees train students for a specific profession, many universities award graduate degrees, a graduate school is not necessarily a separate institution. Those attending graduate schools are called students, or often in British English as postgraduate students and, colloquially, postgraduates. Degrees awarded to students include masters degrees, doctoral degrees. Producing original research is a significant component of graduate studies in the humanities, sciences and this research typically leads to the writing and defense of a thesis or dissertation. In graduate programs that are oriented towards professional training, the degrees may consist solely of coursework, the term graduate school is primarily North American. Unlike in undergraduate programs, however, it is common for graduate students to take coursework outside their specific field of study at graduate or graduate entry level. Some institutions designate separate graduate versus undergraduate staff and denote other divisions, Graduate degrees in Brazil are called postgraduate degrees, and can be taken only after an undergraduate education has been concluded. Lato sensu graduate degrees, degrees that represent a specialization in a certain area, sometimes it can be used to describe a specialization level between a masters degree and a MBA. However, since there are no norms to regulate this, both names are used indiscriminately most of the time, stricto sensu graduate degrees, degrees for those who wish to pursue an academic career. Usually serves as qualification for those seeking a differential on the job market. Most doctoral programs in Brazil require a degree, meaning that a Lato Sensu Degree is usually insufficient to start a doctoral program. Doctors / PhD, 3–4 years for completion, usually used as a stepping stone for academic life. In Canada, the Schools and Faculties of Graduate Studies are represented by the Canadian Association of Graduate Studies or Association canadienne pour les études supérieures and its mandate is to promote, advance, and foster excellence in graduate education and university research in Canada. In addition to a conference, the association prepares briefs on issues related to graduate studies including supervision, funding. Admission to a masters program generally requires a degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades usually ranging from B+ and higher. Some schools require samples of the writing as well as a research proposal
Graduate student
–
A doctoral graduate (
PhD) of
Chulalongkorn University in
Thailand, dressed in an
academic gown for her
graduation ceremony.
9.
Oxbridge
–
Oxbridge is a portmanteau of the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom. Although both universities were founded more than eight centuries ago, the term Oxbridge is relatively recent, in William Thackerays novel Pendennis, published in 1849, the main character attends the fictional Boniface College, Oxbridge. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, this is the first recorded instance of the word, virginia Woolf used it, citing Thackeray, in her 1929 essay A Room of Ones Own. By 1957 the term was used in the Times Educational Supplement, when expanded, the universities are almost always referred to as Oxford and Cambridge, the order in which they were founded. Both were founded more than 800 years ago, and continued as Englands only universities until the 19th century, between them they have educated a large number of Britains most prominent scientists, writers and politicians, as well as noted figures in many other fields. Each has a collegiate structure, whereby the University is a co-operative of its constituent colleges. Both universities have many buildings of great beauty and antiquity, and are sited on level terrain ideal for cycling and they are the top-scoring institutions in cross-subject UK university rankings, so they are targeted by ambitious pupils, parents and schools. Entrance is extremely competitive and some schools promote themselves based on their achievement of Oxbridge offers, combined, the two universities award over one-sixth of all English full-time research doctorates. Oxford and Cambridge have common approaches to undergraduate admissions, until the mid-1980s, entry was typically by sitting special entrance exams. Camford was also used in the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Creeping Man, other words have been derived from the term Oxbridge, though none has achieved widespread recognition. The term Loxbridge is sometimes seen, and was adopted as the name of the Ancient History conference now known as AMPAH
Oxbridge
–
An Oxbridge college seen from the outside
10.
Homerton College, Cambridge
–
Homerton College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. Its first premises were acquired in London in 1768, by a gathering of Protestant dissenters with origins in the seventeenth century. In 1894 the College moved from Homerton High Street, Hackney, London, to Cambridge, the College will be celebrating its 250th anniversary in 2018. Homerton has educated alumni of considerable influence – including prominent dissenting thinkers, educationalists, politicians, in this sense, the College has particularly strong ties to public service as well as academia. Homerton was admitted as an Approved Society of the university in 1976, the College has extensive grounds which encompass sports fields, water features, beehives and the focal point of the college, its Victorian Gothic hall. It also has a range of student clubs and societies, including Homerton College Boat Club, Homerton College Music Society. In 2011 and 2012 the college was selected to field a team on University Challenge. The college reopened as the Training Institution of the Congregational Board of Education in April 1852, also, increasing numbers of students required more space. In 1881 former students of Homerton College who were members of Glyn Cricket Club formed a section to help keep their players fit during the winter months. In 1894 the Congregational Board of Education were able to purchase the estate of Cavendish College, Cambridge which had become available. All its estates and furniture were bought by the Congregational Board for £10,000, initially taking the name of Homerton New College at Cavendish College, it shortly became just Homerton College, Cambridge. John Charles Horobin became the first Principal, and his portrait hangs in the colleges Great Hall. The first woman to head the college was Mary Miller Allan and her successor in 1935 was Miss Alice Skillicorn, a former HMI, who took the college through World War Two, during which time it was bombed. Dame Beryl Paston Brown was Principal in the 1960s — at a time when Homerton’s numbers doubled after the introduction of training courses in 1960. The possibility of introducing a Cambridge Bachelor of Education degree was given as one of the reasons for the original move into Cambridge. It was after the shake-up and governmental criticisms of teacher training in the early 1970s that the university admitted Homerton, in late 2000 the Regent House approved a proposal to converge Homerton with the rest of the university. In September 2001 Homerton admitted its first non-education Tripos students, at the same time the old B. Ed. degree was retired in favour of a three-year B. A. in Education, followed by a one-year Post Graduate Certificate of Education. At the time of convergence it was envisaged that Homerton would move from the status of Approved Society to that of Approved Foundation or full college, in December 2008 Homertons application to move to full college status was approved by the University Council
Homerton College, Cambridge
–
Colleges of the
University of Cambridge Homerton College
Homerton College, Cambridge
–
The Cavendish Building.
Homerton College, Cambridge
–
The Faculty of Education building, adjacent to Homerton College, opened in 2005.
Homerton College, Cambridge
–
Homerton's Castellated Tower.
11.
Fields Medal
–
The Fields Medal is sometimes viewed as the highest honor a mathematician can receive. The Fields Medal and the Abel Prize have often described as the mathematicians Nobel Prize. The Fields Medal differs from the Abel in view of the age restriction mentioned above, the prize comes with a monetary award, which since 2006 has been C$15,000. The colloquial name is in honour of Canadian mathematician John Charles Fields, Fields was instrumental in establishing the award, designing the medal itself, and funding the monetary component. The medal was first awarded in 1936 to Finnish mathematician Lars Ahlfors and American mathematician Jesse Douglas and its purpose is to give recognition and support to younger mathematical researchers who have made major contributions. The Fields Medal is often described as the Nobel Prize of Mathematics, however, in contrast to the Nobel Prize, the Fields Medal is awarded only every four years. The Fields Medal also has an age limit, a recipient must be under age 40 on 1 January of the year in which the medal is awarded and this is similar to restrictions applicable to the Clark Medal in economics. The monetary award is lower than the 8,000,000 Swedish kronor given with each Nobel prize as of 2014. Other major awards in mathematics, such as the Abel Prize, in 1954, Jean-Pierre Serre became the youngest winner of the Fields Medal, at 27. In 1966, Alexander Grothendieck boycotted the ICM, held in Moscow, léon Motchane, founder and director of the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques attended and accepted Grothendiecks Fields Medal on his behalf. In 1970, Sergei Novikov, because of restrictions placed on him by the Soviet government, was unable to travel to the congress in Nice to receive his medal. In 1978, Grigory Margulis, because of restrictions placed on him by the Soviet government, was unable to travel to the congress in Helsinki to receive his medal. In 1982, the congress was due to be held in Warsaw but had to be rescheduled to the next year, the awards were announced at the ninth General Assembly of the IMU earlier in the year and awarded at the 1983 Warsaw congress. In 1990, Edward Witten became the first physicist to win this award, in 1998, at the ICM, Andrew Wiles was presented by the chair of the Fields Medal Committee, Yuri I. Manin, with the first-ever IMU silver plaque in recognition of his proof of Fermats Last Theorem, don Zagier referred to the plaque as a quantized Fields Medal. Accounts of this award frequently make reference that at the time of the award Wiles was over the age limit for the Fields medal. Although Wiles was slightly over the age limit in 1994, he was thought to be a favorite to win the medal, however, in 2006, Grigori Perelman, who proved the Poincaré conjecture, refused his Fields Medal and did not attend the congress. In 2014, Maryam Mirzakhani became the first woman as well as the first Iranian, Artur Avila the first South American and this is a list of the universities that have graduated Fields medalists
Fields Medal
–
The obverse of the Fields Medal
Fields Medal
–
The reverse of the Fields Medal
12.
Abel Prize
–
The Abel Prize /ˈɑːbəl/ is a Norwegian prize awarded annually by the Government of Norway to one or more outstanding mathematicians. It comes with an award of 6 million Norwegian kroner. The award ceremony takes place in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, the prize board has also established an Abel symposium, administered by the Norwegian Mathematical Society. The prize was first proposed to be part of the 1902 celebration of 100th anniversary of Abels birth, king Oscar II was willing to finance a mathematics prize in 1902, and the mathematicians Ludwig Sylow and Carl Størmer drew up statutes and rules for the proposed prize. However, Lies influence waned after his death, and the dissolution of the union between Sweden and Norway in 1905 ended the first attempt to create the Abel Prize. After interest in the concept of the prize had risen in 2001, a group was formed to develop a proposal. In August 2001, the Norwegian government announced that the prize would be awarded beginning in 2002, atle Selberg received an honorary Abel Prize in 2002, but the first actual Abel Prize was only awarded in 2003. A book series presenting Abel Prize laureates and their research was commenced in 2010, the first two volumes cover the years 2003–2007 and 2008–2012 respectively. The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters declares the winner of the Abel Prize each March after recommendation by the Abel Committee, the committee is currently headed by John Rognes. The International Mathematical Union and the European Mathematical Society nominate members of the Abel Committee, the Norwegian Government gave the prize an initial funding of NOK200 million in 2001. The funding is controlled by the Board, which consists of members elected by the Norwegian Academy of Science, anyone may submit a nomination, but self-nomination is not allowed. The nominee must be alive, however, if the awardee dies after being declared as the winner, the Abel Laureate is decided by the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters based on the recommendation of the Abel Committee. List of prizes, medals, and awards – mathematics Official website Official website of the Abel Symposium Barile, Margherita and Weisstein, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list
Abel Prize
–
The prize is awarded in the atrium of the Domus Media building of the
University of Oslo Faculty of Law, where the
Nobel Peace Prize was formerly awarded
Abel Prize
–
Abel Prize
13.
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
–
The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of Her Majestys Government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to Parliament, to their political party, the office is one of the Great Offices of State. The current prime minister, Theresa May, leader of the Conservative Party, was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016. The position of Prime Minister was not created, it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective, the origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of political parties, the introduction of mass communication. By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged, prior to 1902, the prime minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Ministers authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process. The Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury, certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury. As the Head of Her Majestys Government the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet, in addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons. As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers, under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. The Prime Minister also acts as the face and voice of Her Majestys Government. The British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution, in 1928, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs, In this country we live. Our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the assent of the King, Lords. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, the relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the Prime Ministers executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still vested in the Sovereign
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
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Incumbent
David Cameron since 11 May 2010
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
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Arms of
Her Majesty's Government
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
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Late in the 17th century Treasury Ministers began to attend the Commons regularly. They were given a reserved place, called the Treasury Bench, to the Speaker's right where the Prime Minister and senior Cabinet members sit today
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
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Portrait of Sir
Robert Walpole, studio of
Jean-Baptiste van Loo, 1740. Walpole is considered to have been Britain's first Prime Minister.
