1.
Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
2.
Flash (photography)
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A flash is a device used in photography producing a flash of artificial light at a color temperature of about 5500 K to help illuminate a scene. A major purpose of a flash is to illuminate a dark scene, other uses are capturing quickly moving objects or changing the quality of light. Flash refers either to the flash of light itself or to the flash unit discharging the light. Most current flash units are electronic, having evolved from single-use flashbulbs, modern cameras often activate flash units automatically. Flash units are built directly into a camera. Some cameras allow separate flash units to be mounted via an accessory mount bracket. In professional studio equipment, flashes may be large, standalone units, or studio strobes, studies of magnesium by Bunsen and Roscoe in 1859 showed that burning this metal produced a light with similar qualities to daylight. The potential application to photography inspired Edward Sonstadt to investigate methods of manufacturing magnesium so that it would burn reliably for this use and he applied for patents in 1862 and by 1864 had started the Manchester Magnesium Company with Edward Mellor. It also had the benefit of being a simpler and cheaper process than making round wire, mather was also credited with the invention of a holder for the ribbon, which formed a lamp to burn it in. The packaging also implies that the ribbon was not necessarily broken off before being ignited. An alternative to ribbon was flash powder, a mixture of powder and potassium chlorate, introduced by its German inventors Adolf Miethe. A measured amount was put into a pan or trough and ignited by hand, producing a brilliant flash of light, along with the smoke. This could be an activity, especially if the flash powder was damp. An electrically triggered flash lamp was invented by Joshua Lionel Cowen in 1899 and his patent describes a device for igniting photographers’ flash powder by using dry cell batteries to heat a wire fuse. Variations and alternatives were touted from time to time and a few found a measure of success in the marketplace, especially for amateur use. The use of powder in an open lamp was replaced by flashbulbs, magnesium filaments were contained in bulbs filled with oxygen gas. Manufactured flashbulbs were first produced commercially in Germany in 1929, such a bulb could only be used once, and was too hot to handle immediately after use, but the confinement of what would otherwise have amounted to a small explosion was an important advance. A later innovation was the coating of flashbulbs with a film to maintain bulb integrity in the event of the glass shattering during the flash
3.
Aluminium
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Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
4.
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
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Carbon fiber reinforced polymer, carbon fiber reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic, is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers. The spelling fibre is common in British Commonwealth countries, the binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes used. The composite may contain other fibers, such as an aramid, aluminium, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene or glass fibers, the properties of the final CFRP product can also be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix. The most frequent additive is silica, but other such as rubber. The material is referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer. In product advertisements, it is referred to simply as graphite fiber for short. In this case the composite consists of two parts, a matrix and a reinforcement, in CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides the strength. The matrix is usually a resin, such as epoxy. Because CFRP consists of two elements, the material properties depend on these two elements. The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity, measured by stress, unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber, the following equation, E c = V m E m + V f E f is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0. 5% strain to failure, although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics present unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material, One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive, despite its high initial strength-to-weight ratio, a design limitation of CFRP is its lack of a definable fatigue endurance limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out, environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum. The primary element of CFRP is a filament, this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile, rayon. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers, after drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms, producing the final carbon fiber
5.
Fraxinus excelsior
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Fraxinus excelsior — known as the ash, or European ash or common ash to distinguish it from other types of ash — is a flowering plant species in the olive family Oleaceae. It is native throughout mainland Europe east to the Caucasus and Alborz mountains, the northernmost location is in the Trondheimsfjord region of Norway. The species is cultivated and reportedly naturalised in New Zealand and in scattered locales in the United States. It is a deciduous tree growing to 12–18 m tall with a trunk up to 2 m diameter, with a tall. The bark is smooth and pale grey on young trees, becoming thick, the shoots are stout, greenish-grey, with jet black buds. These features distinguish ash from ash in which the leaves are alternate with paired stipules. The leaves are often among the last to open in spring, the flowers are borne in short panicles, open before the leaves, and have no perianth. The female flowers are longer than the male flowers, dark purple, without petals. Both male and female flowers can occur on the same tree, a tree that is all male one year can produce female flowers the next, and similarly a female tree can become male. The fruit is a samara 2. 5–4.5 cm long and 5–8 mm broad, often hanging in bunches through the winter, European Ash rarely exceeds 250 years of age. However, there are numerous specimens estimated between 200 and 250 years old and there are a few over 250, the largest is in Clapton Court, England and is 9 m in girth. There are several examples over 4.5 metres in Derbyshire alone, Fraxinus excelsior is native to Europe from northern Spain to Russia, and from southern Scandinavia to northern Greece. It is also considered native in southwestern Asia from northern Turkey east to the Caucasus, the northernmost location is in the Trondheimsfjord region of Norway. It is native throughout the British Isles, particularly on limestone, as in northern Scotland, Ash occurs on a wide range of soil types, but is particularly associated with basic soils on calcareous substrates. As a young seedling it is tolerant, but as an older tree is light demanding. It is an early succession species and may well out compete beech and oak, unlike other Fraxinus species, F. excelsior does not form ectomycorrhizas. A number of Lepidoptera use the species as a food source, see Lepidoptera which feed on ashes. In the UK, many invertebrates have also been found to feed on Ash
6.
