1.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
2.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
3.
Av
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Av is the eleventh month of the civil year and the fifth month of the ecclesiastical year on the Hebrew calendar. The name is Babylonian in origin and appeared in the Talmud around the 3rd century and this is the only month which is not named in the Bible. It is a month of 30 days. Av usually occurs in July–August on the Gregorian calendar, the Babylonian Talmud, Taanit 29a, states that when we enter Av, our joy is diminished. This is because the darkest events in Jewish history occurred during the first week and a half of month, particularly The Nine Days which culminate in Tisha BAv. However, there is a minor and largely unknown holiday during the moon of the month called Tu BAv which was, in ancient times. 9 Av - Holy Temples destroyed by the Babylonians and Romans respectively,9 Av - Fall of Betar to the Romans, ending Bar Kochbas rebellion. 9 Av - Jews are expelled from England by King Edward I,10 Av - The Holy Temple, set on fire the previous day, finishes burning. 10 Av - AMIA Bombing in Buenos Aires, Argentina - the deadliest attack in Jewish diaspora since the Holocaust,10 Av - Gaza Disengagement begins 12 Av - Disputation of Barcelona between Nachmanides and Pablo Christiani. 15 Av - Betar dead buried,15 years after the fall of the fortress. 15 Av - Tu BAv 15 Av - The Day of the Breaking of the Ax - when the Holy Temple existed, the event was celebrated by feasting, rejoicing, and the ceremonial breaking of the axes. 17 Av - -67 Jews are killed in the Hebron Massacre,24 Av - - A Hasmonean holiday commemorates the reinstatement of Jewish civil law in place of Hellenist secular law on this day. In the story of Xenogears, Av is the name of a country, in the official Japanese version translation, however, it was transliterated Ave. This was later changed by the translation process to Aveh for the English version. Ab is the name for the month of August in the Levant, resources on the Month of Av Hebrew Month of Av This Month in Jewish History A Chodesh Av Perspective Texts on Wikisource, Ab
4.
Ab (month)
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Av is the eleventh month of the civil year and the fifth month of the ecclesiastical year on the Hebrew calendar. The name is Babylonian in origin and appeared in the Talmud around the 3rd century and this is the only month which is not named in the Bible. It is a month of 30 days. Av usually occurs in July–August on the Gregorian calendar, the Babylonian Talmud, Taanit 29a, states that when we enter Av, our joy is diminished. This is because the darkest events in Jewish history occurred during the first week and a half of month, particularly The Nine Days which culminate in Tisha BAv. However, there is a minor and largely unknown holiday during the moon of the month called Tu BAv which was, in ancient times. 9 Av - Holy Temples destroyed by the Babylonians and Romans respectively,9 Av - Fall of Betar to the Romans, ending Bar Kochbas rebellion. 9 Av - Jews are expelled from England by King Edward I,10 Av - The Holy Temple, set on fire the previous day, finishes burning. 10 Av - AMIA Bombing in Buenos Aires, Argentina - the deadliest attack in Jewish diaspora since the Holocaust,10 Av - Gaza Disengagement begins 12 Av - Disputation of Barcelona between Nachmanides and Pablo Christiani. 15 Av - Betar dead buried,15 years after the fall of the fortress. 15 Av - Tu BAv 15 Av - The Day of the Breaking of the Ax - when the Holy Temple existed, the event was celebrated by feasting, rejoicing, and the ceremonial breaking of the axes. 17 Av - -67 Jews are killed in the Hebron Massacre,24 Av - - A Hasmonean holiday commemorates the reinstatement of Jewish civil law in place of Hellenist secular law on this day. In the story of Xenogears, Av is the name of a country, in the official Japanese version translation, however, it was transliterated Ave. This was later changed by the translation process to Aveh for the English version. Ab is the name for the month of August in the Levant, resources on the Month of Av Hebrew Month of Av This Month in Jewish History A Chodesh Av Perspective Texts on Wikisource, Ab
5.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
6.
