1.
Hachiman shrine
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A Hachiman shrine is a Shinto shrine dedicated to kami Hachiman. It is the second most numerous type of Shinto shrine after those dedicated to Inari Ōkami, originally the name was read Yawata or Yahata, a reading still used in some cases. Many towns and cities incorporating the names Hachiman, Yawata or Yahata grew around these shrines
2.
Hachiman
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In Japanese beliefs, Hachiman is the syncretic divinity of archery and war, incorporating elements from both Shinto and Buddhism. Although often called the god of war, he is more defined as the tutelary god of warriors. He is also the protector of Japan, the Japanese people and the Imperial House. The name means God of Eight Banners, referring to the eight banners that signaled the birth of the divine Emperor Ōjin. His symbolic animal and messenger is the dove, since ancient times Hachiman was worshiped by peasants as the god of agriculture and by fishermen who hoped he would fill their nets with much fish. In Shinto, he identified by legend as the Emperor Ōjin, son of Empress Jingū. After the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, Hachiman became a syncretistic deity, in the Buddhist pantheon in 8th century AD, he became Hachiman Great Bodhisattva. Because as Emperor Ōjin he was an ancestor of the Minamoto clan, Hachiman became the kami of the Minamoto samurai clan. For this reason, the shintai of a Hachiman shrine is usually a stirrup or a bow, throughout the Japanese medieval period, the worship of Hachiman spread throughout Japan among not only samurai, but also the peasantry. So much so was his popularity that presently there are 25000 Shinto shrines in Japan dedicated to Hachiman, the crest of Hachiman is in the design of a mitsudomoe, a round whirlpool or vortex with three heads swirling right or left. Many samurai clans used this crest as their own, ironically including some that traced their ancestry back to the enemy of the Minamoto. Hachiman shrine Minamoto no Yoriyoshi Minamoto no Yorinobu Kamikaze Bender, Ross, metamorphosis of a Deity, The Image of Hachiman in Yumi Yawata. The Political Meaning of the Hachiman Cult in Ancient and Early Medieval Japan
3.
Kamakura
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Kamakura is a city in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, about 50 kilometres south-south-west of Tokyo. Kamakura was designated as a city on November 3,1939, as of September 1,2016, the modern city has an estimated population of 172,302 and a population density of 4,358.77 persons per km². The total area is 39.53 km2, as a coastal city with a high number of seasonal festivals, as well as ancient Buddhist and Shinto shrines and temples, Kamakura is a popular tourist destination within Japan. Surrounded to the north, east and west by hills and to the south by the water of Sagami Bay. The natural fortification made Kamakura an easily defensible stronghold, to the north of the city stands Mt. Genji, which then passes behind the Daibutsu and reaches Inamuragasaki and the sea. From Kamakuras alluvional plain branch off numerous narrow valleys like the Urigayatsu, Shakadōgayatsu, Ōgigayatsu, Kamegayatsu, Hikigayatsu, Kamakura is crossed by the Namerigawa river, which goes from the Asaina Pass in northern Kamakura to the beach in Yuigahama for a total length of about 8 kilometres. The river marks the border between Zaimokuza and Yuigahama, in administrative terms, the municipality of Kamakura borders with Yokohama to the north, with Zushi to the east, and with Fujisawa to the west. North-west of Kamakura lies Yamanouchi, commonly called Kita-Kamakura because of the presence of East Japan Railway Companys Kita-Kamakura Station, Yamanouchi, however, was technically never a part of historical Kamakura since it is outside the Seven Entrances. Yamanouchi was the border of the city during the shogunate. Its name at the used to be Sakado-gō. The border post used to lie about a hundred meters past todays Kita-Kamakura train station in Ofunas direction. Although very small, Yamanouchi is famous for its traditional atmosphere and these three great temples were built here because Yamanouchi was the home territory of the Hōjō clan, a branch of the Taira clan which ruled Japan for 150 years. Among Kita-Kamakuras most illustrious citizens were artist Isamu Noguchi and movie director Yasujirō Ozu, Kamakuras defining feature is Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū, a Shinto shrine in the center of the city. A1. 8-kilometre road runs from Sagami Bay directly to the shrine and this road is known as Wakamiya Ōji, the citys main street. Built by Minamoto no Yoritomo as an imitation of Kyotos Suzaku Ōji, Wakamiya Ōji used to be much wider, delimited on both sides by a 3 metre deep canal and flanked by pine trees. Walking from the beach toward the shrine, one passes through three torii, or Shinto gates, called respectively Ichi no Torii, Ni no Torii and San no Torii. Between the first and the second lies Geba Yotsukado which, as the name indicates, was the place where riders had to get off their horses in deference to Hachiman and his shrine. Approximately 100 metres after the second torii, the dankazura, a raised pathway flanked by trees that marks the center of Kamakura
4.
Glossary of Shinto
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This is the glossary of Shinto, including major terms the casual reader might find useful in understanding articles on the subject. Words followed by an asterisk are illustrated by an image in one of the photo galleries, within definitions, words set in boldface are defined elsewhere in the glossary. The terms meaning is not limited to moral evil, and includes misfortune, inferiority. Amaterasu Ōmikami - The Sun Goddess, tutelary kami and ancestor of the Emperor, an* - a small table or platform used during Shinto ceremonies to bear offerings. It may have four, eight or sixteen legs, anzen - Safety, particularly safety at work, frequently requested from a kami, and in fact corporations often have a tutelary shrine specifically to ensure their business prospers. Aramitama - The rough and violent side of a spirit, bekkū or betsugū - Subsidiary shrine next to the honden, which may however enshrine an equally important kami. Benzaiten - Originally Buddhist goddess Sarasvati, now a syncretic goddess member of the seven lucky gods, bettō - before the shinbutsu bunri, when the Meiji period law forbade the mixing of Shinto and Buddhism, a bettō was a monk who performed Buddhist rites at a Shinto shrine. Bishamonten - Syncretic deity of Buddhist origin part of the Seven Lucky Gods, a symbol of authority, he protects warriors. Bon Matsuri - a festival celebrated around July 15 in order to console the spirits of the dead, in theory a Buddhist festival, but in practice an ancestor and family festival part of Shinto. Bunrei - process of division of a kami producing two complete copies of the original, one of which is transferred to a new shrine through a process called kanjō. Bunsha - Shrine part of a network headed by a famous shrine, butsudan - Buddhist altar found in Japanese homes enshrining a familys ancestors. Chigi* - Forked decorations common at the ends of the roof of shrines, chinju - the tutelary kami or tutelary shrine of a certain area or Buddhist temple. Chinjusha* - a small shrine dedicated to the kami of an area or building. Chōchin - paper lanterns always present at Shinto festivals chōzuya - see temizuya, daijōsai - Ceremony marking the beginning of an Emperors reign in which he offers first fruits to ancestors, including Amaterasu. The Emperor then shares a meal with the goddess, Daikokuten - syncretic god part of the seven lucky gods fusing Buddhist god Mahakala and kami Ōkuninushi. Dōsojin - group of kami and Buddhist gods protectors of roads, borders, ebisu - god of prosperity found at both temples and shrines. One of the Seven Lucky Gods. ema* - small wooden plaques on which worshipers at shrines, as well as Buddhist temples, fuji - The most famous among Japans sacred mountains, it is inhabited by a kami called Konohanasakuya-hime. Fukkō Shintō - name synonymous with kokugaku, go-hei* - also called onbe or heisoku
5.
Shinto shrine
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A Shinto shrine is a structure whose main purpose is to house one or more Shinto kami. Its most important building is used for the safekeeping of sacred objects, structurally, a Shinto shrine is usually characterized by the presence of a honden or sanctuary, where the kami is enshrined. The honden may however be completely absent, as for example when the stands on a sacred mountain to which it is dedicated. There may be a haiden and other structures as well, however, a shrines most important building is used for the safekeeping of sacred objects rather than for worship. Miniature shrines can occasionally be found on roadsides, large shrines sometimes have on their precincts miniature shrines. The portable shrines which are carried on poles during festivals enshrine kami and are therefore true shrines. in 927 CE and this work listed all of the 2,861 Shinto shrines existing at the time, and the 3,131 official-recognized and enshrined Kami. Certainly, that number has grown and greatly exceeded this figure through the following generations, in Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan placed the number of shrines at 79,467, mostly affiliated with the Association of Shinto Shrines. Some shrines, such as the Yasukuni Shrine are totally independent of any outside authority, the number of Shinto shrines in Japan is estimated to be around 100,000. This figure may, or may not, include private shrines in homes and owned by groups, abandoned or derelict shrines. Ancestors are kami to be worshiped, yayoi-period village councils sought the advice of ancestors and other kami, and developed instruments to evoke them. Yoshishiro means approach substitute and were conceived to attract the kami to allow them physical space, village-council sessions were held in quiet spots in the mountains or in forests near great trees or other natural objects that served as yorishiro. These sacred places and their yorishiro gradually evolved into todays shrines, whose origins can be seen in the Japanese words for mountain and forest. Many shrines have on their grounds one of the original great yorishiro, the first buildings at places dedicated to worship were surely huts built to house some yorishiro. A trace of this origin can be found in the term hokura, deity storehouse, which evolved into hokora, true shrines arose with the beginning of agriculture, when the need arose to attract kami to ensure good harvests. These were, however, just temporary structures built for a particular purpose, Ōmiwa Shrine in Nara, for example, contains no sacred images or objects because it is believed to serve the mountain on which it stands. Those images or objects are therefore unnecessary, for the same reason, it has a worship hall but no place to house the kami. Archeology confirms that, during the Yayoi period, the most common shintai in the earliest shrines were nearby mountain peaks that supplied water to the plains where people lived. Besides the already mentioned Ōmiwa Shrine, another important example is Mount Nantai, significantly, the name Nantai means mans body
6.