14.
Tory
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A Tory holds a political philosophy based on a British version of traditionalism and conservatism, which upholds the supremacy of social order as it has evolved throughout history. The Tory ethos has been summed up with the phrase God, King, Tories generally advocate monarchism, are usually of a high church Anglican religious heritage, and are opposed to the liberalism of the Whig faction. In Britain, the Tory political faction originated with the Cavaliers during the English Civil War and this political philosophy remains prominent in the politics of the United Kingdom, and also appears in parts of the Commonwealth realms, particularly in Canada. It also had exponents in other parts of the former British Empire, under the Corn Laws a majority of Tories supported protectionist agrarianism with tariffs being imposed at the time for higher food prices, self-sufficiency, and enhanced wages in rural employment. There were two Tory ministries after James II came to the throne, the first led by the Earl of Rochester, a significant faction took part in the ousting of James II with the Whigs to defend the Church of England and definitive protestantism. Although only a minority of Tories gave their adhesion to the Jacobite risings, after the advent of the Prime Ministerial system under the Whig Robert Walpole, Lord Butes premiership in the reign of George III marked a revival. Edmund Burke and William Pitt the Younger led the way in this, interventionism and strong armed forces were to prove a hallmark of Toryism under subsequent Prime Ministers. Due to these Tories leading the formation of the Conservative Party, members of that party are referred to as Tories. The word Tory derives from the Middle Irish word tóraidhe, modern Irish tóraí, outlaw, robber or brigand, from the Irish word tóir, meaning pursuit and it was originally used to refer to a Rapparee and later applied to Confederates or Cavaliers in arms. The term was originally a term of abuse, an Irish rebel. Towards the end of Charles IIs reign there was debate about whether or not his brother, James, Duke of York. Whigs, originally a reference to Scottish cattle-drivers, was the term directed at those who wanted to exclude James on the grounds that he was a Roman Catholic. Those who were not prepared to exclude James were labelled Abhorrers, the suffix -ism was quickly added to both Whig and Tory to make Whiggism and Toryism, meaning the principles and methods of each faction. Historically, the term Tory has been applied in ways to loyalists of the British monarchy. During the Exclusion Crisis, the word Tory was applied in Kingdom of England as a nickname to the opponents of the bill, the word Tory had connotations of Papist and outlaw derived from its previous use in Ireland. Since 1832, the term Tory is commonly used to refer to the Conservative Party, the term Tory or Loyalist was used in the American Revolution for those who remained loyal to the British Crown. Since early in the 18th century, Tory had described those upholding the right of the King over Parliament, during the war of independence, particularly after the Declaration of Independence in 1776 this use was extended to cover anyone who remained loyal to the British Crown. About 80% of the Loyalists remained in the United States after the war, the 60,000 or so Loyalists who settled in Quebec, the Bahamas, or returned to Great Britain after the American War of Independence are known as United Empire Loyalists
Tory
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Lord Rochester was the first Tory to lead a
Ministry in the
Parliament of England
Tory
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Lord Belasyse was the second Tory to lead a Ministry
Tory
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Mobbing the Tories by American Patriots in 1775–76; the Tory is about to be tarred and feathered
15.
Whig (British political party)
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The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Whigs origin lay in constitutional monarchism and opposition to absolute monarchy. The Whigs played a role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the standing enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715, and remained dominant until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760. The Whig Supremacy was enabled by the Hanoverian succession of George I in 1714, the Whigs thoroughly purged the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession, and local offices. The Partys hold on power was so strong and durable, historians call the period from roughly 1714 to 1783 the age of the Whig Oligarchy. The first great leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government through the period 1721–1742, his protégé was Henry Pelham, who led from 1743 to 1754. Both parties were founded on rich politicians, more than on votes, there were elections to the House of Commons. The Whig Party slowly evolved during the 18th century, later on, the Whigs drew support from the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants, while the Tories drew support from the landed interests and the royal family. The term Whig was originally short for whiggamor, a term meaning cattle driver used to describe western Scots who came to Leith for corn. In the reign of Charles I the term was used during Wars of the Three Kingdoms to refer derisively to a faction of the Scottish Covenanters who called themselves the Kirk Party. It was then applied to Scottish Presbyterian rebels who were against the Kings Episcopalian order in Scotland, Whig was a term of abuse applied to those who wanted to exclude James on the grounds that he was a Roman Catholic. The fervent Tory Samuel Johnson often joked that the first Whig was the Devil, the Whigs, under Lord Shaftesburys leadership, wished to exclude the Duke of York from the throne due to his Catholicism, his favouring of monarchical absolutism and his connections to France. They believed the Duke, if allowed to inherit the throne, would endanger the Protestant religion, liberty, the first Exclusion Bill was supported by a substantial majority on its second reading in May 1679. In response, King Charles prorogued Parliament and then dissolved it and this new parliament did not meet for thirteen months, because Charles wanted to give passions a chance to die down. When it met in October 1680, an Exclusion Bill was introduced and passed in the Commons without major resistance, Charles dissolved Parliament in January 1681, but the Whigs did not suffer serious losses in the ensuing election. The next Parliament first met in March, at Oxford, but Charles dissolved it only after a few days, when he made an appeal to the country against the Whigs, and determined to rule without Parliament. In February, Charles had made a deal with the French King Louis XIV, without Parliament, the Whigs gradually crumbled, mainly due to the Rye House Plot
Whig (British political party)
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Equestrian portrait of William III by
Jan Wyck, commemorating the landing at Brixham, Torbay, 5 November 1688
Whig (British political party)
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John Somers, 1st Baron Somers
Whig (British political party)
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In A Block for the Wigs (1783), caricaturist
James Gillray caricatured Fox's return to power in a coalition with North. George III is the blockhead in the centre.
16.
Liberal Party (UK)
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The Liberal Party was a liberal political party which was one of the two major parties in the United Kingdom in the 19th and early 20th century. The party arose from an alliance of Whigs and free-trade Peelites and Radicals favourable to the ideals of the American, by the end of the nineteenth century, it had formed four governments under William Gladstone. Despite splitting over the issue of Irish Home Rule, the party returned to power in 1906 with a landslide victory, by the end of the 1920s, the Labour Party had replaced the Liberals as the Conservatives main rival. The party went into decline and by the 1950s won no more than six seats at general elections, apart from notable by-election victories, the partys fortunes did not improve significantly until it formed the SDP–Liberal Alliance with the newly formed Social Democratic Party in 1981. At the 1983 General Election, the Alliance won over a quarter of the vote, at the 1987 General Election, its vote fell below 23% and the Liberal and Social Democratic parties merged in 1988 to form the Liberal Democrats. A splinter group reconstituted the Liberal Party in 1989 and it was formed by party members opposed to the merger who saw the Lib Dems diluting Liberal ideals. Prominent intellectuals associated with the Liberal Party include the philosopher John Stuart Mill, the economist John Maynard Keynes, the Liberal Party grew out of the Whigs, who had their origins in an aristocratic faction in the reign of Charles II, and the early 19th century Radicals. The Whigs were in favour of reducing the power of the Crown, although their motives in this were originally to gain more power for themselves, the more idealistic Whigs gradually came to support an expansion of democracy for its own sake. The great figures of reformist Whiggery were Charles James Fox and his disciple, after decades in opposition, the Whigs returned to power under Grey in 1830 and carried the First Reform Act in 1832. The Reform Act was the climax of Whiggism, but it brought about the Whigs demise. As early as 1839 Russell had adopted the name of Liberals, the leading Radicals were John Bright and Richard Cobden, who represented the manufacturing towns which had gained representation under the Reform Act. They favoured social reform, personal liberty, reducing the powers of the Crown and the Church of England, avoidance of war and foreign alliances, for a century, free trade remained the one cause which could unite all Liberals. This allowed ministries led by Russell, Palmerston, and the Peelite Lord Aberdeen to hold office for most of the 1850s and 1860s, a leading Peelite was William Ewart Gladstone, who was a reforming Chancellor of the Exchequer in most of these governments. The formal foundation of the Liberal Party is traditionally traced to 1859 and this was brought about by Palmerstons death in 1865 and Russells retirement in 1868. After a brief Conservative government Gladstone won a victory at the 1868 election. The establishment of the party as a membership organisation came with the foundation of the National Liberal Federation in 1877. John Stuart Mill was a Liberal MP from 1865 to 1868, for the next thirty years Gladstone and Liberalism were synonymous. William Ewart Gladstone served as prime minister four times, called the Grand Old Man later in life, Gladstone was always a dynamic popular orator who appealed strongly to the working class and to the lower middle class
Liberal Party (UK)
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A crowd waits outside
Leeds Town Hall to see them elect a Liberal Party candidate during the
1880 general elections.
Liberal Party (UK)
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Liberal Party
Liberal Party (UK)
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Viscount Palmerston
Liberal Party (UK)
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William Gladstone
17.
Isaac Newton
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His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus. Newtons Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists view of the universe for the next three centuries. Newtons work on light was collected in his influential book Opticks. He also formulated a law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound. Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge, politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–90 and 1701–02. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and he spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint and his father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. Born prematurely, he was a child, his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug. When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Newtons mother had three children from her second marriage. From the age of twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The Kings School, Grantham which taught Latin and Greek. He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Henry Stokes, master at the Kings School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a bully, he became the top-ranked student. In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge and he started as a subsizar—paying his way by performing valets duties—until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which guaranteed him four more years until he would get his M. A. He set down in his notebook a series of Quaestiones about mechanical philosophy as he found it, in 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his B. A. degree in August 1665, in April 1667, he returned to Cambridge and in October was elected as a fellow of Trinity. Fellows were required to become ordained priests, although this was not enforced in the restoration years, however, by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way. Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II. A and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1672. Newtons work has been said to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied and his work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newtons mathematical papers
Isaac Newton
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Portrait of Isaac Newton in 1689 (age 46) by
Godfrey Kneller
Isaac Newton
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Newton in a 1702 portrait by
Godfrey Kneller
Isaac Newton
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Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)
Isaac Newton
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Replica of Newton's second
Reflecting telescope that he presented to the
Royal Society in 1672
18.