Screw thread
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A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to convert between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw thread is a ridge wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former being called a straight thread, a screw thread is the essential feature of the screw as a simple machine and also as a fastener. The mechanical advantage of a screw depends on its lead. This characteristic is essential to the vast majority of its uses, the tightening of a fasteners screw thread is comparable to driving a wedge into a gap until it sticks fast through friction and slight elastic deformation. Screw threads have several applications, Fastening, Fasteners such as screws, machine screws, nuts. Connecting threaded pipes and hoses to each other and to caps, gear reduction via worm drives Moving objects linearly by converting rotary motion to linear motion, as in the leadscrew of a jack. Measuring by correlating linear motion to rotary motion, as in a micrometer, both moving objects linearly and simultaneously measuring the movement, combining the two aforementioned functions, as in a leadscrew of a lathe. In all of these applications, the thread has two main functions, It converts rotary motion into linear motion. It prevents linear motion without the corresponding rotation, every matched pair of threads, external and internal, can be described as male and female. For example, a screw has male threads, while its matching hole has female threads, the helix of a thread can twist in two possible directions, which is known as handedness. This is known as a thread, because it follows the right hand grip rule. Threads oriented in the direction are known as left-handed. By common convention, right-handedness is the default handedness for screw threads, therefore, most threaded parts and fasteners have right-handed threads. Left-handed thread applications include, Where the rotation of a shaft would cause a conventional right-handed nut to loosen rather than to tighten due to fretting induced precession, examples include, The left hand pedal on a bicycle. The left-hand grinding wheel on a bench grinder, the lug nuts on the left side of some automobiles. The securing nut on some circular saw blades - the large torque at startup should tend to tighten the nut. The spindle on brushcutter and line trimmer heads, so that the torque tends to tighten rather than loosen the connection In combination with right-hand threads in turnbuckles, in such a case, the coupling will have one right-handed and one left-handed thread. In some instances, for example early ballpoint pens, to provide a method of disassembly
7.
Camcorder
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A camcorder is an electronic device combining a video camera and recorder. Although marketing materials may use the term camcorder, the name on the package. The earliest camcorders are tape-based, recording analog signals onto videotape cassettes, in 2006, digital recording became the norm, with tape replaced by storage media such as internal flash memory and SD cards. Earlier, the term camcorder exclusively referred to a camera with a recorder, but almost all of the electronic cameras built in 2006 provide recording capability essentially making them a camcorder. The term camcorder is now used for a particular camera range which provides advanced functions over more common cameras. Video cameras originally designed for television broadcast were large and heavy, mounted on special pedestals, as technology improved, out-of-studio video recording was possible with compact video cameras and portable video recorders, a detachable recording unit could be carried to a shooting location. Although the camera itself was compact, the need for a separate recorder made on-location shooting a two-person job, specialized videocassette recorders were introduced by JVC and Sony releasing a model for mobile work. Portable recorders meant that video footage could be aired on the early-evening news. In 1982, Sony released the Betacam system, a key component was a single camera-recorder unit, eliminating a cable between the camera and recorder and increasing the camera operators freedom. The Betacam used the same format as the Betamax, and became standard equipment for broadcast news. Sony released the first consumer camcorder in 1983, the Betamovie BMC-100P used a Betamax cassette and rested on the operators shoulder, due to a design not permitting a single-handed grip. That year, JVC released the first VHS-C camcorder, Sony introduced its compact Video8 format in 1985. That year, Panasonic, RCA and Hitachi began producing camcorders using a full-size VHS cassette with a three-hour capacity and these shoulder-mount camcorders were used by videophiles, industrial videographers and college TV studios. Full-size Super-VHS camcorders were released in 1987, providing a way to collect news segments or other videographies. Sony upgraded Video8, releasing the Hi8 in competition with S-VHS, Digital technology emerged with the Sony D1, a device which recorded uncompressed data and required a large amount of bandwidth for its time. In 1992 Ampex introduced DCT, the first digital video format with data compression using the cosine transform algorithm present in most commercial digital video formats. In 1995 Sony, JVC, Panasonic and other video-camera manufacturers launched DV, Panasonic launched DVCPRO HD in 2000, expanding the DV codec to support high definition. The format was intended for professional camcorders, and used full-size DVCPRO cassettes, in 2003 Sony, JVC, Canon and Sharp introduced HDV as the first affordable HD video format, due to its use of inexpensive MiniDV cassettes
8.