Valentine's Day
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Valentines Day, also called Saint Valentines Day or the Feast of Saint Valentine, is an annual holiday celebrated on February 14. According to legend, during his imprisonment, Saint Valentine healed the daughter of his jailer, Asterius, the day first became associated with romantic love within the circle of Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century, when the tradition of courtly love flourished. In 18th-century England, it evolved into an occasion in which expressed their love for each other by presenting flowers, offering confectionery. In Europe, Saint Valentines Keys are given to lovers as a romantic symbol, Valentines Day symbols that are used today include the heart-shaped outline, doves, and the figure of the winged Cupid. Since the 19th century, handwritten valentines have given way to mass-produced greeting cards, Saint Valentines Day is an official feast day in the Anglican Communion, as well as in the Lutheran Church. Numerous early Christian martyrs were named Valentine, the Valentines honored on February 14 are Valentine of Rome and Valentine of Terni. Valentine of Rome was a priest in Rome who was martyred in 269 and was added to the calendar of saints by Pope Galesius in 496 and was buried on the Via Flaminia. The flower-crowned skull of Saint Valentine is exhibited in the Basilica of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, other relics are found at Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church in Dublin, Ireland. Valentine of Terni became bishop of Interamna and is said to have been martyred during the persecution under Emperor Aurelian in 273 and he is buried on the Via Flaminia, but in a different location from Valentine of Rome. His relics are at the Basilica of Saint Valentine in Terni, oruch states that abstracts of the acts of the two saints were in nearly every church and monastery of Europe. The Catholic Encyclopedia also speaks of a saint named Valentine who was mentioned in early martyrologies under date of February 14. He was martyred in Africa with a number of companions, Saint Valentines head was preserved in the abbey of New Minster, Winchester, and venerated. February 14 is celebrated as St. Valentines Day in various Christian denominations, it has, for example, in addition, the feast day of Saint Valentine is also given in the calendar of saints of the Lutheran Church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, St. J. C. Cooper, in The Dictionary of Christianity, contemporary records of Saint Valentine were most probably destroyed during this Diocletianic Persecution in the early 4th century. The same events are found in Bedes Martyrology, which was compiled in the 8th century. It states that Saint Valentine was persecuted as a Christian and interrogated by Roman Emperor Claudius II in person, Claudius was impressed by Valentine and had a discussion with him, attempting to get him to convert to Roman paganism in order to save his life. Valentine refused and tried to convert Claudius to Christianity instead, because of this, he was executed. Before his execution, he is reported to have performed a miracle by healing Julia, the jailers daughter and his forty-six member household came to believe in Jesus and were baptized
7.
Jewish wedding
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A Jewish wedding is a wedding ceremony that follows Jewish law and traditions. Technically, the Jewish wedding process has two stages, kiddushin and nissuin, when the couple start their life together. The first stage prohibits the woman to all men, requiring a religious divorce to dissolve. The ceremony that accomplishes nisuin is known as chuppah, today, erusin/kiddushin occurs when the groom gives the bride a ring or other object of value with the intent of creating a marriage. There are differing opinions as to part of the ceremony constitutes nissuin/chuppah, they include standing under the canopy - itself called a chuppah -. While historically these two events could take place as much as a year apart, they are now combined into one ceremony. Before the wedding ceremony, the groom agrees to be bound by the terms of the ketubah, or marriage contract, the ketubah details the obligations of the groom to the bride, among which are food, clothing, and marital relations. This document has the standing of a binding agreement. It is often written as a manuscript that is framed and displayed in their home. Under the chuppah, it is traditional to read the signed ketubah aloud, usually in the Aramaic original, traditionally, this is done to separate the two basic parts of the wedding. Secular couples may opt for a version to be read out. A traditional Jewish wedding ceremony takes place under a Chuppah or wedding canopy, symbolizing the new home being built by the couple when they become husband and wife. Prior to the ceremony, Ashkenazi Jews have a custom to cover the face of the bride, the veiling ritual is known in Yiddish as badeken. Sephardic Jews do not perform this ceremony, in many communities, the groom is led under the chuppah by the two fathers and the bride by the two mothers, known by Ashkenazi Jews as unterfirers. The bride traditionally walks around the three or seven times when she arrives at the Chuppah. This may derive from Jeremiah 31,22, “A woman shall surround a man”, the three circuits may represent the three virtues of marriage, righteousness, justice and loving kindness. Seven circuits derives from the Biblical concept that seven denotes perfection or completeness, Sephardic Jews do not perform this ceremony. In traditional weddings, two blessings are recited before the betrothal, a blessing over wine, and the betrothal blessing, the wine is then tasted by the couple
8.
