1.
Truth Serum (EP)
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Truth Serum is the debut extended play by Swedish recording artist Tove Lo. The singer signed a deal with Warner/Chappell Music in 2011. Around that time, she was going through a situation in a relationship. She then decided to keep those tracks for herself, because she considered too personal. Lo released independently two of the songs as singles, Love Ballad in October 2012, and Habits in March 2013 and their popularity gained the singer a record deal with Universal Records in 2013. The EP was eventually released through the label to digital retailers on 3 March 2014, Truth Serum has been described as a pop, electropop and indie pop record. According to Lo, the talk about her most intense love affair. The EP received mostly positive reviews critics, who commended the production. It peaked at number 13 in Sweden, and became the forty-ninth best-selling album during 2014 in the country and it also reached number eight on the Norwegian Albums Chart, spending 23 weeks on the chart. To promote the record, Lo performed at festivals in 2014, including by, Larm in Norway, South by Southwest in the United States. Out of Mind was released as the single on 16 October 2013. On 6 December 2013, Habits was re-issued as Habits as the second single and it peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Los first song to enter the chart. On 25 February 2014, Stay High, a version of Habits by record production duo Hippie Sabotage, was released as the third single from the EP. It was a success in Europe and Oceania, peaking at number 13 in Sweden and reaching the top ten in Australia, New Zealand. In 2006, after finishing school, Tove Lo formed a math rock band called Tremblebee. When the band split up, Lo started to produce and write songs by herself, while performing at an event in Stockholm in 2011, the artist met an English A&R who got interested in her work. After a meeting in which she played some of her demos and this was followed with her joining songwriting teams Xenomania and Wolf Cousins. The deal led her to write songs for Girls Aloud and Icona Pop, during that time, she was going through hard times during a relationship, so she decided to avoid writing songs about the matter
2.
Sodium thiopental
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Sodium thiopental, also known as Sodium Pentothal, thiopental, thiopentone, or Trapanal, is a rapid-onset short-acting barbiturate general anesthetic that is an analogue of thiobarbital. Sodium thiopental was a medicine in the World Health Organizations Essential Drugs List, which is a list of minimum medical needs for a basic healthcare system. Sodium thiopental is an ultra-short-acting barbiturate and has been used commonly in the phase of general anesthesia. Its use has largely replaced with that of propofol, but retains popularity as an induction agent for rapid sequence intubation. Following intravenous injection, the drug reaches the brain and causes unconsciousness within 30–45 seconds. At one minute, the drug attains a peak concentration of about 60% of the dose in the brain. Thereafter, the drug distributes to the rest of the body, a normal dose of sodium thiopental given to a pregnant woman for operative delivery rapidly makes her unconscious, but the baby in her uterus remains conscious. However, larger or repeated doses can depress the baby, instead, anesthesia is usually maintained with an inhaled anesthetic agent. Inhaled anesthetics are eliminated quickly, so that stopping the inhaled anesthetic will allow rapid return of consciousness. Sodium thiopental would have to be given in large amounts to maintain an anesthetic plane, in veterinary medicine, sodium thiopental is used to induce anesthesia in animals. Since it is redistributed to fat, certain breeds of dogs such as sight hounds will have prolonged recoveries from sodium thiopental due to their lack of body fat. Conversely, obese animals will have rapid recoveries, but it will be some time before it is removed from their bodies. Sodium thiopental is always administered intravenously, as it can be irritating, severe tissue necrosis. Sodium thiopental decreases the stroke volume, which results in a decrease in cardiac output. The decrease in cardiac output occurs in conjunction with a decrease in vascular resistance. However, in comparison with propofol, the reflex tachycardia seen during states of hypotension is relatively spared, in addition to anesthesia induction, sodium thiopental was historically used to induce medical comas. It has now superseded by drugs such as propofol because their effects wear off more quickly than thiopental. Patients with brain swelling, causing elevation of pressure, either secondary to trauma or following surgery
3.
Ethanol
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Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is the principal type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor. Its chemical formula is C 2H 6O, which can be written also as CH 3-CH 2-OH or C 2H 5-OH, ethanol is mostly produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts, or by petrochemical processes. It is a psychoactive drug, causing a characteristic intoxication. It is widely used as a solvent, as fuel, and as a feedstock for synthesis of other chemicals, the eth- prefix and the qualifier ethyl in ethyl alcohol originally come from the name ethyl assigned in 1834 to the group C 2H 5- by Justus Liebig. He coined the word from the German name Aether of the compound C 2H 5-O-C 2H5, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, Ethyl is a contraction of the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ and the Greek word ύλη. The name ethanol was coined as a result of a resolution that was adopted at the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature that was held in April 1892 in Geneva, Switzerland. The term alcohol now refers to a class of substances in chemistry nomenclature. The Oxford English Dictionary claims that it is a loan from Arabic al-kuḥl, a powdered ore of antimony used since aniquity as a cosmetic. The use of alcohol for ethanol is modern, first recorded 1753, the systematic use in chemistry dates to 1850. Ethanol is used in medical wipes and most common antibacterial hand sanitizer gels as an antiseptic, ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their proteins and dissolving their lipids and is effective against most bacteria and fungi, and many viruses. However, ethanol is ineffective against bacterial spores, ethanol may be administered as an antidote to methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning. Ethanol, often in high concentrations, is used to dissolve many water-insoluble medications, as a central nervous system depressant, ethanol is one of the most commonly consumed psychoactive drugs. The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by blood alcohol content, small doses of ethanol, in general, produce euphoria and relaxation, people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment. Ethanol is commonly consumed as a drug, especially while socializing. The largest single use of ethanol is as a fuel and fuel additive. Brazil in particular relies heavily upon the use of ethanol as an engine fuel, gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol. Hydrous ethanol can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new gasoline fueled cars sold in the country, Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugar cane and noted for high carbon sequestration
4.
Hyoscine
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Hyoscine, also known as scopolamine, is a medication used to treat motion sickness and postoperative nausea and vomiting. It is also used before surgery to decrease saliva. When used by injection effects begin after about 20 minutes and last for up to 8 hours and it may also be used by mouth and as a skin patch. Common side effects include sleepiness, blurred vision, dilated pupils and it is not recommended in people with glaucoma or bowel obstruction. It is unclear if use during pregnancy is safe, however, hyoscine is in the antimuscarinic family of medications and works by blocking some of the effects of acetylcholine within the nervous system. Hyoscine was first written about in 1881 and came into use in 1947. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, hyoscine is produced from plants of the nightshade family. The name scopolamine is derived from one type of known as Scopolia while hyoscine is from another type known as Hyoscyamus niger. Scopolamine crosses the placenta and is a pregnancy category C medication, either studies in animals have revealed adverse effects on the fetus and no controlled studies in women have been made, or studies in women and animals are not available. Drugs should be only if the potential benefits justify the potential risk to the fetus. It may cause respiratory depression and/or neonatal hemorrhage when used during pregnancy, transdermal scopolamine has been used as an adjunct to epidural anesthesia for Caesarean delivery without adverse CNS effects on the newborn. Except when used prior to Caesarean section, it should only be used during pregnancy if the benefit to the mother outweighs the risk to the fetus. Scopolamine enters breast milk by secretion, although no human studies exist to document the safety of scopolamine while nursing, the manufacturer recommends that caution be taken if scopolamine is administered to a breastfeeding woman. The likelihood of experiencing adverse effects from scopolamine is increased in the relative to younger people. This phenomenon is true for older people who are also on several other medications. It is recommended that use should be avoided in this age group because of these potent anticholinergic adverse effects. Other than this treatment, gastric lavage and induced emesis are usually recommended as treatments for oral overdoses. In June 2008, more than 20 people were hospitalized with psychosis in Norway after ingesting counterfeit Rohypnol tablets containing scopolamine, due to interactions with metabolism of other drugs, scopolamine can cause significant unwanted side effects when taken with other medications
5.
Flunitrazepam
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Flunitrazepam, also known as Rohypnol among others, is an intermediate acting benzodiazepine used in some countries to treat severe insomnia and in fever, early in anesthesia. Just as with other hypnotics, flunitrazepam should be used only on a short-term basis or by those with chronic insomnia on an occasional basis. Flunitrazepam has been referred to as a date rape drug even though its incidence is rare in cases that have been reported. In countries where the drug is used, it is used for treatment of insomnia, and in some countries to begin anesthesia as well. Because of the latter, flunitrazepam is commonly used in suicide, when used in pregnancy, it might cause hypotonia. Flunitrazepam as with other benzodiazepines can lead to drug dependence and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, discontinuation may result in the appearance of withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued. Abrupt withdrawal may lead to a withdrawal syndrome characterised by seizures, psychosis, insomnia. Rebound insomnia, worse than baseline insomnia, typically occur after discontinuation of flunitrazepam even after short-term single nightly dose therapy, flunitrazepam produces a decrease in delta wave activity. The effect of drugs on delta waves, however, may not be mediated via benzodiazepine receptors. Delta activity is an indicator of depth of sleep within non-REM sleep, thus, flunitrazepam and other benzodiazepines cause a deterioration in sleep quality. Cyproheptadine may be superior to benzodiazepines in the treatment of insomnia as it enhances sleep quality based on EEG studies, paradoxical adverse effects may even lead to criminal behaviour. Benzodiazepines such as flunitrazepam are lipophilic and rapidly penetrate membranes and, therefore, use of benzodiazepines including flunitrazepam in late pregnancy, especially high doses, may result in hypotonia, also known as floppy baby syndrome. This may appear as lack of concentration, confusion and anterograde amnesia and it can be described as a hangover-like effect which can persist to the next day. It also impairs psychomotor functions similar to benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic drugs, falls. The combination with alcohol increases these impairments, partial, but incomplete tolerance develops to these impairments. Impairment of driving skills with a resultant increased risk of traffic accidents is probably the most important adverse effect. This side-effect is not unique to flunitrazepam but also occurs with other hypnotic drugs, flunitrazepam seems to have a particularly high risk of road traffic accidents compared to other hypnotic drugs. Extreme caution should be exercised by drivers after taking flunitrazepam, the use of flunitrazepam in combination with alcoholic beverages synergizes the adverse effects, and can lead to toxicity and death
6.