Kanagawa Prefecture
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Kanagawa Prefecture is a prefecture located in southern Kantō region of Japan. The capital of the prefecture is Yokohama, Kanagawa is part of the Greater Tokyo Area. Kanagawa Prefecture is home to Kamakura and Hakone, two highly popular side trip destinations from Tokyo, the prefecture has some archaeological sites going back to the Jōmon period. About 3,000 years ago, Mount Hakone produced an explosion which resulted in Lake Ashi on the western area of the prefecture. It is believed that the Yamato dynasty ruled this area from the 5th century onwards, in the ancient era, its plains were very sparsely inhabited. In medieval Japan, Kanagawa was part of the provinces of Sagami, Kamakura in central Sagami was the capital of Japan during the Kamakura period. During the Edo period, the part of Sagami Province was governed by the daimyō of Odawara Castle, while the eastern part was directly governed by the Tokugawa shogunate in Edo. Commodore Matthew Perry landed in Kanagawa in 1853 and 1854 and signed the Convention of Kanagawa to force open Japanese ports to the United States. Nearby Yokosuka, closer to the mouth of Tokyo Bay, developed as a port and now serves as headquarters for the U. S. 7th Fleet. After the Meiji period, many lived in Yokohama City. The Meiji Government developed the first railways in Japan, from Shinbashi to Yokohama in 1872, the epicenter of the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923 was deep beneath Izu Ōshima Island in Sagami Bay. It devastated Tokyo, the city of Yokohama, surrounding prefectures of Chiba, Kanagawa, and Shizuoka. The sea receded as much as 400 metres from the shore at Manazuru Point, at Kamakura, the total death toll from earthquake, tsunami, and fire exceeded 2,000 victims. At Odawara, ninety percent of the buildings collapsed immediately, Yokohama, Kawasaki and other major cities were heavily damaged by the U. S. bombing in 1945. Casualties amounted to more than several thousand, after the war, General Douglas MacArthur, the chief commander of Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers for the Occupation of Japan, landed in Kanagawa, before moving to other areas. U. S. military bases remain in Kanagawa, including Camp Zama, Yokosuka Naval Base. In 1945, Kanagawa was the 15th most populous prefecture in Japan, in the years after the war, the prefecture underwent rapid urbanization as a part of the Greater Tokyo Area. The population as of September 1,2014, is estimated to be 9.1 million, Kanagawa became the second most populous prefecture in 2006
7.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
8.
Tendai
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Tendai is a Japanese school of Mahayana Buddhism, a descendant of the Chinese Tiantai or Lotus Sutra school. David W. Philosophically, the Tendai school did not deviate substantially from the beliefs that had created by the Tiantai school in China. However, what Saichō transmitted from China was not exclusively Tiantai, but also included Zen, the esoteric Mikkyō, the tendency to include a range of teachings became more marked in the doctrines of Saichōs successors, such as Ennin and Enchin. However, in years, this range of teachings began to form sub-schools within Tendai Buddhism. By the time of Ryōgen, there were two groups on Mt. Hiei, the Sammon Mountain Group who followed Ennin and the Jimon Temple Group who followed Enchin. The Tendai sect flourished under the patronage of the Imperial House, in 794, the Imperial capital was moved to Kyoto. Tendai Buddhism became the dominant form of mainstream Buddhism in Japan for many years, nichiren, Hōnen, Shinran and Dōgen—all famous thinkers in non-Tendai schools of Japanese Buddhism—were all initially trained as Tendai monks. Japanese Buddhism was dominated by the Tendai school to a greater degree than Chinese Buddhism was by its forebearer. Due to its patronage and growing popularity among the classes, the Tendai sect became not only respected. Enryaku-ji, the complex on Mt. Hiei, became a sprawling center of power, attended not only by ascetic monks. As a result, in 1571 Enryaku-ji was razed by Oda Nobunaga as part of his campaign to unify Japan, Nobunaga regarded the Mt. Hiei monks as a potential threat or rival, as they could employ religious claims to attempt to rally the populace to their side. The temple complex was rebuilt, and continues to serve as the head temple of the Tendai school today. Chih-i, founder of Tien-tai philosophy and practice attempted this synthesis on the basis of the doctrine of the Lotus Sutra. Tendai Buddhism has several philosophical insights which allow for the reconciliation of Buddhist doctrine with aspects of Japanese culture such as Shinto and it is rooted in the idea, fundamental to Mahayana Buddhism, that Buddha-hood, the capability to attain enlightenment, is intrinsic in all things. Also central to Mahayana is the notion that the phenomenal world and this notion poses the problem of how we come to have many differentiated experiences. Tendai Buddhism claims that each and every sense phenomenon just as it is is the expression of Dharma, for Tendai, the ultimate expression of Dharma is the Lotus Sutra. Therefore, the nature of all sense experiences consists in the Buddhas preaching of the doctrine of Lotus Sutra. The existence and experience of all unenlightened beings is fundamentally equivalent, more specifically, Shimaji used original enlightenment thought to designate the intellectual mainstream of medieval Japanese Tendai Buddhism
9.
Buddhist temples in Japan
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Buddhist temples are, together with Shinto shrines, considered to be among the most numerous, famous, and important religious buildings in Japan. The Japanese word for a Buddhist temple is tera, and the same kanji also has the pronunciation ji, another ending, -in, is normally used to refer to minor temples. Such famous temples as Kiyomizu-dera, Enryaku-ji, and Kōtoku-in illustrate this naming pattern, in Japan, Buddhist temples co-exist with Shinto shrines, and both share the basic features of Japanese traditional architecture. Some shrines, for example Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū, have a Buddhist-style main gate called sōmon, many temples have a temizuya and komainu, like a shrine. Conversely, some make use of incense or have a shōrō belltower. Others – for example, Tanzan Jinja in Nara – may even have a pagoda, similarities between temples and shrines are also functional. Like a shrine, a Buddhist temple is not primarily a place of worship, its most important buildings are used for the safekeeping of sacred objects, unlike a Christian church, a temple is also a monastery. There are specialized buildings for certain rites, but these are open only to a limited number of participants. Religious mass gatherings do not take place with regularity as with Christian religions, if many people are involved in a ceremony, it will assume a festive character and will be held outdoors. The reason for the structural resemblances between the two lies in their common history. It is in fact normal for a temple to have also a shrine. Shrines enshrining local kami existed long before the arrival of Buddhism, with the arrival of Buddhism in Japan in the 6th century, shrines were subjected to its influence and adopted both the concept of permanent structures and the architecture of Buddhist temples. The successive development of shinbutsu-shūgō and of the honji suijaku theory brought to the almost complete fusion of kami worship and it became normal for shrines to be accompanied by temples in mixed complexes called jingū-ji or miyadera. The opposite was also common, most temples had at least a shrine dedicated to its tutelary kami. As a consequence, for centuries shrines and temples had a relationship where each influenced the other. The clear separation between Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, which today is the norm, emerges only as a result of the shinbutsu bunri law of 1868. This separation was mandated by law, and many shrine-temples were forced to become just shrines, among them famous ones like Usa Hachiman-gū and Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū. For example, Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gūs giant Niō, being objects of Buddhist worship and therefore illegal where they were, were sold to Jufuku-ji, the shrine-temple also had to destroy Buddhism-related buildings, for example its tahōtō, its midō, and its shichidō garan
10.
Japanese Buddhist architecture
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Japanese Buddhist architecture is the architecture of Buddhist temples in Japan, consisting of locally developed variants of architectural styles born in China. The first Buddhist sects were Naras six Nanto Rokushū, followed during the Heian period by Kyotos Shingon, later, during the Kamakura period, in Kamakura were born the Jōdo and the native Japanese sect Nichiren-shū. At roughly the same time Zen Buddhism arrived from China, strongly influencing all other sects in many ways, the social composition of Buddhisms followers also changed radically with time. In the beginning it was the religion, but slowly it spread from the noble to warriors, merchants. On the technical side, new woodworking tools like the pit saw. Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines share their characteristics and often differ only in details that the non-specialist may not notice. This similarity is because the division between Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines is recent, dating to the Meiji periods policy of separation of Buddhism. Before the Meiji Restoration it was common for a Buddhist temple to be built inside or next to a shrine, if a shrine housed a Buddhist temple, it was called a jingū-ji. Analogously, temples all over Japan used to adopt tutelary kami (chinju, Buddhist architecture in Japan during the countrys whole history has absorbed much of the best available natural and human resources. Particularly between the 8th and the 16th centuries, it led the development of new structural and ornamental features, for these reasons, its history is vital to the understanding of not only Buddhist architecture itself, but also of Japanese art in general. Its history is as a consequence dominated by Chinese and other Asian techniques and styles on one side, first of all is the choice of materials, always wood in various forms for almost all structures. Unlike both Western and some Chinese architecture, the use of stone is avoided except for specific uses, for example temple podia. The general structure is almost always the same, columns and lintels support a large and gently curved roof, while the walls are paper-thin, often movable, arches and barrel roofs are completely absent. Gable and eave curves are gentler than in China and columnar entasis limited, the roof is the most visually impressive component, often constituting half the size of the whole edifice. The slightly curved eaves extend far beyond the walls, covering verandas and these oversize eaves give the interior a characteristic dimness, which contributes to the temples atmosphere. The interior of the building consists of a single room at the center called moya, from which sometimes depart other less important spaces. Inner space divisions are fluid, and room size can be modified through the use of screens or movable paper walls, the large, single space offered by the main hall can therefore be altered according to the need. The separation between inside and outside is itself in some measure not absolute as entire walls can be removed, verandas appear to be part of the building to an outsider, but part of the external world to those in the temple
11.