Mishna
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The Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions known as the Oral Torah. It is also the first major work of Rabbinic literature, most of the Mishnah is written in Mishnaic Hebrew, while some parts are Aramaic. The Mishnah consists of six orders, each containing 7–12 tractates,63 in total, the word Mishnah can also indicate a single paragraph or a verse of the work itself, i. e. the smallest unit of structure in the Mishnah. For this reason the work is sometimes called by the plural. The term Mishnah originally referred to a method of teaching by presenting topics in an order, as contrasted with Midrash. The Mishnah consists of six orders, each containing 7–12 tractates,63 in total, each masechet is divided into chapters and then paragraphs. In this last context, the word means a single paragraph of the work, i. e. the smallest unit of structure, leading to the use of the plural, Mishnayot. Because of the division into six orders, the Mishnah is sometimes called Shas, in each order, tractates are arranged from biggest to smallest. A popular mnemonic consists of the acronym ZMaN NaKaT, the Babylonian Talmud states that there were either six hundred or seven hundred orders of the Mishnah. Hillel the Elder organized them into six orders to make it easier to remember, the historical accuracy of this tradition is disputed. There is also a tradition that Ezra the scribe dictated from memory not only the 24 books of the Tanakh but 60 esoteric books. It is not known whether this is a reference to the Mishnah, interestingly, Reuvein Margolies posited that there were originally seven orders of Mishnah, citing a Gaonic tradition on the existence of a seventh order containing the laws of Stam and Berachot. A number of important laws are not elaborated upon in the Mishnah and these include the laws of tzitzit, tefillin, mezuzot, the holiday of Hanukkah, and the laws of conversion to Judaism. These were later discussed in the minor tractates, nissim ben Jacobs Hakdamah Lemafteach Hatalmud argued that it was unnecessary for Judah the Prince to discuss them as many of these laws were so well known. Rabbinic commentaries on the Mishnah from the four centuries, done in the Land of Israel. In themselves they are known as Gemara, the books which set out the Mishnah in its original structure, together with the associated Gemara, are known as Talmuds. Two Talmuds were compiled, the Babylonian Talmud and the Jerusalem Talmud, unlike the Hebrew Mishnah, the Gemara is written primarily in Aramaic. The Mishnah does not claim to be the development of new laws, the term Mishnah is related to the verb shanah, to teach or repeat, and to the adjectives sheni and mishneh, meaning second
9.
