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President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
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Harry S. Truman
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Harry S. Truman was an American politician who served as the 33rd President of the United States, assuming the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the waning months of World War II. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal, but the conservative-dominated Congress blocked most of them. He also used weapons to end World War II, desegregated the U. S. armed forces, supported a newly independent Israel. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, and spent most of his youth on his familys 600-acre farm near Independence, in the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party. Truman was first elected to office as a county official in 1922. After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri and briefly as Vice President, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12,1945, upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Trumans 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Although this decision and the issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day. Truman presided over a surge in economic prosperity as America sought readjustment after long years of depression. His presidency was a point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and his political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups, and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election. The Soviet Union became an enemy in the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U. S. troops, after initial successes in Korea, however, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention, and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Trumans presidency. Scholars, starting in 1962, ranked Trumans presidency as near great, Harry S. Truman was born on May 8,1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His parents chose the name Harry after his mothers brother, Harrison Harry Young, while the S did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been written and printed followed by a period
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Geopolitics
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Geopolitics is the study of the effects of geography on international politics and international relations. Geopolitics is a method of studying foreign policy to understand, explain and these include area studies, climate, topography, demography, natural resources, and applied science of the region being evaluated. Geopolitics focuses on power in relation to geographic space. In particular, territorial waters and land territory in correlation with diplomatic history, academically, geopolitics analyses history and social science with reference to geography in relation to politics. Outside of academia, a variety of groups offer a geopolitical prognosis, including non-profit groups, critical geopolitics deconstructs classical geopolitical theories, by showing their political/ideological functions for great powers during and after the age of imperialism. Mahan distinguished a key region of the world in the Eurasian context, namely, in this zone independent countries still survived – Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, China, and Japan. Mahan regarded those countries, located between Britain and Russia, as if between Scylla and Charybdis, of the two monsters – Britain and Russia – it was the later that Mahan considered more threatening to the fate of Central Asia. Mahan was impressed by Russias transcontinental size and strategically favorable position for southward expansion, therefore, he found it necessary for the Anglo-Saxon sea power to resist Russia. The Austro-Hungarian historian Emil Reich is considered to be the first having coined the acceptance in English as early as 1902, lea believed that while Japan moved against Far East and Russia against India, the Germans would strike at England, the center of the British Empire. He thought the Anglo-Saxons faced certain disaster from their militant opponents, sir Halford Mackinders Heartland Theory initially received little attention outside geography, but some thinkers would claim that it subsequently influenced the foreign policies of world powers. His formulation of the Heartland Theory was set out in his article entitled The Geographical Pivot of History, Mackinders doctrine of geopolitics involved concepts diametrically opposed to the notion of Alfred Thayer Mahan about the significance of navies in world conflict. He saw navy as a basis of Colombian era empire, the Heartland theory hypothesized a huge empire being brought into existence in the Heartland—which wouldnt need to use coastal or transoceanic transport to remain coherent. Mackinder posited that the centers of the Periphery were necessarily located in widely separated locations. The World Island could send its navy to destroy one of them in turn. Mackinder called this region the Heartland and it essentially comprised Central and Eastern Europe, Ukraine, Western Russia, and Mitteleuropa. The Heartland contained the grain reserves of Ukraine, and many natural resources. Mackinders notion of geopolitics was summed up when he said, Who rules Central, who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island. Who rules the World-Island commands the World, nicholas J. Spykman is both a follower and critic of geostrategists Alfred Mahan, and Halford Mackinder
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Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
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Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
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Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
7.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
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Greek Civil War
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The Greek Civil War was fought in Greece from 1946 to 1949 between the Greek government army, and the Democratic Army of Greece. The fighting resulted in the defeat of the Communist insurgents by the government forces, the civil war resulted from a highly polarized struggle between left and right ideologies that started in 1943. From 1944 each side targeted the power vacuum that the end of German-Italian occupation during World War II left, the struggle became one of the first conflicts of the Cold War and represents the first example of Cold War power postwar involvement in the internal politics of a foreign country. The first signs of the war occurred in 1942 to 1944. The immediate prelude of the war took place in Athens, on December 3,1944. A bloody battle erupted after Greek government gendarmes, with British forces standing in the background, opened fire on a massive unarmed pro-EAM rally, killing 28 demonstrators and injuring dozens. The rally had been organised against the impunity of the collaborators and the general disarmament ultimatum, signed by Ronald Scobie, the battle lasted 33 days and resulted in the defeat of the EAM after the heavily reinforced British forces sided with the Greek government. All the while, White Terror was unleashed against the supporters of the left, the war erupted in 1946, when forces of former ELAS partisans who found shelter in their hideouts and were controlled by the KKE organized the DSE and its High Command headquarters. The Communists formed a government in December 1947 and used the DSE as the military branch of this government. The neighboring communist states of Albania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria offered logistical support to this provisional government, the final victory of the western-allied government forces led to Greeces membership in NATO and helped to define the ideological balance of power in the Aegean Sea for the entire Cold War. Western leaders encouraged and even coerced King George II of Greece to appoint a moderate cabinet, nevertheless, the exiled governments inability to influence affairs inside Greece rendered it irrelevant in the minds of most Greek people. At the same time, the Germans set up a collaborationist government in Athens, the puppet regime was further undermined when economic mismanagement in wartime conditions created runaway inflation, acute food shortages and famine among the civilian population. The power vacuum that the occupation created was filled by several resistance movements that ranged from royalist to communist ideologies, resistance was born first in eastern Macedonia and Thrace, where Bulgarian troops occupied Greek territory. Soon large demonstrations were organized in cities by the Defenders of Northern Greece. However, the largest group to emerge was the National Liberation Front, proclaiming that it followed the Soviet policy of creating a broad united front against fascism, EAM won the support of many noncommunist patriots. These resistance groups launched attacks against the powers and set up large espionage networks. When liberation came in October 1944, Greece was in a state of crisis, although controlled by the KKE, the organization had democratic republican rhetoric. Its military wing, the Greek Peoples Liberation Army was founded in February 1942, Aris Velouchiotis, a member of KKEs Central Committee, was nominated Chief of the ELAS High Command
9.
Eric Foner
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Eric Foner is an American historian. His free online courses on The Civil War and Reconstruction, published in 2014, are available from Columbia University on ColumbiaX, in 2011 Foners The Fiery Trial, Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery won the Pulitzer Prize for History, the Lincoln Prize, and the Bancroft Prize. Foner previously won the Bancroft in 1989 for his book Reconstruction, Americas Unfinished Revolution, in 2000, he was elected president of the American Historical Association. Eric Foner describes his father as his first great teacher, and recalls how, deprived of his livelihood while I was growing up, he supported our family as a freelance lecturer. I also imbibed a way of thinking about the past in which visionaries and underdogs—Tom Paine, Wendell Phillips, Eugene V. Debs, and W. E. B. Du Bois—were as central to the drama as presidents and captains of industry. Foner went to Columbia University for his B. A. he was majoring in physics until he took a seminar with James P. Shenton on the Civil War. It probably determined that most of my career has focused on that period. A year later, in 1963, Foner graduated summa cum laude as a history major and he studied at Oxford as a Kellett Fellow, he received a B. A. from Oriel College in 1965. Foner returned to Columbia for his Ph. D, where he worked under Richard Hofstadter, from 1973-1982 Foner served as a professor in the history department at City College and Graduate Center at City University of New York. In 1976-1977 he was a professor of American History at Princeton University. In 1980 he was Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions at the University of Cambridge and he served as president of the Organization of American Historians in, and of the American Historical Association. He is one of two persons to serve as president of the Organization of American Historians, American Historical Association. Foner serves on the boards of Past and Present and The Nation. Foner has written for The New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, London Review of Books, in addition, he has spoken about history on television and radio, including Charlie Rose, Book Notes, and All Things Considered. He has appeared in documentaries on PBS and The History Channel. Foner contributed an essay and conversation with John Sayles in Past Imperfect, History According to the Movies and he was the historian in Freedom, A History of US on PBS in 2003. Foner has long considered a leading authority on the Reconstruction Era of American history
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Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
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Containment