Page orientation
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Page orientation is the way in which a rectangular page is oriented for normal viewing. The two most common types of orientation are portrait and landscape, landscape originally described artistic outdoor scenes where a wide view area is needed, but the upper part of the painting would be mostly sky and so is omitted. Page orientation is used to describe the dimensions of a video display. The most common video display orientation is landscape mode, especially the 4,3 ratio, which is 4 units wide and 3 units tall, and the more recent 16,9 widescreen landscape display mode. Portrait screen orientation is used for computer displays, though less commonly than landscape. It is also common in public information displays, Portrait mode was first used on the Xerox Alto computer, which was considered technologically well ahead of its time when the system was first developed. The IBM DisplayWriter had a monitor and keyboard with large backspace key. Lanier, Wang, and CPT also made competing dedicated word processing computers with portrait modes, the height of the market for these computes was the late 1970s and early 1980s, prior to the introduction of the IBM PC. Thus, it had a keyboard without a large backspace key at first, within a short period of time, the DisplayWriter and other dedicated word processors were no longer available. However, Portrait Display Labs leaped into this niche, producing a number of rotating CRT monitors as well as software which could be used as a driver for many video cards. The later advent of the World Wide Web, whose pages are largely in portrait mode, when the Macintosh computer was introduced, WYSIWYG page layout using Aldus PageMaker became popular. The Macintosh rekindled interest in portrait displays, and the first portrait displays for it were developed by Radius Corporation, for the first computing devices a screen was built to operate in only portrait or landscape mode, and changing between orientations was not possible. Typically a custom controller board was needed to support the unusual screen orientation. As video display technology advanced, eventually the video board was able to accommodate rotation of the display. Rotation is now a feature of modern video cards, and is widely used in tablet PCs. Portrait mode is popular with arcade games that involve a vertically oriented playing area, such as Pac-Man, the vertical orientation allows greater detail along the vertical axis while conserving detail on the sides. This is why most early home versions of games have a wide. Portrait orientation is used occasionally within some arcade and home titles, primarily in the vertical shoot em up genre due to considerations of aesthetics, tradition
9.
Landscape
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A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms and how they integrate with natural or man-made features. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and it is the dynamic backdrop to people’s lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park, the activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping. There are several definitions of what constitutes a landscape, depending on context, the term landscape emerged around the turn of the sixteenth century to denote a painting whose primary subject matter was natural scenery. Land may be taken in its sense of something to people belong. The suffix ‑scape is equivalent to the more common English suffix ‑ship, the roots of ‑ship are etymologically akin to Old English sceppan or scyppan, meaning to shape. The suffix ‑schaft is related to the verb schaffen, so that ‑ship, the word landscape, first recorded in 1598, was borrowed from a Dutch painters term. An example of this usage can be found as early as 1662 in the Book of Common Prayer, Could we but climb where Moses stood. Setting, In works of narrative, it includes the moment in time and geographic location in which a story takes place. Picturesque, The word literally means in the manner of a picture, fit to be made into a picture, and used as early as 1703, gilpin’s Essay on Prints defined picturesque as a term expressive of that peculiar kind of beauty, which is agreeable in a picture. A view, A sight or prospect of some landscape or extended scene, wilderness, An uncultivated, uninhabited, and inhospitable region. Cityscape, The urban equivalent of a landscape, in the visual arts a cityscape is an artistic representation, such as a painting, drawing, print or photograph, of the physical aspects of a city or urban area. Seascape, A photograph, painting, or other work of art depicts the sea. Geomorphology is the study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical or chemical processes operating at or near Earths surface. Geomorphology is practiced within physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology and this broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field. The surface of Earth is modified by a combination of processes that sculpt landscapes, and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by climate, the Earth surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of climatic, hydrologic, and biologic action with geologic processes. Desert, Plain, Taiga, Tundra, Wetland, Mountain, Mountain range, Cliff, Coast, Littoral zone, Glacier, Polar regions of Earth, Shrubland, Forest, Rainforest, Woodland, Jungle, Moors
10.
Tripod head
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A tripod head is the part of a tripod system that attaches the supported device to the tripod legs, and allows the orientation of the device to be manipulated or locked down. Modular or stand-alone tripod heads can be used on a range of tripods. Integrated heads are built directly onto the legs, reducing the cost of the tripod system. The main function of any tripod head is to provide the ability to hold the attached device fixed in a specific orientation until the needs to change its position. In cinematography or video applications, a tripod head allows the operator to pan. The various types of heads available provide different control mechanisms and have distinct applications. Some can restrict movement to an axis, while others offer robotic movement to increase the precision of the movements. The materials used to construct tripod heads and the designs of various heads can be drastically different. In some situations a tripod head may be used without a set of tripod legs, heads can be attached to monopods to provide more versatility, or to a simple plate with a base mount for when the height of a full tripod is unnecessary. The base mount is the connection between the head and the tripod legs. Often the head will have a large, flat base that sits on top of the tripod. The actual connection between the two is made with a screw. A common standard for base mounts on photographic tripod equipment is a 3/8-16 screw on the tripod, tripods intended for smaller photographic equipment that do not need to be as rugged use a smaller 1/4-20 screw. The point where the head and the device attach is called the head mount. Most camera equipment includes a built-in female 1/4-20 receptacle, so the majority of tripod heads utilize a male 1/4-20 screw as their head mounts. Many consumer level tripod heads use the head mount to attach the camera. Camera mounting systems are used to make attaching and detaching devices to the quicker and easier. Many mounting systems are called quick-release systems, and utilize a two-piece mechanism, one piece is a plate that is affixed to the underside of the device, and the other piece is a receiver that is specifically designed to hold the plate