James Clerk Maxwell
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James Clerk Maxwell FRS FRSE was a Scottish scientist in the field of mathematical physics. Maxwells equations for electromagnetism have been called the great unification in physics after the first one realised by Isaac Newton. With the publication of A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field in 1865, Maxwell proposed that light is an undulation in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. The unification of light and electrical phenomena led to the prediction of the existence of radio waves, Maxwell helped develop the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, a statistical means of describing aspects of the kinetic theory of gases. He is also known for presenting the first durable colour photograph in 1861 and his discoveries helped usher in the era of modern physics, laying the foundation for such fields as special relativity and quantum mechanics. Many physicists regard Maxwell as the 19th-century scientist having the greatest influence on 20th-century physics and his contributions to the science are considered by many to be of the same magnitude as those of Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein. In the millennium poll—a survey of the 100 most prominent physicists—Maxwell was voted the third greatest physicist of all time, behind only Newton and Einstein. On the centenary of Maxwells birthday, Einstein described Maxwells work as the most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton. James Clerk Maxwell was born on 13 June 1831 at 14 India Street, Edinburgh, to John Clerk Maxwell of Middlebie, an advocate and his father was a man of comfortable means of the Clerk family of Penicuik, holders of the baronetcy of Clerk of Penicuik. His fathers brother was the 6th Baronet, James was the first cousin of the artist Jemima Blackburn and cousin of the civil engineer William Dyce Cay. They were close friends and Cay acted as his best man when Maxwell married, Maxwells parents met and married when they were well into their thirties, his mother was nearly 40 when he was born. They had had one child, a daughter named Elizabeth. When Maxwell was young his family moved to Glenlair House, which his parents had built on the 1,500 acres Middlebie estate, all indications suggest that Maxwell had maintained an unquenchable curiosity from an early age. By the age of three, everything moved, shone, or made a noise drew the question, whats the go o that. And show me how it doos is never out of his mouth and he also investigates the hidden course of streams and bell-wires, the way the water gets from the pond through the wall. Recognising the potential of the boy, Maxwells mother Frances took responsibility for Jamess early education. At eight he could recite long passages of Milton and the whole of the 119th psalm, indeed, his knowledge of scripture was already very detailed, he could give chapter and verse for almost any quotation from the psalms. His mother was ill with abdominal cancer and, after an unsuccessful operation
James Clerk Maxwell
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James Clerk Maxwell's birthplace at 14 India Street
James Clerk Maxwell
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James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)
James Clerk Maxwell
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Edinburgh Academy, where Maxwell was schooled.
James Clerk Maxwell
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Old College, University of Edinburgh
19.
Ernest Rutherford
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Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, OM, FRS was a New Zealand-born British physicist who came to be known as the father of nuclear physics. Encyclopædia Britannica considers him to be the greatest experimentalist since Michael Faraday and this work was done at McGill University in Canada. Rutherford moved in 1907 to the Victoria University of Manchester in the UK, Rutherford performed his most famous work after he became a Nobel laureate. He conducted research that led to the first splitting of the atom in 1917 in a reaction between nitrogen and alpha particles, in which he also discovered the proton. Rutherford became Director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1919, after his death in 1937, he was honoured by being interred with the greatest scientists of the United Kingdom, near Sir Isaac Newtons tomb in Westminster Abbey. The chemical element rutherfordium was named after him in 1997, Ernest Rutherford was the son of James Rutherford, a farmer, and his wife Martha Thompson, originally from Hornchurch, Essex, England. James had emigrated to New Zealand from Perth, Scotland, to raise a little flax, Ernest was born at Brightwater, near Nelson, New Zealand. His first name was mistakenly spelled Earnest when his birth was registered, Rutherfords mother Martha Thompson was a schoolteacher. He studied at Havelock School and then Nelson College and won a scholarship to study at Canterbury College, University of New Zealand, in 1898 Thomson recommended Rutherford for a position at McGill University in Montreal, Canada. He was to replace Hugh Longbourne Callendar who held the chair of Macdonald Professor of physics and was coming to Cambridge, in 1901 he gained a DSc from the University of New Zealand. In 1907 Rutherford returned to Britain to take the chair of physics at the Victoria University of Manchester, during World War I, he worked on a top secret project to solve the practical problems of submarine detection by sonar. In 1916 he was awarded the Hector Memorial Medal, in 1919 he returned to the Cavendish succeeding J. J. Thomson as the Cavendish professor and Director. Between 1925 and 1930 he served as President of the Royal Society, in 1933, Rutherford was one of the two inaugural recipients of the T. K. Sidey Medal, set up by the Royal Society of New Zealand as an award for outstanding scientific research. For some time before his death, Rutherford had a hernia, which he had neglected to have fixed. Despite an emergency operation in London, he died four days afterwards of what physicians termed intestinal paralysis, after cremation at Golders Green Crematorium, he was given the high honour of burial in Westminster Abbey, near Isaac Newton and other illustrious British scientists. At Cambridge, Rutherford started to work with J. J. Thomson on the effects of X-rays on gases. Hearing of Becquerels experience with uranium, Rutherford started to explore its radioactivity, continuing his research in Canada, he coined the terms alpha ray and beta ray in 1899 to describe the two distinct types of radiation. He then discovered that thorium gave off a gas which produced an emanation which was itself radioactive and he found that a sample of this radioactive material of any size invariably took the same amount of time for half the sample to decay – its half-life
Ernest Rutherford
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The Right Honourable The Lord Rutherford of Nelson
OM FRS
Ernest Rutherford
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Signature
Ernest Rutherford
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Rutherford aged 21
Ernest Rutherford
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A plaque commemorating Rutherford's presence at the
Victoria University, Manchester
20.
Niels Bohr
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Niels Henrik David Bohr was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research, although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity, that items could be analysed in terms of contradictory properties. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohrs thinking in science and philosophy. Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now known as the Niels Bohr Institute, Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists including Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, George de Hevesy, and Werner Heisenberg. He predicted the existence of a new element, which was named hafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen. Later, the element bohrium was named after him, during the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees from Nazism. After Denmark was occupied by the Germans, he had a meeting with Heisenberg. In September 1943, word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans, from there, he was flown to Britain, where he joined the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to the Manhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for cooperation on nuclear energy. He had a sister, Jenny, and a younger brother Harald. Jenny became a teacher, while Harald became a mathematician and Olympic footballer who played for the Danish national team at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. Bohr was a footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-based Akademisk Boldklub, with Bohr as goalkeeper. Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven, in 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate at Copenhagen University. His major was physics, which he studied under Professor Christian Christiansen and he also studied astronomy and mathematics under Professor Thorvald Thiele, and philosophy under Professor Harald Høffding, a friend of his father. This involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of the radius of a water jet, Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his fathers laboratory in the university, the university itself had no physics laboratory. To complete his experiments, he had to make his own glassware and his essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won the prize. He later submitted a version of the paper to the Royal Society in London for publication in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
Niels Bohr
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Bohr in 1922
Niels Bohr
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Niels Bohr as a young man
Niels Bohr
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Niels Bohr and Margrethe Nørlund on their engagement in 1910.
Niels Bohr
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The Niels Bohr Institute
21.
Srinivasa Ramanujan
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Srinivasa Iyengar Ramanujan FRS was an Indian mathematician and autodidact who lived during the British Raj. Though he had almost no training in pure mathematics, he made substantial contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory, infinite series. Ramanujan initially developed his own research in isolation, it was quickly recognized by Indian mathematicians. When his skills became obvious and known to the mathematical community, centred in Europe at the time. The Cambridge professor realized that Srinivasa Ramanujan had produced new theorems in addition to rediscovering previously known ones, during his short life, Ramanujan independently compiled nearly 3,900 results. Nearly all his claims have now been proven correct and his original and highly unconventional results, such as the Ramanujan prime and the Ramanujan theta function, have inspired a vast amount of further research. The Ramanujan Journal, a scientific journal, was established to publish work in all areas of mathematics influenced by Ramanujan. Deeply religious, Ramanujan credited his substantial mathematical capacities to divinity, An equation for me has no meaning, he once said, the name Ramanujan means younger brother of the god Rama. Iyengar is a caste of Hindu Brahmins of Tamil origin whose members follow the Visishtadvaita philosophy propounded by Ramanuja, Ramanujan was born on 22 December 1887 into a Tamil Brahmin Iyengar family in Erode, Madras Presidency, at the residence of his maternal grandparents. His father, K. Srinivasa Iyengar, worked as a clerk in a sari shop and his mother, Komalatammal, was a housewife and also sang at a local temple. They lived in a traditional home on Sarangapani Sannidhi Street in the town of Kumbakonam. The family home is now a museum, when Ramanujan was a year and a half old, his mother gave birth to a son, Sadagopan, who died less than three months later. In December 1889, Ramanujan contracted smallpox, but unlike the thousands in the Thanjavur district who died of the disease that year and he moved with his mother to her parents house in Kanchipuram, near Madras. His mother gave birth to two children, in 1891 and 1894, but both died in infancy. On 1 October 1892, Ramanujan was enrolled at the local school, after his maternal grandfather lost his job as a court official in Kanchipuram, Ramanujan and his mother moved back to Kumbakonam and he was enrolled in the Kangayan Primary School. When his paternal grandfather died, he was sent back to his maternal grandparents and he did not like school in Madras, and tried to avoid attending. His family enlisted a local constable to make sure the boy attended school, within six months, Ramanujan was back in Kumbakonam. Since Ramanujans father was at work most of the day, his mother took care of the boy as a child and he had a close relationship with her
Srinivasa Ramanujan
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Srinivasa Ramanujan
Srinivasa Ramanujan
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Ramanujan's home on Sarangapani Street, Kumbakonam
Srinivasa Ramanujan
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Ramanujan (centre) with other scientists at Trinity College
Srinivasa Ramanujan
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Whewell's Court,
Trinity College, Cambridge
22.
Lord Byron
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George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron, FRS, commonly known simply as Lord Byron, was a British poet, peer, politician, and a leading figure in the Romantic movement. Among his best-known works are the narrative poems, Don Juan and Childe Harolds Pilgrimage. Byron is regarded as one of the greatest British poets and remains widely read and influential and he travelled extensively across Europe, especially in Italy, where he lived for seven years with the struggling poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. Later in his life, Byron joined the Greek War of Independence fighting the Ottoman Empire. He died in 1824 at the age of 36 from a fever contracted while in Missolonghi, ethel Colburn Mayne states that George Gordon Byron was born on 22 January 1788 in a house on 24 Holles Street in London. However, Robert Charles Dallas in his Recollections states that Byron was born in Dover and he was the son of Captain John Mad Jack Byron and his second wife, the former Catherine Gordon, a descendant of Cardinal Beaton and heiress of the Gight estate in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Byrons father had seduced the married Marchioness of Carmarthen and, after she divorced her husband. His treatment of her was described as brutal and vicious, in order to claim his second wifes estate in Scotland, Byrons father took the additional surname Gordon, becoming John Byron Gordon, and he was occasionally styled John Byron Gordon of Gight. Byron himself used this surname for a time and was registered at school in Aberdeen as George Byron Gordon, at the age of 10, he inherited the English Barony of Byron of Rochdale, becoming Lord Byron, and eventually dropped the double surname. Byrons paternal grandparents were Vice-Admiral the Hon. John Foulweather Jack Byron, vice Admiral John Byron had circumnavigated the globe, and was the younger brother of the 5th Baron Byron, known as the Wicked Lord. He was christened, at St Marylebone Parish Church, George Gordon Byron after his maternal grandfather George Gordon of Gight, a descendant of James I of Scotland, Mad Jack Byron married his second wife for the same reason that he married his first, her fortune. In a move to avoid his creditors, Catherine accompanied her husband to France in 1786. He was born on 22 January in lodgings at Holles Street in London, Catherine moved back to Aberdeenshire in 1790, where Byron spent his childhood. His father soon joined them in their lodgings in Queen Street, Catherine regularly experienced mood swings and bouts of melancholy, which could be partly explained by her husbands continuing to borrow money from her. As a result, she fell even further into debt to support his demands and it was one of these importunate loans that allowed him to travel to Valenciennes, France, where he died in 1791. When Byrons great-uncle, the wicked Lord Byron, died on 21 May 1798, described as a woman without judgment or self-command, Catherine either spoiled and indulged her son or vexed him with her capricious stubbornness. Her drinking disgusted him, and he often mocked her for being short and corpulent and she once retaliated and, in a fit of temper, referred to him as a lame brat. Langley-Moore questions the Galt claim that she over-indulged in alcohol, upon the death of Byrons mother-in-law Judith Noel, the Hon
Lord Byron
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Portrait of Lord Byron by
Richard Westall
Lord Byron
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An engraving of Byron's father, Captain
John "Mad Jack" Byron, date unknown
Lord Byron
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Catherine Gordon, Byron's mother, by
Thomas Stewardson
Lord Byron
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John FitzGibbon, 2nd Earl of Clare
23.