Gingko biloba
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Ginkgo biloba, commonly known as ginkgo or gingko, also known as the ginkgo tree or the maidenhair tree, is the only living species in the division Ginkgophyta, all others being extinct. It is found in dating back 270 million years. Native to China, the tree is cultivated and was introduced early to human history. It has various uses in medicine and as a source of food. The genus name Ginkgo is regarded as a misspelling of the Japanese gin kyo, the species was initially described by Carl Linnaeus in 1771, the specific epithet biloba derived from the Latin bis, two and loba, lobed, referring to the shape of the leaves. Two names for the species recognise the botanist Richard Salisbury, a placement by Nelson as Pterophyllus salisburiensis, the epithet of the latter may have been intended to denote a characteristic resembling Adiantum, the genus of maidenhair ferns. The relationship of ginkgo to other plant groups remains uncertain and it has been placed loosely in the divisions Spermatophyta and Pinophyta, but no consensus has been reached. Since its seeds are not protected by a wall, it can morphologically be considered a gymnosperm. The apricot-like structures produced by female ginkgo trees are technically not fruits, but are seeds that have a shell consisting of a soft and fleshy section, and a hard section. It is one of the examples of a living fossil. Chinese scientists published a draft genome of Ginko biloba in 2016, the tree has an exceptionally large genome of 10.6 billion DNA letters and about 41,840 predicted genes which enable a considerable number of antibacterial and chemical defense mechanisms. The spelling pronunciation /ˈɡɪŋkɡoʊ/ is however so widespread that it is recorded in some dictionaries, especially British ones, the older Chinese name for this plant is 銀果, meaning silver fruit, pronounced yínguǒ in Mandarin or Ngan-gwo in Cantonese. The most usual names today are 白果, meaning white fruit, the former name was borrowed directly in Vietnamese as bạch quả. The latter name was borrowed in Japanese ぎんなん and Korean 은행, the scientific name Ginkgo is the result of a spelling error that occurred three centuries ago. Kanji typically have multiple pronunciations in Japanese, and the characters 銀杏 used for ginnan can also be pronounced ginkyō, linné, who relied on Kaempfer when dealing with Japanese plants, adopted the spelling given in Kaempfers Flora Japonica. An extract of Ginkgo biloba leaf is marketed in dietary supplement form with claims it can enhance cognitive function in people without known cognitive problems, studies have failed to find such effects on memory or attention in healthy people. A standardized medicinal extract of Ginkgo biloba leaf originally called EGb 761 has been studied as a treatment for dementia and Alzheimers disease. Some reviews have concluded there is no evidence supporting the use of Ginkgo in dementia
12.
Important Cultural Property (Japan)
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Besides the designation system, there exists a registration system, which guarantees a lower level of protection and support to Registered Cultural Properties. Cultural Properties are classified according to their nature, the designation can take place at a city, prefectural or national level. In this last case the agency is often not specified. Designations of a different level can coexist, for example, Sankei-en, a traditional Japanese-style garden in Naka Ward, Yokohama, owns both city designated and nationally designated Important Cultural Properties
13.
Moto Hachiman
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Moto Hachiman is a small but very old and historically important Shinto shrine in Kamakura, Kanagawa Pref. Although officially called Yui Wakamiya, this shrine in Zaimokuza is universally known as Moto Hachiman. This unattended shrine consists of just a torii, two lanterns, and a honden or sanctuary, where the kami Hachiman is enshrined. It is however illustrious because it is the location of the great Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū. In February 1081 the shrine was repaired by Minamoto no Yoshiie and it is likely that this area was then called Tsurugaoka. When the Azuma Kagami says that Minamoto no Yoritomo at last visited his distant ancestors at Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū, the new shrine used its predecessors name without changes. From that moment, this place has been called Moto Hachiman, yoriyoshis decision had profound consequences for the country, because, since Hachiman was the Minamotos tutelary kami, Kamakura was now the land of his familys ancestors. This, together with the fact Kamakura is a fortress and his desire to leave Kyoto. As a consequence, Kamakura became the capital of Japan. It is unclear when the official name was changed into Yui Wakamiya. Moto Hachiman is National Historic Site, fukaku Aruku - Kamakura Shiseki Sansaku Vol.1 &2. Kamakura Kankō Bunka Kentei Kōshiki Tekisutobukku, area, Zaimokuza by the Kamakura Citizens Net, retrieved on June 22,2008
14.
Kami
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Kami are the spirits or phenomena that are worshiped in the religion of Shinto. They can be elements of the landscape, forces of nature, as well as beings and the qualities that these beings express, and include the spirits of venerated dead persons. Many kami are considered the ancient ancestors of entire clans, traditionally, great or sensational leaders like the Emperor could be kami. In Shinto, kami are not separate from nature, but are of nature, possessing positive and negative, good and they are manifestations of musubi, the interconnecting energy of the universe, and are considered exemplary of what humanity should strive towards. Kami are believed to be “hidden” from this world, and inhabit a complementary existence that mirrors our own, to be in harmony with the awe-inspiring aspects of nature is to be conscious of kannagara no michi. Though the word kami is translated in multiple ways into English, in this way, the ambiguity of the meaning of kami is necessary, as it conveys the ambiguous nature of kami themselves. Kami is the Japanese word for a god, deity, divinity and it has been used to describe mind, God, supreme being, one of the Shinto deities, an effigy, a principle, and anything that is worshipped. Although deity is the interpretation of kami, some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term. The wide variety of usage of the word can be compared to the Sanskrit Deva and the Hebrew Elohim, some etymological suggestions are, Kami may, at its root, simply mean spirit, or an aspect of spirituality. It is written with the kanji 神, Sino-Japanese reading shin or jin, in Chinese, the character means deity. In the Ainu language, the word refers to an animistic concept very similar to Japanese kami. In his Kojiki-den, Motoori Norinaga gave a definition of kami. any being whatsoever which possesses some eminent quality out of the ordinary, because Japanese does not normally distinguish grammatical number in nouns, it is sometimes unclear whether kami refers to a single or multiple entities. When a singular concept is needed, -kami or -kamisama is used as a suffix. The logograms for kami-sama are those used for shén yàng in Pŭtōnghuà, kami-sama can be used for a divinity, or for a human, such as Tezuka Osamu. The term generally used to refer to multiple kami is kamigami, gender is also not implied in the word kami, and as such it can be used to reference either male or female. The word megami, the use of female kami is a new tradition. The Kojiki also includes descriptions of various kami, in the ancient Shinto traditions there were 5 defining characteristics of kami. They can nurture and love when respected, or they can cause destruction, Kami must be appeased in order to gain their favor and avoid their wrath
15.
Minamoto no Yoritomo
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Minamoto no Yoritomo was the founder and the first shogun of the Kamakura Shogunate of Japan. He ruled from 1192 until 1199, Yoritomo was the third son of Minamoto no Yoshitomo, heir of the Minamoto clan, and his official wife, Urahime, a daughter of Fujiwara no Suenori, who was a member of the illustrious Fujiwara clan. Yoritomo was born in Atsuta in Owari Province, at that time Yoritomos grandfather Minamoto no Tameyoshi was the head of the Minamoto. In 1156, factional divisions in the court erupted into open warfare within the capital and this is known as the Hōgen Rebellion. The head of the clan, Tameyoshi, sided with Sutoku, his son, Yoshitomo, sided with Toba and Go-Shirakawa, in the end, the supporters of Go-Shirakawa won the civil war, thus ensuring victory for Yoshitomo and Kiyomori. Sutoku was placed under house arrest, and Yorinaga was fatally wounded in battle, Tameyoshi was executed, even after numerous pleas from Yoshitomo. Nonetheless, Go-Shirakawa and Kiyomori were ruthless, and Yoshitomo found himself as the head of the Minamoto, Yoritomo and the Minamoto clan descended from the imperial family on his fathers side. Nonetheless, in Kyoto, the Taira clan, now under the leadership of Kiyomori, Kiyomori was supported by Fujiwara no Michinori, while Yoshitomo was supported by Fujiwara no Nobuyori. This was known as the Heiji Rebellion, the ex-Emperors and Shinzeis mansions were burned, while Shinzei was captured and decapitated. Nonetheless, the Minamoto were not well prepared, and the Taira took control of Kyoto, Yoshitomo fled the capital but was later betrayed and executed by a retainer. In the aftermath, harsh terms were imposed on the Minamoto, only Yoshitomos three young boys remained alive, so that Kiyomori and the Taira clan were now the undisputed leaders of Japan. Yoritomo, the new head of the Minamoto, was exiled, Yoritomo was not executed by Kiyomori because of pleas from Kiyomoris stepmother. Yoritomos brothers, Minamoto no Noriyori and Minamoto no Yoshitsune were also allowed to live and he married into the Hōjō clan, led by Hōjō Tokimasa, marrying Tokimasas daughter, Hōjō Masako. Meanwhile, he was notified of events in Kyoto thanks to helpful friends, soon enough, Yoritomos passive exile was to be over. Yoritomo took part in this, especially after things escalated between the Taira and Minamoto after the death of Minamoto no Yorimasa and Prince Mochihito himself, Yoritomo set himself up as the rightful heir of the Minamoto clan, and he set up a capital in Kamakura to the east. Not all Minamoto thought of Yoritomo as rightful heir and his uncle Minamoto no Yukiie and his cousin Minamoto no Yoshinaka conspired against him. In September 1180, Yoritomo was defeated at the Battle of Ishibashiyama, his first major battle, Yoritomo spent the next six months raising a new army. In 1181, Taira no Kiyomori died, and the Taira clan was now led by Taira no Munemori, Munemori took a much more aggressive policy against the Minamoto, and attacked Minamoto bases from Kyoto in the Genpei War
16.