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Containment is a geopolitical strategy to stop the expansion of an enemy. It is best known as the Cold War policy of the United States, a component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to increase communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa, and Vietnam. Containment represented a middle-ground position between detente and rollback, the basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U. S. diplomat George F. Kennan during the post-World War II administration of U. S. President Harry Truman. As a description of U. S. foreign policy, the word originated in a report Kennan submitted to U. S. Defense Secretary James Forrestal in 1947, a report that was later used in a magazine article. It is a translation of the French cordon sanitaire, used to describe Western policy toward the Soviet Union in the 1920s, although the term containment was first used for the strategy in the 1940s, there were major historical precedents familiar to Americans and Europeans. In the 1850s anti-slavery forces in the United States developed a containment strategy for stopping the expansion of slavery, following the 1917 communist revolution in Russia, there were calls by Western leaders to isolate the Bolshevik government, which seemed intent on promoting worldwide revolution. In March 1919, French Premier Georges Clemenceau called for a cordon sanitaire, or ring of non-communist states, translating this phrase, U. S. President Woodrow Wilson called for a quarantine. Both phrases compare communism to a contagious disease, the U. S. initially refused to recognize the Soviet Union, but President Franklin D. Roosevelt reversed the policy in 1933, hoping to expand American export markets. The Munich Agreement of 1938 was an attempt to contain Nazi expansion in Europe, the U. S. tried to contain Japanese expansion in Asia in 1937-41, and Japan reacted with its attack on Pearl Harbor. After Germany invaded the USSR in 1941 during World War II, the U. S. the policy was rollback, to defeat Germany, Italy, and Japan. Key State Department personnel grew increasingly frustrated with and suspicious of the Soviets as the war drew to a close, harriman would later have a significant influence in forming Trumans views on the Soviet Union. In February 1946, the U. S. State Department asked George F. Kennan, then at the U. S. Embassy in Moscow, why the Russians opposed the creation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Kennans cable was hailed in the State Department as the appreciation of the situation that had long been needed, six months later, it would probably have sounded redundant. Clark Clifford and George Elsey produced a report elaborating on the Long Telegram and this report, which recommended restraining and confining Soviet influence, was presented to Truman on September 24,1946. In January 1947, Kennan drafted an essay entitled The Sources of Soviet Conduct, Kennan later turned against the containment policy and noted several deficiencies in his X Article. He later said that by containment he meant not the containment of Soviet Power by military means of a military threat, but the political containment of a political threat. After Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1946 elections, President Truman, in March 1947, he requested that Congress appropriate $400 million in aid to the Greek and Turkish governments, then fighting Communist subversion. Truman pledged to, support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures and this pledge became known as the Truman Doctrine
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George F. Kennan
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George Frost Kennan was an American diplomat and historian. He was known best as an advocate of a policy of containment of Soviet expansion during the Cold War on which he reversed himself. He lectured widely and wrote histories of the relations between USSR and the United States. He was also one of the group of foreign policy known as The Wise Men. During the late 1940s, his writings inspired the Truman Doctrine and these texts provided justification for the Truman administrations new anti-Soviet policy. Kennan played a role in the development of definitive Cold War programs and institutions. Soon after his concepts had become U. S. policy, subsequently, prior to the end of 1948, Kennan became confident that positive dialogue could commence with the Soviet government. His proposals were discounted by the Truman administration and Kennans influence was marginalized, Cold War strategy assumed a more assertive and militaristic quality, causing Kennan to lament about what he believed was an abrogation of his previous assessments. In 1950, Kennan left the Department of State—except for two brief stints in Moscow and Yugoslavia—and became a realist critic of U. S. foreign policy. He continued to analyze international affairs as a faculty member of the Institute for Advanced Study from 1956 until his death at age 101. Mrs. Kennan died two months due to peritonitis from a ruptured appendix, though Kennan long believed that she died after giving birth to him. The boy always lamented not having a mother, he was never close to his father or stepmother, however, at the age of eight he went to Germany to stay with his stepmother in order to learn German. He attended St. Johns Military Academy in Delafield, Wisconsin, unaccustomed to the elite atmosphere of the Ivy League, the shy and introverted Kennan found his undergraduate years difficult and lonely. After receiving his bachelors degree in 1925, Kennan considered applying to law school and he passed the qualifying examination and after seven months of study at the Foreign Service School in Washington he gained his first job as a vice consul in Geneva, Switzerland. Within a year he was transferred to a post in Hamburg, in 1929 Kennan began his program on history, politics, culture, and the Russian language at the University of Berlins Oriental Institute. During the course of his career, Kennan would master a number of other languages, including German, French, Polish, Czech, Portuguese. In 1931 Kennan was stationed at the legation in Riga, Latvia, from his job, Kennan grew to mature interest in Russian affairs. When the U. S. began formal diplomacy with the Soviet government during 1933 after the election of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Kennan accompanied ambassador William C
13.
Rollback
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In political science, rollback is the strategy of forcing change in the major policies of a state, usually by replacing its ruling regime. It contrasts with containment, which preventing the expansion of that state, and with détente. Most of the discussions of rollback in the scholarly literature deal with United States foreign policy toward Communist countries during the Cold War, the rollback strategy was tried, and was partially successful in Korea in 1950, but not in Cuba in 1961. NATO has deployed a strategy in Afghanistan since 2001 to end the power of the Taliban. Rollback of governments hostile to the U. S. took place in the World War II,1953 Iranian coup détat,1954 Guatemalan coup, Panama, Afghanistan and Iraq. In September 2014, after ISIL had outraged public opinion by beheading two American journalists, President Obama announced, America will lead a coalition to roll back this terrorist threat. Our objective is clear, we will degrade, and ultimately destroy, ISIL through a comprehensive, when directed against an established government rollback is sometimes called regime change. The term rollback was popularized in the 1940s and the 1950s, some Britons, opposed to Russian oppression against Poland, proposed in 1835 a coalition that would be united to roll back into its congenial steppes and deserts the tide of Russian barbarism. In American strategic language, rollback is the policy of totally annihilating an enemys armed forces and occupying the country, as was done in World War II to Italy, Germany, and Japan. Much debated was the question whether the U. S. should pursue a strategy against Communism in Eastern Europe in 1953–56. Instead of military rollback the U. S. began a program of psychological warfare to delegitimize Communist and pro-Communist regimes. These attempts began as early as 1945 in Eastern Europe, including efforts to provide weapons to independence fighters in the Baltic States, another early effort was against Albania in 1949, following the defeat of Communist forces in the Greek Civil War that year. In this case, a force of agents was landed by the British and Americans to try to provoke a guerrilla war, the operation had already been betrayed to the Soviets by the British double-agent Kim Philby, and led to the immediate capture or killing of the agents. Historian Stephen Long argues that the key policy makers, especially the State Departments Policy Planning Staff, furthermore Long blames the disordered bureaucracy that impaired and strategically dislocated the operations planned by the Office of Policy Coordination. Rollback strategies proved most successful in undermining the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in the 1980s, the rollback strategy, however, caused the Chinese to intervene, and US forces were pushed back to the 38th parallel. The failure of a complete rollback despite its advocacy by MacArthur, the U. S. had moved from a strategy of containment, to one of rollback, and returned to containment in late 1950-early 1951. All of Li Mis brief forays into China were swiftly repulsed, and after another failure in August 1952, Republican spokesman John Foster Dulles took the lead in promoting a rollback policy. The 1952 Republican national platform reaffirmed this position, when Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected, Eisenhower adviser Charles Douglas Jackson to coordinate psychological warfare against Communism
14.
Turkish Straits crisis
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The Turkish Straits crisis was a Cold War-era territorial conflict between the Soviet Union and Turkey. As the Turkish government would not submit to the Soviet Unions requests, tensions arose in the region, the incident would later serve as a deciding factor in the issuing of the Truman Doctrine. At its climax, the tensions would cause Turkey to turn to the United States and NATO, for protection and membership, the result of this action contributed to the European post-war status quo that remains to this day. The conflict has its roots in Soviet-Turkish relations, both just prior to and during the Second World War, until the last half of the 1930s, Russian-Turkish relations were warm and somewhat fraternal. The previous incarnations of the two nations, the Ottoman Empire and Bolshevist Russia, had promised to cooperate with other in the Treaty of Moscow. It was the latest of several negotiations regarding the two waterways, previous treaties and conferences had materialized over the spans of the 19th and 20th centuries. The issue had been revived again with the rise of Fascist Italy, upon the treatys signing, on July 20,1936, Turkey was permitted to rearm and regulate the straits. The treaty also forbade the traversing of the straits by ships not belonging to any of the Black Sea states. Throughout the late 1930s and into the 1940s, Stalin repeatedly challenged the agreements reached by the 1936 convention and he proposed joint Turkish and Soviet control of the straits. The Soviet Union wished for the Turkish-USSR border within the Eastern Anatolia Region to be normalized in a way beneficial to themselves and the Armenian and Georgian SSRs. Deputy premier Lavrentiy Beria got in Stalins ear, claiming that Turkish territory to the southwest of Georgia was stolen from the Georgians by the Turks during the Ottoman period, the argument was retracted along with Soviet reservations over the regime of the straits in May 1953. After the Allied defeat of Nazi Germany, the Soviets returned to the issue in 1945 and 1946, throughout 1946, American and Turkish diplomats frequently conversed on the issue. The Soviets grew angry over Turkeys allowing of non-Black Sea naval vessels to cross the straits during the course of the war, the April 6,1946 visit of the American battleship USS Missouri further angered the Soviets. The ship had come to the region under the explanation that it was delivering the mortuary urn of the late Turkish Ambassador home and this drew attention to the occasions in which Italian and German warships had passed through the straits without conflict. The note concluded that the regime of the straits was no longer reliable and demanded that the Montreux Treaty be re-examined, in a secret telegram sent by US Under Secretary of State Dean Acheson to diplomats in Paris, he explained the American position on the matter. On August 20,1946, Undersecretary Acheson met with fifteen journalists to explain the urgency of the situation and make the opinions of the United States Government known. In the period of months from summer to autumn of 1946, a substantial number of ground troops were dispatched to the Balkans. Buckling under the pressure from the Soviets, in a matter of days Turkey appealed to the United States for aid
15.