Ludwig Wittgenstein
–
Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein was an Austrian-British philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language. From 1929 to 1947, Wittgenstein taught at the University of Cambridge, during his lifetime he published just one slim book, the 75-page Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, one article, one book review and a childrens dictionary. His voluminous manuscripts were edited and published posthumously, Philosophical Investigations appeared as a book in 1953, and has since come to be recognised as one of the most important works of philosophy in the twentieth century. His teacher Bertrand Russell described Wittgenstein as the most perfect example I have ever known of genius as traditionally conceived, passionate, profound, intense, born in Vienna into one of Europes richest families, he inherited a large fortune from his father in 1913. Three of his brothers committed suicide, with Wittgenstein contemplating it too and he described philosophy as the only work that gives me real satisfaction. His philosophy is divided into an early period, exemplified by the Tractatus. The later Wittgenstein rejected many of the assumptions of the Tractatus, ludwigs grandmother Fanny was a first cousin of the famous violinist Joseph Joachim. They had 11 children—among them Wittgensteins father, Karl Otto Clemens Wittgenstein became an industrial tycoon, and by the late 1880s was one of the richest men in Europe, with an effective monopoly on Austrias steel cartel. Thanks to Karl, the Wittgensteins became the second wealthiest family in Austria-Hungary, however, their wealth diminished due to post-1918 hyperinflation and subsequently during the Great Depression, although even as late as 1938 they owned 13 mansions in Vienna alone. Wittgensteins mother was Leopoldine Maria Josefa Kalmus, known among friends as Poldi and her father was a Bohemian Jew and her mother was Austrian-Slovene Catholic—she was Wittgensteins only non-Jewish grandparent. She was an aunt of the Nobel Prize laureate Friedrich Hayek on her maternal side, Wittgenstein was born at 8,30 pm on 26 April 1889 in the so-called Wittgenstein Palace at Alleegasse 16, now the Argentinierstrasse, near the Karlskirche. Karl and Poldi had nine children in all, the children were baptized as Catholics, received formal Catholic instruction, and raised in an exceptionally intense environment. The family was at the center of Viennas cultural life, Bruno Walter described the life at the Wittgensteins palace as an atmosphere of humanity. Karl was a patron of the arts, commissioning works by Auguste Rodin and financing the citys exhibition hall and art gallery. Gustav Klimt painted Wittgensteins sister for her portrait, and Johannes Brahms. For Wittgenstein, who highly valued precision and discipline, contemporary music was never considered acceptable at all, music, he said to his friend Drury in 1930, came to a full stop with Brahms, and even in Brahms I can begin to hear the noise of machinery. He also learnt to play the clarinet in his thirties, a fragment of music, composed by Wittgenstein, was discovered in one of his 1931 notebooks, by Michael Nedo, Director of the Wittgenstein Institute in Cambridge. Three of the five brothers would commit suicide
Ludwig Wittgenstein
–
Photographed by Ben Richards,
Swansea, Wales, 1947
Ludwig Wittgenstein
–
Wittgenstein (second from right), Summer 1920
Ludwig Wittgenstein
–
Karl Wittgenstein was one of the richest men in Europe.
Ludwig Wittgenstein
–
Ludwig's sister
Margaret, painted by
Gustav Klimt for her wedding portrait in 1905
24.
Bertrand Russell
–
Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, writer, social critic, political activist and Nobel laureate. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist and he was born in Monmouthshire into one of the most prominent aristocratic families in the United Kingdom. In the early 20th century, Russell led the British revolt against idealism and he is considered one of the founders of analytic philosophy along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege, colleague G. E. Moore, and protégé Ludwig Wittgenstein. He is widely held to be one of the 20th centurys premier logicians, with A. N. Whitehead he wrote Principia Mathematica, an attempt to create a logical basis for mathematics. His philosophical essay On Denoting has been considered a paradigm of philosophy, Russell mostly was a prominent anti-war activist, he championed anti-imperialism. Occasionally, he advocated preventive nuclear war, before the opportunity provided by the monopoly is gone. He went to prison for his pacifism during World War I, in 1950 Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought. Bertrand Russell was born on 18 May 1872 at Ravenscroft, Trellech, Monmouthshire and his parents, Viscount and Viscountess Amberley, were radical for their times. Lord Amberley consented to his wifes affair with their childrens tutor, both were early advocates of birth control at a time when this was considered scandalous. Lord Amberley was an atheist and his atheism was evident when he asked the philosopher John Stuart Mill to act as Russells secular godfather, Mill died the year after Russells birth, but his writings had a great effect on Russells life. His paternal grandfather, the Earl Russell, had asked twice by Queen Victoria to form a government. The Russells had been prominent in England for several centuries before this, coming to power, Lady Amberley was the daughter of Lord and Lady Stanley of Alderley. Russell often feared the ridicule of his grandmother, one of the campaigners for education of women. Russell had two siblings, brother Frank, and sister Rachel, in June 1874 Russells mother died of diphtheria, followed shortly by Rachels death. In January 1876, his father died of bronchitis following a period of depression. Frank and Bertrand were placed in the care of their staunchly Victorian paternal grandparents and his grandfather, former Prime Minister Earl Russell, died in 1878, and was remembered by Russell as a kindly old man in a wheelchair. His grandmother, the Countess Russell, was the dominant family figure for the rest of Russells childhood, the countess was from a Scottish Presbyterian family, and successfully petitioned the Court of Chancery to set aside a provision in Amberleys will requiring the children to be raised as agnostics. Her favourite Bible verse, Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil, the atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, emotional repression, and formality, Frank reacted to this with open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings
Bertrand Russell
–
Russell as a four year-old
Bertrand Russell
–
Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Russell
–
Childhood home,
Pembroke Lodge
Bertrand Russell
–
Russell in 1907
25.
Kim Philby
–
Harold Adrian Russell Kim Philby was a high-ranking member of British intelligence who worked as a double agent before defecting to the Soviet Union in 1963. He served as both an NKVD and KGB operative, in 1963, Philby was revealed to be a member of the spy ring now known as the Cambridge Five, the other members of which were Donald Maclean, Guy Burgess, Anthony Blunt and, possibly, John Cairncross. Of the five, Philby is believed to have been most successful in providing information to the Soviet Union. His activities were moderated only by Joseph Stalins fears that he was a Triple Agent providing Soviet intelligence to British authorities, Philby was an Officer of the Order of the British Empire from 1946 to 1965. Philby was born at Ambala in the Punjab Province of British India and he was the son of Dora and St John Philby, who was a well-known author, orientalist and convert to Islam. His father was a member of the Indian Civil Service and later a civil servant in Mesopotamia, nicknamed Kim after the boy in Rudyard Kiplings novel Kim, Philby attended Aldro preparatory school. In his early teens he spent some time with the Bedouin in the desert of Saudi Arabia to be turned into a man, following in the footsteps of his father, he continued to Westminster School, which he left in 1928 at the age of 16. He won a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he read History and he graduated in 1933 with a 2,1 degree in Economics. Upon Philbys graduation, Maurice Dobb, a fellow of Kings College, Cambridge, the organization was one of several fronts operated by German Communist Willi Münzenberg, a member of the Reichstag who had fled to France in 1933. In Vienna, working to aid refugees from Nazi Germany, Philby met and fell in love with Litzi Friedmann, a young Austrian Communist of Hungarian Jewish origins. Philby admired the strength of her convictions and later recalled that at their first meeting, frank and direct person, Litzi came out. I replied £100, which I hoped would last me about a year in Vienna and she made some calculations and announced, That will leave you an excess of £25. You can give that to the International Organisation for Aid for Revolutionaries and he acted as a courier between Vienna and Prague, paying for the train tickets out of his remaining £75 and using his British passport to evade suspicion. He also delivered clothes and money to refugees from the Nazis, with threats of an armed uprising against Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss and the deaths of several hundred people in the February Uprising, Philbys British passport became even more valuable. He and Friedmann married in February 1934, enabling her to escape to the United Kingdom with him two months later, according to Genrikh Borovik, who worked from Soviet archives, Tudor Hart recommended Philby and Friedmann in 1934. Peter Wright, a former senior MI5 officer, said in his 1987 book, in January 1934 Arnold Deutsch, one of NKVDs agents, was sent to London. As a cover for his activities he did post-graduate work at London University. In May, he made contact with Friedmann and discussed the recruitment of Soviet spies, Philby later recalled that in June 1934, Lizzy came home one evening and told me that she had arranged for me to meet a man of decisive importance
Kim Philby
–
Portrait taken from a 1990 Soviet stamp
Kim Philby
–
Memorial in
Kuntsevo Cemetery, Moscow
26.
Guy Burgess
–
Guy Francis de Moncy Burgess was a British radio producer, intelligence officer and Foreign Office official. He was a member of the Cambridge Five spy ring that passed Western secrets to the Soviets before and he defected to the Soviet Union in 1951. Burgess was born in Devonport, Devon, England, the son of Evelyn Mary and Malcolm Kingsford de Moncy Burgess, the Burgesses were of Huguenot origin, having changed the name from Bourgeois, and had been successful bankers in Kent during the Napoleonic wars. Although Burgess attended the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, he failed to follow in his fathers footsteps, like most of the Cambridge Five, he came from a privileged background, attending Lockers Park School and Eton College, and eventually attending Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1934 Burgess travelled to the USSR during his summer vacation, Burgess, together with Blunt, Donald Maclean and Kim Philby, was recruited by Soviet intelligence. Anthony Blunt in his memoir described Burgess as an extraordinarily persuasive person who talked him into joining the spy ring, although they were both homosexual and once shared a house together, Blunt said that there was nothing sexual in their relationship. According to author Andrew Lownie, Soviet intelligence considered that Burgesss homosexuality was an advantage as he was used to covert activities and had a network of contacts. Upon coming down from Cambridge, Burgess initially was personal assistant to Jack Macnamara, Burgess also had ties to Sir George Joseph Ball, who ran the Research Department at Conservative Party Central Office. Macnamara was a member of the Anglo-German Fellowship, which Burgess and Philby joined, Burgess then worked for the BBC as a Talks Assistant, producing a wide variety of programmes. In 1938, he met with Winston Churchill and encouraged him to campaign against the Munich Agreement and he recorded an account of the meeting in 1951 shortly before his defection to the Soviet Union, and the recording was broadcast in 2014. In London, Burgess resided at Chester Square and later 5 Bentinck Street, for time with Anthony Blunt and Teresa Mayor. The house, which belonged to Victor Rothschild, was a centre of bohemian life during the Blitz. In 1946, after the Labour Government took office, Burgess became an assistant to Hector McNeil, Burgess was able regularly to show top secret Foreign Office documents to the KGB. In 1948 Burgess was briefly seconded to the newly formed Information Research Department, in 1948 Burgess joined the Far East Department of the Foreign Office. In early 1949, he had a fall at a nightclub. Later that year, he faced disciplinary action for drunkenness and indiscretion, in 1950, he was sent to the Washington Embassy. While in Washington, Burgess lived with Kim Philbys family, in a basement flat, in 1951, cryptographers in the VENONA project had found evidence against Donald Maclean, and told Philby as the head of the MI6 station in Washington. On 28 February, Burgess was pulled over for speeding three times while on a car trip through Virginia and claimed diplomatic immunity, the Governor of Virginia protested, and Burgess was sent home
Guy Burgess
–
Guy Burgess
27.