Temple in Jerusalem
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These successive temples stood at this location and functioned as a site of ancient Israelite and later Jewish worship. The Hebrew name given in the Hebrew Bible for the complex is either Beit YHWH, Beit HaElohim House of God, or simply Beiti my house. The term hekhal hall or main building is often translated temple in older English Bibles, in rabbinical literature the temple is Beit HaMikdash, The Sanctified House, and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name. The Hebrew Bible says that the First Temple was built in 957 BCE by King Solomon and this temple was sacked a few decades later by Shoshenq I, Pharaoh of Egypt. The First Temple was totally destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, according to the Book of Ezra, construction of the Second Temple was authorized by Cyrus the Great and began in 538 BCE, after the fall of the Babylonian Empire the year before. It was completed 23 years later, on the day of Adar, in the sixth year of the reign of Darius the Great. However, with a reading of the Book of Ezra and the Book of Nehemiah, there were four edicts to build the Second Temple. Cyrus in 536 BCE, which is recorded in the first chapter of Ezra, next, Darius I of Persia in 519 BCE, which is recorded in the sixth chapter of Ezra. Third, Artaxerxes I of Persia in 457 BCE, which was the year of his reign. Finally, by Artaxerxes again in 444 BCE in the chapter of Nehemiah. Moreover, the narrowly avoided being destroyed again in 332 BCE when the Jews refused to acknowledge the deification of Alexander the Great of Macedonia. Alexander was allegedly turned from his anger at the last minute by astute diplomacy, further, after the death of Alexander on 13 June 323 BCE, and the dismembering of his empire, the Ptolemies came to rule over Judea and the Temple. Under the Ptolemies, the Jews were given many civil liberties, however, when the Ptolemaic army was defeated at Panium by Antiochus III of the Seleucids in 198 BCE, this policy changed. Antiochus wanted to Hellenize the Jews, attempting to introduce the Greek pantheon into the temple. Moreover, a rebellion ensued and was crushed, but no further action by Antiochus was taken. However, his policies never took effect in Judea, since he was assassinated the year after his ascension, Antiochus IV Epiphanes succeeded his older brother to the Seleucid throne and immediately adopted his fathers previous policy of universal Hellenisation. The Jews rebelled again and Antiochus, in a rage, retaliated in force, considering the previous episodes of discontent, the Jews became incensed when the religious observances of Sabbath and circumcision were officially outlawed. When Antiochus erected a statue of Zeus in their temple and Hellenic priests began sacrificing pigs, when a Greek official ordered a Jewish priest to perform a Hellenic sacrifice, the priest killed him
10.
Yom Kippur
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Yom Kippur, also known as the Day of Atonement, is the holiest day of the year in Judaism. Its central themes are atonement and repentance, Jewish people traditionally observe this holy day with an approximate 25-hour period of fasting and intensive prayer, often spending most of the day in synagogue services. Yom means day in Hebrew and Kippur comes from a root that means to atone, Yom Kippur is usually expressed in English as Day of Atonement. Yom Kippur is the day of seventh month and is regarded as the Sabbath of Sabbaths. Rosh Hashanah is the first day of that month according to the Hebrew calendar, on this day forgiveness of sins is also asked of God. Yom Kippur completes the period known in Judaism as the High Holy Days or Yamim Noraim that commences with Rosh Hashanah. According to Jewish tradition, God inscribes each persons fate for the year into a book, the Book of Life, on Rosh Hashanah. During the Days of Awe, a Jew tries to amend his or her behavior and seek forgiveness for wrongs done against God, the evening and day of Yom Kippur are set aside for public and private petitions and confessions of guilt. At the end of Yom Kippur, one hopes that they have been forgiven by God, the Yom Kippur prayer service includes several unique aspects. One is the number of prayer services. Unlike a regular day, which has three services, or a Shabbat or Yom Tov, which have four prayer services. The prayer services also include private and public confessions of sins, as one of the most culturally significant Jewish holidays, Yom Kippur is observed by many secular Jews who may not observe other holidays. Many secular Jews attend synagogue on Yom Kippur—for many secular Jews the High Holy Days are the times of the year during which they attend synagogue—causing synagogue attendance to soar. Erev Yom Kippur is the day preceding Yom Kippur, corresponding to the day of the Hebrew month of Tishrei. This day is commemorated with additional morning prayers, asking others for forgiveness, giving charity, performing the ritual, an extended afternoon prayer service. Leviticus 16,29 mandates establishment of this day on the 10th day of the 7th month as the day of atonement for sins. It calls it the Sabbath of Sabbaths and a day upon which one must afflict ones soul, Leviticus 23,27 decrees that Yom Kippur is a strict day of rest. Five additional prohibitions are traditionally observed, as detailed in the Jewish oral tradition, the number five is a set number, relating to, In the Yom Kippur section of the Torah, the word soul appears five times
11.