Kamakura shogunate
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The Kamakura shogunate was a Japanese feudal military government that ruled from 1185 to 1333. The heads of the government were the shoguns, the first three were members of the Minamoto clan. The next two were members of the Fujiwara clan, the last six were minor Imperial princes. These years are known as the Kamakura period, the period takes its name from the city where the Minamoto shoguns lived. After 1203, the Hōjō clan held the office of shikken, in effect, the shikken governed in the name of the shoguns. Military affairs were handled under the auspices of the civil government, however, after defeating the Taira clan in the Genpei War, Minamoto no Yoritomo seized super powers from the aristocracy. In 1192, Yoritomo and the Minamoto clan established a government in Kamakura. Eventually, Tokimasa deposed Yoriie, backed up his brother, Minamoto no Sanetomo, as a new shogun. The Minamoto clan remained the titular shoguns, with the Hōjō holding the real power, in 1219, Sanetomo was assassinated by his nephew Kugyō. Since Sanetomo died childless, the line of shoguns from the Minamoto clan ended with him, with the Regency, what was already an unusual situation became even more anomalous when the Hōjō usurped power from those who had usurped it from the Emperor in the first place. The new regime proved to be stable enough to last a total of 135 years,9 shoguns and 16 regents. With Sanetomos death in 1219, his mother Hōjō Masako became the Shogunates real center of power, as long as she lived, regents and shoguns would come and go, while she stayed at the helm. Since the Hōjō family did not have the rank to nominate a shogun from among its members, the problem was solved choosing Kujo Yoritsune, a distant relation of the Minamoto, who would be the fourth shogun and figurehead, while Hōjō Yoshitoki would take care of day-to-day business. However powerless, future shoguns would always be chosen from either Fujiwara or imperial lineage to keep the bloodline pure and this succession proceeded for more than a century. In 1221 Emperor Go-Toba tried to power in what would be called the Jōkyū War. The power of the Hōjō remained unchallenged until 1324, when Emperor Go-Daigo orchestrated a plot to overthrow them, the Mongols under Kublai Khan attempted sea-borne invasions in 1274 and 1281. The shogunate had rejected Kublais demands to submit with contempt, the Mongols returned in 1281 with a force of some 50,000 Mongol-Korean-Chinese along with some 100,000 conscripts from the defeated Song empire in south China. This force embarked and fought the Japanese for some seven weeks at several locations in Kyushu, but the defenders held, and the Mongols made no strategic headway
17.
Minamoto no Sanetomo
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He was the last head of the Minamoto clan of Japan. Shortly thereafter in 1203, Sanetomo became head of the Minamoto clan and was appointed Seii Taishogun, in the next year,1204, Yoriie was assassinated by the Hōjō. Sanetomo was a poet, writing over 700 poems between the ages of 17 and 22 while being tutored by Fujiwara no Teika. Sanetomo also achieved the third highest post of the imperial court, eventually, he lapsed into inactivity and despair, plagued by fear of assassination and tormented by his chronic alcoholism. His nephew Kugyō came out from beside the stairway of the shrine. For his act he was himself beheaded few hours later, thus bringing the Seiwa Genji line of the Minamoto clan, Minamoto no Sanetomo was succeeded by Kujō Yoritsune as fourth shogun of the Kamakura shogunate. The years in which Sanetomo was shogun are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō, a history of the Japanese people from the earliest times to the end of the Meiji era. Japan, Continuing the history to the close of 1905, with the provisions of the treaty of Portsmouth between Russia and Japan, and supplementary chapters, OCLC1014075 Frédéric, Louis, Roth, Käthe. New York Public Library Digital Gallery, early photograph of Shrine steps where Sanetomo was killed
18.
Udaijin
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Udaijin was a government position in Japan in the late Nara and Heian periods. The position was consolidated in the Taihō Code of 702, the Asuka Kiyomihara Code of 689 marks the initial appearance of the udaijin in the context of a central administrative body called the Daijō-kan. This early Daijō-kan was composed of the three ministers—the daijō-daijin, the sadaijin and the udaijin, the udaijin was the Junior Minister of State, overseeing all branches of the Daijō-kan. He would be the deputy of the sadaijin, the post of udaijin, along with the rest of the Daijō-kan structure, gradually lost power over the 10th and 11th centuries, as the Fujiwara came to dominate politics more and more. The system was essentially powerless by the end of the 12th century, when the Minamoto, however, it is not entirely clear whether the Daijō-kan system was formally dismantled prior to the Meiji era. Daijō-kan Kugyō Sesshō and Kampaku List of Daijō-daijin Kōkyū Kuge Imperial Household Agency
19.
Minamoto no Yoriie
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Minamoto no Yoriie was the second shogun of Japans Kamakura shogunate, and the first son of first shogun Yoritomo. Before he was born, his father Yoritomo had Hōjō Tokimasa, when Yoriie later himself had an heir, Ichiman, the child was also born at the Hiki mansion to Hikis daughter Wakasa no Tsubone, a fact which further consolidated an already strong emotional bond. Yoriie showed when still very young great interest in military arts like fencing, after his fathers death in 1199, the 17-year-old became head of the Minamoto clan and was appointed seii taishogun in 1202. He was, however, criticized for his abandonment of his fathers policies, on June 30,1203 his remaining powers were formally taken from him and assumed by a council of 13 elders, headed by his grandfather Hōjō Tokimasa. Yoriie in turn plotted with the Hiki to subjugate the Hōjō clan, however, he failed, was put under house arrest and forced to abdicate, and was eventually assassinated on July 17,1204 in Izu. Yoriie was succeeded by his younger brother Sanetomo, the last of the Seiwa Genji line to rule, at least nominally, over Kamakura. Seriously ill, Yoriie proposed to both his younger brother Sanetomo, and his young son Minamoto no Ichiman to succeed him. It seemed natural to them that Hiki would then be the regent, even if unofficially, Hiki suggested to Yoriie, who would be assassinated shortly afterwards by a separate faction, that they arrange to have Sanetomo killed. Hōjō Masako, Yoriies mother and wife of the first shogun Yoritomo, on a pretext, Hōjō Tokimasa invited Hiki Yoshikazu to his home and assassinated him. A battle between the clans ensued, the Hiki were defeated by a coalition of the Hōjō, Wada, Miura, Yoriie died in Shuzenji, a small town in what was later called Izu Province, assassinated by his uncle Hōjō Tokimasa. But all of his son died of a violent death, victims of the struggle that followed Yoritomos sudden death. His mother Wakasa no Tsubone was Hiki Yoshikazus daughter, and the child was brought up by the Hiki clan, there are contrasting versions of his death, but in any case he died in the fire that destroyed the Hiki residence. Third son Senju-maru was 12 when Izumi Chikahira rebelled against the Hōjō to make the child shogun, after Chikahiras defeat, the child was forced to become a Buddhist monk like his older brother Yoshinari. A year later Wada Yoshimori also rebelled but, like Chikahira, was defeated, the years in which Yoriie was shogun are all within only one era name or nengō, Kennin. Fukaku Aruku - Kamakura Shiseki Sansaku Vol.1 &2, ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC58053128 Papinot, Edmund. Dictionnaire dhistoire et de géographie du japon, tokyo, Librarie Sansaisha. Click link for digitized 1906 Nobiliaire du japon Titsingh, Isaac. Nihon Odai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon, paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Ōmachi, by the Kamakura Citizens Net, accessed on September 30,2008
20.
Edo period
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The Edo period or Tokugawa period is the period between 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when Japanese society was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the countrys 300 regional daimyō. The period was characterized by growth, strict social order, isolationist foreign policies. The shogunate was established in Edo on March 24,1603. The period came to an end with the Meiji Restoration on May 3,1868, instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Already powerful, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō area, after Hideyoshis death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi family. Ieyasus victory over the western daimyōs at the Battle of Sekigahara gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyō houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyōs, but his assumption of the title of shogun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada as shogun. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication, in 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka. The Tokugawa period brought 250 years of stability to Japan, the political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu and han to describe the government and society of the period. In the bakuhan, the shogun had national authority and the daimyōs had regional authority and this represented a new unity in the feudal structure, which featured an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The feudal hierarchy was completed by the classes of daimyō. Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan, or related houses and they were twenty-three daimyōs on the borders of Tokugawa lands, all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu, the second class of the hierarchy were the fudai, or house daimyōs, rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the 18th century,145 fudai controlled such smaller han, members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the group, the tozama, former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago, because the tozama were least trusted of the daimyō, they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions. The Tokugawa not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all daimyōs and the religious orders
21.