Amobarbital
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Amobarbital is a drug that is a barbiturate derivative. It is a crystalline powder with no odor and a slightly bitter taste. It was first synthesized in Germany in 1923, if amobarbital is taken for extended periods of time, physical and psychological dependence can develop. Amobarbital withdrawal mimics delirium tremens and may be life-threatening, Amobarbital has been used in a study to inhibit mitochondrial electron transport in the rat heart. A1988 study found that amobarbital increases benzodiazepine receptor binding in vivo with less potency than secobarbital and pentobarbital and it has an LD50 in mice of 212 mg/kg s. c. Amobarbital undergoes both hydroxylation to form 3-hydroxyamobarbital, and N-glucosidation to form 1-amobarbital, anxiety Epilepsy Insomnia Wada test When given slowly by an intravenous route, sodium amobarbital has a reputation for acting as a so-called truth serum. Under the influence, a person will divulge information that under normal circumstances they would block, as such, the drug was first employed clinically by Dr. William Bleckwenn at the University of Wisconsin to circumvent inhibitions in psychiatric patients. The use of amobarbital as a truth serum has lost credibility due to the discovery that a subject can be coerced into having a memory of the event. The drug may be used intravenously to interview patients with catatonic mutism and it was used by the United States armed forces during World War II in an attempt to treat shell shock and return soldiers to the front-line duties. This use has since been discontinued as the powerful sedation, cognitive impairment, being chemically related to phenobarbital, it might also do the same thing to digitoxin, a cardiac glycoside. Amobarbital, like all barbiturates, is synthesized by reacting malonic acid derivatives with urea derivatives, in particular, in order to make amobarbital, α-ethyl-α-isoamylmalonic ester is reacted with urea. It has been used to convict alleged murderers such as Andres English-Howard and he was surreptitiously administered the drug by his lawyer, and under the influence of it he revealed why he strangled her and under what circumstances. A year later he confessed on the stand and was convicted on the basis of these statements. He later committed suicide in his cell, on the night of August 28,1951, Robert Walkers housekeeper found the actor in an emotional state. She called Walkers psychiatrist who arrived and administered amobarbital for sedation, walker was allegedly drinking prior to his emotional outburst, and it is believed the combination of amobarbital and alcohol resulted in a severe reaction. As a result, he passed out and stopped breathing, walker died at 32 years old. Street names for Amobarbital include blues, blue angles, blue birds, and blue devils
7.
Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution
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The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution is part of the Bill of Rights and protects a person from being compelled to be a witness against themselves in a criminal case. A defendant cannot be compelled to become a witness at his own trial, if, however, they choose to testify, they are not entitled to their right, and inferences can be drawn from a refusal to answer a question during cross-examination. The Amendment requires that felonies be tried only upon indictment by a grand jury, federal grand juries can force people to take the witness stand, but defendants in those proceedings have Fifth Amendment privileges until they choose to answer any question. To claim the privilege for failure to answer when being interviewed by police, the Amendments Double Jeopardy Clause provides the right to be tried only once in federal court for the same offense. The Amendment also has a Due Process Clause as well as an equal protection requirement. Finally, the Amendment requires that the power of eminent domain be coupled with just compensation for those whose property is taken and this draft was edited by Congress, all the material before the first ellipsis was placed at the end, and some of the wording was modified. After approval by Congress, the amendment was ratified by the states, the grand jury is a pre-constitutional common law institution, and a constitutional fixture in its own right exclusively embracing common law. The process applies to the states to the extent that the states have incorporated grand juries and/or common law, most states have an alternative civil process. Many constitutional restrictions that apply in court or in other situations do not apply during grand jury proceedings, also, an individual does not have the right to have an attorney present in the grand jury room during hearings. Currently, federal law permits the trial of misdemeanors without indictments, additionally, in trials of non-capital felonies, the prosecution may proceed without indictments if the defendants waive their Fifth Amendment right. Grand jury indictments may be amended by the only in limited circumstances. In Ex Parte Bain,121 U. S.1, United States v. Miller,471 U. S.130 partly reversed Ex parte Bain, now, an indictments scope may be narrowed by the prosecution. Thus, lesser included charges may be dropped, but new charges may not be added, the Grand Jury Clause of the Fifth Amendment does not protect those serving in the armed forces, whether during wartime or peacetime. Members of the militia called up to serve with federal forces are not protected under the clause either. In OCallahan v. Parker,395 U. S.258 and that decision was overturned in 1987, when the Court held that members of the militia in actual service may be tried for any offense without indictments. The grand jury indictment clause of the Fifth Amendment has not been incorporated under the Fourteenth Amendment and this means that the grand jury requirement applies only to felony charges in the federal court system. While many states do employ grand juries, no defendant has a Fifth Amendment right to a jury for criminal charges in state court. States are free to abolish grand juries, and many have replaced them with preliminary hearing, the historical origin of infamous crime comes from the infamia, a punishment under Roman law by which a citizen was deprived his citizenship
8.
United States Constitution
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The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government. Article Seven establishes the procedure used by the thirteen States to ratify it. In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty, the majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures, Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. All four pages of the original U. S, according to the United States Senate, The Constitutions first three words—We the People—affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. From September 5,1774 to March 1,1781, the Continental Congress functioned as the government of the United States. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Continental Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a governing body. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States and it was drafted by the Second Continental Congress from mid-1776 through late-1777, and ratification by all 13 states was completed by early 1781. Under the Articles of Confederation, the governments power was quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers, implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. The Continental Congress could print money but the currency was worthless, Congress could borrow money, but couldnt pay it back. No state paid all their U. S. taxes, some paid nothing, some few paid an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. No interest was paid on debt owed foreign governments, by 1786, the United States would default on outstanding debts as their dates came due. Internationally, the Articles of Confederation did little to enhance the United States ability to defend its sovereignty, most of the troops in the 625-man United States Army were deployed facing – but not threatening – British forts on American soil. They had not been paid, some were deserting and others threatening mutiny, spain closed New Orleans to American commerce, U. S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom, if any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response. Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the sentiments and interests of the various states
9.
European Court of Human Rights
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The European Court of Human Rights is a supra-national or international court established by the European Convention on Human Rights. It hears applications alleging that a state has breached one or more of the human rights provisions concerning civil and political rights set out in the Convention. An application can be lodged by an individual, a group of individuals or one or more of the contracting states, and, besides judgments. The Convention was adopted within the context of the Council of Europe, the Court is based in Strasbourg, France. The jurisdiction of the Court has been recognised to date by all 47 member states of the Council of Europe. In 1998, the Court became an institution and the European Commission of Human Rights. The accession of new states to the European Convention on Human Rights following the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 led to a increase in applications filed in the Court. The efficiency of the Court was threatened seriously by the number of pending applications. In 19998,400 applications were allocated to be heard, in 200327,200 cases were filed and the number of pending applications rose to approximately 65,000. In 2005, the Court opened 45,500 case files, in 200957,200 applications were allocated, with the number of pending applications rose to 119,300. Protocol 14 entered into force on 1 June 2010, three months after it was ratified by all 47 contracting states to the Convention, between 2006 and 2010, Russia was the only contracting state to refuse to ratify Protocol 14. In 2010, Russia ended its opposition to the protocol, in exchange for a guarantee that Russian judges would be involved in reviewing complaints against Russia. Protocol 14 amended the Convention so that judges would be elected for a term of nine years. Amendments were also made so that a judge could reject plainly inadmissible applications. In cases of doubt, the single judge refers the applications to the Committee of the Court, a single judge may not examine applications against the state which nominated him. The three judge committee has jurisdiction to declare applications admissible and decide on the merits of the if it was clearly well founded and based on well established case law. Protocol 14 also provides that when a three judge committee decides on the merits of a case, the elected to represent that state is no longer a compulsory member of this committee. The judge can be invited by the committee, to one of its members
10.
Psychiatry
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Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, study, and treatment of mental disorders. These include various abnormalities related to mood, behaviour, cognition, initial psychiatric assessment of a person typically begins with a case history and mental status examination. Physical examinations and psychological tests may be conducted, on occasion, neuroimaging or other neurophysiological techniques are used. The fifth edition of the DSM was published in 2013, assertive community treatment, community reinforcement, and supported employment. Treatment may be delivered on an inpatient or outpatient basis, depending on the severity of functional impairment or on aspects of the disorder in question. The term psychiatry was first coined by the German physician Johann Christian Reil in 1808, a medical doctor specializing in psychiatry is a psychiatrist. Psychiatry refers to a field of medicine focused specifically on the mind, aiming to study, prevent and it has been described as an intermediary between the world from a social context and the world from the perspective of those who are mentally ill. People who specialize in psychiatry often differ from most other health professionals. The discipline studies the operations of different organs and body systems as classified by the subjective experiences. Psychiatry treats mental disorders, which are divided into three very general categories, mental illnesses, severe learning disabilities, and personality disorders. While the focus of psychiatry has changed little over time, the diagnostic and treatment processes have evolved dramatically, since the late 20th century the field of psychiatry has continued to become more biological and less conceptually isolated from other medical fields. Psychiatrists can therefore counsel patients, prescribe medication, order laboratory tests, order neuroimaging, like other purveyors of professional ethics, the World Psychiatric Association issues an ethical code to govern the conduct of psychiatrists. The psychiatric code of ethics, first set forth through the Declaration of Hawaii in 1977, has expanded through a 1983 Vienna update and, in 1996. The code was revised during the organizations general assembblies in 1999,2002,2005. Discredited psychiatrists who operated outside the norms of medical ethics include Harry Bailey, Donald Ewen Cameron, Samuel A. Cartwright, Henry Cotton, Psychiatric illnesses can be conceptualised in a number of different ways. The biomedical approach examines signs and symptoms and compares them with diagnostic criteria, Mental illness can be assessed, conversely, through a narrative which tries to incorporate symptoms into a meaningful life history and to frame them as responses to external conditions. The notion of a model is often used to underline the multifactorial nature of clinical impairment. In this notion the word model is not used in a scientific way though
11.