Josephus
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Josephus claimed the Jewish Messianic prophecies that initiated the First Roman-Jewish War made reference to Vespasian becoming Emperor of Rome. In response Vespasian decided to keep Josephus as a slave and interpreter, after Vespasian became Emperor in 69 CE, he granted Josephus his freedom, at which time Josephus assumed the emperors family name of Flavius. Flavius Josephus fully defected to the Roman side and was granted Roman citizenship and he became an advisor and friend of Vespasians son Titus, serving as his translator when Titus led the Siege of Jerusalem. Since the siege proved ineffective at stopping the Jewish revolt, the citys destruction, Josephus recorded Jewish history, with special emphasis on the first century CE and the First Jewish–Roman War, including the Siege of Masada. His most important works were The Jewish War and Antiquities of the Jews, the Jewish War recounts the Jewish revolt against Roman occupation. Antiquities of the Jews recounts the history of the world from a Jewish perspective for an ostensibly Roman audience and these works provide valuable insight into first century Judaism and the background of Early Christianity. Josephus introduces himself in Greek as Iōsēpos, son of Matthias and he was the second-born son of Matthias. His older full-blooded brother was also called Matthias and their mother was an aristocratic woman who descended from the royal and formerly ruling Hasmonean dynasty. Josephuss paternal grandparents were Josephus and his wife—an unnamed Hebrew noblewoman, distant relatives of each other and he descended through his father from the priestly order of the Jehoiarib, which was the first of the 24 orders of priests in the Temple in Jerusalem. Josephus was a descendant of the high priest Jonathon, born and raised in Jerusalem, Josephus was educated alongside his brother. In his early twenties, he traveled to negotiate with Emperor Nero for the release of 12 Jewish priests, Josephus successfully fought the Roman army in Galilee, until he was captured by the Romans during the height of the war. After the Jewish garrison of Yodfat fell under siege, the Romans invaded, killing thousands, according to Josephus, he was trapped in a cave with 40 of his companions in July 67 CE. The Romans asked the group to surrender, but they refused, Josephus suggested a method of collective suicide, they drew lots and killed each other, one by one, counting to every third person. Two men were left, who surrendered to the Roman forces, in 69 CE, Josephus was released. According to his account, he acted as a negotiator with the defenders during the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, in which his parents and first wife died. While being confined at Yodfat, Josephus claimed to have experienced a divine revelation, after the prediction came true, he was released by Vespasian, who considered his gift of prophecy to be divine. In 71 CE, he went to Rome in the entourage of Titus, becoming a Roman citizen, in addition to Roman citizenship, he was granted accommodation in conquered Judaea and a decent, if not extravagant, pension. While in Rome and under Flavian patronage, Josephus wrote all of his known works, although he uses Josephus, he appears to have taken the Roman praenomen Titus and nomen Flavius from his patrons
12.