Tokugawa Mitsukuni
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Tokugawa Mitsukuni or Mito Kōmon was a prominent daimyō who was known for his influence in the politics of the early Edo period. He was the son of Tokugawa Yorifusa and succeeded him. He was responsible for assembling the Mitogaku scholars to compile a huge Japanese history, in it, Japan was depicted as a nation under the Emperor, analogous to that in Chinese dynasties. This helped the rise of nationalism in the shogunate and in the Mito Domain later. In 1661, at age 34, he became the daimyō of the Mito han, at age 63, he was awarded the court office of gon-chūnagon, or provisional middle counsellor. In 1691, he retired to his villa, Seizan-sō and he directed at Zuisen-ji the creation of the very first guide to Kamakura, the Shinpen Kamakurashi. In 1657 at the age of 27, he married a daughter of the kampaku Konoe Nobuhiro and he was also known as a gourmet of the Edo period. He is claimed to be one of the first Japanese to eat ramen as well as routinely enjoying such exotic food as wine, Mitsukuni had one son, who took the Matsudaira surname. Additionally, Mitsukuni adopted the son of a brother, this adopted son, Tokugawa Tsunaeda. He died at his villa in 1701 and he posthumously received the court rank of junior first rank and first rank. He is now considered to be a kami, during the latter half of the Edo period and the Meiji period, a kōdan named Mito Mitsukuni Manyūki fictionalized the travels of Tokugawa Mitsukuni. From 1969 to 2011, the TBS ran the series Mito Kōmon, episodes were re-broadcast in the early 1990s by WNYE-TV under the title The Elder Lord of Mito. Each summer, the city of Mito hosts the Mito Komon festival, Japanese Historians and the National Myths, 1600–1945, The Age of the Gods and Emperor Jimmu. Vancouver, University of British Columbia Press, ISBN 0-7748-0644-3 Tokyo, University of Tokyo Press. Political Thought in Japanese Historical Writing, From Kojiki to Tokushi Yoron, waterloo, Ontario, Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 0-88920-997-9 Iwao, Seiichi, Teizō Iyanaga, Susumu Ishii, ISBN 978-2-7068-1632-1, OCLC51096469 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon
22.
Shinpen Kamakurashi
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The Shinpen Kamakurashi is an Edo period compendium of topographic, geographic and demographic data concerning the city of Kamakura, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, and its vicinities. It includes illustrations, maps, and information about temples, ruins and place names etymologies not only about Kamakura, the book created and popularized many of these numbered names, which were picked up by many subsequent tourist guides and became part of Kamakuras image. Each volume contains a days worth of walking and is a real and this makes the book a precious source of information to historians. The detail of the tree first appears in the Shinpen Kamakurashi. It is believed the book was compiled using as a base the Kamakura Nikki, the book was written at Zuisen-ji, a Zen temple of the Engaku-ji school in Kamakura by Kawai Tsunehisa, Matsumura Kiyoyuki and Rikiishi Tadakazu. Amazon. com Bookstore, 新編鎌倉志影印・解説・索引, accessed on October 23,2008 Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo, Kamakura Kankō Bunka Kentei Kōshiki Tekisutobukku. Fukaku Aruku - Kamakura Shiseki Sansaku Vol.1 &2
23.
Seiwa Genji
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The Seiwa Genji were the most successful and powerful line of the Japanese Minamoto clan that were descended from Emperor Seiwa. Tokugawa Ieyasu, founder of the Tokugawa shogunate, also claimed descent from this lineage, the family is named after Emperor Seiwa, who was the grandfather of Minamoto no Tsunemoto who founded the Seiwa Genji. Emperor Seiwa was father of Imperial Prince Sadazumi, who was in turn the father of Minamoto no Tsunemoto, founder of the Seiwa Genji, the Shimazu clan served the Tsuchiya clan loyally for many years. The Shimazu and Tokugawa clans also claimed to belong to this line, a group of Shinto shrines connected closely with the clan is known as the Three Genji Shrines. The following family trees are a non-exhaustive listing of the Seiwa Genji, legend, Solid lines represent blood relationship, dashed lines represent adoptions. Ōta clan Sakai clan Sansom, George, a History of Japan to 1334
24.
Honji suijaku
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The theory states that some kami are local manifestations of Buddhist deities. The two entities form a whole called gongen and in theory should have equal standing. In the early Nara period, for example, the honji was considered more important, during the late Kamakura period it was even proposed that the kami were the original deities and the buddhas their manifestations. The theory was never systematized but was very pervasive and very influential. It is considered the keystone of the shinbutsu-shūgō edifice, early Buddhist monks did not doubt the existence of kami but saw them as inferior to their buddhas. Hindu deities had had the reception, They were thought of as non-illuminated. Buddhist claims of superiority, however, encountered resistance, monks tried to overcome it by deliberately integrating kami in their system, Japanese Buddhists themselves wanted to somehow give the kami equal status. Several strategies to do this were developed and employed, and one of them was the honji suijaku theory, the expression was originally developed in China and used by Tendai Buddhists to distinguish an absolute truth from its historical manifestation. The term makes its first appearance with this meaning in the Eizan Daishiden, the dichotomy was applied to deities only in Japan and not, for example, in China. Their brightness would otherwise be such to destroy mere mortals, in the 10th and 11th centuries there are numerous examples of Buddhist deities and kami pairings, The deities are usually Kannon, Yakushi, Amida or Shaka Nyorai. The association between them was made after a dream or revelation made to a famous monk, later recorded in a temples or shrines records. By then, kami in Japan were universally understood to be the form taken by buddhas to save human beings, around the beginning of the Kamakura period the pairings had become solidly codified in large temples or shrines. The name shows that they are hung from a shrines outer wall. As the theory gradually spread around the country, the concept of gongen evolved, one of the first examples of gongen is Hies famous Sannō Gongen. The honji suijaku paradigm remained a feature of Japanese religious life up to the end of the Edo period. Its use was not confined to deities but was extended even to such historical figures as Kūkai. It was claimed that these human beings were manifestations of kami. Sometimes the deity involved was not Buddhist and this could happen because the theory was never formalized and always consisted of separate events usually based on a temple or shrines particular beliefs
25.
Buddhahood
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In Buddhism, buddhahood is the condition or rank of a buddha. The goal of Mahayanas Bodhisattva path is Samyaksambuddhahood, so one may benefit all sentient beings by teaching them the path of cessation of dukkha. This contrasts with the goal of Hinayana path, where the goal is Arhatship, in Theravada Buddhism, Buddha refers to one who has become awakened through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out the Dharma. A samyak sambuddha teaches the dharma to others after his awakening, a pratyeka-buddha also reaches Nirvana through his own efforts, but does not teach the dharma to others. An Arhat needs to follow the teaching of a Buddha to attain Nirvana, in this broader sense it is equivalent to Arahant. Buddhahood is the state of an enlightened being, who having found the path of cessation of suffering, is in the state of No-more-Learning. There is a spectrum of opinion on the universality and method of attainment of Buddhahood. The level to which this manifestation requires ascetic practices varies from none at all to a requirement, dependent on doctrine. Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes the Bodhisattva ideal instead of the Arhat, the Tathagatagarba and Buddha-nature doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism consider Buddhahood to be a universal and innate property of absolute wisdom. This wisdom is revealed in a current lifetime through Buddhist practice. Buddhists do not consider Siddhartha Gautama to have been the only Buddha, the Pali Canon refers to many previous ones, while the Mahayana tradition additionally has many Buddhas of celestial origin. A common Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist belief is that the next Buddha will be one named Maitreya, the various Buddhist schools hold some varying interpretations on the nature of Buddha. All Buddhist traditions hold that a Buddha is fully awakened and has completely purified his mind of the three poisons of desire, aversion and ignorance, a Buddha is no longer bound by Samsara, and has ended the suffering which unawakened people experience in life. Most schools of Buddhism have also held that the Buddha was omniscient, however, the early texts contain explicit repudiations of making this claim of the Buddha. Some Buddhists meditate on the Buddha as having ten characteristics, in the Madhupindika Sutta, Buddha is described in powerful terms as the Lord of the Dhamma and the bestower of immortality. Similarly, in the Anuradha Sutta Buddha is described as the Tathagata—the supreme man, actually, the Buddha was a human being, not a mere human being as is sometimes said but a special class of human called a complete person. Such complete persons are no different from others and indeed they physically remain quite ordinary. Sangharakshita also states that The first thing we have to understand -, but a special kind of human being, in fact the highest kind, so far as we know
26.