British royal family
–
The British royal family comprises the monarch of the United Kingdom and her close relations. There is no legal or formal definition of who is or is not a member of the British royal family. Different terms may be applied to the same or similar group of relatives of the monarch in his or her role as sovereign of any of the other Commonwealth realms, for example, in Canada, the family is known as the Canadian royal family. Some members of the family have official residences named as the places from which announcements are made in the Court Circular about official engagements they have carried out. The state duties and staff of some members of the family are funded from a parliamentary annuity. Since 1917, when King George V changed the name of the house from Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, members of the royal family belong, either by birth or by marriage. In 2014, the family were regarded as British cultural icons. Today, they often perform ceremonial and social duties throughout the United Kingdom, in the other countries of the Commonwealth royalty do not serve as Counsellors of State, although they may perform ceremonial and social duties on behalf of individual states or the organisation. Wives of the said enjoy their husbands precedence, and husbands of princesses are unofficially but habitually placed with their wives as well and she did not alter the relative precedence of other born-princesses, such as the daughters of her younger sons. The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Monarchy and they Serve the Queen, A New and Authoritative Account of the Royal Household. The Lives of the Kings & Queens of England, symbol and Privilege, The Ritual Context of British Royalty. Britains Royal Families, The Complete Genealogy, Royal Family is a celebrated and reverential BBC documentary made by Richard Cawston to accompany the investiture of the current Prince of Wales. The documentary is frequently responsible for the greater press intrusion into the royal familys private life since its first broadcast. Official website of the royal family Official YouTube Channel House of Windsor Family Tree, archived from the original on 2010-12-02
British royal family
–
The Royal Family on the balcony of
Buckingham Palace after the annual
Trooping the Colour in 2013.
British royal family
–
United Kingdom
28.
Charles, Prince of Wales
–
Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
Charles, Prince of Wales
–
The Prince of Wales in
Jersey, July 2012
Charles, Prince of Wales
–
Signature
Charles, Prince of Wales
–
Telegram announcing the birth of Prince Charles to the
Governor-General of New Zealand
Charles, Prince of Wales
–
Queen Elizabeth II formally invests the Prince of Wales with
his coronet, 1969
29.
Edward VII of the United Kingdom
–
Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, before his accession to the throne, he served as heir apparent and held the title of Prince of Wales for longer than any of his predecessors. During the long reign of his mother, he was excluded from political power. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in 1860 and the Indian subcontinent in 1875 were popular successes, as king, Edward played a role in the modernisation of the British Home Fleet and the reorganisation of the British Army after the Second Boer War. He reinstituted traditional ceremonies as public displays and broadened the range of people with whom royalty socialised and he died in 1910 in the midst of a constitutional crisis that was resolved the following year by the Parliament Act 1911, which restricted the power of the unelected House of Lords. Edward was born at 10,48 in the morning on 9 November 1841 in Buckingham Palace and he was the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was christened Albert Edward at St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle and he was named Albert after his father and Edward after his maternal grandfather Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. He was known as Bertie to the family throughout his life. As the eldest son of the British sovereign, he was automatically Duke of Cornwall, as a son of Prince Albert, he also held the titles of Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke of Saxony. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 8 December 1841, Earl of Dublin on 17 January 1850, a Knight of the Garter on 9 November 1858, and a Knight of the Thistle on 24 May 1867. In 1863, he renounced his rights to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in favour of his younger brother. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were determined that their eldest son should have an education that would prepare him to be a constitutional monarch. At age seven, Edward embarked on an educational programme devised by Prince Albert. Unlike his elder sister Victoria, Edward did not excel in his studies and he tried to meet the expectations of his parents, but to no avail. Although Edward was not a diligent student—his true talents were those of charm, sociability and tact—Benjamin Disraeli described him as informed, intelligent, after the completion of his secondary-level studies, his tutor was replaced by a personal governor, Robert Bruce. After an educational trip to Rome, undertaken in the first few months of 1859, he spent the summer of that year studying at the University of Edinburgh under, among others, in October, he matriculated as an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford. Now released from the strictures imposed by his parents, he enjoyed studying for the first time
Edward VII of the United Kingdom
–
Coronation portrait by Sir
Luke Fildes
Edward VII of the United Kingdom
–
Portrait of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, by
Winterhalter, 1846
Edward VII of the United Kingdom
–
Edward at
Niagara Falls, 1860
Edward VII of the United Kingdom
–
Edward and Alexandra on their wedding day, 1863
30.
George VI of the United Kingdom
–
George VI was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death. He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth, known as Albert until his accession, George VI was born in the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria, and was named after his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort. As the second son of King George V, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his life in the shadow of his elder brother. He attended naval college as a teenager, and served in the Royal Navy, in 1920, he was made Duke of York. He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret, in the mid-1920s, he had speech therapy for a stammer, which he never fully overcame. Georges elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936, however, later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry a divorced woman, Edward abdicated in order to marry, and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor. During Georges reign, the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated, the parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the countrys constitution on the day of his accession. The following year, a new Irish constitution changed the name of the state to Ireland, from 1939, the Empire and Commonwealth – except Ireland – was at war with Nazi Germany. War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively, though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre-eminent world powers and the British Empire declined. After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, George remained king of countries, but relinquished the title of Emperor of India in June 1948. Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949, George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth. He was beset by problems in the later years of his reign. He was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Elizabeth II, George was born at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria. His father was Prince George, Duke of York, the second and eldest-surviving son of the Prince and his mother was the Duchess of York, the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. His birthday was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather, Albert, uncertain of how the Prince Consorts widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been rather distressed. Two days later, he again, I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her. Consequently, he was baptised Albert Frederick Arthur George at St. Mary Magdalenes Church near Sandringham three months later, within the family, he was known informally as Bertie
George VI of the United Kingdom
–
Formal portrait, c. 1940–46
George VI of the United Kingdom
–
Four kings: Edward VII (far right), his son George, Prince of Wales, later George V (far left), and grandsons Edward, later Edward VIII (rear), and Albert, later George VI (foreground), c. 1908
George VI of the United Kingdom
–
Prince Albert (left) at an
RAF dinner in 1919 with
Sir Hugh Trenchard (centre) and
Christopher Courtney (right)
George VI of the United Kingdom
–
The Duke and Duchess (centre, reading programmes) at
Eagle Farm Racecourse,
Brisbane, 1927
31.
Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester
–
Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, KG, KT, KP, GCB, GCMG, GCVO, PC was a soldier and third son of King George V and Queen Mary. He also served as the eleventh Governor-General of Australia from 1945 to 1947, the Duke served as a soldier for most of his life. At his death in 1974, he was the last surviving knight of the Order of St. Patrick, as well as the last surviving child of King George V, Prince Henry was born on 31 March 1900, at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate. His father was the Duke of York, the eldest surviving son of the Prince of Wales and his mother was Mary of Teck, the only daughter of Prince Francis, Duke of Teck and Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge. At the time of his birth, he was fifth in the line of succession to the throne, behind his grandfather, father and he was informally known to his family as Harry. As a young boy, Prince Henry suffered from ill health very much like his older brother Albert and he also had knocked knees and had to wear painful leg splints. He was a nervous child, and was often victim to spontaneous fits of crying or giggling. On top of this, Henry also had a nasal lisp, by 1909, Henry’s poor health had become a serious concern for his parents. He was very small for his age and was prone to get very aggressive colds, “You must remember that he is rather fragile and must be treated differently to his two elder brothers who are more robust, ” wrote Prince George to Henry’s tutor, Henry Peter Hansell. On 6 May 1910, Prince George became king and Henry, the King was persuaded by Mr. Hansell that it would be good for Henry’s character to attend school, where he could interact with boys his age. The King, having previously rejected this proposition for his two sons, agreed on the basis that it would help him “behave like a boy. Prince Henry became the first son of a British monarch to attend school. After three days at St Peters Court in Broadstairs, as a day boy, Mr. Hansell, noticing he liked it, asked the King to send him as a boarder, Henry spent three years at St Peters Court. Academically, he was not very bright, although he did show a particular aptitude in mathematics, Henry’s sole interest became sports, particularly cricket and football. “All you write about is your everlasting football of which I am heartily sick, ” wrote his mother, in September 1913 Henry started at Eton College and during the First World War, a member of his house was Crown Prince Leopold of Belgium, later King Leopold III. His studies did not improve but his nerves and disposition did and he made friends through his enthusiasm for sports, and his masters were very pleased with him, noting in his report that he was “thoroughly willing, cheerful, modest & obedient”. To his father, these values were the most important, having no time or interest in what he called “intellectuals”. By the time he went to Cambridge in 1919 with his brother Albert, unlike his brothers, Prince Henry joined the Army instead of the Royal Navy
Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester
–
Photographic portrait as Governor-General of Australia
Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester
–
At
Eton College in 1916
Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester
–
Bernard Tussaud finishes the wax figure of Lady Alice Montagu Douglas Scott and Prince Henry.
Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester
–
The Duke with his son, William in 1943
32.
First and Third Trinity Boat Club
–
The First and Third Trinity Boat Club is the rowing club of Trinity College in Cambridge, England. The first boat club associated with Trinity was formed in 1825, membership of Third Trinity was originally confined to Old Etonians and Old Westminsters. Members of Third Trinity were allowed also to be members of First or Second Trinity, the boat club also gives its name to Trinity colleges May Ball, which is the oldest such event in Cambridge and originates from the clubs celebrations after the victories in the May Bumps. Indeed, in the 1849 Boat Race, all members of the crew were from Trinity, seven from Third Trinity and two, the cox included, from First Trinity. Boats from the three clubs could often be found at, or near, the top of the Bumps, in 1876 Second Trinity was disbanded due to insufficient members. Johns College is no longer allowed a club under its own name. However, a similar incident occurred in 1888,12 years after the dissolution of Second Trinity. In his History of the First Trinity Boat Club, Walter Rouse Ball notes, Clare bumped Queens, and drew into the bank by Grassy. Behind these boats was the Trinity Hall third boat. This, instead of rounding First Post Corner, ran, by some mishap, across the river, the further races were at once stopped. Since this dreadful incident small india-rubber knobs have been fixed on the bows of all the racing boats, the more prosaic explanation for 2nd Trinitys demise is that membership was restricted to Theology scholars, which over time proved to be an unreliable source of oarsmen. In the twentieth century the clubs remained competitive and continued to achieve success in various events, the 2nd World War forced the 2 clubs to combine resources and after the war they formally merged in order to remain competitive with the now larger boat clubs of other colleges. In the same year First and Third won the Visitors Challenge Cup at the Henley Royal Regatta and they repeated this feat by winning the Ladies Plate again in 1954 and 1967 which was the last year that a college crew from either Cambridge or Oxford has won the event. In spite of this, rowing within Cambridge remains popular and the Bumps, the Trinity Boat Club, the original rowing club of Trinity College, Cambridge, dates from 1825 and was usually called First Trinity Boat Club after 1833. It was open to all members of the College, in 1946, the club amalgamated with the other remaining boat club of the College, Third Trinity Boat Club, to form First and Third Trinity Boat Club, and in this form continues to compete today. The Club was very successful throughout its history, but especially in the 19th century and its early history is very well covered by Walter Rouse Balls 1908 book, A History of The First Trinity Boat Club, which is available online in its entirety. Of particular note is that in 1839 First Trinity won the Grand Challenge Cup in the first Henley Regatta. The crew rowed in a boat named the Black Prince, the bow section of which is owned by the First and Third Trinity Boat Club
First and Third Trinity Boat Club
–
First and Third Trinity Boat Club
33.