Turkish Straits
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The Turkish Straits are a series of internationally-significant waterways in northwestern Turkey that connect the Aegean and Mediterranean seas to the Black Sea. They consist of the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, and they are conventionally considered the boundary between the continents of Europe and Asia, as well as the dividing line between European Turkey and Asian Turkey. As maritime waterways, the Turkish Straits connect various seas along the Eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, the Near East, and Western Eurasia. The Turkish Straits are made up of the waterways, The Bosphorus, about 30 kilometers long and only 700 meters wide. It runs through the city of Istanbul, making it a city located on two continents and it is crossed by three suspension bridges and the underwater Marmaray rail tunnel. There is an underwater tunnel currently under construction for road users. There are plans for further crossings being debated at various stages, the Dardanelles,68 km long and 1.2 km wide, connects the Sea of Marmara with the Mediterranean in the southwest, near the city of Çanakkale. In classical antiquity, the Dardanelles strait was known as the Hellespont, the strait and the Gallipoli peninsula on its western shoreline were the scene of the Battle of Gallipoli during the First World War. Currently, there are no crossings across the strait, but plans have been offered in recent years for a bridge project as part of proposed expansions to the national highway network. The Straits have been of urgent maritime strategic importance since the Trojan War was fought near the Aegean entrance, in the declining days of the Ottoman Empire the Straits Question involved the diplomats of Europe and the Ottoman Empire. It thus benefited British naval power at the expense of Russian as the latter lacked direct access for its navy to the Mediterranean, the treaty is one in a series dealing with access to the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles. It evolved from the secret 1833 Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi, in which the Ottoman Empire guaranteed exclusive use of the Straits to Black Sea Powers warships in the case of a general war. The modern treaty controlling relations is the 1936 Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits and it gives the Republic of Turkey control over warships entering the straits but guarantees the free passage of civilian vessels in peacetime. International law List of maritime incidents in the Turkish Straits Marmara Region United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
16.
Black Sea
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The Black Sea is a body of water between Eastern Europe and Western Asia, bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine. It is supplied by a number of rivers, such as the Danube, Dnieper, Rioni, Southern Bug. The Black Sea has an area of 436,400 km2, a depth of 2,212 m. It is constrained by the Pontic Mountains to the south and by the Caucasus Mountains to the east, the longest east-west extent is about 1,175 km. The Black Sea has a water balance, that is, a net outflow of water 300 km3 per year through the Bosphorus. Mediterranean water flows into the Black Sea as part of a two-way hydrological exchange, the Black Sea drains into the Mediterranean Sea and then the Atlantic Ocean, via the Aegean Sea and various straits. The Bosphorus Strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and these waters separate Eastern Europe and Western Asia. The Black Sea is also connected to the Sea of Azov by the Strait of Kerch, the water level has varied significantly. Due to these variations in the level in the basin. At certain critical water levels it is possible for connections with surrounding water bodies to become established and it is through the most active of these connective routes, the Turkish Straits, that the Black Sea joins the world ocean. When this hydrological link is not present, the Black Sea is a basin, operating independently of the global ocean system. Currently the Black Sea water level is high, thus water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean. The Turkish Straits connect the Black Sea with the Aegean Sea, and comprise the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Black Sea as follows, On the Southwest. The Northeastern limit of the Sea of Marmara, a line joining Cape Takil and Cape Panaghia. Strabos Geographica reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often just called the Sea, for the most part, Graeco-Roman tradition refers to the Black Sea as the Hospitable sea, Εὔξεινος Πόντος Eúxeinos Póntos. This is a euphemism replacing an earlier Inhospitable Sea, Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos, strabo thinks that the Black Sea was called inhospitable before Greek colonization because it was difficult to navigate, and because its shores were inhabited by savage tribes. The name was changed to hospitable after the Milesians had colonized the southern shoreline and it is also possible that the epithet Áxeinos arose by popular etymology from a Scythian word axšaina- unlit, dark, the designation Black Sea may thus date from antiquity. A map of Asia dating to 1570, entitled Asiae Nova Descriptio, from Abraham Orteliuss Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, english-language writers of the 18th century often used the name Euxine Sea to refer to the Black Sea
17.
Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
18.
USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CV-42)
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USS Franklin D. Roosevelt was the second of three Midway-class aircraft carriers. To her crew, she was known as Swanky Franky, Foo-De-Roo, or Rosie, Roosevelt spent most of her active deployed career operating in the Mediterranean Sea as part of the United States Sixth Fleet. The ship was decommissioned in 1977 and was scrapped shortly afterward, Franklin D. Roosevelt was laid down at New York Naval Shipyard on 1 December 1943. Sponsor Mrs. John H. Towers, wife of the Deputy Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Fleet, christened the ship Coral Sea at the 29 April 1945 launching. On 8 May 1945, President Harry S. Truman approved the Secretary of the Navys recommendation to rename the ship Franklin D. Roosevelt in honor of the late president, Roosevelt was commissioned on Navy Day,27 October 1945, at the New York Naval Shipyard. Capt. Apollo Soucek was the ships first commanding officer, during April and May, Roosevelt participated in Eighth Fleet maneuvers off the East Coast, the Navys first major postwar training exercise. On 21 July 1946, Roosevelt became the first American carrier to operate an aircraft under controlled conditions. Lieutenant Commander James Davidson, flying the McDonnell XFD-1 Phantom, made a series of successful take-offs and landings as Roosevelt lay off Cape Henry, Virginia. Jet trials continued in November, when Lt. Col. Marion E. Carl, USMC, Fleet maneuvers and other training operations in the Caribbean preceded Roosevelts first deployment to the Mediterranean, which lasted from August to October 1946. Roosevelt, flying the flag of Rear Admiral John H. Cassady, Commander, Carrier Division 1 and this visit showed U. S. support for the pro-Western government of Greece, which was locked in a civil war with Communist insurgents. The ship received thousands of visitors during her calls to many Mediterranean ports, Roosevelt returned to American waters and operated off the East Coast until July 1947, when she entered Norfolk Naval Shipyard for an extensive overhaul. At that time, her quad 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns were replaced by 40 3-inch Mark 22 guns in Mark 33 twin mountings, from September 1948 to January 1949, Roosevelt undertook a second tour of duty with U. S. Naval Forces, Mediterranean. In 1950, Roosevelt became the first carrier to take nuclear weapons to sea, in September and October 1952, she participated in Operation Mainbrace, the first major NATO exercise in the North Atlantic. Roosevelt operated with major fleet units, including the aircraft carriers USS Midway, USS Wasp. Roosevelt was reclassified CVA-42 on 1 October 1952, on 7 January 1954, she sailed for Puget Sound Naval Shipyard to undergo extensive reconstruction. Too large to pass through the Panama Canal, Roosevelt rounded Cape Horn and she was temporarily decommissioned there for her refit on 23 April 1954. Roosevelt was the first of her class to undergo the SCB-110 reconstruction and she received an enclosed hurricane bow, one C-11-2 and two C-11-1 steam catapults, strengthened arresting gear, an enlarged bridge, a mirror landing system, and a 482-foot angled flight deck. SPS-8 height finding radar and SPS-12 air search radar were mounted on a new tubular mast, the aft elevator was relocated to the starboard deck edge, the forward elevator was enlarged, and all elevators were uprated to 75,000 lb capacity
19.
Adnan Menderes
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Adnan Menderes or Ali Adnan Ertekin Menderes was the Turkish Prime Minister between 1950–1960. He was one of the founders of the Democrat Party in 1946 and he was hanged by the military junta after the 1960 coup détat, along with two other cabinet members, Fatin Rüştü Zorlu and Hasan Polatkan. He was the last Turkish political leader to be executed after a coup and is also one of the three political leaders of the Turkish Republic to have a mausoleum built in his honor. Adnan Menderes was born in 1899 in Koçarlı, Aydın Province, after primary school, Menderes attended the American College in İzmir. He fought against the invading Greek army during the Turkish War of Independence and was awarded a medal of honour and he graduated from the Law School of Ankara University. In 1930, Menderes organized a branch of the short-lived Liberal Republican Party in Aydın, after the party dissolved itself, he was invited by Atatürk himself to join the ruling Republican Peoples Party and was selected by the party leaders as a deputy of Aydın in 1931. In 1945, he was expelled from the party two other colleagues due to inner-party opposition to the nationalization policies of the then self-declared National Chief İsmet İnönü. He was elected deputy of Kütahya in the 1946 elections, when the DP won 52% of the votes in the first free elections in Turkish history on 14 May 1950, Menderes became prime minister, and in 1955 he also assumed the duties of foreign minister. He later won two free elections, one in 1954 and the other in 1957. During his tenure, Turkey was admitted to NATO, with the economic support of the United States via the Marshall Plan, agriculture was mechanized, and transport, energy, education, health care, insurance and banking progressed. In 1955, the Menderes government is believed to have orchestrated the Istanbul Pogrom, in September 1955 a bomb exploded close to the Turkish consulate in Greece’s second-largest city, Thessaloniki, also damaging the Atatürk Museum, site of Atatürks birthplace. The damage to the house was minimal, with broken windows. The ongoing struggle between Turkey and Greece over control of Cyprus, and Cypriot intercommunal violence, formed part of the backdrop to the pogrom, the United Kingdom invited Turkey and Greece to a conference in London, which started on August 26,1955. The day before the Tripartite London Conference began, Menderes claimed that Greek Cypriots were planning a massacre of Turkish Cypriots, seeing the opportunity to extricate Britain, Prime Minister Harold Macmillan advised the Turkish delegates that they should be stern. The Greek delegates, surprised by harshness of the speech, blamed the British, deflecting domestic attention to Cyprus was politically convenient for the Menderes government, which was suffering from an ailing economy. Although a minority, the Greek population played a prominent role in the business life. The DP responded first with inflationary policies, then when that failed, dPs policies also introduced rural-urban mobility, which exposed some of the rural population to the lifestyles of the urban minorities. The three chief destinations were the largest three cities, Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir, between 1945 and 1955, the population of Istanbul increased from 1 million to about 1.6 million
20.