Land of Israel
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The Land of Israel is the traditional Jewish name for an area of indefinite geographical extension in the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine. The definitions of the limits of this territory vary between passages in the Hebrew Bible, with mentions in Genesis 15, Exodus 23, Numbers 34. Nine times elsewhere in the Bible, the land is referred as from Dan to Beersheba. According to the Book of Genesis, the land was first promised by God to the descendants of Abram, abrams name was later changed to Abraham, with the promise refined to pass through his son Isaac and to the Israelites, descendants of Jacob, Abrahams grandson. During the mandatory period the term Eretz Yisrael or the Land of Israel was part of the official Hebrew name of Mandatory Palestine, official Hebrew documents used the Hebrew transliteration of the word “Palestine” פלשתינה followed always by the two initial letters of Eretz Yisrael, א״י Aleph-Yod. The Land of Israel concept has been evoked by the founders of the State of Israel. It often surfaces in political debates on the status of the West Bank, Ezekiel, though generally preferring the phrase soil of Israel, employs eretz israel twice, respectively at Ezekiel 40,2 and Ezekiel 47,18. According to Anita Shapira, the term Eretz Yisrael was a term, vague as far as the exact boundaries of the territories are concerned. The Hebrew Bible provides three specific sets of borders for the Promised Land, each with a different purpose. And to their descendants after them, whilst Numbers 34, 1–15 describes the Land of Canaan which is allocated to nine, the expression Land of Israel is first used in a later book,1 Samuel 13,19. It is defined in detail in the exilic Book of Ezekiel as a land where both the tribes and the strangers in midst, can claim inheritance. The name Israel first appears in the Hebrew Bible as the name given by God to the patriarch Jacob, deriving from the name Israel, other designations that came to be associated with the Jewish people have included the Children of Israel or Israelite. The term Land of Israel occurs in one episode in the New Testament, the section in which it appears was written as a parallel to the earlier Book of Exodus. The passage describes the area as the land of the ten named ancient peoples living there. Genesis gives the border with Egypt as Nahar Mitzrayim – nahar in Hebrew denotes a river, never a wadi. Only the Red Sea and the Euphrates are mentioned to define the southern and eastern borders of the land promised to the Israelites. The Red Sea corresponding to Hebrew Yam Suf was understood in ancient times to be the Erythraean Sea, thus the entire Arabian peninsula lies within the borders described
13.
Daughters of Zelophehad
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Zelophehad, a man of the Tribe of Manasseh, had five daughters but no sons, and therefore no male heirs. Numbers 16 does not in any case cite the tribe of Manasseh as being involved in the rebellion against Moses, Zelophehads daughters noted that their father Zelophehad had not taken part in Korahs rebellion, but only died in his own sin. Zelophehads daughters argued that were not to inherit, then Zelophehads name would be lost to his clan. Moses took their case to God, God told Moses that the plea of Zelophehads daughters was just, and that they should be granted their fathers hereditary holding. Zelophehads daughters did as God had commanded in the instructions conveyed to Moses, according to the Zohar, Moses presented the case to God instead of deciding it himself out of modesty. A Baraita taught that Zelophehads daughters were wise, Torah students, another Baraita taught that Zelophehads daughters were equal in merit, and that is why the order of their names varies in the text. The daughters also demonstrated their righteousness by marrying men who were fitting for them, both of these genealogies record Zelophehad as being a member of the tribe of Manasseh. The apparent contradictions have been addressed by naming Zelophehad as a descendant rather than as the second, the presence of Zelophehad and his daughters in the earlier census is marked by the King James Version as having dubious authenticity. According to Tevyes Daughters, No Laughing Matter, author Jan Lisa Huttner makes a connection from the five daughters of Zelophehad to Tevyes five daughters in Fiddler on the Roof. Both Jane Austen and Solomon Rabinowitz presumably read the story of Zelophehad’s five daughters, the number five, five daughters—or to be exact, five dowries—is the same number God also bestowed on Solomon Rabinowitz. Linguistic scholars are divided in regard to the etymology of the name Zelophehad, following the reading of the masoretic text, some scholars suspect that the name is derived from a Syriac term meaning first rupture, in the sense of being a first-born son. In regard to the names of the daughters, scholars largely are in agreement, Malah means fat/infirmity, Noah means movement, Milcah means queen, Tirzah means pleasing, Hoglah means dancing. Noahs name is transliterated as Noah in the Complete Jewish Bible and as Noa in the 1899 edition of the Douai-Rheims version, however, Noa is in more common use as a modern name in Israel. Legal advice, concerning the rights and obligations of the daughters of Zelophehad, is given twice in the Biblical account. On the first occasion, the topic is about inheritance when there are no children, while the topic of the second occasion is levirate marriage. The biblical text states that Moses asked Hashem to rule on the issue, thus in all forms of Judaism following the Oral Law, women are allowed to marry whom they wish, including exogamously, whether they have gained an inheritance or not. Endogamy Exogamy Book of Numbers Oral law Weekly Torah portions discussing Zelophehads daughters, Pinchas and Masei Numbers Tanakh Hebrew Bible Epikleros, comparable custom in Ancient Greek society
14.