Sport rowing
–
Rowing, often referred to as crew in the United States, is a sport with origins back to Ancient Egyptian times. It is based on propelling a boat on water using oars, by pushing against the water with an oar, a force is generated to move the boat. The sport can be recreational, where the focus is on learning the technique of rowing, or competitive. There are a number of different boat classes in which athletes compete, modern rowing as a competitive sport can be traced to the early 10th century when races were held between professional watermen on the River Thames in London, United Kingdom. Often prizes were offered by the London Guilds and Livery Companies, amateur competition began towards the end of the 18th century with the arrival of boat clubs at the British public schools of Eton College and Westminster School. Similarly, clubs were formed at the University of Oxford, with a race held between Brasenose College and Jesus College in 1815, at the University of Cambridge the first recorded races were in 1827. In 1843, the first American college rowing club was formed at Yale University, the International Rowing Federation, responsible for international governance of rowing, was founded in 1892 to provide regulation at a time when the sport was gaining popularity. Across six continents,150 countries now have rowing federations that participate in the sport, Rowing is one of the oldest Olympic sports. Though it was on the programme for the 1896 games, racing did not take due to bad weather. Womens rowing was added to the Olympic programme in 1976, today, only fourteen boat classes race at the Olympics, Each year the World Rowing Championships is staged by FISA with 22 boat classes raced. In Olympic years only the boat classes are raced at the World Championships. The European Rowing Championships are held annually, along with three World Rowing Cups in which each event earns a number of points for a country towards the World Cup title, since 2008, rowing has also been competed at the Paralympic Games. Many other competitions often exist for racing clubs, schools, and universities in each nation. While rowing, the athlete sits in the boat facing toward the stern and this may be done on a canal, river, lake, sea, or other large bodies of water. The sport requires strong core balance, physical strength, flexibility, whilst the action of rowing and equipment used remains fairly consistent throughout the world, there are many different types of competition. These include endurance races, time trials, stake racing, bumps racing, the many different formats are a result of the long history of the sport, its development in different regions of the world, and specific local requirements and restrictions. There are two forms of rowing, In sweep or sweep-oar rowing, each rower has one oar and this is generally done in pairs, fours, and eights. In some regions of the world, each rower in a boat is referred to either as port or starboard
Sport rowing
–
Eight classes of racing boats, six of which are part of the
Summer Olympic Games.
Sport rowing
–
Oars are held in an oarlock at the end of outriggers attached to the side of the boat
Sport rowing
–
For rowing as a method of transport or for recreation, see
Rowing. For other uses, see
Rowing (disambiguation).
Sport rowing
–
The finish of the
Doggett's Coat and Badge. Painting by
Thomas Rowlandson.
34.
Jesus College, Cambridge
–
Jesus College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England. The colleges full name is The College of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Saint John the Evangelist and its common name comes from the name of its chapel, Jesus Chapel. Jesus College was established between 1496 and 1516 on the site of the twelfth-century Benedictine nunnery of St Mary and St Radegund by John Alcock, the cockerel is a symbol of Jesus College, after the surname of its founder. Three members of Jesus College have received a Nobel Prize, two fellows of the college have been appointed to the International Court of Justice. Notable alumni include Thomas Cranmer, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Reid, Lord Toulson, Sir Rupert Jackson, Sir David Hare, Jesus College has assets of approximately £243m making it Cambridge’s third wealthiest college. The college is known for its particularly expansive grounds which include its sporting fields, ian White, current van Eck Professor of Engineering in the university, has been master of Jesus College since 2011. Founded at the beginning of the 12th century, Jesus Chapel is the oldest university building in Cambridge still in use, when founded in 1496, the college consisted of buildings taken over from the Nunnery of St Mary and St Radegund. This included the chapel and the attached to it, the nuns’ refectory, which became the college hall, and the former lodging of the prioress. This set of remains the core of the college to this day and this accounts for its distinctly monastic. A library was added, and the chapel was considerably modified and reduced in scale by Alcock. At its foundation, the college had a master, six fellows, the college offers a wide range of scholarships. The college consistently performs well in the informal Tompkins Table, which ranks Cambridge colleges by undergraduate results, along with students from Trinity, Kings, Christs and St Johns, students of the college have been members of the Cambridge Apostles. The main entrance to Jesus College is a passage known as the Chimney. The term is derived the Middle French word chemin, for path or way, the Chimney leads directly to the Porters Lodge and then into First Court. All the courts at the college, with the exception of the cloister, are open on at least one side, the Quincentenary Library is the main library of Jesus College and is open 24 hours a day. The library was designed by Eldred Evans and David Shalev in commemoration of the 500th anniversary of the foundation of the college in 1996, completion of the library was shortly followed by a new accommodation building in 2000, now known as Library Court. The Quincentenary Library has a large law collection, housed in a law library on the ground floor. The Old Library was in use until 1912
Jesus College, Cambridge
–
Colleges of the
University of Cambridge Jesus College
Jesus College, Cambridge
–
College in 1690
Jesus College, Cambridge
–
The Cloister in the College grounds
Jesus College, Cambridge
–
The Gatehouse looking into First Court
35.
Cambridge Apostles
–
The Cambridge Apostles is an intellectual society at the University of Cambridge founded in 1820 by George Tomlinson, a Cambridge student who went on to become the first Bishop of Gibraltar. The origin of the Apostles nickname dates from the number, twelve, membership consists largely of undergraduates, though there have been graduate student members, and members who already hold university and college posts. The society traditionally drew most of its members from Christs, St Johns, Jesus, Trinity, the society is essentially a discussion group. Meetings are held once a week, traditionally on Saturday evenings, during which one gives a prepared talk on a topic. The usual procedure was for members to meet at the rooms of those whose turn it was to present the topic, the host would provide refreshments consisting of coffee and sardines on toast, called whales. Women first gained acceptance into the society in the 1970s, the Apostles retain a leather diary of their membership stretching back to its founder, which includes handwritten notes about the topics on which each member has spoken. It was a point of honour that the question voted on should bear only a relationship to the matter debated. The members referred to as the Apostles are the active, usually undergraduate members, undergraduates apply to become angels after graduating or being awarded a fellowship. Every few years, amid great secrecy, all the angels are invited to an Apostles dinner at a Cambridge college, there used to be an annual dinner, usually held in London. Undergraduates being considered for membership are called embryos and are invited to embryo parties, the embryos attend these parties without knowing they are being considered for membership. Becoming an Apostle involves taking an oath of secrecy and listening to the reading of a curse, originally written by Apostle Fenton John Anthony Hort, former members have spoken of the lifelong bond they feel toward one another. Henry Sidgwick, the philosopher, wrote of the Apostles in his memoirs that the tie of attachment to this society is much the strongest corporate bond which I have known in my life and these eleven members were from Christs, Kings, St. Johns College and Trinity. A twelfth member Benjamin Hall Kennedy is buried in the Mill Road Cemetery, bertrand Russell and G. E. Moore joined as students, as did John Maynard Keynes, who invited Ludwig Wittgenstein to join. However, Wittgenstein did not enjoy it and attended infrequently, Russell had been worried that Wittgenstein would not appreciate the groups unseriousness and style of humour. The Apostles became well known outside Cambridge in the years before the First World War with the rise to eminence of the group of known as the Bloomsbury Group. John Maynard Keynes, Leonard Woolf, Lytton Strachey and his brother James, G. E. Moore, E. M. Forster, Keynes, Woolf and Lytton Strachey subsequently gained prominence as members of Bloomsbury. The Apostles came to attention again following the exposure of the Cambridge spy ring in 1951. Three Cambridge graduates with access to the top levels of government in Britain, the three known agents were Apostle Guy Burgess, an MI6 officer and secretary to the deputy foreign minister, Donald MacLean, foreign office secretary, and Kim Philby, MI6 officer and journalist
Cambridge Apostles
–
King's College, Cambridge
36.
Secret society
–
A secret society is a club or an organization whose activities, events, and inner functioning are concealed from non-members. The society may or may not attempt to conceal its existence, the term usually excludes covert groups, such as intelligence agencies or guerrilla insurgencies, that hide their activities and memberships but maintain a public presence. Anthropologically and historically, secret societies are deeply interlinked with the concept of the Männerbund, a purported family tree of secret societies has been proposed, although it may not be comprehensive. Alan Axelrod, author of the International Encyclopedia of Secret Societies and Fraternal Orders, defines a secret society as an organization that, shows a strong inclination to favor its own. David V. Barrett, author of Secret Societies, From the Ancient and Arcane to the Modern and Clandestine, uses slightly different terms to define what does and does not qualify as a secret society. Barrett goes on to say that a characteristic common to most of them is the practice of rituals which non-members are not permitted to observe. Because some secret societies have political aims, they are illegal in several countries, poland, for example, has included a ban on secret political parties and political organizations in its constitution. Many student societies established on university campuses in the United States have been considered secret societies, perhaps one of the most famous secret collegiate societies is Skull and Bones at Yale University. One of the best known British secret societies is the Cambridge Apostles, founded as an essay, in France, Vandermonde is the secret society of the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers. Notable examples in Canada include Episkopon at the University of Torontos Trinity College, Secret societies are disallowed in a few colleges. The goals of the society remain unknown, but it is believed that they are involved in cryptography, the International Encyclopedia of Secret Societies and Fraternal Orders. Secret Societies in America, The North American Review, Vol.164, conspiracy Theories and Secret Societies For Dummies. Geheimgesellschaften, Kulturhistorische Sozialstudien, Secret Societies, Comparative Studies in Culture, Society, the Mythology of the Secret Societies. Pledged, The Secret Life of Sororities, New York, Hamilton Printing & Publishing Company. Secret Places, Hidden Sanctuaries, Uncovering Mysterious Sights, Symbols, a comprehensive, though dated, review of the subject. Useful histories of Secret Societies in Australia and of Rise and Fall of English Freemasonry on non-commercial site <www. fraternalsecrets. org>
Secret society
–
"Secret Society Buildings at Yale College", by Alice Donlevy ca. 1880. Pictured are: Psi Upsilon (Beta Chapter), 120 High Street. Left center: Skull & Bones (Russell Trust Association), 64 High Street. Right center:
Delta Kappa Epsilon (Phi Chapter), east side of York Street, south of Elm Street. Bottom: Scroll and Key (Kingsley Trust Association), 490 College Street.