George II of Greece
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George II reigned as King of Greece from 1922 to 1924 and from 1935 to 1947. George was born at the villa at Tatoi, near Athens. George pursued a career, training with the Prussian Guard at the age of 18. When his grandfather was assassinated in 1913, his father became King Constantine I, after a coup deposed King Constantine during the First World War, Crown Prince George, by then a Major, followed his father into exile in 1917. Georges younger brother, Alexander, was installed as king by prime minister Eleftherios Venizelos, when Alexander I died following an infection from a monkey bite in 1920, Venizelos was voted out of office, and a plebiscite restored Constantine to the throne. Crown Prince George served as a colonel, and later a general in the war against Turkey. During this time he married his cousin, on 27 February 1921 in Bucharest, Princess Elisabeth of Romania, daughter of King Ferdinand. When the Turks defeated Greece at the Battle of Dumlupınar, the military forced the abdication of Constantine, following a failed royalist coup in October 1923, the Revolutionary Committee asked him to depart Greece while the National Assembly considered the question of the future form of government. He complied and, although he refused to abdicate, he left on 19 December 1923 for exile in his wifes home nation of Romania. When a republic was proclaimed on 25 March 1924, he was deposed and stripped of his Greek nationality. His wife stayed in Bucharest whilst he spent more and more time abroad visiting Britain, in 1932 he left Romania permanently and moved to Britain. Elisabeth and he had no children, and were divorced on 6 July 1935, in Greece between 1924 and 1935 there were 23 changes of government, a dictatorship, and 13 coups. General Georgios Kondylis, a former Venizelist who had decided to throw in his lot with the monarchist forces, overthrew the government in October 1935. He then arranged a plebiscite both to approve his government and to bring an end to the republic, on 3 November 1935, almost 98% of the reported votes supported restoration of the monarchy. The balloting was not secret, and participation was compulsory, George, who had been living at Browns Hotel in London, returned to Greek soil on November 25. Almost immediately he and Kondylis disagreed over the terms of a general amnesty the King wanted to declare, new elections were held in January, which resulted in a hung parliament with the Communists holding the balance of power. A series of unexpected deaths amongst the politicians, as well as the uncertain political situation. The King, ruling with Prime Minister Metaxas, oversaw a right-wing regime in which opponents were arrested
21.
Axis powers
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The Axis powers, also known as the Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, were the nations that fought in World War II against the Allied Powers. The Axis agreed on their opposition to the Allies, but did not completely coordinate their activity, the Axis grew out of the diplomatic efforts of Germany, Italy, and Japan to secure their own specific expansionist interests in the mid-1930s. The first step was the treaty signed by Germany and Italy in October 1936, Mussolini declared on 1 November that all other European countries would from then on rotate on the Rome–Berlin axis, thus creating the term Axis. The almost simultaneous second step was the signing in November 1936 of the Anti-Comintern Pact, Italy joined the Pact in 1937. At its zenith during World War II, the Axis presided over territories that occupied parts of Europe, North Africa. There were no three-way summit meetings and cooperation and coordination was minimal, the war ended in 1945 with the defeat of the Axis powers and the dissolution of their alliance. As in the case of the Allies, membership of the Axis was fluid, at the time he was seeking an alliance with the Weimar Republic against Yugoslavia and France in the dispute over the Free State of Fiume. The term was used by Hungarys prime minister Gyula Gömbös when advocating an alliance of Hungary with Germany, when Mussolini publicly announced the signing on 1 November, he proclaimed the creation of a Rome–Berlin axis. Italy under Duce Benito Mussolini had pursued an alliance of Italy with Germany against France since the early 1920s. He believed that Italy could expand its influence in Europe by allying with Germany against France, in early 1923, as a goodwill gesture to Germany, Italy secretly delivered weapons for the German Army, which had faced major disarmament under the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. General Hans von Seeckt supported an alliance between Germany and the Soviet Union to invade and partition Poland between them and restore the German-Russian border of 1914. The discussions concluded that Germans still wanted a war of revenge against France but were short on weapons, however at this time Mussolini stressed one important condition that Italy must pursue in an alliance with Germany, that Italy must. Tow them, not be towed by them, the French government warned Italy that it had to choose whether to be on the side of the pro-Versailles powers or that of the anti-Versailles revanchists. Grandi responded that Italy would be willing to offer France support against Germany if France gave Italy its mandate over Cameroon, France refused Italys proposed exchange for support, as it believed Italys demands were unacceptable and the threat from Germany was not yet immediate. In 1932, Gyula Gömbös and the Party of National Unity rose to power in Hungary, Gömbös sought to alter Hungarys post–Treaty of Trianon borders by forming an alliance with Austria and Italy, knowing that Hungary alone was not capable of challenging the Little Entente powers. At the meeting between Gömbös and Mussolini in Rome on 10 November 1932, the question came up of the sovereignty of Austria in relation to the rise to power in Germany of the Nazi Party. Mussolini was worried about Nazi ambitions towards Austria, and indicated that at least in the term he was committed to maintaining Austria as a sovereign state. Italy had concerns over a Germany which included Austria laying land claims to German-populated territories of the South Tyrol within Italy, Mussolini said he hoped the Anschluss could be postponed as long as possible until the breakout of a European war that he estimated would begin in 1938
22.
National Liberation Front (Greece)
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The National Liberation Front was the main movement of the Greek Resistance during the Axis occupation of Greece during World War II. Its main driving force was the Communist Party of Greece, but its membership throughout the Occupation period included several other leftist and republican groups. The organisation reached its peak after Liberation in late 1944, when it controlled most of the country and this marked the beginning of its gradual decline and the open persecution of its members and leading eventually to the outbreak of the Greek Civil War. During the Metaxas Regime, the Communist Party of Greece was outlawed and its hierarchy and organisation suffered heavy blows from Metaxas efficient security forces, and more than 2,000 Communists were imprisoned or sent to internal exile. With the German invasion and occupation of the country in April–May 1941, several hundred members were able to escape and their first task was to reform the Party, along with subsidiary groups like the National Solidarity welfare organization May 28. The Communists were committed to a Popular Front tactic, and tried to engage other parties from the left, however, these efforts proved largely fruitless. On 16 July however, the National Workers Liberation Front was established, at the ΚΚΕs 7th Plenum, the establishment of ΕΑΜ was decided, despite the refusal of mainstream politicians to participate. ΕΑΜs charter called for the liberation of the Nation from foreign yoke, furthermore, the ΚΚΕs well-organized structure and its experience with the conditions and necessities of underground struggle were crucial to ΕΑΜs success. Georgios Siantos was appointed as the leader, since Nikolaos Zachariadis. On 10 October, ΕΑΜ published its manifesto, and announced itself, during the autumn of 1941, its influence expanded throughout Greece, either through pre-existing Communist cells or through the spontaneous actions of local peoples committees. Following Communist practice, ΕΑΜ took care to set up a system with which to engage. One of the successes of ΕΑΜ was the mobilization against the plans of the Germans. In the event, only 16,000 Greeks went to Germany, ΕΑΜ even carried out elections to the PEEAs parliament, the National Council, in April, where for the first time in Greek electoral history, women were allowed to vote. In these elections is estimated that 1,000,000 people voted, in the territories it controlled, ΕΑΜ implemented its own political concept, known as laokratia, based upon based upon self-administration, involvement of new categories and popular courts. At the same time, the mechanisms of the order created by ΕΑΜ were often employed to eliminate political opponents. After Liberation in October 1944, the tensions between ΕΑΜ and right-wing, nationalist or western-oriented republican forces, which were supported by Great Britain, originally, as agreed at the Lebanon conference, ΕΑΜ participated in the government of national unity under George Papandreou with 6 ministers. Due to disagreements regarding the disarmament of ELAS and the formation of an army, on 1 December. ΕΑΜ organized a demonstration in Athens on December 3,1944 against British interference, the exact details of what happened have been debated ever since, but gendarmes opened fire on the crowd, resulting in 25 dead protesters and 148 wounded
23.