Intravenous
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Intravenous therapy is the infusion of liquid substances directly into a vein. Intravenous infusions are commonly referred to as drips, the intravenous route is the fastest way to deliver fluids and medications throughout the body. Intravenous therapy may be used for administration, to correct electrolyte imbalances, to deliver medications. IVs can be categorized by type of vein the tube inserted, called the catheter. A peripheral IV is used on peripheral veins and this is the most common type of IV therapy used. Central IV lines have their catheters that are advanced through a vein and empty into a central vein, usually the superior vena cava. Other advantages are that because it empties near the heart, medications can also be distributed to the rest of the body. As there is room for multiple parallel compartments within the catheter, caregivers can also measure central venous pressure and other physiological variables through the line. They are also longer, which as reflected in Poiseuilles law, requires higher pressure to achieve the same flow, central IV lines carry risks of bleeding, infection, gangrene, thromboembolism and gas embolism. Surrounding structures such as the pleura and carotid artery are also at risk of damage with the potential for pneumothorax or even cannulation of the artery. There are several types of central IVs, depending on the route that the catheter takes from the outside of the body to the vein, typical uses for a PICC include, long chemotherapy regimens, extended antibiotic therapy, or total parenteral nutrition. This is usually done by measuring the distance to a landmark, such as the suprasternal notch. An X-ray must be used to verify that the tip is in the place when fluoroscopy was not used during the insertion. A PICC may have a tube and connector, two or three compartments, each with its own external connector. Power-injectable PICCs are now available as well, from the outside, a single-lumen PICC resembles a peripheral IV, except that the tubing is slightly wider. The insertion site requires better protection than that of a peripheral IV, however, a PICC poses less of a systemic infection risk than other central IVs, because the insertion site is usually cooler and dryer than the sites typically used for other central lines. This helps to slow the growth of bacteria which could reach the bloodstream by traveling under the skin along the outside of the catheter, although special training is required, a PICC does not require the skill level of a physician or surgeon. It is also externally unobtrusive, and with proper hygiene and care can be left in place for months to years if needed for patients who require extended treatment, also, as a PICC travels through the axilla, it can become kinked, causing poor function
12.
Hypnotic
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This group is related to sedatives. Whereas the term sedative describes drugs that serve to calm or relieve anxiety, because these two functions frequently overlap, and because drugs in this class generally produce dose-dependent effects they are often referred to collectively as sedative-hypnotic drugs. Hypnotic drugs are prescribed for insomnia and other sleep disorders. When prescribed, hypnotic medication should be used for the shortest period of time necessary, most hypnotics prescribed today are either benzodiazepines or nonbenzodiazepines. Among individuals with sleep disorders,13. 7% are taking or prescribed nonbenzodiazepines, while 10. 8% are taking benzodiazepines, early classes of drugs, such as barbiturates, have fallen out of use in most practices but are still prescribed for some patients. In children, prescribing hypnotics is not yet acceptable unless used to treat night terrors or somnambulism, falling outside of the above-mentioned categories, the neuro-hormone melatonin has a hypnotic function. Research about using medications to treat insomnia evolved throughout the last half of the 20th century, treatment for insomnia in psychiatry dates back to 1869 when chloral hydrate was first used as a soporific. Barbiturates emerged as the first class of drugs that emerged in the early 1900s, although the best drug family at the time they were dangerous in overdose. During the 1970s, quinazolinones and benzodiazepines were introduced as alternatives to replace barbiturates. Benzodiazepines are not without their drawbacks, substance dependence is possible, questions have been raised as to whether they disturb sleep architecture. Nonbenzodiazepines are the most recent development, although its clear that they are less toxic than their predecessors, barbiturates, comparative efficacy over benzodiazepines have not been established. Without longitudinal studies, it is hard to determine, however some psychiatrists recommend these drugs, other sleep remedies that may be considered sedative-hypnotics exist, psychiatrists will sometimes prescribe medicines off-label if they have sedating effects. Examples of these include mirtazapine, clonidine, quetiapine, and the over-the-counter sleep aid diphenhydramine, off-label sleep remedies are particularly useful when first-line treatment is unsuccessful or deemed unsafe. Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system depressants, and can produce a wide spectrum of effects. They are also effective as anxiolytics, hypnotics, and anticonvulsants, barbiturates also have analgesic effects, however, these effects are somewhat weak, preventing barbiturates from being used in surgery in the absence of other analgesics. They have dependence liability, both physical and psychological, however, barbiturates are still used in general anesthesia, for epilepsy, and assisted suicide. Barbiturates are derivatives of barbituric acid, the principal mechanism of action of barbiturates is believed to be positive allosteric modulation of GABAA receptors. Examples include amobarbital, pentobarbital, phenobarbital, secobarbital, and sodium thiopental, quinazolinones are also a class of drugs which function as hypnotic/sedatives that contain a 4-quinazolinone core
13.
William Bleckwenn
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William Jefferson Bleckwenn was an American neurologist, psychiatrist, and military physician, who was instrumental in developing the treatment known as narcoanalysis or narcosynthesis. The lay-description for that process is the administration of truth serum, Bleckwenn was born in Astoria in New York City, in 1895. He received his elementary and secondary education there in public city schools and he then enrolled at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1913, earning a B. S. - Med. degree in 1917 as part of an accelerated medical course of study. As an undergraduate, Bleckwenn was an athlete in track & field. Because UW did not have a four-year degree-granting medical school until the mid-1920s and he received his M. D. from that institution in 1920. Bleckwenn then pursued training at Bellevue Hospital in New York. At WPI, he came under the tutelage of William Lorenz, upon completion of his training, Bleckwenn was asked to join Lorenz and Reese on the staff of WPI, which had by then become part of the UW Department of Neuropsychiatry. He quickly acquired skill as an administrator and researcher, becoming assistant director of the Institute in the late 1920s, around that time, Bleckwenn also began investigational studies on the use of barbiturates to treat catatonic mutism, a particularly disabling form of schizophrenia. The latter benefit of the treatment was given the names narcoanalysis or narcosynthesis, in a short time, the amytal-induced lucid interval became a proof-positive test for the diagnosis of catatonia. Periods of from four to fourteen hours of a lucid interval have been a constant result of the treatment. Bleckwenn was forward-thinking regarding the documentation of these effects, making motion pictures of the process. Of those, Fink says His silent films show the patients as mute, posturing, rigid, with heads raised fixedly from the pillow, the films were convincing, and amobarbital was quickly and widely used to obtain clinical histories and to allow feeding and self-care. Psychiatrists across the world became enthused by sodium amytal therapy, in his text entitled A Historical Dictionary of Psychiatry, Shorter states that Some observers view Bleckwenns procedure as the real beginning of psychopharmacology. As an extension of his work on barbiturate therapy, Bleckwenn and they found that dilute intravenous solutions of picrotoxin -- a neurostimulatory plant product—were effective as an antidote in that setting. However, over time, the therapeutic window associated with picrotoxin administration—which can also induce seizures—resulted in its disuse. Bleckwenn had enlisted in the Wisconsin Army National Guard as a medical student, in 1941, Bleckwenn was called to active duty and attached to the 135th medical regiment. That unit operated as part of the U. S, Sixth Army and was tasked with management of frontline casualties. After the United States entered the war, the 135th shipped out to the Pacific Theater of Operations in March 1942, Bleckwenn was its commanding officer, with the rank of Colonel
14.
Benzodiazepine
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Benzodiazepines, sometimes called benzos, are a class of psychoactive drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring. In 1977 benzodiazepines were globally the most prescribed medications, Benzodiazepines enhance the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid at the GABAA receptor, resulting in sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties. High doses of many shorter-acting benzodiazepines may also cause anterograde amnesia and these properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety, insomnia, agitation, seizures, muscle spasms, alcohol withdrawal and as a premedication for medical or dental procedures. Benzodiazepines are categorized as either short-, intermediate-, or long-acting, short- and intermediate-acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia, longer-acting benzodiazepines are recommended for the treatment of anxiety. Benzodiazepines are generally viewed as safe and effective for use, although cognitive impairment. A minority of people can have paradoxical reactions such as worsened agitation or panic, long-term use is controversial because of concerns about adverse psychological and physical effects, decreasing effectiveness, and physical dependence and withdrawal. As a result of adverse effects associated with the use of benzodiazepines, withdrawal from benzodiazepines, in general. There is controversy concerning the safety of benzodiazepines in pregnancy, Benzodiazepines can be taken in overdoses and can cause dangerous deep unconsciousness. However, they are less toxic than their predecessors, the barbiturates, when combined with other central nervous system depressants such as ethanol and opioids, the potential for toxicity and fatal overdose increases. Benzodiazepines are commonly misused and taken in combination with other drugs of abuse, most are administered orally, however, they can also be given intravenously, intramuscularly, or rectally. In general, benzodiazepines are well-tolerated and are safe and effective drugs in the term for a wide range of conditions. Tolerance can develop to their effects and there is also a risk of dependence and these factors, combined with other possible secondary effects after prolonged use such as psychomotor, cognitive, or memory impairments, limit their long-term applicability. The effects of use or misuse include the tendency to cause or worsen cognitive deficits, depression. The College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia recommends discontinuing the usage of benzodiazepines in those on opioids, because of their effectiveness, tolerability, and rapid onset of anxiolytic action, benzodiazepines are frequently used for the treatment of anxiety associated with panic disorder. However, there is disagreement among expert bodies regarding the use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder. APA states that there is insufficient evidence to recommend any of the established panic disorder treatments over another, one advantage of benzodiazepines is that they alleviate the anxiety symptoms much faster than antidepressants, and therefore may be preferred in patients for whom rapid symptom control is critical. However, this advantage is offset by the possibility of developing benzodiazepine dependence, APA does not recommend benzodiazepines for persons with depressive symptoms or a recent history of substance abuse. Although major concerns about benzodiazepine tolerance and withdrawal have been raised, for many such patients stable doses of benzodiazepines retain their efficacy over several years
15.