Maitreya
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Maitreya, Metteyya, Maithri, Jampa or Di-lặc, is regarded as a future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. In some Buddhist literature, such as the Amitabha Sutra and the Lotus Sutra, according to Buddhist tradition, Maitreya is a bodhisattva who will appear on Earth in the future, achieve complete enlightenment, and teach the pure dharma. According to scriptures, Maitreya will be a successor to the present Buddha, the prophecy of the arrival of Maitreya refers to a time in the future when the dharma will have been forgotten by most on the terrestrial world. Maitreya has also adopted for his millenarian role by many non-Buddhist religions in the past, such as the White Lotus, as well as by modern new religious movements. The name Maitreya is derived from the Sanskrit word maitrī loving-kindness, the Pali form Metteyya is mentioned in the Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta of the Pāli Canon, and also in chapter 28 of the Buddhavamsa. This leads scholar Richard Gombrich to conclude that either the whole sutta is apocryphal or that it has at least been tampered with. In the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, in the first centuries CE in northern India, in 4th to 6th-century China, Buddhist artisans used the names Shakyamuni and Maitreya interchangeably. Indicating both that the distinction between the two had not yet been drawn and that their respective iconographies had not yet been firmly set, an example is the stone sculpture found in the Qingzhou cache dedicated to Maitreya in 529 CE as recorded in the inscription. The religious belief of Maitreya apparently developed around the time as that of Amitābha. One mention of the prophecy of Maitreya is in the Maitreyavyākaraṇa, no longer will they regard anything as their own, they will have no possession, no gold or silver, no home, no relatives. But they will lead the life of oneness under Maitreyas guidance. They will have torn the net of the passions, they manage to enter into trances. Maitreya is typically pictured seated, with both feet on the ground or crossed at the ankles, on a throne, waiting for his time. He is dressed in the clothes of either a bhikṣu or Indian royalty, as a bodhisattva, he would usually be standing and dressed in jewels. A khata is always tied around his waist as a girdle, in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, Maitreya is represented as a Central Asian or northern Indian nobleman, holding a kumbha in his left hand. Sometimes this is a wisdom urn and he is flanked by his two acolytes, the brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu. The Maitreyasamiti was an extensive Buddhist play in pre-Islamic Central Asia, the Maitreyavyakarana in Central Asia and the Anagatavamsa of South India also mention him. Maitreya currently resides in the Tuṣita Heaven, said to be reachable through meditation, Gautama Buddha also lived here before he was born into the world as all bodhisattvas live in the Tuṣita Heaven before they descend to the human realm to become Buddhas
27.
Shinbutsu bunri
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In a narrower sense, shinbutsu bunri refers to the policy of separating Shinto and Buddhism pursued by the new Meiji government with the Kami and Buddhas Separation Order of 1868. Even bronze bells were melted down to make cannons, the new government that seized power in 1868 saw shinbutsu bunri as a way to reduce the immense wealth and power of the Buddhist sects. At the same time, it was supposed to give Shinto, a first order issued by the Jingijimuka in April 1868 ordered the defrocking of shasō and bettō. A few days later, the Daijōkan banned the application of Buddhist terminology such as gongen to Japanese kami, next came a ban on applying the Buddhist term Daibosatsu to the syncretic kami Hachiman at the Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū and Usa Hachiman-gū shrines. In the final stage, all the defrocked bettō and shasō were told to become shrine priests, also, monks of the Nichiren sect were told not to refer to some deities as kami. The campaign ultimately failed to destroy the influence of Buddhism on the Japanese people, the states first attempt to influence religious life therefore resulted in failure. In 1873, the government admitted that the effort to elevate Shinto above Buddhism had failed, however, the government did cause the diffusion of the idea that Shinto was the true religion of the Japanese, finally revealed after remaining for a long time hidden behind Buddhism. In recent years, many historians have come to believe that the syncretism of kami, the government was successful in creating the impression that Shinto and Buddhism in Japan are completely independent religions. Most Japanese today are unaware that some of their religious practices cannot be understood outside the context of the syncretism of kami. The shinbutsu bunri policy was itself the cause of serious damage to important cultural properties. Because mixing the two religions was now forbidden, shrines and temples had to give some of their treasures. The shrine also had to destroy Buddhism-related buildings, for example its tahōtō tower, its midō, many Buddhist temples were simply closed, for example Zenkō-ji, to which the now-independent Meigetsu-in used to belong. Another consequence of the policy was the creation of so-called invented traditions, to avoid the destruction of material illegal under the new rules, Shinto and Buddhist priests invented traditions, genealogies and other information that justified its presence. Later, awareness of their origin was often lost, causing confusion among historians. The Urakami Incidencts and the Struggle for Religious Tolerance in Early Meiji Japan, archived from the original on June 22,2014. Japans Ignored Revolution, The Separation of Shinto and Buddhism and a case study, creating State Shinto, The Great Promulgation Campaign and the New Religions. Introduction, The Rise of Funerary Buddhism in Tokugawa Japan, Death and Social Order in Tokugawa Japan, Buddhism, Anti-Christianity, and the Danka System. The Fox and the Jewel, Shared and Private Meanings in Contemporary Japanese Inari Worship, review of Of Heretics and Martyrs in Meiji Japan, Buddhism and Its Persecution by James Edward Ketelaar
28.
Nio
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They are dharmapala manifestations of the bodhisattva Vajrapāṇi, the oldest and most powerful of the Mahayana Buddhist pantheon. According to Japanese tradition, they travelled with Gautama Buddha to protect him, within the generally pacifist tradition of Buddhism, stories of dharmapalas justified the use of physical force to protect cherished values and beliefs against evil. The Niō are also seen as a manifestation of Mahasthamaprapta, the bodhisattva of power that flanks Amitābha in Pure Land Buddhism and as Vajrasattva in Tibetan Buddhism. Kongōrikishi are usually a pair of figures that stand under a temple entrance gate usually called Niōmon in Japan, hēnghā èr jiàng in China. The right statue is called Misshaku Kongō and has his mouth open, the left statue is called Naraen Kongō and has his mouth closed, representing the vocalization of the last grapheme of Devanāgarī which is pronounced ɦūṃ. These two characters symbolize the birth and death of all things. Similar to Alpha and Omega in Christianity, they signify everything or all creation, the contraction of both is Aum, which is Sanskrit for The Absolute. Misshaku Kongō, also called Agyō, is a symbol of violence, he wields a vajra mallet vajra-pāṇi. His mouth is depicted as being in the necessary to form the ah sound, leading to his alternate name. Misshaku Kongō is Miljeok geumgang in Korean, Mìjī jīngāng in Mandarin Chinese and it is equivalent to Guhyapāda vajra in Sanskrit. Naraen Kongō, also called Ungyō in Japanese, is depicted either bare-handed or wielding a sword and he symbolizes latent strength, holding his mouth tightly shut. His mouth is rendered to form the sound hūṃ or Un, Naraen Kongō is Narayeon geumgang in Korean, Nàluóyán jīngāng in Mandarin Chinese, and Na la diên kim cương in Vietnamese. A manifestation of Kongōrikishi that combines the Naraen and Misshaku Kongō into one figure is the Shukongōshin at Tōdai-ji in Nara, Japan. Shukongōshin, literally vajra-wielding spirit, is Shūkongōshin or Shikkongōjin in Japanese, Jip geumgang sin in Korean, Zhí jīngāng shén in Mandarin Chinese, Kongōrikishi are a possible case of the transmission of the image of the Greek hero Heracles to East Asia along the Silk Road. Heracles was used in Greco-Buddhist art to represent Vajrapani, the protector of the Buddha and this transmission is part of the wider Greco-Buddhist syncretic phenomenon, where Buddhism interacted with the Hellenistic culture of Central Asia from the 4th century BC to the 4th century AD. Nio Zen Buddhism was a practice advocated by the Zen monk Suzuki Shōsan and he recommended that practitioners should meditate on Nio and even adopt their fierce expressions and martial stances in order to cultivate power, strength and courage when dealing with adversity. Suzuki described Nio as follows, “The Niō is a menacing God and he wields the kongōsho and he can crush your enemies. Depend on him, pray to him that he will protect you as he protects the Buddha and he vibrates with energy and spiritual power which you can absorb from him in times of need. ”Nio were also introduced into Chinese Taoism as Heng Ha Er Jiang
29.
Jufuku-ji
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Kikokuzan Kongō Jufuku Zenji, usually known as Jufuku-ji, is a temple of the Kenchō-ji branch of the Rinzai sect and the oldest Zen temple in Kamakura, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. Ranked third among Kamakuras prestigious Five Mountains, it is number 24 among the Thirty-Three Kamakura Kannon pilgrimage temples and its main object of worship is Shaka Nyorai. Having chosen Jufuku-jis present site because it used to be Yoritomos fathers residence, Eisai is important in the history of Zen because it was he who, after being ordained in China, introduced it to Japan. He is also known for introducing green tea to the country, among the famous Zen masters that were active at Jufuku-ji are Enni Bennen, who was invited to come here in 1257 by Hōjō Tokiyori, and the Chinese Rankei Dōryū. Although very small now, in its heyday the temple used to have as many as 14 subtemples and its Main Hall, which constitutes the bulk of its compound now, is closed to the public and can be seen only from the inner gate. Over the centuries, the Main Hall burned down many times so that, in spite of the great age. Inside it are three statues of Shakyamuni which are the object of worship. In the temples vast graveyard behind the hall, inside caves called yagura, are buried all the chief priests of the temple. Two yagura are dedicated to Hōjō Masako and her son Minamoto no Sanetomo, Masako and Sanetomos ashes are not actually there, though, because they were put in a temple, Chōshōjū-in, which no longer exists, and are therefore lost. For an explanation of terms concerning Japanese Buddhism, Japanese Buddhist art, and Japanese Buddhist temple architecture, see the Glossary of Japanese Buddhism
30.