Communist Party of Greece
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The Communist Party of Greece is a Marxist–Leninist political party in Greece. Founded in 1918 as the Socialist Labour Party of Greece, it is the oldest party active in the Greek political scene, the October Revolution of the Bolsheviks in Russia in 1917 gave impetus for the foundation of Communist parties in many countries all over the globe. ΚΚΕ was founded on 4 November 1918 as the Socialist Labour Party of Greece, the party was run by a five-member central committee which consisted of Nikos Dimitratos, D. Ligdopoulos, M. Sideris, A. Arvanitis and S. Kokkinos. The background of KKE has roots in more than 60 years of small socialist, anarchist and communist groups, at the Second Congress of the SEKE in April 1920, the party decided to affiliate with Comintern, an international communist organisation founded in Moscow in 1919. It changed its name to the Socialist Labour Party of Greece-Communist, a new central committee was elected, which included Nikos and Panaghis Dimitratos, Yannis Kordatos, G. Doumas and M. Sideris. At the Third Extraordinary Congress of the SEKE-K in November 1924, pandelis Pouliopoulos was elected as general-secretary. Ever since, the party has functioned on the basis of democratic centralism, KKE members propagated this position both on the front – which provoked accusations of treason from the Greek government – as well as in the mainland. KKE played a prominent role in strikes, anti-war demonstrations, foundation of trade unions, KKE and other leftist political forces fostered the creation of labor unions in all sectors, including the General Greek Workers Confederation, which shared common goals with KKE. Such legislation was used to prosecute KKE members and other leftist activists. Under the Idionymon all members of the Communist Party of Greece, the first prison camps for left wing citizens and communists were founded in that era. KKE collaborated with other newly founded Communist Parties to oppose the rise of the Fascist movement in Europe, in 1932, the Comintern decreed that anti-Fascist fronts be formed internationally. KKE responded by creating the Peoples Front, which was the largest Marxist anti-Fascist organisation in Greece prior to the dictatorship of Ioannis Metaxas, the party was banned in 1936 by the dictatorial 4th of August Regime of Metaxas, and brutally persecuted by his security chief, Konstantinos Maniadakis. Many KKE members were imprisoned or exiled on isolated Aegean islands and this policy was reiterated several times throughout the pre-war era. The main impetus for their demand was the ethnic and religious minorities then living inside Greek borders in Northern Greece, KKE opposed any geo-strategic game in the area which would use minorities to start a new imperialistic war in the region. At its Third Party Congress in 1924, KKE announced its policy for the self-determination of minorities, in 1924, KKE expressed the official position of the Third International for independent Macedonia and Thrace. Some members disagreed with this, but it remained the position of the party. KKE was seen by many as a party policy was the detachment of large areas of northern Greece. According to Richard Clogg this was dictated by Comintern and hurt the popularity of Communism at the time, Nikos Zachariadis, General Secretary of the party, officially renounced KKEs policy of secession in 1945
24.
Dekemvriana
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Yet, on December the 1st, the British commander Ronald Scobie ordered the unilateral disarmament of EAM-ELAS. The rally of some 200.000 people was brutally shot upon by the Greek Police and Gendarmerie and these killings ushered a full-blown armed confrontation between EAM and the Government forces at first, and during the 2nd half of December, against the full blown British military forces. The clashes were limited to Athens, while elsewhere in Greece the situation remained tense, the Dekemvriana ended with the defeat of EAM-ELAS, leading to its disarmament in the Varkiza Agreement which marked the end of ELAS. This first defeat broke the power of EAM and was followed by a period of White Terror against the left, by 1944, the two major resistance movements in occupied Greece, EDES and EAM-ELAS, each saw the other to be their great enemy. They both saw the Germans were going to be defeated and were a temporary threat, for the communists, the British represented their major obstacle. The Axis withdrawal, before the government could return to the country. The government-in-exile, now led by the prominent liberal George Papandreou, moved to Italy, under the Caserta Agreement of September 1944, all resistance forces in Greece were to be placed under the command of a British officer, General Ronald Scobie. The British arrived in Greece in October, by then, the Germans were in full retreat, and most of Greeces territory had already been liberated by Greek partisans. On October 13, British troops entered Athens, the area still occupied by the Germans. The king stayed in Cairo because Papandreou had promised that the future of the monarchy would be decided by referendum, there was little to prevent the ELAS from taking full control of the country. With the German withdrawal, ELAS units had control of the countryside. The KKE’s leadership knew so, but not the ELASs fighters and rank-and-file, following Stalins instructions, the KKE’s leadership tried to avoid a confrontation with the Papandreou government. Most ELAS members saw the British as liberators despite some KKE leaders, such as Andreas Tzimas, Tzimas was in touch with Yugoslav Communist leader Josip Broz Tito, and he disagreed with ELASs cooperation with the British forces. The issue of disarming the resistance organizations was a cause of friction between the Papandreou government and its EAM members, the EAM, believing that it would leave the ELAS defenseless against anticommunist militias, submitted an alternative plan of total and simultaneous disarmament. Papandreou rejected this plan, causing the EAM ministers to resign from the government on December 2, on December 1, Scobie issued a proclamation calling for the dissolution of the ELAS. Command of the ELAS was the KKEs greatest source of strength, titos influence may have played some role in the ELASs resistance to disarmament. Tito was outwardly loyal to Stalin but had come to power through his own means and his influence, however, had not prevented the EAM leadership from putting its forces under Scobies command a couple of months earlier, in accordance with to the Caserta Agreement. According to the Caserta Agreement, all Greek forces were under Allied command, on December 1,1944, the Greek government of National Unity under Georgios Papandreou and Gen
25.
Greek legislative election, 1946
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Parliamentary elections were held in Greece on 31 March 1946. As a result Konstantinos Tsaldaris became Prime Minister leading a right-wing coalition, nonetheless, he soon decided to resign in favor of Themistoklis Sophoulis, who led a government of national unity during the entire second phase of the civil war. One of the priorities of the new government was the proclamation of a plebiscite for the restoration of the Greek monarchy, the elections were marked by the boycott of the Communist Party of Greece in protest against the unfolding, state-tolerated White Terror against the former members of EAM-ELAS. One of the reasons for the defeat of the parties was the division of the Liberal Party. A Within the United Alignment the Peoples Party won 156 seats, the National Liberal Party 34, B Within the National Political Union the Party of Venizelian Liberals won 31 seats, the National Unionist Party 27, the Democratic Socialist Party 7 seats and others three
26.
Josip Broz Tito
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Josip Broz Tito, born Josip Broz, was a Yugoslav revolutionary and statesman, serving in various roles from 1943 until his death in 1980. During World War II he was the leader of the Partisans, while his presidency has been criticized as authoritarian, and concerns about the repression of political opponents have been raised, some historians consider him a benevolent dictator. He was a public figure both in Yugoslavia and abroad. Viewed as a symbol, his internal policies maintained the peaceful coexistence of the nations of the Yugoslav federation. He gained further attention as the chief leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, working with Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt. He was General Secretary of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, and went on to lead the World War II Yugoslav guerrilla movement, after the war, he was the Prime Minister, President of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. From 1943 to his death in 1980, he held the rank of Marshal of Yugoslavia, serving as the commander of the Yugoslav military. With a highly favourable reputation abroad in both Cold War blocs, Josip Broz Tito received some 98 foreign decorations, including the Legion of Honour, Josip Broz was born to a Croat father and Slovene mother in the village of Kumrovec, Croatia. Drafted into military service, he distinguished himself, becoming the youngest sergeant major in the Austro-Hungarian Army of that time, after being seriously wounded and captured by the Imperial Russians during World War I, Josip was sent to a work camp in the Ural Mountains. He participated in the October Revolution, and later joined a Red Guard unit in Omsk, upon his return home, Broz found himself in the newly established Kingdom of Yugoslavia, where he joined the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. Tito was the architect of the second Yugoslavia, a socialist federation that lasted from 1943 to 1991–92. Tito was a backer of independent roads to socialism, in 1951 he implemented a self-management system that differentiated Yugoslavia from other socialist countries. A turn towards a model of market socialism brought economic expansion in the 1950s and 1960s and his internal policies included the suppression of nationalist sentiment and the promotion of the brotherhood and unity of the six Yugoslav nations. He remains a figure in the Balkans. He was the seventh or eighth child of Franjo Broz and Marija née Javeršek and he was christened and raised as a Roman Catholic. His father, Franjo, was a Croat whose family had lived in the village for three centuries, while his mother Marija, was a Slovene from the village of Podsreda, the villages were only 16 kilometres apart, and his parents had been married on 21 January 1891. Franjo Broz had inherited a 4. 0-hectare estate and a good house, despite his mixed parentage, Broz was considered an ethnic Croat. In July 1900, at the age of eight, Broz entered primary school at Kumrovec, as a result of his limited schooling, throughout his life he was poor at spelling
27.
Percentages agreement
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The agreement was made public by Churchill. The US ambassador Averell Harriman, who was supposed to represent Roosevelt in these meetings, was excluded from this particular discussion, Churchill wrote it on a piece of paper which he pushed across to Stalin, who ticked it off and passed it back. The result of discussions was that the percentages of Soviet influence in Bulgaria and, more significantly. Churchill called it a naughty document, regarding its import, Gabriel Kolko writes, There is little significance to the memorable and dramatic passage in Churchills autobiography recalling how he and Stalin divided Eastern Europe. Stalins tick, translated into words, indicated nothing whatsoever. Geoffrey Roberts says similarly of the agreement, Its a good story but, like so many of Churchills tales, the lily was somewhat gilded. Stalin did keep to his promise about Greece, but did not keep his promise for Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary, yugoslavia became a non-aligned communist state with very limited Soviet or British influence. Britain supported the Greek government forces in the war but the Soviet Union did not assist the communist guerrillas. This was mentioned by General Jordana, in a speech he gave in April 1943 in Barcelona
28.