Barbiturate
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A barbiturate is a drug that acts as a central nervous system depressant, and can therefore produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to total anesthesia. They are also effective as anxiolytics, hypnotics, and anticonvulsants and these effects, however, are somewhat weak, and may react with a patients other medications or sedatives. This fact precludes barbiturates from being used in surgery or in the presence of other analgesics, in mice, barbiturates are hyperalgesic, increasing the sensitivity to pain. Barbiturates have addiction potential, both physical and psychological, Barbiturates are derivatives of barbituric acid. However, barbiturates are still used as anticonvulsants, as para-operative sedatives, Barbiturates in high doses are used for physician-assisted suicide, and in combination with a muscle relaxant for euthanasia and for capital punishment by lethal injection. Barbiturates are frequently employed as euthanizing agents in veterinary medicine. Thiopental is a barbiturate that is marketed under the name sodium pentothal. When dissolved in water, sodium amytal can be swallowed, or it can be administered by intravenous injection, the memory-impairing effects and cognitive impairments induced by the drug are thought to reduce a subjects ability to invent and remember lies. There are special risks to consider for older adults, women who are pregnant, when a person ages, the body becomes less able to rid itself of barbiturates. As a result, people over the age of sixty-five are at risk of experiencing the harmful effects of barbiturates, including drug dependence. When barbiturates are taken during pregnancy, the passes through the mothers gastric juice to her fetus. After the baby is born, it may experience withdrawal symptoms and have trouble breathing, in addition, nursing mothers who take barbiturates may transmit the drug to their babies through breast milk. A rare adverse reaction to barbiturates is Stevens-Johnson syndrome, which affects the mucous membranes. With regular use, tolerance to the effects of barbiturates develops, similar to benzodiazepines the longer acting barbiturates produce a less severe withdrawal syndrome than short acting and ultra short acting barbiturates. Withdrawal symptoms are dose-dependent with heavier users being affected worse than lower-dose addicts, mental cravings for barbiturates can last for months or years in some cases and counselling/support groups are highly encouraged by addiction specialists. The lethal dosage of barbiturates varies greatly with tolerance and from one individual to another, tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects tends to correlate more with tolerance to physiological effects, however, meaning that they are still a viable option for long-term epilepsy treatment. Barbiturates in overdose with other CNS depressants are even more due to additive CNS. The longest-acting barbiturates have half-lives of a day or more, Barbiturates induce a number of hepatic CYP enzymes, leading to exaggerated effects from many prodrugs and decreased effects from drugs which are metabolized by these enzymes to inactive metabolites
16.
North Korea
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North Korea, officially the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, is a country in East Asia, constituting the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. Pyongyang is both the capital as well as its largest city. To the north and northwest the country is bordered by China and by Russia along the Amnok, the country is bordered to the south by South Korea, with the heavily fortified Korean Demilitarized Zone separating the two. Negotiations on reunification failed, and in 1948 two separate governments were formed, the communist Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea in the north, an invasion initiated by North Korea led to the Korean War. The Korean Armistice Agreement brought about a ceasefire, and no peace treaty was ever signed. North Korea officially describes itself as a self-reliant socialist state and formally holds elections, critics regard it as a totalitarian dictatorship. Various outlets have called it Stalinist, particularly noting the elaborate cult of personality around Kim Il-sung, International organizations have assessed human rights violations in North Korea as belonging to a category of their own, with no parallel in the contemporary world. Over time, North Korea has gradually distanced itself from the world communist movement, Juche, an ideology of national self-reliance, was introduced into the constitution as a creative application of Marxism–Leninism in 1972. The means of production are owned by the state through state-run enterprises, most services such as healthcare, education, housing and food production are subsidized or state-funded. From 1994 to 1998, North Korea suffered from a famine that resulted in the deaths of between 0.24 and 3.5 million people, and the continues to struggle with food production. North Korea follows Songun, or military-first policy and it is the country with the highest number of military and paramilitary personnel, with a total of 9,495,000 active, reserve, and paramilitary personnel. Its active duty army of 1.21 million is the fourth largest in the world, after China, North Korea is an atheist state with no official religion and where public religion is discouraged. The name Korea derives from the name Goryeo, the name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a shortened form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After the division of the country into North and South Korea, the two sides used different terms to refer to Korea, Chosun or Joseon in North Korea, in 1948, North Korea adopted Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea as its new legal name. After the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, Korea was occupied by Japan, Japan tried to suppress Korean traditions and culture and ran the economy primarily for its own benefit. Korean resistance groups known as Dongnipgun operated along the Sino-Korean border, some of them took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. One of the leaders was the communist Kim Il-sung, who later became the leader of North Korea
17.
Central Bureau of Investigation
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The Central Bureau of Investigation is the domestic intelligence and security service of India, which simultaneously serves as the nations prime federal law enforcement agency. It operates under the jurisdiction of the Government of India, the CBI is overseen by the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions of the Federal government, headed by a Cabinet Minister who reports directly to the Prime Minister. As far as national security is concern its comparable to those of the American FBI, however, CBIs powers and functions are limited to specific crimes by Acts. Alok Verma has assumed the role as the director since 19th Jan 2017 The CBI is involved in major criminal probes, the CBI was established in 1941 as the Special Police Establishment, tasked with domestic security. It was renamed the Central Bureau of Investigation on 1 April 1963 and its motto is Industry, Impartiality, Integrity. Agency headquarters is in the Indian capital, New Delhi, with offices located in major cities throughout India. The Bureau of Investigation traces its origins to the Special Police Establishment, the functions of the SPE were to investigate bribery and corruption in transactions with the War and Supply Department of India, set up during World War II with its headquarters in Lahore. The Superintendent of the War Department and the SPE was Khan Bahadur Qurban Ali Khan, the first legal advisor of the War Department was Rai Sahib Karam Chand Jain. This is DSPEs scope was enlarged to all departments of the Government of India. Its jurisdiction extended to the Union Territories, and could be extended to the states with the consent of the state governments involved. Sardar Patel, first Deputy Prime Minister of free India and head of the Home Department, desired to weed out corruption in erstwhile princely states such as Jodhpur, Rewa and Tonk. Patel directed Legal Advisor Karam Chand Jain to monitor criminal proceedings against the dewans, th DSPE acquired its popular current name, Central Bureau of Investigation, through a Home Ministry resolution dated 1.4.1963. The Supreme Court and a number of courts in the country also began assigning such investigations to the CBI on the basis of petitions filed by aggrieved parties. In 1987, the CBI was divided into two divisions, the Anti-Corruption Division and the Special Crimes Division, the founding director of the CBI was D. P. Kohli, who held the office from 1 April 1963 to 31 May 1968. For distinguished service, Kohli was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1967, Kohli saw in the Special Police Establishment the potential to growing into a National Investigative Agency. He nurtured the organisation during his career as inspector general and director. The CBI is headed by a Director, an IPS officer with a rank of Director General of Police, the director is selected based on the CVC Act 2003, and has a two-year term. Inspector, Sub-Inspector, Assistant Sub-Inspector, Head constable, Constable which are recruited through SSC or through deputation from Police, the amended Delhi Special Police Establishment Act empowers a committee to appoint the director of CBI
18.
Ajmal Kasab
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Mohammed Ajmal Amir Kasab was a Pakistani militant and a member of the Lashkar-e-Taiba Islamist group, through which he took part in the 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks in Maharashtra state of India. Kasab was the only attacker captured alive by police, Kasab was born in Faridkot, Pakistan to a family belonging to the Qassab community. He left his home in 2005, engaging in petty crime, in late 2007, he and his friend encountered members of Jamaat-ud-Dawah, the political wing of Lashkar-e-Taiba, distributing pamphlets, and were persuaded to join. On 3 May 2010, Kasab was found guilty of 80 offences, including murder, waging war against India, possessing explosives, on 6 May 2010, the same trial court sentenced him to death on four counts and to a life sentence on five counts. Kasabs death sentence was upheld by the Bombay High Court on 21 February 2011, the verdict was upheld by the Supreme Court of India on 29 August 2012. Kasab was hanged on 21 November 2012 at 7,30 a. m. Kasab was born in Faridkot village in the Okara District of Punjab, Pakistan, to Amir Shahban Kasab and Noor Illahi. His father ran a snack cart while his brother, Afzal. His elder sister, Rukaiyya Husain, was married and lived in the village, a younger sister, Suraiyya, and brother, Munir, lived in Faridkot with their parents. The family belongs to the Qassab community, Kasab briefly joined his brother in Lahore and then returned to Faridkot. He left home after a fight with his father in 2005 and he had asked for new clothes on Eid, but his father could not provide them, which made him angry. He engaged in petty crime with his friend Muzaffar Lal Khan, on 21 December 2007, Eid al-Adha, they were in Rawalpindi trying to buy weapons when they encountered members of Jamaat-ud-Dawah, the political wing of Lashkar-e-Taiba, distributing pamphlets. They decided to sign up for training with the Lashkar-e-Taiba, ending up at their base camp, an interrogator and deputy commissioner of the Mumbai Police stated that Kasab spoke rough Hindi and almost no English. He said his father in effect sold him to Lashkar-e-Taiba so that he could use the money gave him to support the family. Zaki-ur-Rehman Lakhvi, a commander of the Lashkar-e-Taiba, reportedly offered to pay his family Rs.150,000 for his participation in the attacks. Another report said the 23-year-old was recruited from his home, in part, other sources put the reward at US $4,000. Villagers of Okara claimed on camera that he was at their six months before the Mumbai attack. They said that he asked his mother to him as he was going for Jihad. Ajmal Kasab was alleged to be among a group of 24 men who received training in marine warfare at a camp in mountainous Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir in Pakistan
19.