Secret society
–
The
Thuggee were a secret cult of assassins who worshipped the
Hindu goddess
Kali.
37.
Association Football
–
Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball. It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies making it the worlds most popular sport, the game is played on a rectangular field with a goal at each end. The object of the game is to score by getting the ball into the opposing goal, players are not allowed to touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, unless they are goalkeepers. Other players mainly use their feet to strike or pass the ball, the team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is level at the end of the game, the Laws of the Game were originally codified in England by The Football Association in 1863. Association football is governed internationally by the International Federation of Association Football, the first written reference to the inflated ball used in the game was in the mid-14th century, Þe heued fro þe body went, Als it were a foteballe. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the word soccer was split off in 1863, according to Partha Mazumdar, the term soccer originated in England, first appearing in the 1880s as an Oxford -er abbreviation of the word association. Within the English-speaking world, association football is now usually called football in the United Kingdom and mainly soccer in Canada and the United States. People in Australia, Ireland, South Africa and New Zealand use either or both terms, although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use football for the formal name. According to FIFA, the Chinese competitive game cuju is the earliest form of football for which there is scientific evidence, cuju players could use any part of the body apart from hands and the intent was kicking a ball through an opening into a net. It was remarkably similar to football, though similarities to rugby occurred. During the Han Dynasty, cuju games were standardised and rules were established, phaininda and episkyros were Greek ball games. An image of an episkyros player depicted in low relief on a vase at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship Cup, athenaeus, writing in 228 AD, referenced the Roman ball game harpastum. Phaininda, episkyros and harpastum were played involving hands and violence and they all appear to have resembled rugby football, wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football. As with pre-codified mob football, the antecedent of all football codes. Non-competitive games included kemari in Japan, chuk-guk in Korea and woggabaliri in Australia, Association football in itself does not have a classical history. Notwithstanding any similarities to other games played around the world FIFA have recognised that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe. The modern rules of football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England
Association Football
–
The attacking player (No. 10) attempts to kick the ball beyond the opposing team's goalkeeper and between the goalposts and beneath the crossbar to score a
goal
Association Football
–
Children playing
cuju in
Song dynasty China
Association Football
–
Ebenezer Cobb Morley, who is regarded as the "father of football"
Association Football
–
A women's international match between the United States and Germany
38.
Westminster School
–
Westminster School is an English independent day and boarding school located within the precincts of Westminster Abbey. It has the highest Oxford and Cambridge university acceptance rates of any school or college in the world. With origins before the 12th century, the tradition of Westminster probably dates back as far as AD960. Boys are admitted to the Under School at age seven and to the school at age thirteen. The school has around 750 pupils, around a quarter are boarders, most of whom go home at weekends and it is one of the original seven public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. Charging up to £7,800 per term for day pupils and £11,264 for boarders in 2014/15, Westminster is the 13th most expensive HMC day school and 10th most expensive HMC boarding school in the UK. In 1540, Henry VIII ordered the dissolution of the monasteries in England, including that of the powerful Abbots of Westminster, the Royal College of St. Peter carried on with forty Kings Scholars financed from the royal purse. By this point Westminster School had certainly become a public school, during Mary Is brief reign the Abbey was reinstated as a Roman Catholic monastery, but the school continued. Elizabeth I refounded the School in 1560, with new statutes to select 40 Queens Scholars from boys who had attended the school for a year. Queen Elizabeth frequently visited her scholars, although she never signed the statutes nor endowed her scholarships, Elizabeth I appointed William Camden as headmaster, and he is the only layman known to have held the position until 1937. Regardless of politics, he thrashed Royalist and Puritan boys alike without fear or favour, Busby also took part in Oliver Cromwells funeral procession in 1658, when Robert Uvedale, a Westminster schoolboy, succeeded in snatching the Majesty Scutcheon draped on the coffin. Busby remained in office throughout the Civil War and the Commonwealth, when the school was governed by Parliamentary Commissioners, and well into the Restoration. In 1679, a group of scholars killed a bailiff, ostensibly in defence of the Abbeys traditional right of sanctuary, dr Busby obtained a royal pardon for his scholars from Charles II and added the cost to the school bills. Until the 19th century, the curriculum was made up of Latin and Greek. After the Public Schools Act 1868, in response to the Clarendon Commission on the financial and other malpractices at nine pre-eminent public schools, the school began to approach its modern form. It was legally separated from the Abbey, although the organisations remain close, there followed a scandalous public and parliamentary dispute lasting a further 25 years, to settle the transfer of the properties from the Canons of the Abbey to the School. School statutes have been made by Order in Council of Queen Elizabeth II, the Dean of Christ Church, Oxford and the Master of Trinity College, Cambridge are ex officio members of the schools governing body. Westminster Under School was formed in 1943 in the school buildings in Westminster
Westminster School
–
Westminster School
Westminster School
–
Little Dean's Yard from Liddell's Arch
Westminster School
–
The entrance to Dean's Yard and Westminster School war memorial viewed from the
Queen Elizabeth II Conference Centre in August 2012.
Westminster School
–
Liddell's arch, the main entrance to
Little Dean's Yard.
39.
Edward II of England
–
Edward II, also called Edward of Caernarfon, was King of England from 1307 until he was deposed in January 1327. The fourth son of Edward I, Edward became the heir to the following the death of his older brother Alphonso. Beginning in 1300, Edward accompanied his father on campaigns to pacify Scotland, Edward succeeded to the throne in 1307, following his fathers death. In 1308, he married Isabella of France, the daughter of the powerful King Philip IV, Edward had a close and controversial relationship with Piers Gaveston, who had joined his household in 1300. The precise nature of Edward and Gavestons relationship is uncertain, they may have been friends, Gavestons arrogance and power as Edwards favourite provoked discontent both among the barons and the French royal family, and Edward was forced to exile him. On Gavestons return, the barons pressured the King into agreeing to wide-ranging reforms called the Ordinances of 1311, the newly empowered barons banished Gaveston, to which Edward responded by revoking the reforms and recalling his favourite. Led by Edwards cousin, the Earl of Lancaster, a group of the barons seized and executed Gaveston in 1312, English forces were pushed back in Scotland, where Edward was decisively defeated by Robert the Bruce at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. Widespread famine followed, and criticism of the Kings reign mounted, in response, Edward led a short military campaign, capturing and executing Lancaster. Edward and the Despensers strengthened their grip on power, revoking the 1311 reforms, executing their enemies, unable to make progress in Scotland, Edward finally signed a truce with Robert. Opposition to the regime grew, and when Isabella was sent to France to negotiate a treaty in 1325, she turned against Edward. Isabella allied herself with the exiled Roger Mortimer, and invaded England with an army in 1326. Edwards regime collapsed and he fled into Wales, where he was captured in November, Edwards relationship with Gaveston inspired Christopher Marlowes 1592 play Edward II, along with other plays, films, novels and media. Many of these have focused on the sexual relationship between the two men. Debate has continued into the 21st century as to whether Edward was a lazy and incompetent king, or simply a reluctant, Edward II was the fourth son of Edward I and his first wife, Eleanor of Castile. His father was the King of England, and had also inherited Gascony in south-western France, which he held as the vassal of the King of France. His mother was from the Castilian royal family, and held the County of Ponthieu in northern France, Edward I proved to be a successful military leader, leading the suppression of the baronial revolts in the 1260s, and joining the Ninth Crusade. During the 1280s he conquered North Wales, removing the native Welsh princes from power and he was considered an extremely successful ruler by his contemporaries, largely able to control the powerful earls that formed the senior ranks of the English nobility. The historian Michael Prestwich describes Edward I as a king to inspire fear and respect, despite his successes, when Edward I died in 1307 he left a range of challenges for his son to resolve
Edward II of England
–
Effigy in
Gloucester Cathedral
Edward II of England
–
Caernarfon Castle, Edward's birthplace
Edward II of England
–
Portrait in
Westminster Abbey, thought to be of Edward's father,
Edward I
Edward II of England
–
Early 14th-century depiction of Edward I (left) declaring his son Edward (right) the Prince of Wales
40.
Edward III of England
–
Edward III transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe. Edward was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother, Isabella of France, at age seventeen he led a successful coup against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of the country, and began his personal reign. After a successful campaign in Scotland he declared himself heir to the French throne in 1337. This started what would become known as the Hundred Years War, following some initial setbacks the war went exceptionally well for England, victories at Crécy and Poitiers led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny. Edwards later years, however, were marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity, Edward III was a temperamental man but capable of unusual clemency. He was in ways a conventional king whose main interest was warfare. Admired in his own time and for centuries after, Edward was denounced as an adventurer by later Whig historians such as William Stubbs. This view has been challenged recently and modern historians credit him with some significant achievements, Edward was born at Windsor Castle on 13 November 1312, and was often referred to as Edward of Windsor in his early years. The reign of his father, Edward II, was a problematic period of English history. One source of contention was the inactivity, and repeated failure. Another controversial issue was the kings patronage of a small group of royal favourites. The birth of an heir in 1312 temporarily improved Edward IIs position in relation to the baronial opposition. To bolster further the independent prestige of the prince, the king had him created Earl of Chester at only twelve days of age. In 1325, Edward II was faced with a demand from his brother-in-law, Charles IV of France, Edward was reluctant to leave the country, as discontent was once again brewing domestically, particularly over his relationship with the favourite Hugh Despenser the Younger. Instead, he had his son Edward created Duke of Aquitaine in his place, the young Edward was accompanied by his mother Isabella, who was the sister of King Charles, and was meant to negotiate a peace treaty with the French. While in France, however, Isabella conspired with the exiled Roger Mortimer to have Edward deposed, to build up diplomatic and military support for the venture, Isabella had Prince Edward engaged to the twelve-year-old Philippa of Hainault. An invasion of England was launched and Edward IIs forces deserted him completely, the king was forced to relinquish the throne to his son on 25 January 1327. The new king was crowned as Edward III on 1 February 1327 and it was not long before the new reign also met with other problems caused by the central position at court of Roger Mortimer, who was now the de facto ruler of England
Edward III of England
–
Edward III, detail from his bronze effigy in
Westminster Abbey
Edward III of England
–
Drawing of effigy of King Edward III in
Westminster Abbey
Edward III of England
–
To mark his claim to the French crown, Edward's coat of arms showed the three lions of England quartered with the fleurs-de-lys of France. English
stained glass, c. 1350–1377
Edward III of England
–
Groat featuring Edward III
41.
University of Oxford
–
The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
University of Oxford
–
Balliol College – one of the university's oldest constituent colleges
University of Oxford
–
University of Oxford
seal
University of Oxford
–
Aerial view of
Merton College 's
Mob Quad, the oldest
quadrangle of the university, constructed in the years from 1288 to 1378
University of Oxford
–
In 1605 Oxford was still a walled city, but several colleges had been built outside the city walls (north is at the bottom on this map)
42.