Pincer movement
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The pincer movement, or double envelopment, is a military maneuver in which forces simultaneously attack both flanks of an enemy formation. The name comes from visualizing the action as the attacking forces pinching the enemy. The pincer movement typically occurs when opposing forces advance towards the center of an army that responds by moving its forces to the enemys flanks to surround it. At the same time, a layer of pincers may attack on the more distant flanks to keep reinforcements from the target units. A full pincer movement leads to the attacking army facing the enemy in front, if attacking pincers link up in the enemys rear, the enemy is encircled. Such battles often end in surrender or destruction of the enemy force and they can attack the encirclement from the inside to escape, or a friendly external force can attack from the outside to open an escape route. Sun Tzu, in The Art of War, speculated on the maneuver, the maneuver may have first been used at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. The historian Herodotus describes how the Athenian general Miltiades deployed 10,000 Athenian and 900 Plataean hoplite forces in a U-formation, with the wings manned much more deeply than the centre. His enemy outnumbered him heavily, and Miltiades chose to match the breadth of the Persian battle line by thinning out the centre of his forces while reinforcing the wings, the tactic was used by Alexander the Great at the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC. Launching his attack at the Indian left flank, the Indian king Porus reacted by sending the cavalry on the right of his formation around in support. Alexander had positioned two cavalry units on the left of his formation, hidden from view, under the command of Coenus and Demitrius, the units were then able to follow Poruss cavalry around, trapping them in a classic pincer movement. That tactically-astute move from Alexander was key in ensuring what many regard as his last great victory, the most famous example of its use was at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC, when Hannibal executed the maneuver against the Romans. Daniel Morgan used it effectively at the Battle of Cowpens in 1781 in South Carolina, many consider Morgans cunning plan at Cowpens the tactical masterpiece of the American War of Independence. Zulu impis used a version of the manoeuvre that they called the buffalo horn formation, genghis Khan used a rudimentary form known colloquially as the horns tactic. Two enveloping flanks of horsemen surrounded the enemy, but they usually remained unjoined, leaving the enemy an escape route to the rear and it was key to many of Genghiss early victories over other Mongolian tribes. Even in the era, the manoeuvre was used across many military cultures. In another battle at Kars in 1745, Nader routed the Ottoman army, the Ottoman army soon after collapsed under the pressure of the encirclement. The manoeuvre was used in the blitzkrieg of the forces of Nazi Germany during World War II
29.
X Article
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The X Article, formally titled The Sources of Soviet Conduct, was an article written by George F. Kennan under the pseudonym Mr. X and published in Foreign Affairs magazine in July 1947. Kennan, who was the Deputy Chief of Mission of the United States to the USSR from 1944 to 1946, advocated in the article a policy of containment of the Soviet Union and strong anti-communism. G. F. Kennan rejoined the U. S. Embassy in Moscow as Chargé dAffaires in July,1945, Kennan proposed a policy known as Containment. In February 1946, the United States Treasury asked the U. S. Embassy in Moscow why the Soviets were not supporting the newly created World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. In reply, Kennan wrote the Long Telegram outlining his opinions and views of the Soviets, According to Kennan and it arrived in Washington on February 22,1946. Among its most-remembered parts was that while Soviet power was impervious to the logic of reason, the preface to the Long Telegram includes the following comments, Answer to Depts 284, Feb. I hope, therefore, Dept will bear with me if I submit in answer to this question five parts, Kennan described dealing with Soviet Communism as undoubtedly greatest task our diplomacy has ever faced and probably greatest it will ever have to face. According to Kennan, the Soviet Union did not see the possibility for long-term peaceful coexistence with the capitalist world, the Soviets ever-present aim was to advance the socialist cause. For the Soviets, capitalism was a menace to the ideals of socialism, the President, allegedly frustrated by Soviet actions, claimed he wanted to be ready to reveal to the whole world the full truth about the Russian failure to honor agreements. With the assistance of George Elsey, Clifford set out to write a report that would take the analysis of the Long Telegram and translate it into concrete policy recommendations. The final report, entitled American Relations with the Soviet Union, was presented solely to the President on September 24,1946, the report would remain top secret and un-circulated until it appeared in Arthur Krock’s Memoirs in 1968. It also stressed the importance of a well-informed public because only a public will support the stern policies which Soviet activities make imperative. The first mention of the concept of restraining and confining the Soviet influence appeared in the Clifford-Elsey Report, the Sources of Soviet Conduct began as a private report prepared for Secretary of Defense James Forrestal in January 1947. It was never intended as a public document, on the urging, however, of Hamilton Fish Armstrong, editor of Foreign Affairs, Kennan obtained permission from Forrestal to publish the article under the pseudonym X. When published, the article was not intended to be a statement of the official views of the Soviet situation. When it was revealed that the author was George Kennan, the connection to official policy was made, marshall, questioned the approval for the publication. Kennan was heavily involved in the evolution of U. S. policy toward the Soviet Union following World War II, both his writing of the Long Telegram and his input into the Clifford-Elsey Report factored into the content of the article. The Long Telegram was a review of how the Soviet Union saw the world, the Clifford-Elsey Report took those facts and interpreted how they affected the world and what the United States should do about it
30.
Konstantinos Tsaldaris
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Konstantinos Tsaldaris was a Greek politician and twice Prime Minister of Greece. Tsaldaris was born in Alexandria, Egypt and he studied law at the University of Athens as well as Berlin, London and Florence. He became a politician from 1915 to 1917. In 1926, he was elected as a deputy for the first time in the Argolidocorinthia prefecture with the Freethinkers Party of Ioannis Metaxas, in 1928, he became a member of the Peoples Party, the leader of which was his uncle Panagis Tsaldaris. He entered Panagis Tsaldaris second government as Vice Minister of Transportation from 1933 to 1935, after the death of Panagis Tsaldaris in 1936, he became a member of the administrative commission of the Peoples Party, which was however soon dissolved under the dictatorship of Metaxas. His government carried out the plebiscite on the return of the monarchy in August 1946, during 1947-1949 he acted as the head of the Greek representation in the UN General Assembly. He was Deputy Prime Minister during the governments of Dimitrios Maximos, Themistoklis Sophoulis and he once again became prime minister from August 1947 until September of the same year. With the foundation and rise to power of the Greek Rally of Marshal Alexandros Papagos and he was voted into Parliament with the Liberal Democratic Union, in the 1956 elections, but in the 1958 elections, as head of the Union of Populars, he failed to be elected. Shortly afterwards he ended his political career and he died in Athens in 1970
31.
Domino effect
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A domino effect or chain reaction is the cumulative effect produced when one event sets off a chain of similar events. The term is best known as an effect, and is used as an analogy to a falling row of dominoes. It typically refers to a sequence of events where the time between successive events is relatively small. It can be used literally or metaphorically, impact Mechanics, W. J. Stronge, Cambridge University Press,2004, ISBN 0-521-60289-0, ISBN 978-0-521-60289-1
32.
Dean Acheson
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Dean Gooderham Acheson was an American statesman and lawyer. As United States Secretary of State in the administration of President Harry S. Truman from 1949 to 1953, Acheson helped design the Marshall Plan and was a key player in the development of the Truman Doctrine and creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Achesons most famous decision was convincing President Truman to intervene in the Korean War in June 1950 and he also persuaded Truman to dispatch aid and advisors to French forces in Indochina, though in 1968 he finally counseled President Lyndon B. Johnson to negotiate for peace with North Vietnam. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, President John F. Kennedy called upon Acheson for advice, bringing him into the executive committee, Dean Gooderham Acheson was born in Middletown, Connecticut. Like his father, Acheson was a staunch Democrat and opponent of prohibition, Acheson attended Groton School and Yale College, where he joined Scroll and Key Society, was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and was a brother of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity. At Groton and Yale he had the reputation of a partier and prankster, he was somewhat aloof, Achesons well-known, reputed arrogance—he disdained the curriculum at Yale as focusing on memorizing subjects already known or not worth knowing more about—was apparent early. At Harvard Law School from 1915 to 1918, however, he was swept away by the intellect of professor Felix Frankfurter, on May 15,1917, while serving in the National Guard, Acheson married Alice Caroline Stanley. She loved painting and politics and served as an influence throughout their enduring marriage. Frankfurter and Brandeis were close associates, and future Supreme Court Justice Frankfurter suggested that Brandeis take on Acheson, when Secretary William H. Woodin fell ill, Acheson suddenly found himself acting secretary despite his ignorance of finance. Because of his opposition to FDRs plan to deflate the dollar by controlling gold prices, he was forced to resign in November 1933, in 1939–1940 he headed a committee to study the operation of administrative bureaus in the federal government. Brought back as assistant secretary of state in 1941, Acheson implemented much of United States economic policy aiding Great Britain, Roosevelt froze all Japanese assets merely to disconcert them. He did not intend the flow of oil to Japan to cease, the president then departed Washington for Newfoundland to meet with Churchill. While he was gone Acheson used those frozen assets to deny Japan oil, upon the presidents return, he decided it would appear weak and appeasing to reverse the de facto oil embargo. In 1944, Acheson attended the Bretton Woods Conference as the delegate from the State department. At this conference the post-war international economic structure was designed, the conference was the birthplace of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the last of which would evolve into the World Trade Organization. And, as late as 1945 or 1946 Acheson sought détente with the Soviet Union, in 1946, as chairman of a special committee to prepare a plan for the international control of atomic energy, he wrote the Acheson–Lilienthal report. At first Acheson was conciliatory towards Joseph Stalin, the Soviet Unions attempts at regional hegemony in Eastern Europe and in Southwest Asia, however, changed Achesons thinking. From this point forward, one writes, Acheson was more than present at the creation of the Cold War
33.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
34.