2008 Mumbai attacks
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The attacks, which drew widespread global condemnation, began on Wednesday,26 November and lasted until Saturday,29 November 2008, killing 164 people and wounding at least 308. There was also an explosion at Mazagaon, in Mumbais port area, by the early morning of 28 November, all sites except for the Taj Hotel had been secured by Mumbai Police and security forces. Ajmal Kasab disclosed that the attackers were members of Lashkar-e-Taiba, among others, the Government of India said that the attackers came from Pakistan, and their controllers were in Pakistan. On 7 January 2009, Pakistan confirmed the sole surviving perpetrator of the attacks was a Pakistani citizen, on 9 April 2015, the foremost ringleader of the attacks, Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi, was granted bail against surety bonds of ₨200,000 in Pakistan. There have been many attacks in Mumbai since the 13 coordinated bomb explosions that killed 257 people. The 1993 attacks are believed to have been in retaliation for the Babri Mosque demolition, on 6 December 2002, a blast in a BEST bus near Ghatkopar station killed two people and injured 28. The bombing occurred on the 10th anniversary of the demolition of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya. On 13 March 2003, a day after the 10th anniversary of the 1993 Bombay bombings, on 28 July 2003, a blast in a BEST bus in Ghatkopar killed 4 people and injured 32. On 25 August 2003, two exploded in South Mumbai, one near the Gateway of India and the other at Zaveri Bazaar in Kalbadevi. At least 44 people were killed and 150 injured, on 11 July 2006, seven bombs exploded within 11 minutes on the Suburban Railway in Mumbai, killing 209 people, including 22 foreigners and more than 700 injured. According to the Mumbai Police, the bombings were carried out by Lashkar-e-Taiba, a group of men, sometimes stated as 24, at other times 26, received training in marine warfare at a remote camp in mountainous Muzaffarabad. Part of the training was reported to have taken place on the Mangla Dam reservoir, basic Combat, Lashkars basic combat training and methodology course, the Daura Aam. Advanced Training, Selected to undergo advanced training at a camp near Mansehra. Commando Training, Finally, a smaller group selected for specialised commando tactics training. From the students,10 were handpicked for the Mumbai mission and they also received training in swimming and sailing, besides the use of high-end weapons and explosives under the supervision of LeT commanders. They were given blueprints of all the four targets – Taj Palace & Tower, Oberoi Trident, Nariman House, the first events were detailed around 20,00 Indian Standard Time on 26 November, when 10 men in inflatable speedboats came ashore at two locations in Colaba. They reportedly told local Marathi-speaking fishermen who asked them who they were to mind their own business before they split up, the fishermens subsequent report to police received little response and local police were helpless. The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus was attacked by two gunmen, Ismail Khan and Ajmal Kasab, Kasab was later caught alive by the police and identified by eyewitnesses
20.
Mumbai
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Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
21.
Pakistanis
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Pakistanis are the people who are citizens of the modern Islamic Republic of Pakistan. As of 2011, the population of Pakistan was over 199 million making it the worlds sixth most-populous country. Pakistan has one of the worlds fastest growing populations, as the country is located in South Asia, Pakistani people are a mixture of various indigenous ethnic groups. The Punjabi people, the largest ethnic group in Pakistan, reside predominantly in Central, considerable population of Punjabis live in Karachi as well. The Baloch people inhabit the southwest of the country, the Kashmiri people are an important ethnic group of the Kashmir region in the north. The Chitrali people are indigenous people who live high in the mountains in the northwest. There are countless other ethnic groups make up part of Pakistanis mosaic such as the Bengalis, Burmese, Hazara, Tajik and Hakka. Pakistan has a culture, with all of the provinces maintaining differing social mores. However, Islam is the force behind the unity of varying ethnic groups from different parts of the country. Pakistani culture falls in the category of high context, Urdu, a major standard register of Hindustani, is Pakistans national language. Urdu was chosen as a token of unity and as a lingua franca so as not to any native Pakistani language preference over the other. It is mostly learned as a language, with nearly 93% of Pakistans population having a mother tongue other than Urdu. Urdu is spoken as a first, second or at times third tongue by almost all Pakistani people, english is spoken at an official level and in most elite circles, as a legacy of the long British Raj colonial rule in the region. Many Pakistanis worldwide speak the regional languages of Pakistan such as, Urdu, Saraiki, Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, Balochi. The largest religion practiced in Pakistan is Islam, other religious groups in Pakistan include Judaism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism and Christianity. There are large populations of Pakistani ancestry around the world, due to emigration, the population of Pakistanis abroad is considered to exceed seven million and can be found in the Middle East, North America, Europe, Asia and Australia. The Pakistani diaspora in Europe and its impact on building in Pakistan. International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, relevance of Education for Womens Empowerment in Punjab, Pakistan
22.
Lashkar-e-Taiba
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Lashkar-e-Taiba is one of the largest and most active terrorist organizations in South Asia, operating mainly from Pakistan. It was founded in 1987 by Hafiz Saeed, Abdullah Azzam and Zafar Iqbal in Afghanistan, with its headquarters based in Muridke, near Lahore in Punjab province of Pakistan. The group operates several training camps in Pakistan-administered Kashmir, Lashkar-e-Taiba has been accused by India of attacking military and civilian targets in India, most notably the 2001 Indian Parliament attack and the 2008 Mumbai attacks. Its stated objective is to introduce an Islamic state in South Asia, the organization is banned as a terrorist organization by India, the United States, the United Kingdom, the European Union, Russia, and Australia. When LeT was banned in Pakistan, the arm of the group. JuD continued to remain un-banned until 2015, however, JuD still continues to work openly as LeTs charitable wing. While the primary area of operations of LeTs militant activities is the Kashmir Valley, their goal is not limited to challenging Indias sovereignty over Jammu. LeT sees the issue of Kashmir as part of a global struggle. The group has repeatedly claimed through its journals and websites that its aim is to destroy the Indian republic. LeT has declared Hindus and Jews to be the enemies of Islam, as well as India, in a pamphlet entitled Why Are We Waging Jihad. The group defined its agenda as the restoration of Islamic rule over all parts of India and declared India, Israel, in the wake of the November 2008 Mumbai attacks, investigations of computer and email accounts revealed a list of 320 locations worldwide deemed as possible targets for attack. Analysts believed that the list was a statement of intent rather than a list of locations where LeT cells had been established and were ready to strike, Hafiz Muhammad Saeed – living in Pakistan – founder of LeT and aamir of its political arm, JuD. Shortly after the 2008 Mumbai attacks Saeed denied any links between the two groups, No Lashkar-e-Taiba man is in Jamaat-ud-Dawa and I have never been a chief of Lashkar-e-Taiba, on 25 June 2014, the United States declared JuD an affiliate of LeT. Abdul Rehman Makki – living in Pakistan – second in command of LeT and he is the brother-in-law of Hafiz Muhammad Saeed. The US has offered a reward of $2 million for leading to the location of Makki. Zaki-ur-Rehman Lakhvi – released on bail from custody of Pakistan military – senior member of LeT, named as one of the masterminds of the 2008 Mumbai attacks. On 18 December 2014, the Pakistani anti-terrorism court granted Lakhvi bail against payment of surety bonds worth Rs.500,000, yusuf Muzammil – senior member of LeT and named as a mastermind of the 2008 Mumbai attacks by surviving gunman Ajmal Kasab. Zarrar Shah – in Pakistani custody – one of LeTs primary liaisons to the ISI, a US official said that he was a central character in the planning behind the 2008 Mumbai attacks
23.
2008 Noida double murder case
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The Noida double murder case refers to the murder of 14-year-old Aarushi Talwar and 45-year-old Hemraj Banjade, a domestic worker, employed by her family in Noida, India. The two were killed on the night of 15–16 May 2008 at Aarushis home, the case aroused public interest as a whodunit story, and received heavy media coverage. The sensational media coverage, which included salacious allegations against Aarushi, when Aarushis body was discovered on 16 May, the missing servant Hemraj was considered as the main suspect. However, the day, his partially decomposed body was discovered on the terrace. The police were criticized for failing to secure the crime scene immediately. After ruling out the familys ex-servants, the police considered Aarushis parents—Dr, Rajesh Talwar and Nupur Talwar—as the prime suspects. The accusations enraged the Talwars family and friends, who accused the police of framing the Talwars in order to cover up the botched-up investigation. The case was transferred to the CBI, which exonerated the parents. Based on the narco interrogation conducted on the three men, the CBI suspected that they had killed Aarushi after a sexual assault. The CBI was accused of using methods to extract a confession. In 2009, the CBI handed over the investigation to a new team, based on circumstantial evidence, it named Rajesh Talwar as the sole suspect, but refused to charge him due to lack of any hard evidence. The parents opposed the closure, calling CBIs suspicion on Rajesh as baseless, subsequently, a court rejected the CBIs claim that there was not enough evidence, and ordered proceedings against the Talwars. In November 2013, the parents were convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment, many critics argued that the judgment was based on weak evidence, and the Talwars have challenged the decision in the Allahabad High Court. Aarushi Talwar was a 14-year-old student at the Delhi Public School and she was the daughter of a dentist couple, Dr. Rajesh Talwar and Dr. Nupur Talwar. The family lived in an apartment in Sector 25 of Noida, Uttar Pradesh, Rajesh and Nupur practiced together at their clinic in Sector 27 of Noida. They also saw patients at the Fortis Hospital, where Rajesh headed the dental department, in addition, Rajesh taught at the ITS dental college in Greater Noida. Anita and Praful Durrani, another dentist couple and close friends of the Talwars. The couple shared the Noida clinic with the Talwars, Rajesh and Anita worked at the clinic in the morning, while Praful, the Durranis and the Talwars also shared a clinic in Hauz Khas area of Delhi
24.