Modern system of ranked Shinto shrines
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The modern system of ranked Shinto shrines (sometimes called simply shakaku, was an organizational aspect of the establishment of Japanese State Shinto. This system classified Shinto shrines as either official government shrines or other shrines, some shrines are the first shrines called ichinomiya that have the highest rank in their respective provinces of Japan. In 1871, an Imperial decree established a ranking of Shinto shrines. These rankings were set aside in 1946, when such rankings were deemed State Shinto by the Occupation Shinto Directive, the Jinja Honcho currently has a slightly different List of Special Shrines. In 1871, the Kanpei-sha identified the hierarchy of government-supported shrines most closely associated with the Imperial family, the kampeisha were shrines venerated by the imperial family. This category encompasses those sanctuaries enshrining emperors, imperial family members, the most highly ranked Imperial shrines or Kanpei-taisha encompassed 67 sanctuaries. The mid-range of ranked Imperial shrines or Kanpei-chūsha included 23 sanctuaries, the lowest ranked among the Imperial shrines or Kanpei-shōsha were five sanctuaries. In addition to the officially ranked Imperial shrines, there were also shrines at which the kami of emperors were venerated. The Kokuhei-sha identified the hierarchy of government-supported shrines with national significance, the kokuheisha enshrined kami considered beneficial to more local areas. The most highly ranked, nationally significant shrines or Kokuhei Taisha were six sanctuaries, the mid-range of ranked, nationally significant shrines or Kokuhei Chūsha encompassed 47 sanctuaries. The lowest ranked, nationally significant shrines or Kokuhei Shōsha includes 50 sanctuaries, List of Shinto shrines Twenty-Two Shrines Setsumatsusha
31.
Feng shui
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Feng Shui is a Chinese philosophical system of harmonizing everyone with the surrounding environment. It is closely linked to Taoism, the term feng shui literally translates as wind-water in English. The feng shui practice discusses architecture in terms of invisible forces that bind the universe, earth. There is no scientific evidence that feng shuis mystical claims are real. Historically, feng shui was widely used to orient buildings—often spiritually significant structures such as tombs, depending on the particular style of feng shui being used, an auspicious site could be determined by reference to local features such as bodies of water, stars, or a compass. Qi rides the wind and scatters, but is retained when encountering water, Feng shui was suppressed in mainland China during the state-imposed Cultural Revolution of the 1960s but has since then regained popularity. The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience briefly summarizes the history and practice of feng shui and it states that the principles of feng shui related to living harmoniously with nature are quite rational, but does not otherwise lend credibility to the nonscientific claims. Its also a matter to dismiss the mystical energies said to be at its core. As of 2013 the Yangshao and Hongshan cultures provide the earliest known evidence for the use of feng shui, until the invention of the magnetic compass, feng shui apparently relied on astronomy to find correlations between humans and the universe. In 4000 BC, the doors of Banpo dwellings aligned with the asterism Yingshi just after the winter solstice—this sited the homes for solar gain. During the Zhou era, Yingshi was known as Ding and used to indicate the time to build a capital city. The late Yangshao site at Dadiwan includes a building at the center. The building faces south and borders a large plaza and it stands on a north-south axis with another building that apparently housed communal activities. Regional communities may have used the complex, a grave at Puyang that contains mosaics— actually a Chinese star map of the Dragon and Tiger asterisms and Beidou — is oriented along a north-south axis. Cosmography that bears a resemblance to modern feng shui devices and formulas appears on a piece of jade unearthed at Hanshan. Archaeologist Li Xueqin links the design to the astrolabe, zhinan zhen. Beginning with palatial structures at Erlitou, all cities of China followed rules of feng shui for their design. During the Zhou era, the Kaogong ji codified these rules, the carpenters manual Lu ban jing codified rules for builders
32.
Nameri River (Kanagawa)
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The Nameri River is a river that goes from the Asaina Pass in northern Kamakura, Kanagawa to the beach in Yuigahama, for a total length of about 8 km. The name comes from the way it flows, kind of licking the stones at its bottom, only during the summer, during the bathing season, the rivers estuary is crossed by a wooden bridge. Although very short, the river is called by locals with six different names according to the neighborhood it crosses, from the Asaina Pass to Jōmyō-ji its about a meter wide and is called Kurumigawa. After the temples gate it takes the name Namerigawa, becomes wider, near the Omidōbashi Bridge it changes name again becoming the Zazengawa in honor of Buddhist monk Mongaku, who used to live nearby. From Tōshōjibashi to Komachi its called Ebisudōgawa, in the last few hundred meters of his course, from Ichi no Torii to the sea it assumes two names, first Sumiurigawa and finally Enmagawa. The name Namerigawa however is today the one truly necessary The stele on the bridge in Komachi, next to Hongaku-jis gate. This is one of Kamakuras Ten Bridges and it is said that once here stood the Ebisudō. This river is now called Namerigawa, but it used to have names that changed according to the place. Erected in March 1932 by the Kamakurachō Seinendan The Taiheiki mentions the Namerigawa in a well known to all in Kamakura. One evening, having lost 10 mon in the Namerigawa, he bought a torch for fifty mon, entered in the water and started looking for the lost coins, finally finding them. Heard the story, people made fun of him saying that he ended up spending far more than he had lost, Fujitsuna replied that ten mon were not many, but losing them forever would have been a great loss. He had personally lost fifty mon, but he had done that for the benefit of all, the series later became the basis for several Kabuki plays. For example, the Kabuki play Shiranami Gonon Otoko, also known as Benten Kozō, in the play, a criminal called Daemon sees head of police Aoto Fujitsuna on the Dōbashi bridge on the Namerigawa. Aoto, who is known as a man of virtue, explains that his men found a case while searching the Namerigawa for lost goods. Kamakura Kankō Bunka Kentei Kōshiki Tekisutobukku
33.
Sagami Bay
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It lies approximately 40 kilometres southwest of the capital, Tokyo. Cities on the bay include Odawara, Chigasaki, Fujisawa, Hiratsuka, Itō, the epicenter of the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923 was deep beneath Izu Ōshima Island in Sagami Bay. It devastated Tokyo, the city of Yokohama, and the surrounding prefectures of Chiba, Kanagawa, and Shizuoka. A branch of the warm Kuroshio Current warms the bay, allowing it to host marine organisms typical of more southerly regions, the maximum depth of Sagami Bay is about 1500 meters. Organisms from sub-arctic regions are advected into the bay by intrusions of the Oyashio Current resulting in very high biodiversity and it is the major study site for research programs at the University of Tokyo and the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology. In 2004, soil samples from Sagami Bay were found to contain radioactive contamination from the Bikini Atoll nuclear tests took place from 1946 to 1958. Yokohama Burning, The Deadly 1923 Earthquake and Fire that Helped Forge the Path to World War II, ISBN 978-0-7432-6465-5 Kamio, Kenji & Willson, Heather, An English Guide to Kamakuras Temples and Shrines, Ryokufu Shuppan, Tokyo,2008. ISBN 978-4-8461-0811-3 Media related to Sagami Bay at Wikimedia Commons}
34.
Black Tortoise
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The Black Tortoise or Black Turtle is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations. Despite its English name, it is depicted as a turtle entwined together with a snake. Further, in East Asia, it is not called after either animal but is known as the Black Warrior under various local pronunciations. It is known as Xuanwu in Chinese, Hyeonmu in Korean, Genbu in Japanese and it represents the north and the winter season. In Japan, it is one of the four guardian spirits that protect Kyoto, represented by the Genbu Shrine, which is located to the north of Kyoto Imperial Palace. The creatures name is identical to that of the important Taoist god Xuanwu, during the Han dynasty, people often wore jade pendants that were in the shape of turtles. Because of ancient Chinese influence on Japan, honorific titles and badges in Japan also often referred to the turtle or tortoise, the northern gates of Chinese palaces were often named after the Xuanwu. In ancient China, the tortoise and the serpent were thought to be spiritual creatures symbolizing longevity, the Fujianese custom of building turtle-shaped tombs may have had to do with the desire to place the grave under the influence of the Black Tortoise. In the classic novel Journey to the West, Xuanwu was a king of the north who had two generals serving under him, a Tortoise General and a Snake General. This god had a temple in the Wudang Mountains of Hubei and there are now a Tortoise Mountain and a Snake Mountain on opposite sides of a river near Wuhan, Hubeis capital. Taoist legend has it that Xuanwu was the prince of a Chinese ruler but was not interested in taking the throne, opting instead to leave his parents at age 16 and study Taoism. According to the legend, he eventually achieved status and was worshiped as a deity of the northern sky. Other Chinese legends also speak of how the Tortoise General and a Snake General came to be, during Xuanwus study to achieve enlightenment and divine status, he was told that, in order to fully achieve divinity, he must purge all human flesh from his body. Since he had eaten the food of the world, despite all his efforts, his stomach. A god then came and changed his organs with divine ones, once removed, the original stomach and intestines were said to have become a tortoise and a snake, respectively. The tortoise and snake became demons and terrorized people, now divine, Xuanwu heard of this and returned to slay the monsters he had unleashed on the countryside. However, as the snake and tortoise showed remorse, he did not kill them and they then became the Tortoise and Snake generals and assisted Xuanwu with his quests. According to another source, once Xuanwu had begun his study of the Way and he learned to achieve this by washing his stomach and intestines in the river
35.