Arthur Vandenberg
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Arthur Hendrick Vandenberg was a Republican Senator from the U. S. state of Michigan who participated in the creation of the United Nations. He is best known for leading the Republican Party from a policy of isolationism to one of internationalism, and supporting the Cold War, the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan. Vandenberg was born and raised in Grand Rapids, Michigan, the son of Alpha and Aaron Vandenberg, Vandenberg attended public schools there and studied law at the University of Michigan, where he was a member of Delta Upsilon. After a brief stint working in New York at Colliers magazine, he returned home in 1906 to marry his childhood sweetheart and she died in 1917, and in 1918 Vandenberg married Hazel Whitaker. From 1906 to 1928, he worked as a newspaper editor and it was owned by William Alden Smith, who served as a Republican in the U. S. Senate from 1907 to 1919. Vandenberg as publisher made the highly profitable, he was well paid. Vandenberg wrote most of the editorials, calling for more Progressivism in the spirit of his hero Theodore Roosevelt, however he supported President William Howard Taft over Roosevelt in 1912. He was well known for his biography Alexander Hamilton, The Greatest American, Vandenberg was a Mason, Shriner, Elk, and Woodman. On March 31,1928, Governor Fred W. Green appointed 44-year-old Vandenberg, a Republican, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Senator Woodbridge Nathan Ferris, Green made the appointment reluctantly under considerable political pressure. Vandenberg immediately declared his intention to stand for election to both the short, unexpired term and the full six-year term and he became the fifth journalist in the U. S. Senate. Fellow Republican publishers to whom he can look from behind his glasses for encouragement in his maiden speech are Cutting of New Mexico, Capper of Kansas. Senator-publisher Carter Glass of Virginia sits across the aisle among the Democrats, in November 1928, Vandenberg was handily elected for a full term. In the Senate, he piloted into law the Reapportionment Act of 1929 and he was at first an ardent supporter of President Herbert Hoover but he became discouraged by Hoovers intransigence and failures in dealing with the Great Depression. After the election of Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932, Vandenberg went along with most of the early New Deal measures, except for the NIRA, by the 1934 election, his own political position was precarious, he was still reelected by 52,443 votes. When the new Congress convened in 1935, there were only twenty-five Republican senators and he voted against most Roosevelt-sponsored measures, notable exceptions being the Banking Act of 1935 and the Social Security Act. He pursued a policy of what he called fiscal responsibility, a budget, states rights. He felt that Franklin Roosevelt had usurped the powers of Congress, but at the 1936 Republican National Convention, Vandenberg refused to permit the party to nominate him for Vice President, anticipating Roosevelts victory that year. As part of the coalition of Republicans and Democrats in the Senate
35.
Robert A. Taft
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Robert Alphonso Taft was a conservative American politician, statesman, and presidential hopeful who served as a United States Senator from Ohio from 1939 until his death in 1953. A member of the Republican Taft political family, he was the son of William Howard Taft. Taft was the Senates main opponent of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal domestic policies, after the presidents death, Taft successfully led the conservative coalitions efforts to curb the power of labor unions. Taft was an advocate of non-interventionism in foreign policy. He failed in his quests to win the Republican Partys presidential nomination in 1940,1948, throughout that period he battled New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey for control of the party. A1957 Senate committee named Taft as one of Americas five greatest senators, along with Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, la Follette, Sr. Taft was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, a product of one of Americas most prominent political families. He was the grandson of Attorney General and Secretary of War Alphonso Taft, and his younger brother, Charles Phelps Taft II, served as the Mayor of Cincinnati and was the unsuccessful Republican candidate for Ohio Governor in 1952. As a boy he spent four years in the Philippines, where his father was governor and he was first in his class at the Taft School, at Yale College, and at Harvard Law School. He was a member of Psi Upsilon, his fathers fraternity and Skull and Bones, in 1913, Taft scored the highest in the state on the Ohio bar exam. He then practiced for four years with the firm of Maxwell and Ramsey in Cincinnati, after a two-year stint in Washington working for the Food and Drug Administration, he returned to Cincinnati and opened his own law office. In 1924 he and his brother, Charles, helped form the law partnership Taft, Stettinius, on October 17,1914, he married Martha Wheaton Bowers, daughter of Lloyd Wheaton Bowers and Louisa Bennett Wilson. Two of Robert and Marthas grandsons are Robert Alphonso Bob Taft III, Governor of Ohio from 1999 to 2007, in 1917, Taft and his wife bought a 46-acre farm in Indian Hill, a well-to-do suburb of Cincinnati. Called Sky Farm, it would serve as Tafts primary residence for the rest of his life, the Tafts gradually made extensive renovations that turned the small farmhouse into a sixteen-room mansion. On the farm Taft enjoyed growing strawberries, asparagus, and potatoes for profit, during the summer, Taft often vacationed with his wife and children at the Taft familys summer home at Murray Bay, in Quebec, Canada. When reporters asked his wife Martha what church he attended, she replied, Id have to say the Burning Tree. When the United States entered World War I in April,1917 Taft attempted to join the army but was rejected due to his poor eyesight, instead, he joined the legal staff of the Food and Drug Administration where he met Herbert Hoover, who became his idol. In 1918 and 1919, he was in Paris as legal adviser for the American Relief Administration and he came to distrust governmental bureaucracy as inefficient and detrimental to the rights of the individual, a principle he promoted throughout his career. He urged membership in the League of Nations but generally distrusted European politicians and he endorsed the idea of a powerful world court to enforce international law, but no such idealized court ever existed during his lifetime
36.
George Marshall
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George Catlett Marshall, Jr. was an American statesman and soldier. He was Chief of Staff of the United States Army under presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman and he was hailed as the organizer of victory by Winston Churchill for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II. Born in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, Marshall was a 1901 graduate of the Virginia Military Institute, after serving briefly as commandant of students at the Danville Military Academy in Danville, Virginia, Marshall received his commission as a second lieutenant of Infantry in February,1902. He was the Honor Graduate of his Infantry-Cavalry School Course in 1907, in 1916 Marshall was assigned as aide-de-camp to J. Franklin Bell, the commander of the Western Department. After the United States entered World War I, Marshall served with Bell while Bell commanded the Department of the East. He was assigned to the staff of the 1st Division, and assisted with the mobilization and training in the United States. Subsequently assigned to the staff of the American Expeditionary Forces headquarters, after the war, Marshall was assigned as an aide-de-camp to John J. Pershing, who was then serving as the Armys Chief of Staff. He later served on the Army staff, commanded the 15th Infantry Regiment in China, in 1927, he became assistant commandant of the Armys Infantry School, where he modernized command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit during World War II. In 1932 and 1933 he commanded the 8th Infantry Regiment and Fort Screven, Marshall commanded 5th Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks from 1936 to 1938, and received promotion to brigadier general. During this command, Marshall was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps camps in Oregon, in July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division on the War Department staff, and he was subsequently appointed as the Armys Deputy Chief of Staff. When Chief of Staff Malin Craig retired in 1939, Marshall became acting Chief of Staff and he served as Chief of Staff until the end of the war in 1945. As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in U. S. history, Marshall retired from active service in 1945, but remained on active duty, a requirement for holders of five-star rank. As Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, Marshall received credit for the Marshall Plan for Europes post-war rebuilding, after resigning as Secretary of State, Marshall served as chairman of American Battle Monuments Commission and president of the American National Red Cross. After resigning as Defense Secretary, Marshall retired to his home in Virginia and he died in 1959 and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. George Catlett Marshall, Jr. was born into a family in Uniontown, Pennsylvania. Marshall was a scion of an old Virginia family, as well as a distant relative of former Chief Justice John Marshall, Marshall graduated from the Virginia Military Institute, where he was initiated into the Kappa Alpha Order in 1901. He was an All-Southern tackle for the VMI Keydets varsity football team in 1900, following graduation from VMI in 1901, Marshall sat for a competitive examination for a commission in the U. S. Army. While awaiting the results he took the position of Commandant of Students at the Danville Military Institute in Danville, Marshall passed the exam and was commissioned a second lieutenant in February,1902
37.
Collier's
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Colliers was an American magazine, founded in 1888 by Peter Fenelon Collier. It was initially launched as Colliers Once a Week, then changed in 1895 to Colliers Weekly, An Illustrated Journal, and finally shortened in 1905 to simply Colliers. The magazine ceased publication with the issue dated January 4,1957, though a brief, as a result of Peter Colliers pioneering investigative journalism, Colliers established a reputation as a proponent of social reform. When attempts by various companies to sue Collier ended in failure, Peter F. Collier left Ireland for the U. S. at age 17. Although he went to a seminary to become a priest, he started work as a salesman for P. J. Kenedy. When Collier wanted to boost sales by offering books on a plan, it led to a disagreement with Kenedy. P. F. Collier & Son began in 1875, expanding into the largest subscription house in America with sales of 30 million books during the 1900–1910 decade. With the issued dated April 28,1888, Colliers Once a Week was launched as a magazine of fiction, fact, sensation, wit, humor, news. It was sold with the biweekly Colliers Library of novels and popular books at bargain rates, by 1892, with a circulation climbing past the 250,000 mark, Colliers Once a Week was one of the largest selling magazines in the United States. The name was changed to Colliers Weekly, An Illustrated Journal in 1895, with an emphasis on news, the magazine became a leading exponent of the halftone news picture. To fully exploit the new technology, Collier recruited James H. Hare, Colliers only son, Robert J. Collier, became a full partner in 1898. By 1904, the magazine was known as Colliers, The National Weekly, when Robert Collier died in 1918, he left a will that turned the magazine over to three of his friends, Samuel Dunn, Harry Payne Whitney and Francis Patrick Garvan. The magazine was sold in 1919 to the Crowell Publishing Company, in 1924 Crowell moved the printing operations from New York to Springfield, Ohio but kept the editorial and business departments in New York. After 1924, printing of the magazine was done at the Crowell-Collier printing plant on West Main Street in Springfield, Ohio. The factory complex, which is standing, was built between 1899 and 1946, and incorporates seven buildings that together have more than 846,000 square feet —20 acres —of floor space. Colliers popularized the story which was often planned to fit on a single page. Knox Burger was Colliers fiction editor from 1948 to 1951 when he left to edit books for Dell and Fawcett Publications, phillips Oppenheim, J. D. Salinger, Kurt Vonnegut, Albert Payson Terhune and Walter Tevis. Humor writers included Parke Cummings and H. Allen Smith, serializing novels during the late 1920s, Colliers sometimes simultaneously ran two ten-part novels, and non-fiction was also serialized
38.