Polygraph
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The belief underpinning the use of the polygraph is that deceptive answers will produce physiological responses that can be differentiated from those associated with non-deceptive answers. The polygraph was invented in 1921 by John Augustus Larson, a student at the University of California, Berkeley. The polygraph was on the Encyclopædia Britannica 2003 list of greatest inventions, the efficacy of polygraphs is debated in the scientific community. In 1991, two thirds of the community who have the requisite background to evaluate polygraph procedures considered polygraphy to be pseudoscience. Effectiveness may also be worsened by countermeasures, in some countries, polygraphs are used as an interrogation tool with criminal suspects or candidates for sensitive public or private sector employment. Within the US federal government, an examination is also referred to as a psychophysiological detection of deception examination. Polygraph testing is designed to analyze the physiological reactions of subjects, Polygraph examiners also prefer to use their own individual scoring method, as opposed to computerized techniques, as they may more easily defend their own evaluations. Studies have indicated that this technique is not ideal, as many innocent subjects exert a heightened physiological reaction to the crime relevant questions. The control question test, also known as the probable lie test, was developed to combat the issues with the relevant-irrelevant testing method, therefore, although a physiological reaction may be occurring, the reasoning behind the response may be different. Further examination of the probable lie test has indicated that it is biased against innocent subjects and those who are unable to think of a lie related to the relevant question will automatically fail the test. Polygraph examiners, or polygraphers, are licensed or regulated in some jurisdictions, the American Polygraph Association sets standards for courses of training of polygraph operators, though it does not certify individual examiners. The examiner typically begins polygraph test sessions with a pre-test interview to gain some information which will later be used to develop diagnostic questions. Then the tester will explain how the polygraph is supposed to work, emphasizing that it can detect lies, then a stim test is often conducted, the subject is asked to deliberately lie and then the tester reports that he was able to detect this lie. Guilty subjects are likely to become anxious when they are reminded of the tests validity. However, there are risks of innocent subjects being equally or more anxious than the guilty, some of the questions asked are irrelevant or IR, others are diagnostic questions, and the remainder are the relevant questions, or RQ, that the tester is really interested in. The different types of questions alternate, the test is passed if the physiological responses to the diagnostic questions are larger than those during the relevant questions. Criticisms have been regarding the validity of the administration of the Control Question Technique. The CQT may be vulnerable to being conducted in an interrogation-like fashion and this kind of interrogation style would elicit a nervous response from innocent and guilty suspects alike
25.
Biological warfare
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Biological weapons are living organisms or replicating entities that reproduce or replicate within their host victims. Entomological warfare is considered a type of biological weapon. None of these are conventional weapons, which are deployed primarily for their explosive, kinetic, Biological weapons may be employed in various ways to gain a strategic or tactical advantage over the enemy, either by threats or by actual deployments. Like some of the weapons, biological weapons may also be useful as area denial weapons. These agents may be lethal or non-lethal, and may be targeted against a single individual and they may be developed, acquired, stockpiled or deployed by nation states or by non-national groups. In the latter case, or if a nation-state uses it clandestinely, toxins and psychochemical weapons are often referred to as midspectrum agents. Unlike bioweapons, these agents do not reproduce in their host and are typically characterized by shorter incubation periods. Offensive biological warfare, including production, stockpiling and use of biological weapons, was outlawed by the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention. Many countries, including signatories of the BWC, currently pursue research into the defense or protection against BW, a nation or group that can pose a credible threat of mass casualty has the ability to alter the terms on which other nations or groups interact with it. Therefore, biological agents may be useful as strategic deterrents in addition to their utility as offensive weapons on the battlefield. As a tactical weapon for use, a significant problem with a BW attack is that it would take days to be effective. Some biological agents have the capability of person-to-person transmission via aerosolized respiratory droplets and this feature can be undesirable, as the agent may be transmitted by this mechanism to unintended populations, including neutral or even friendly forces. While containment of BW is less of a concern for criminal or terrorist organizations, it remains a significant concern for the military. Rudimentary forms of warfare have been practiced since antiquity. During the 6th century BC, the Assyrians poisoned enemy wells with a fungus that would render the enemy delirious, in 1346, the bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa. Specialists disagree over whether this operation may have been responsible for the spread of the Black Death into Europe, the British Army used smallpox against Native Americans during the Siege of Fort Pitt in 1763. An outbreak that left as many as one hundred Native Americans dead in Ohio Country was reported in 1764, the spread of the disease weakened the natives resistance to the British troops led by Henry Bouquet. It is not clear, however, whether the smallpox was a result of the Fort Pitt incident or the virus was present among the Delaware people
26.
Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)
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The Foreign Intelligence Service of the Russian Federation or SVR RF is Russias external intelligence agency, mainly for civilian affairs. The military affairs espionage counterpart is the GRU, the SVR RF is the successor of the First Chief Directorate of the KGB since December 1991. The headquarters of SVR are in the Yasenevo District of Moscow, unlike the Russian Federal Security Service, the SVR is responsible for intelligence and espionage activities outside the Russian Federation. It works in cooperation with the Russian Main Intelligence Agency, which reportedly deployed six times as many spies in foreign countries as the SVR in 1997, officially, the SVR RF dates its own beginnings to the founding of the Special Section of the Cheka on 20 December 1920. The head of the Cheka, Felix Dzerzhinsky, created the Foreign Department to improve the collection as well as the dissemination of foreign intelligence, on 6 February 1922, the Foreign Department of the Cheka became part of a renamed organization, the State Political Directorate, or GPU. In July 1934, the OGPU was reincorporated into the NKVD, in 1954, the NKVD in turn became the KGB, which in 1991 became SVR and FSB. Former Director of the SVR RF Sergei Lebedev stated “there has not been any place on the planet where a KGB officer has not been, the Law on Foreign Intelligence was written by SVR leadership itself and adopted in August 1992. A new Law on Foreign Intelligence Organs was passed by the State Duma, the President of the Russian Federation can personally issue any secret orders to the SVR RF without consulting the houses of the Federal Assembly, State Duma and Federation Council. Sergey Naryshkin is the current Director of the SVR RF, the head of the SVR RF is appointed by and reports directly to the President of Russia. The Director provides briefings to the President every Monday and on occasions as necessary. The Director is also a member of the Security Council of Russia, Directorate OT, Operational and Technical Support Directorate R, Operational Planning and Analysis, Evaluates SVR operations abroad. Directorate I, Computer Service, Analyzes and distributes intelligence data, each Directorate is headed by a Deputy Director who reports to the SVR Director. The Red Banner Intelligence Academy has been renamed the Academy of Foreign Intelligence and is housed in the Science Directorate, within the Operations Department of Directorate S, there is the elite Special Operations Group called Zaslon. Formerly in PGU KGB USSR called Vympel, however, mere existence of such group within SVR is denied by Russian authorities. During Boris Yeltsins presidency, the SVR conflicted with Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs for directing Russian foreign policy. The rivalry ended in victory for the SVR, when Primakov replaced Kozyrev in January 1996. In September 1999, Yeltsin admitted that the SVR plays a role in the Russian foreign policy than the Foreign Ministry. It was reported that SVR defined Russian position on the transfer of technologies to Iran, NATO expansion
27.
Vitaly Yurchenko
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Vitaly Sergeyevich Yurchenko is a former high-ranking KGB officer in the Soviet Union. After 25 years of service in the KGB, he defected to the United States during an assignment in Rome, after providing the names of two U. S. intelligence officers who were KGB agents, Yurchenko slipped from the Americans and returned to the Soviets. Although it is unclear whether his initial defection was legitimate, Yurchenko was awarded the Order of the Red Star from the Soviet government for the infiltration operation. Upon his defection to the United States, Yurchenko identified two American intelligence officers as KGB agents, Ronald Pelton and Edward Lee Howard, Pelton was later convicted, while Howard fled the United States before he could be questioned. In November 1985, before eating a meal at Au Pied de Cochon, Yurchenko told his CIA guard, Im going for a walk. If I dont come back, its not your fault, the building, located at 1335 Wisconsin Avenue NW, now houses a Five Guys burger franchise. A plaque commemorating the event can be seen in one of the booths, several days later, the Soviet Embassy called a press conference, at which Yurchenko announced he had been kidnapped and drugged by the Americans. The KGB was reported to have secretly interrogated Yurchenko after his return, under the influence of a truth drug, at a 1999 Texas A&M conference attended by several CIA intelligence professionals, as well as KGB General Oleg Danilovich Kalugin, the question of Yurchenkos defection came up. Kalugin stated that Yurchenko started out as a defector, then changed his mind. Kalugin gave several points, The KGB typically didnt use fake defectors because the defection would be a problem for the Soviet government. Yurchenko was in love with a married to a Russian official. This did not work out as planned, Yurchenko had a stomach ulcer that worried him greatly, and thought it could be cured in the US. Yurchenkos defection was leaked to the media after hed been promised it wouldnt be, Yurchenko felt his freedom to move around was sort of limited by the CIA. Yurchenko apparently thought the KGB might treat him well because of the cases of recent redefectors like Betov and Chebatriov, another panelist also believed he was a legitimate defector. James Olson of the George Bush School said I think he was a disturbed individual. Paul Redmond said that Sandra Grimes and Jeanne Vertefeuille also believed Yurchenko was genuine, Redmond on the other hand thought it possible that Yurchenko might have been sent by the KGB as a starburst
28.
Alexander Litvinenko
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In November 1998, Litvinenko and several other FSB officers publicly accused their superiors of ordering the assassination of the Russian tycoon and oligarch Boris Berezovsky. Litvinenko was arrested the following March on charges of exceeding the authority of his position and he was acquitted in November 1999 but re-arrested before the charges were again dismissed in 2000. He fled with his family to London and was granted asylum in the United Kingdom and he also accused Putin of ordering the murder in October 2006 of the Russian journalist Anna Politkovskaya. On 1 November 2006, Litvinenko suddenly fell ill and was hospitalised in what was established as a case of poisoning by radioactive polonium-210 which resulted in his death on 23 November and he became the first known victim of lethal Polonium 210-induced acute radiation syndrome. The events leading up to this are a matter of controversy, spawning numerous theories relating to his poisoning, a British murder investigation pointed to Andrey Lugovoy, a member of Russias Federal Protective Service, as the prime suspect. Britain demanded that Lugovoy be extradited, which is against the Constitution of Russia, Russia denied the extradition, leading to the cooling of relations between Russia and the United Kingdom. After Litvinenkos death, his widow, Marina, pursued a campaign on behalf of her husband through the Litvinenko Justice Foundation. In October 2011, she won the right for an inquest into her husbands death to be conducted by a coroner in London, the inquest was repeatedly set back by issues relating to examinable evidence. A public inquiry began on 27 January 2015, and concluded in January 2016 that Litvinenkos murder was an FSB operation, Alexander Litvinenko was born in the Russian city of Voronezh in 1962. After he graduated from a Nalchik secondary school in 1980 he was drafted into the Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs as a Private, after a year of service, he matriculated in the Kirov Higher Command School in Vladikavkaz. In 1981, Litvinenko married Nataliya, an accountant, with whom he had a son, Alexander, and this marriage ended in divorce in 1994 and in the same year Litvinenko married Marina, a ballroom dancer and fitness instructor, with whom he had a son, Anatoly. After graduation in 1985, Litvinenko became a commander in the Dzerzhinsky Division of the Soviet Ministry of Internal Affairs. He was assigned to the 4th Company of 4th Regiment, where among his duties was the protection of cargo while in transit. Later that year, after studying for a year at the Novosibirsk Military Counter Intelligence School, he became an operational officer, in 1991, Litvinenko was promoted to the Central Staff of the Federal Counterintelligence Service, specialising in counter-terrorist activities and infiltration of organised crime. He was awarded the title of MUR veteran for operations conducted with the Moscow criminal investigation department, Litvinenko also saw active military service in many of the so-called hot spots of the former USSR and Russia. During the First Chechen War Litvinenko planted several FSB agents in Chechnya, Litvinenko met Boris Berezovsky in 1994 when he took part in investigations into an assassination attempt on the oligarch. He later began to moonlight for Berezovsky and was responsible for the oligarchs security, Litvinenkos employment under Berezovsky and other security services personnel was illegal, but the state somewhat tolerated it to retain staff who were at the time underpaid. Thus, Litvinenkos employment for the businessman and others was not investigated
29.