Act of Parliament
–
Acts of Parliament, also called primary legislation, are statutes passed by a parliament. Act of the Oireachtas is an equivalent term used in the Republic of Ireland where the legislature is known by its Irish name. It is also comparable to an Act of Congress in the United States, a draft Act of Parliament is known as a bill. In territories with a Westminster system, most bills that have any possibility of becoming law are introduced into parliament by the government. This will usually happen following the publication of a paper, setting out the issues. A bill may also be introduced into parliament without formal government backing, in territories with a multicameral parliament, most bills may be first introduced in any chamber. However, certain types of legislation are required, either by convention or by law. For example, bills imposing a tax, or involving public expenditure, are introduced into the House of Commons in the United Kingdom, Canadas House of Commons, conversely, bills proposed by the Law Commission and consolidation bills traditionally start in the House of Lords. Once introduced, a bill must go through a number of stages before it can become law, in theory, this allows the bills provisions to be debated in detail, and for amendments to the original bill to also be introduced, debated, and agreed to. In bicameral parliaments, a bill that has been approved by the chamber into which it was introduced then sends the bill to the other chamber, broadly speaking, each chamber must separately agree to the same version of the bill. Finally, the bill receives assent, in most territories this is merely a formality. In some countries, such as in Spain and Portugal, the term for a bill differs depending on whether it is initiated by the government, again, the second reading of a Government bill is usually approved. A defeat for a Government bill on this reading signifies a major loss, if the bill is read a second time, it is then considered in detail Consideration in detail, This usually takes place on the floor of the House. Generally, committees sit on the floor of the House and consider the bill in detail, third reading, A debate on the final text of the bill, as amended. Very rarely do debates occur during this stage, passage, The bill is then sent to the other House, which may amend it. If the other House amends the bill, the bill and amendments are posted back to the original House for a further stage, the State of Queenslands Parliament is unicameral and skips this and the rest of the stages. Consideration of Senate/Representatives amendments, The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House and it may agree to them, amend them, propose other amendments in lieu, or reject them. However, the Senate may not amend money bills, though it can request the House to make amendments, a bill may pass backwards and forwards several times at this stage, as each House amends or rejects changes proposed by the other
Act of Parliament
–
A graphic representation of the legislative procedure in the United Kingdom.
43.
Catherine Parr
–
Catherine Parr was Queen of England and of Ireland as the last of the six wives of King Henry VIII, and the final queen consort of the House of Tudor. She married him on 12 July 1543, and outlived him by one year and she was also the most-married English queen, with four husbands. Catherine enjoyed a relationship with Henrys three children and was personally involved in the education of Elizabeth and Edward, both of whom became English monarchs. She was influential in Henrys passing of the Third Succession Act in 1542 that restored both his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to the line of succession to the throne. Catherine was appointed Regent from July to September 1544 while Henry was on a campaign in France and in case he lost his life. However he did not give her any function in government in his will, in 1543, she published her first book, Psalms or Prayers, anonymously. On account of Catherines Protestant sympathies, she provoked the enmity of anti-Protestant officials, who sought to turn the King against her, however, she and the King soon reconciled. Her book Prayers or Meditations became the first book published by an English queen under her own name and she assumed the role of Elizabeths guardian following the Kings death, and published a second book, The Lamentations of a Sinner. Henry died on 28 January 1547, Six months after Henrys death, she married her fourth and final husband, Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley. The marriage was short-lived, as she died in September 1548, Catherine was born in 1512, probably in August. Sir Thomas Parr was a descendant of King Edward III, Catherine had a younger brother, William, later created first Marquess of Northampton, and younger sister, Anne, later Countess of Pembroke. Catherines mother was a friend and attendant of Catherine of Aragon, and Catherine Parr was probably named after Queen Catherine. It was once thought that Catherine Parr had been born at Kendal Castle in Westmorland, however, at the time of her birth, Kendal Castle was already in very poor condition. During her pregnancy, Maud Parr remained at court, attending the Queen, Catherines father died when she was young, and she was close to her mother as she grew up. Catherines initial education was similar to other women, but she developed a passion for learning which would continue throughout her life. She was fluent in French, Latin, and Italian, in 1529, when she was seventeen, Catherine married Sir Edward Burgh, a grandson of Edward Burgh, 2nd Baron Burgh. Earlier biographies mistakenly reported that Catherine had married the older Burgh, following the grandfather Edwards death in December 1528, Catherines father-in-law Sir Thomas Burgh was summoned to Parliament in 1529 as Baron Burgh. Catherines first husband was in his twenties and may have been in poor health and he served as a feoffee for Thomas Kiddell and as a justice of the peace
Catherine Parr
–
Catherine Parr
Catherine Parr
–
Snape Castle
Catherine Parr
–
The
Melton Constable or Hastings portrait of Queen Catherine.
Catherine Parr
–
The title page of Parr's Prayers or meditacions, published in 1550.
44.
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
–
Gonville and Caius College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England. The college is the fourth-oldest college at the University of Cambridge, the college has been attended by many students who have gone on to significant accomplishment, including fourteen Nobel Prize winners, the second-most of any Oxbridge college. The college has long associations with medical teaching, especially due to its alumni physicians, John Caius. Other famous alumni in the sciences include Francis Crick, James Chadwick, Stephen Hawking, previously Cambridges Lucasian Chair of Mathematics Emeritus, is a current fellow of the college. The college also maintains academic programmes in other disciplines, including economics, English literature. Gonville and Caius is said to own or have rights to much of the land in Cambridge, several streets in the city, such as Harvey Road, Glisson Road and Gresham Road, are named after alumni of the College. The college was first founded, as Gonville Hall, by Edmund Gonville, Rector of Terrington St Clement in Norfolk in 1348, when Gonville died three years later, he left a struggling institution with almost no money. The executor of his will, William Bateman, Bishop of Norwich, stepped in and he leased himself the land close to the river to set up his own college, Trinity Hall, and renamed Gonville Hall The Hall of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Bateman appointed the first Master of the new college his former chaplain John Colton, by the sixteenth century, the college had fallen into disrepair, and in 1557 it was refounded by Royal Charter as Gonville and Caius College by the physician John Caius. John Caius was master of the college from 1559 until shortly before his death in 1573 and he provided the college with significant funds and greatly extended the buildings. During his time as Master, Caius accepted no payment but insisted on several unusual rules, Caius also built a three-sided court, Caius Court, “lest the air from being confined within a narrow space should become foul”. Caius did, however, found the college as a centre for the study of medicine. By 1630, the college had expanded greatly, having around 25 fellows and 150 students, since then the college has grown considerably and now has one of the largest undergraduate populations in the university. The college first admitted women as fellows and students in 1979 and it now has over 110 Fellows, over 700 students and about 200 staff. Gonville and Caius is one of the wealthiest of all Cambridge colleges with net assets of £180 million in 2014, the college’s present Master, the 42nd, is Alan Fersht. The first buildings to be erected on the current site date from 1353 when Bateman built Gonville Court. The college chapel was added in 1393 with the Old Hall, most of the stone used to build the college came from Ramsey Abbey near Ramsey, Cambridgeshire. Gonville and Caius has the oldest college chapel in either Oxford or Cambridge which has been in use as such
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
–
Colleges of the
University of Cambridge Gonville and Caius College
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
–
Cambridge University, Gonville & Caius College, from King's Parade
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
–
The Gate of Honour.
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
–
Interior north-east corner of Waterhouse Building.
45.
David Loggan
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David Loggan was an English baroque engraver, draughtsman and painter. He was baptized 27 August 1634 in Danzig, then a city within Polish Prussia. His parents were English and Scottish, probably merchants or refugees, the young David first studied in Danzig under Willem Hondius, and later in Amsterdam under Crispijn van de Passe II. He moved to London in the late 1650s, there he produced various engravings, among them the title-page for the folio Book of Common Prayer. In addition, he also did a number of portraits as plumbago drawings. He married in 1663, and in 1665 they moved from London to Nuffield, Oxfordshire, in 1669, Loggan was appointed public sculptor to the University of Oxford. Then he proceeded to draw and engrave all the Oxford colleges in birds-eye views and his folio Oxonia illustrata was published in 1675. In 1675 Loggan was naturalized as an English citizen and that year he once again settled in London, living in Leicester Fields, where he let rooms to aristocratic patrons and acted as their agent in the acquisition of works of art. From 1676 he was involved in preparing the new folio Cantabrigia illustrata, in that year he was made engraver to Cambridge University. Loggan was buried 1 August 1692 in London, - Loggans illustrated book on Oxford, Oxonia Illustrata, was a product of several years of dedicated efforts in which he was assisted by Robert White. - His illustrated book on Cambridge, Cantabrigia illustrata contains a series of views of the university and its colleges, - More than 100 of his portraits are held in the archives or on display of the National Portrait Gallery
David Loggan
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General Monck as engraved by David Loggan, 1661, National Portrait Gallery, London
David Loggan
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David Loggan,
Edward Reynolds,
Bishop of Norwich, 1658
46.
Richard Bentley
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Richard Bentley was an English classical scholar, critic, and theologian. He was Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, Bentley was the first Englishman to be ranked with the great heroes of classical learning and was known for his literary and textual criticism. Bentley was born at Oulton near Rothwell, Leeds, West Yorkshire and his father was Thomas Bentley of Oulton. His grandfather, Captain James Bentley, had suffered for the Royalist cause following the English Civil War, Bentleys mother, the daughter of a stonemason, had some education, and was able to give her son his first lessons in Latin. After attending grammar school in Wakefield, Bentley was an undergraduate at St Johns College, Cambridge and he afterwards obtained a scholarship and took the degree of B. A. in 1680. He never became a Fellow, but was appointed to be the headmaster of Spalding Grammar School before he was 21, during his six years as tutor, Bentley also made a comprehensive study of Greek and Latin writers, storing up knowledge which he used later. In 1689, Stillingfleet became bishop of Worcester, and Bentleys pupil went to Wadham College, Oxford, Bentley soon met Dr John Mill, Humphrey Hody, and Edward Bernard. Here he studied the manuscripts of the Bodleian, Corpus Christi and he collected material for literary studies. Among these are a corpus of the fragments of the Greek poets, the Oxford press was about to bring out an edition from the unique manuscript of the Greek Chronicle in the Bodleian Library. It was a history of John of Antioch, called John Malalas or John the Rhetor. The editor, Dr John Mill, principal of St Edmund Hall, asked Bentley to review it, Bentley wrote the Epistola ad Johannem Millium, which is about 100 pages included at the end of the Oxford Malalas. This short treatise placed Bentley ahead of all living English scholars, to the small circle of classical students, it was obvious that he was a critic beyond the ordinary. In 1690, Bentley had taken deacons orders, in 1692 he was nominated first Boyle lecturer, a nomination repeated in 1694. He was offered the appointment a third time in 1695 but declined it, in the first series of lectures, he endeavours to present Newtonian physics in a popular form, and to frame them into proof of the existence of an intelligent Creator. He had some correspondence with Newton, then living in Trinity College, Cambridge, the second series, preached in 1694, has not been published and is believed to be lost. After being ordained, Bentley was promoted to a stall in Worcester Cathedral. In 1693 the curator of the library became vacant, and his friends tried to obtain the position for Bentley. The new librarian, a Mr Thynne, resigned in favour of Bentley, in 1695 Bentley received a royal chaplaincy and the living of Hartlebury
Richard Bentley
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Richard Bentley
Richard Bentley
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A bust of Bentley now stands in the library of
Trinity College, Cambridge
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