Azure Dragon
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He is also one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations, which are the astral representations of the Wufang Shangdi. The Bluegreen Dragon represents the east and the spring season and it is also known as Seiryu in Japanese. The Dragon is frequently referred to in media, feng shui, other cultures, and in venues as the Green Dragon. His cardinal directions epithet is Bluegreen Dragon of the East and his proper name as the Dragon King of the East Sea is Ao Guang. As the other three Symbols, there are seven mansions, or positions, of the moon within Azure Dragon. The names and determinative stars are, In the Romance of the Tales of the Tang, the White Tigers star is reincarnated as General Luo Cheng, the Azure Dragons Star is reincarnated as General Shan Xiongxin, who serves Wang Shichong. The two generals are sworn brothers of Qin Shubao, Cheng Zhijie and Yuchi Gong, after death, their souls are said to possess heroes of the Tang dynasty and Goguryeo, such as Xue Rengui and Yeon Gaesomun. The Azure Dragon appears as a god at Taoist temples. He was represented on the tomb of Wang Hui at Xikang in Lushan, a rubbing of this was collected by David Crockett Graham and is in the Field Museum of Natural History. The dragon featured on the Chinese national flag in 1862-1912, in Japan, the Bluegreen Dragon is one of the four guardian spirits of cities and is said to protect the city of Kyoto on the east. The west is protected by the White Tiger, the north is protected by the Black Tortoise, the south is protected by the Vermilion Bird, in Kyoto there are temples dedicated to each of these guardian spirits. The Azure Dragon is represented in the Kiyomizu Temple in eastern Kyoto, before the entrance of the temple there is a statue of the dragon which is said to drink from the waterfall within the temple complex at nighttime. Therefore, each year a ceremony is held to worship the dragon of the east, in 1983, the Kitora Tomb was found in the village of Asuka. All four guardians were painted on the walls and a system of the constellations was painted on the ceiling and this is one of the few ancient records of the four guardians. In Korea, the murals of the Goguryeo tombs found at Uhyon-ni in South Pyongan province features the Azure Dragon, in the first 3 Beyblade series from Japan, the Azure Dragon is known as Dragoon, and belongs to the protagonist Tyson Granger. In the Digimon series, Azulongmon is designed after the Azure Dragon, in the Fushigi Yugi series Yui Hongo was transported to Universe of Four Gods where she became the Priestess of Seiryu. In the video game Final Fantasy Type-0 the Azure Dragon is the name of one of the four Crystals of Orience, in the video game World of Warcraft, Mists of Pandaria the character of Yulon, the Jade Serpent, is heavily inspired by the Azure Dragon. In the video game Runescape there is an island chain heavily influenced by Buddhism, in the video game Monster Hunter 4 Ultimate the monster Azure Rathalos, a variation of the regular Rathalos, is inspired by the Azure Dragon
36.
White Tiger (China)
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The White Tiger is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations. It is sometimes called the White Tiger of the West, and is known as Bai Hu in Chinese, Byakko in Japanese, Baekho in Korean and it represents the west and the autumn season. As the other three symbols, there are seven mansions, or positions, of the moon within White Tiger. The names and determinative stars are, In Chinese culture, the tiger is the king of the beasts and has been presented with a 王 on his forehead for centuries, according to legend, the tigers tail would turn white when it reached the age of 500 years. In this way, the tiger became a kind of mythological creature. It was said that the tiger would only appear when the emperor ruled with absolute virtue. Because the color white of the Wu Xing theory also represents the west and they two are sworn brothers of Qin Shubao and Cheng Yaojin. Their souls after death are said to possess the body of the new heroes of the Tang and Goguryeo dynasties, Xue Rengui and his costume has a white tiger theme, his sword is called Byakkoshinken, and his mecha is a white tiger. In Digimon, Baihumon is based on the white tiger, in Puzzle & Dragons, the White Tiger is incarnated as a little girl named Haku. Byakkotai Four Holy Beasts of Vietnam
37.
Vermilion Bird
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The Vermilion bird is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations. According to Wu Xing, the Taoist five-elemental system, it represents the fire-element, the south. Thus it is called the Vermilion bird of the South. It is known as Zhu Que in Chinese, Suzaku in Japanese, Jujak in Korean and it is described as a red bird that resembles a pheasant with a five-colored plumage and is perpetually covered in flames. Represented by Jonangu Shrine in the part of Kyoto. It is often mistaken for the Fenghuang due to similarities in appearance, as the other three Symbols, there are seven mansions, or positions, of the moon within Vermilion Bird. In the mobile game Puzzle & Dragons, the Vermilion Bird is depicted as a beautiful, phoenix-like, winged woman who wields the power of flames, known as Incarnation of Suzaku, in the Beyblade series, the Vermilion Bird is called as Dranzer. In the Digimon series, Zhuqiaomon is designed after it, in the film Gamera 3, The Revenge of Iris, the monster Iris is at one point suggested to be the Vermilion Bird. In Yu Yu Hakusho, Suzaku is portrayed in a form as leader of the Underworld group The Four Beasts. In the Sunrise anime series Code Geass, a character is named Kururugi Suzaku, in the Playstation 4 exclusive game titles Nioh, there is a spirit guardian phoenix named a Suzaku that will resurrect players upon death by activating their living weapon. Once the living weapon runs out the player is back with 1 hit point. Fenghuang Vermilion Phoenix Four Symbols of China Four Benevolent Animals of China Four Holy Beasts of Vietnam Suzaku Star Charts and Moon Stations The Red Bird of the South
38.
Willow
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Most species are known as willow, but some narrow-leaved shrub species are called osier, and some broader-leaved species are referred to as sallow. Some willows are low-growing or creeping shrubs, for example, the dwarf willow rarely exceeds 6 cm in height, though it spreads widely across the ground. Willows all have abundant watery bark sap, which is charged with salicylic acid, soft, usually pliant, tough wood, slender branches. The roots are remarkable for their toughness, size, and tenacity to life, the leaves are typically elongated, but may also be round to oval, frequently with serrated edges. Most species are deciduous, semievergreen willows with coriaceous leaves are rare, e. g. Salix micans, all the buds are lateral, no absolutely terminal bud is ever formed. The buds are covered by a single scale, usually, the bud scale is fused into a cap-like shape, but in some species it wraps around and the edges overlap. The leaves are simple, feather-veined, and typically linear-lanceolate, usually they are serrate, rounded at base, acute or acuminate. The leaf petioles are short, the often very conspicuous, resembling tiny, round leaves. On some species, however, they are small, inconspicuous, in color, the leaves show a great variety of greens, ranging from yellowish to bluish. Willows are dioecious, with male and female flowers appearing as catkins on separate plants and this scale is square, entire, and very hairy. The anthers are rose-colored in the bud, but orange or purple after the flower opens, they are two-celled, the filaments are threadlike, usually pale brown, and often bald. The ovary is one-celled, the style two-lobed, and the ovules numerous, almost all willows take root very readily from cuttings or where broken branches lie on the ground. The few exceptions include the willow and peachleaf willow. One famous example of such growth from cuttings involves the poet Alexander Pope and this twig was planted and thrived, and legend has it that all of Englands weeping willows are descended from this first one. Willows are often planted on the borders of streams so their interlacing roots may protect the bank against the action of the water, frequently, the roots are much larger than the stem which grows from them. Willows are very cross-compatible, and numerous hybrids occur, both naturally and in cultivation, a well-known ornamental example is the weeping willow, which is a hybrid of Peking willow from China and white willow from Europe. The hybrid cultivar Boydii has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit, Willows are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, such as the mourning cloak butterfly. Ants, such as ants, are common on willows inhabited by aphids, coming to collect aphid honeydew
39.
Catalpa
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Catalpa, commonly called catalpa or catawba, is a genus of flowering plants in the family Bignoniaceae, native to warm temperate and subtropical regions of North America, the Caribbean, and East Asia. Mostly deciduous trees, they grow to 12–18 metres tall. A 10-year-old sapling stands about 6 metres tall and they can be recognized by their large, heart-shaped to three-lobed leaves, showy white or yellow flowers in broad panicles. In the autumn they bear 20–50 centimetres long fruits that resemble a slender bean pod full of small flat seeds, because of the leaves, they are sometimes confused with the tung tree in the southern U. S. or the invasive Paulownia tomentosa from China. Due to their large size, catalpas are a popular habitat for many birds, providing them good shelter from rain. These trees have few limb droppage, but drop large dark-brown bean pods during late summer, the wood of catalpas is quite soft. Catalpas begin flowering after roughly 3 years, and produce seed pods after approximately 5 years, northern and southern catalpas are very similar in appearance, but the northern species has slightly larger leaves, flowers, and bean pods. Flowering starts after 275 growing degree days, Catalpa ovata from China, with pale yellow flowers, is also planted outside its natural range for ornamental purposes. The name derives from the Muscogee name for the tree, kutuhlpa meaning winged head and is unrelated to the name of the Catawba people. The spellings Catalpa and Catalpah were used by Mark Catesby between 1729 and 1732, and Carl Linnaeus published the name as Bignonia catalpa in 1753. Giovanni Antonio Scopoli established the genus Catalpa in 1777, the bean-like seed pod is the origin of the alternative vernacular names Indian bean tree and cigar tree for Catalpa bignonioides and Catalpa speciosa, respectively. The tree is the source of food for the catalpa sphinx moth. When caterpillars are numerous, infested trees may be completely defoliated, defoliated catalpas produce new leaves readily, but with multiple generations occurring, new foliage may be consumed by subsequent broods. Severe defoliation over several years can cause death of trees. Because the caterpillars are an excellent live bait for fishing, some dedicated anglers plant catalpa mini-orchards for their own source of catawba-worms. Catalpa is also used as a tonewood in guitars. List sources Catalpa speciosa images at bioimages. vanderbilt. edu
Glossary of Shinto
Media related to the ginkgo tree at Wikimedia Commons