Russian presidential election, 2004
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Presidential elections were held in Russia on 14 March 2004. Incumbent President Vladimir Putin was seeking a second full four-year term and he was re-elected with 71. 9% of the vote. Glazyev was Minister for Foreign Trade under Boris Yeltsin, a Communist member of the State Duma, however, he failed to win the Rodina nomination because of a power struggle with Dmitri Rogozin, and ran as independent candidate. He campaigned as a critic of economic reforms and he argued that post-Communist governments have ignored social justice and promised to improve welfare. Khakamada, the daughter of a Japanese Communist who took Soviet citizenship in the 1950s, a member of the State Duma for eight years, she lost her seat in 2003. She was a member of the Union of Rightist Forces, I am not afraid of the terrorists in power, she told the daily newspaper Kommersant. Our children must grow up as free people, kharitonov was the candidate of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, despite not being a member of the party. A former KGB colonel, he was a member of the Agrarian Party of Russia and he was put forward after Communist leader Gennady Zyuganov declined to stand for a third time. Malyshkin was nominated by the Liberal Democratic Party, after the party leader Vladimir Zhirinovsky, malyshkin, a mining engineer, had been an LDPR member since 1991 and the head of security of Vladimir Zhirinovsky. He was elected to the State Duma in 2003, mironov was Speaker of the Federation Council, the upper house of the Russian parliament, and was considered a loyalist to Vladimir Putin. Prior to launching his campaign, he expressed his support for Putins candidacy, Putin, formerly Prime Minister, was elected President in 2000, and ran for the second term. His popularity remained quite high whilst in office thanks to economic stability and he refused United Russias invitation to be nominated as party candidate and ran as an independent. Observers representing the Commonwealth of Independent States recognized the election as free, democratic, the head of the mission Yury Yarov assured that violations fixed during the mission didnt affect free expression of the electors will and result of the election. Another concern was, The Russian Constitution stipulates that in an election, if the turn-out is less than 50%. This clause raised concerns of authorities on voters turnout and a campaign encouraging people to participate in elections had been launched by the CEC. In some regions, local authorities overused their power to people to take part in the elections. The election campaign in general was low-key and all but invisible, PACE reported that despite some irregularities, credit should be given to the election administration which ensured security and professional conduct of the voting process. Taking into account that the turnout of the election was only 64, 39%
30.
Ivan Rybkin
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Ivan Petrovich Rybkin is a Russian politician, was Chairman of Russias State Duma in 1994–96 and Secretary of the Security Council in 1996–98. He was born in village of Semigorka, Voronesh Oblast, in 1968, Rybkin graduated from Volgograd Agricultural Institute, and in 1991 from the Soviet Academy of Social Sciences. After a career on lower ranks of the Communist Party, Rybkin was elected as deputy to the congress of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic in 1990. In 1993, Rybkin became a member of the Agrarian Party of Russia and that very year in December, he was elected deputy of the State Duma. In 1994, Rybkin was elected speaker of the State Duma, in January 1995, he became a member of the Security Council of the Russian Federation. In July of that year, Rybkin became a leader of the Ivan Rybkin Bloc, in March 1998, Rybkin was appointed Deputy Prime Minister for Commonwealth of Independent States affairs. In 2004, Rybkin was nominated by Berezovskys Liberal Party for the Russian presidential elections and he then accused Putin of having kidnapped him, after having given contradictory informations about what he claimed had happened. These allegations have been dismissed by various newspapers as “not very credible”, in February 2004, he disappeared for 4 days under mysterious circumstances. A day after his return he accused the Putin administration of complicity in the 1999 bomb attacks in Moscow that led to a war in the Russian breakaway republic of Chechnya, five days later, Rybkin appeared in Kiev. He stated later that he had kidnapped and drugged by Russian FSB agents He claims to have been lured to Ukraine under the pretense of meeting the former Chechen leader Aslan Maskhadov. However upon arrival he says he was offered refreshments in the apartment and he says he was unconscious for four days, waking on 10 February. Upon waking he was shown a videotape in which he was performing revolting acts conducted by horrible perverts and he was told that the tape would be made public if he continued with his presidential campaign. According to Alexander Litvinenko, the FSB agents apparently treated Rybkin with their standard truth drug
31.
Office of Strategic Services
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The Office of Strategic Services was a wartime intelligence agency of the United States during World War II, and a predecessor of the modern Central Intelligence Agency. The OSS was formed as an agency of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to coordinate espionage activities behind enemy lines for all branches of the United States Armed Forces, other OSS functions included the use of propaganda, subversion, and post-war planning. It had no direction, coordination, or control. The US Army and US Navy had separate code-breaking departments, Signal Intelligence Service, the FBI was responsible for domestic security and anti-espionage operations. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was concerned about American intelligence deficiencies, Colonel Donovan was employed to evaluate the global military position to offer suggestions concerning American intelligence requirements because the U. S. did not have a central intelligence agency. Thereafter the organization was developed with British assistance, Donovan had responsibilities but no actual powers, until some months after Pearl Harbor, the bulk of OSS intelligence came from the UK. The British immediately made available their short-wave broadcasting capabilities to Europe, Africa, during the war, the OSS supplied policymakers with facts and estimates, but the OSS never had jurisdiction over all foreign intelligence activities. The FBI was left responsible for work in Latin America. At the height of its influence during World War II, the OSS employed almost 24,000 people, OSS officer Archimedes Patti played a central role in OSS operations in French Indochina and met frequently with Ho Chi Minh in 1945. One of the greatest accomplishments of the OSS during World War II was its penetration of Nazi Germany by OSS operatives, the OSS was responsible for training German and Austrian individuals for missions inside Germany. Some of these agents included exiled communists and Socialist party members, labor activists, anti-Nazi prisoners-of-war, the OSS also recruited and ran one of the wars most important spies, the German diplomat Fritz Kolbe. In 1943, the Office of Strategic Services set up operations in Istanbul, turkey, as a neutral country during the Second World War, was a place where both the Axis and Allied powers had spy networks. The railroads connecting central Asia with Europe as well as Turkeys close proximity to the Balkan states placed it at a crossroads of intelligence gathering, the goal of the OSS Istanbul operation called Project Net-1 was to infiltrate and extenuate subversive action in the old Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires. Head of operations at OSS Istanbul was a banker from Chicago named Lanning Packy Macfarland who maintained the story as a banker for the American lend-lease program. Macfarland hired Alfred Schwarz, a Czechoslovakian engineer and businessman who came to be known as Dogwood, Dogwood in turn hired a personal assistant named Walter Arndt and established himself as an employee of the Istanbul Western Electrik Kompani. Through Schwartz and Arndt the OSS was able to infiltrate anti-fascist groups in Austria, Hungary, through this process information about the Nazi regime made its way to Macfarland and the OSS in Istanbul and eventually to Washington. While the OSS Dogwood-chain produced a lot of information, its reliability was increasingly questioned by British intelligence, eventually by May 1944 through collaboration between the OSS, British intelligence, Cairo and Washington the entire Dogwood-chain was found to be unreliable and dangerous. Planting phony information into the OSS was intended to misdirect the resources of the Allies, schwartzs Dogwood-chain, which was the largest American intelligence gathering tool in occupied territory, was shortly thereafter shut down
32.
Mescaline
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Mescaline, or 3,4, 5-trimethoxyphenethylamine, is a naturally occurring psychedelic alkaloid of the phenethylamine class, known for its hallucinogenic effects comparable to those of LSD and psilocybin. It occurs naturally in the cactus, the San Pedro cactus, the Peruvian torch. It is also found in small amounts in certain members of the Fabaceae family, peyote has been used for at least 5,700 years by Native Americans in Mexico. Europeans noted use of peyote in Native American religious ceremonies upon early contact, other mescaline-containing cacti such as the San Pedro have a long history of use in South America, from Peru to Ecuador. In traditional peyote preparations, the top of the cactus is cut off and these heads are then dried to make disc-shaped buttons. Buttons are chewed to produce the effects or soaked in water to drink, however, the taste of the cactus is bitter, so contemporary users will often grind it into a powder and pour it in capsules to avoid having to taste it. The usual human dosage is 200–400 milligrams of mescaline sulfate or 178–356 milligrams of mescaline hydrochloride, the average 76 mm button contains about 25 mg mescaline. Mescaline was first isolated and identified in 1897 by the German chemist Arthur Heffter, in 1955, English politician Christopher Mayhew took part in an experiment for BBCs Panorama, in which he ingested 400 mg of mescaline under the supervision of psychiatrist Humphry Osmond. Though the recording was deemed too controversial and ultimately omitted from the show, Mayhew praised the experience, mescaline has a wide array of suggested medical usage, including treatment of alcoholism and depression. However, its status as a Schedule I controlled substance in the Convention on Psychotropic Substances limits availability of the drug to researchers, because of this, very few studies concerning mescalines activity and potential therapeutic effects in humans have been conducted since the early 1970s. Aldous Huxley described his experience with mescaline in the essay The Doors of Perception, jim Carroll described using peyote in The Basketball Diaries that a friend of his smuggled from Mexico. The sex psychologist Havelock Ellis also tried mescaline, hunter S. Psychedelic research pioneer Alexander Shulgin said he was first inspired to explore psychedelic compounds by a mescaline experience. Bryan Wynter produced Mars Ascends after trying the substance his first time, philosopher Terence McKenna, as mentioned by multiple interviews and discussions done by him on YouTube. George Carlin mentions mescaline use during his youth while being interviewed, carlos Santana told in 1989 about his mescaline use in a Rolling Stone interview. Disney animator Ward Kimball described participating in a study of mescaline, michael Cera used real mescaline for the movie Crystal Fairy & the Magical Cactus, as expressed in an interview. Melissa Joan Hart, I experimented with weed, Ecstasy, mushrooms and mescaline for about a year, jean-Paul Sartre tried mescaline in 1929, when he was attending École Normale Supérieure. During his trip Sartre saw many crabs, which resulted in a fear of them. Mescaline is biosynthesized from tyrosine or a hydroxylated phenylalanine, in Lophophora williamsii, dopamine converts into mescaline in a biosynthetic pathway involving m-O-methylation and aromatic hydroxylation
33.