Walter Lippmann
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Lippmann was also a notable author for the Council on Foreign Relations, until he had an affair with the editor Hamilton Fish Armstrongs wife, which led to a falling out between the two men. Lippmann also played a role in Woodrow Wilsons post World War I board of inquiry. His views regarding the role of journalism in a democracy were contrasted with the writings of John Dewey in what has been retrospectively named the Lippmann-Dewey debate. Lippmann won two Pulitzer Prizes, one for his newspaper column Today and Tomorrow and one for his 1961 interview of Nikita Khruschev. He has also highly praised with titles ranging anywhere from most influential journalist of the 20th century. Michael Schudson writes that James W. Carey considered Walter Lippmanns book Public Opinion as the book of modern journalism. Walter Lippmann was born in New York City, to Jacob and Daisy Baum Lippmann, at some time, Lippmann became a member, alongside Sinclair Lewis, of the New York Socialist Party. In 1913, Lippmann, Herbert Croly, and Walter Weyl became the editors of The New Republic magazine. Walter Lippmann was one of the foremost hawks among the New Republic intellectuals and he had pushed Croly into backing Woodrow Wilson and then collaborated with Edward M. House in pushing Wilson into entering World War I. Soon, Lippmann, an enthusiast for conscription, had to confront the fact that he himself, only 27 years old and in fine health, was eminently eligible for the draft. Felix Frankfurter, progressive Harvard Law Professor and an associate of the New Republic editorial staff, had just been selected as a special assistant to Secretary of War Baker. Lippmann felt that his own inestimable services could be better used planning the postwar world than battling in the trenches, and so he wrote to Frankfurter asking for a job in Bakers office. What I want to do, he pleaded, is to all my time to studying and speculating on the approaches to peace. Do you think you can get me an exemption on such grounds and he then rushed to reassure Frankfurter that there was nothing personal in the request. Frankfurter having paved the way, Lippmann wrote to Secretary Baker and he assured Baker that he was only applying for a job and draft exemption on the pleading of others and in stern submission to the national interest. As Lippmann put it in a demonstration of cant, I have consulted all the people whose advice I value. During the war, Lippmann was commissioned a captain in the Army on June 28,1918 and he was assigned to the staff of House in October and attached to the American Commission to negotiate peace in December. He returned to the United States in February 1919 and was immediately discharged, through his connection to House, he became an adviser to Wilson and assisted in the drafting of Wilsons Fourteen Points speech
39.
Marshall Plan
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The plan was in operation for four years beginning April 8,1948. The goals of the United States were to rebuild war-devastated regions, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, make Europe prosperous once more, the Marshall Plan aid was divided amongst the participant states roughly on a per capita basis. A larger amount was given to the industrial powers, as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for general European revival. Somewhat more aid per capita was also directed towards the Allied nations, the largest recipient of Marshall Plan money was the United Kingdom, followed by France and West Germany. Some 18 European countries received Plan benefits, although offered participation, the Soviet Union refused Plan benefits, and also blocked benefits to Eastern Bloc countries, such as East Germany and Poland. The United States provided similar aid programs in Asia, but they were not called Marshall Plan, the initiative is named after Secretary of State George Marshall, who also served as the United States Army Chief of staff during WWII. The plan had bipartisan support in Washington, where the Republicans controlled Congress, Marshall spoke of an urgent need to help the European recovery in his address at Harvard University in June 1947. The purpose of the Marshall Plan was to aid in the recovery of nations after WWII as well as to antagonize the Soviet Union. In order to combat the effects of the Marshall Plan, the USSR developed its own economic plan and it was not as effective as the Marshall Plan, and in some ways contradictory to eastern block countries that served alongside the axis powers in WWII. The phrase equivalent of the Marshall Plan is often used to describe a proposed large-scale economic rescue program, the reconstruction plan, developed at a meeting of the participating European states, was drafted on June 5,1947. It offered the aid to the Soviet Union and its allies. In fact, the Soviet Union prevented its satellite states from accepting, Secretary Marshall became convinced Stalin had no interest in helping restore economic health in Western Europe. President Harry Truman signed the Marshall Plan on April 3,1948, the Marshall Plan was replaced by the Mutual Security Plan at the end of 1951, that new plan gave away about $7 billion annually until 1961 when it was replaced by another program. The ERP addressed each of the obstacles to postwar recovery, the plan looked to the future, and did not focus on the destruction caused by the war. By 1952, as the funding ended, the economy of every participant state had surpassed pre-war levels, for all Marshall Plan recipients, by the end of World War II, much of Europe was devastated. Sustained aerial bombardment during the war had badly damaged most major cities, the regions trade flows had been thoroughly disrupted, millions were in refugee camps living on aid from United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and other agencies. Food shortages were severe, especially in the winter of 1946–47. From July 1945 through June 1946, the United States shipped 16.5 million tons of food, primarily wheat, to Europe and Japan
40.
James T. Patterson
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James Thomas Patterson was a U. S. Born in Naugatuck, Connecticut, Patterson attended the public schools and he was graduated from Peekskill Military Academy in 1929 and from Georgetown University, Washington, D. C. in 1933. He was in the University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, B. A. in 1934, Patterson was elected as a Republican to the Eightieth and to the five succeeding Congresses. He was a candidate for reelection in 1958 to the Eighty-sixth Congress, for election in 1960 to the Eighty-seventh Congress. He was a resident of Bethlehem, Connecticut, until his death in Camden, New Jersey and this article incorporates public domain material from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress website http, //bioguide. congress. gov. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
41.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
42.
Anti-communism
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Organized anti-communism developed in reaction to the rise of communism, especially after the 1917 October Revolution in Russia. It reached global dimensions during the Cold War, when the United States, anti-communism has been an element of movements of many different positions, including capitalist, liberal, socialist, anarchist, and fascist viewpoints. They accuse communists of causing several famines, such as the Russian Famine of 1921, some anti-communists see both communism and fascism as totalitarianism, seeing similarity between the actions of communist and fascist governments. Opponents argue that communist parties that have come to power have tended to be intolerant of political opposition. Communist states have also accused of creating a new ruling class, with powers. Examples of left-wing critics of Communist states and parties are Boris Souveraine, Bayard Rustin, Irving Howe, the American Federation of Labor has always been strongly anti-Communist. The more leftist CIO purged its Communists in 1947 and has been staunchly anti-Communist ever since, in Britain, the Labour Party strenuously resisted Communist efforts to infiltrate its ranks and take control of locals in the 1930s. Although some anarchists describe themselves as communists, all anarchists criticize authoritarian Communist parties and states and they argue that Marxist concepts such as dictatorship of the proletariat and state ownership of the means of production are anathema to anarchism. Some anarchists criticize communism from an individualist point of view, the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin debated with Karl Marx in the First International, arguing that the Marxist state is another form of oppression. He loathed the idea of a vanguard party ruling the masses from above, anarchists initially participated in, and rejoiced over, the 1917 revolution as an example of workers taking power for themselves. However, after the October revolution, it became evident that the Bolsheviks, what is needed is local construction by local forces … Russia has already become a Soviet Republic only in name. Many anarchists fought against Russian, Spanish and Greek Communists, many were killed by them, such as Lev Chernyi, Camillo Berneri, neither Marxs 10-point plan nor the rest of the manifesto say anything about who has the right to carry out the plan. Milton Friedman argued that the absence of economic activity makes it too easy for repressive political leaders to grant themselves coercive powers. Friedmans view was shared by Friedrich Hayek and John Maynard Keynes. Objectivists who follow Ayn Rand are strongly anti-Communist and this is demonstrated, they believe, by the comparative prosperity of free market and socialist economies. Objectivist Ayn Rand writes that communist leaders typically claim to work for the common good, many ex-communists have turned into anti-communists. Mikhail Gorbachev turned from a Communist into a social democrat, milovan Đilas, was a former Yugoslav Communist official, who became a prominent dissident and critic of Communism. Leszek Kołakowski was a Polish Communist who became a famous anti-communist, the God That Failed is a 1949 book which collects together six essays with the testimonies of a number of famous ex-Communists, who were writers and journalists
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