Marijuana
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Cannabis, also known as marijuana among several other names, is a preparation of the Cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug or medicine. The main psychoactive part of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol, one of 483 known compounds in the plant, Cannabis can be used by smoking, vaporization, within food, or as an extract. Cannabis is often used for its mental and physical effects, such as a high or stoned feeling, a change in perception, euphoria. Short term side effects may include a decrease in short-term memory, dry mouth, impaired motor skills, red eyes, long term side effects may include addiction, decreased mental ability in those who started as teenagers, and behavioral problems in children whose mothers used cannabis during pregnancy. Onset of effects is within minutes when smoked and about 30 to 60 minutes when cooked and they last for between two and six hours. Cannabis is mostly used recreationally or as a medicinal drug and it may also be used for religious or spiritual purposes. In 2013, between 128 and 232 million people used cannabis, in 2015, 43% of Americans had used cannabis, which increased to 51% in 2016. About 12% have used it in the past year, and 7. 3% have used it in the past month and this makes it the most commonly used illegal drug both in the world and the United States. The earliest recorded uses date from the 3rd millennium BC, since the early 20th century, cannabis has been subject to legal restrictions. The possession, use, and sale of cannabis is illegal in most countries of the world, Medical cannabis refers to the physician-recommended use of cannabis, which is taking place in Canada, Belgium, Australia, the Netherlands, Spain, and 23 U. S. states. Cannabis use started to become popular in the US in the 1970s, support for legalization has increased in the United States and several US states have legalized recreational or medical use. Medical cannabis, or medical marijuana can refer to the use of cannabis and its cannabinoids to treat disease or improve symptoms, however, the use of cannabis as a medicine has not been rigorously scientifically tested, often due to production restrictions and other federal regulations. There is limited evidence suggesting cannabis can be used to reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, to improve appetite in people with HIV/AIDS and its use for other medical applications is insufficient for conclusions about safety or efficacy. Short-term use increases the risk of minor and major adverse effects. Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, long-term effects of cannabis are not clear. Concerns include memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in people. Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed, at higher doses, effects can include altered body image, auditory and/or visual illusions, pseudohallucinations and ataxia from selective impairment of polysynaptic reflexes. In some cases, cannabis can lead to states such as depersonalization and derealization
34.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
35.
Alcohol
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In chemistry, an alcohol is any organic compound in which the hydroxyl functional group is bound to a saturated carbon atom. The term alcohol originally referred to the alcohol ethanol, the predominant alcohol in alcoholic beverages. The suffix -ol in non-systematic names also typically indicates that the substance includes a functional group and, so. But many substances, particularly sugars contain hydroxyl functional groups without using the suffix, an important class of alcohols, of which methanol and ethanol are the simplest members is the saturated straight chain alcohols, the general formula for which is CnH2n+1OH. The word alcohol is from the Arabic kohl, a used as an eyeliner. Al- is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to the in English, alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide Sb 2S3, hence the essence or spirit of this substance. It was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic, the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed to ethanol, when spirits as a synonym for hard liquor. Bartholomew Traheron, in his 1543 translation of John of Vigo, Vigo wrote, the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or alcofoll, for moost fine poudre. The 1657 Lexicon Chymicum, by William Johnson glosses the word as antimonium sive stibium, by extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including alcohol of wine, the distilled essence of wine. Libavius in Alchymia refers to vini alcohol vel vinum alcalisatum, Johnson glosses alcohol vini as quando omnis superfluitas vini a vino separatur, ita ut accensum ardeat donec totum consumatur, nihilque fæcum aut phlegmatis in fundo remaneat. The words meaning became restricted to spirit of wine in the 18th century and was extended to the class of substances so-called as alcohols in modern chemistry after 1850, the term ethanol was invented 1892, based on combining the word ethane with ol the last part of alcohol. In the IUPAC system, in naming simple alcohols, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal e and adds ol, e. g. as in methanol and ethanol. When necessary, the position of the group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the ol, propan-1-ol for CH 3CH 2CH 2OH, propan-2-ol for CH 3CHCH3. If a higher priority group is present, then the prefix hydroxy is used, in other less formal contexts, an alcohol is often called with the name of the corresponding alkyl group followed by the word alcohol, e. g. methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be n-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol, depending on whether the group is bonded to the end or middle carbon on the straight propane chain. As described under systematic naming, if another group on the molecule takes priority, Alcohols are then classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary, based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl functional group. The primary alcohols have general formulas RCH2OH, the simplest primary alcohol is methanol, for which R=H, and the next is ethanol, for which R=CH3, the methyl group. Secondary alcohols are those of the form RRCHOH, the simplest of which is 2-propanol, for the tertiary alcohols the general form is RRRCOH
36.
Hypnosis
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Hypnosis is a state of human consciousness involving focused attention and reduced peripheral awareness and an enhanced capacity to respond to suggestion. The term may refer to an art, skill, or act of inducing hypnosis. Theories explaining what occurs during hypnosis fall into two groups, altered state theories see hypnosis as an altered state of mind or trance, marked by a level of awareness different from the ordinary conscious state. In contrast, nonstate theories see hypnosis as a form of imaginative role enactment, during hypnosis, a person is said to have heightened focus and concentration. The person can concentrate intensely on a thought or memory. Hypnotised subjects are said to show a response to suggestions. Hypnosis is usually induced by a known as a hypnotic induction involving a series of preliminary instructions. The use of hypnotism for therapeutic purposes is referred to as hypnotherapy, stage hypnosis is often performed by mentalists practicing the art form of mentalism. The term hypnosis comes from the ancient Greek word ὕπνος hypnos, sleep, and the suffix -ωσις -osis, or from ὑπνόω hypnoō, put to sleep and the suffix -is. The words hypnosis and hypnotism both derive from the term neuro-hypnotism, all of which were coined by Étienne Félix dHenin de Cuvillers in 1820 and these words were popularized in English by the Scottish surgeon James Braid around 1841. Braid based his practice on that developed by Franz Mesmer and his followers, a person in a state of hypnosis is relaxed, has focused attention, and has increased suggestibility. It could be said that suggestion is explicitly intended to make use of the placebo effect. For example, in 1994, Irving Kirsch characterised hypnosis as a placebo, i. e. a method that openly makes use of suggestion. Have defined hypnosis in terms of dissociation, Social psychologists Sarbin and Coe. have described hypnosis in terms of role theory. Hypnosis is a role that play, they act as if they were hypnotised. Defined hypnosis in terms of behavioural parameters, such as task motivation. Conceptualised hypnosis as a state of enhanced suggestibility and he has defined hypnotism as a form of influence by one person exerted on another through the medium or agency of suggestion. Described hypnosis by using the concept of regression in the service of the ego
37.
LSD
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Lysergic acid diethylamide, also known as acid, is a psychedelic drug known for its psychological effects. This may include altered awareness of the surroundings, perceptions, and feelings as well as sensations and it is used mainly as a recreational drug and for spiritual reasons. LSD is typically either swallowed or held under the tongue and it is often sold on blotter paper, a sugar cube, or gelatin. However, adverse reactions such as anxiety, paranoia. LSD is in the ergoline family, LSD is sensitive to oxygen, ultraviolet light, and chlorine, though it may last for years if it is stored away from light and moisture at low temperature. In pure form it is odorless and clear or white in color, as little as 20–30 micrograms can produce an effect. LSD was first made by Albert Hofmann in Switzerland in 1938 from ergotamine, the laboratory name for the compound was the acronym for the German Lyserg-säure-diäthylamid, followed by a sequential number, LSD-25. Hofmann discovered its properties in 1943. LSD was introduced as a medication under the trade-name Delysid for various psychiatric uses in 1947. In the 1950s, officials at the U. S, Central Intelligence Agency thought the drug might be useful for mind control and chemical warfare and tested the drug on young servicemen and students, and others without their knowledge. The subsequent recreational use by youth culture in the Western world as part of 1960s counterculture resulted in its prohibition, LSD currently has no approved uses in medicine. LSD is commonly used as a recreational drug, LSD is considered an entheogen because it can catalyze intense spiritual experiences, during which users may feel they have come into contact with a greater spiritual or cosmic order. Users sometimes report out of body experiences, in 1966, Timothy Leary established the League for Spiritual Discovery with LSD as its sacrament. LSD can cause pupil dilation, reduced appetite, and wakefulness, other physical reactions to LSD are highly variable and nonspecific, some of which may be secondary to the psychological effects of LSD. The most common immediate psychological effects of LSD are visual hallucinations and illusions, trips usually start within 20–30 minutes of taking LSD by mouth, peak three to four hours after ingestion, and last up to 12 hours. It is impossible to predict when a bad trip will occur, some users, including Albert Hofmann, report a strong metallic taste for the duration of the effects. LSD causes an animated experience of senses, emotions, memories, time. Generally beginning within 30 to 90 minutes after ingestion, the user may experience anything from subtle changes in perception to overwhelming cognitive shifts, changes in auditory and visual perception are typical