The Twelve Spies
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The account is found in Numbers 13, 1-33. God had promised Abraham that there would be a Promised Land for the nations to come out of his son, the land of Canaan which the spies were to explore was the same Promised Land. He also asked them to be positive in their outlook and to return with samples of local produce, when ten of the twelve spies showed little faith in the doom and gloom report they gave about the land, they were slandering what they believed God had promised them. They did not believe that God could help them, and the people as a whole were persuaded that it was not possible to take the land. As a result, the nation was made to wander in the desert for 40 years. Joshua and Caleb were the two spies who brought back a report and believed that God would help them succeed. They were the men from their generation permitted to go into the Promised Land after the time of wandering. God had promised the Israelites that they would be able to conquer the land with its indigenous Canaanite nations, Moses instructed the spies to report back on the agriculture and lay of the land. Ten of the decided to bring back an unbalanced report. All of the spies, except Joshua and Caleb, were struck down with a plague, Joshua was at first a fierce warrior. He was chosen as the representative from his tribe, Ephraim, to explore the land of Canaan, after the incident with the 12 spies, Joshua lived through the 40 year wandering period, and was named successor to Moses as instructed by God. Joshua completed the task of leading the Israelites into the Promised Land, Joshua also was the leader in renewing the Mosaic covenant with their God. Caleb was from the tribe of Judah and he was also chosen to explore the land of Canaan, and he was the other man who said that the God of Israel could help the Israelite people to victory against the Canaanites. God promised Caleb and Joshua that they would receive the land which they had explored for themselves, Caleb was also told that he would live to go into the Promised Land. The Hebrew word that the Torah uses is מרגלים, which can also mean traitors or deserters, in Numbers 13, the Hebrew word describing the group is also the word usually translated as men or the word usually translated as princes. In addition, the twelve were not trained as spies, nor did they conduct any covert activity. Thus, the phrase Twelve Scouts or Twelve Observers might be a way of describing the group. However, the point remains that their report resulted in a great outcry
15.
Tribe of Benjamin
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According to the Torah, the Tribe of Benjamin was one of the Tribes of Israel descended from Benjamin, the youngest son of the patriarch Jacob and his wife Rachel. In the Samaritan Pentateuch the name appears as Binyamīm, from after the conquest of the promised land by Joshua until the formation of the first Kingdom of Israel, the Tribe of Benjamin was a part of a loose confederation of Israelite tribes. No central government existed, and in times of crisis the people were led by ad hoc leaders known as Judges, almost the entire tribe of Benjamin, women and children included, was wiped out by the other Israelite tribes after the Battle of Gibeah. The text refers several times to the Benjaminite warriors as men of valour despite their defeat, a remnant of the tribe was spared, those few who remained were allowed to marry women of another town, whose husbands had been killed, to enable the tribe to continue. Responding to a threat from Philistine incursions, the Israelite tribes formed a strong. The first king of this new entity was Saul, from the tribe of Benjamin and he reigned from Gibeah for 38 years. On the accession of Rehoboam, Davids grandson, in c.930 BCE the northern tribes split from the House of David to reform a Kingdom of Israel. The tribe of Benjamin remained a part of the Kingdom of Judah until Judah was conquered by Babylon in c.586 BCE, some scholars believe that it instead originates from the tribe having the figure of a wolf in its standard. In Jewish Rabbinic literature, the Tribe of Benjamin is believed to correspond to the Hebrew month of Kislev, however, an abrupt change of character to one of placidity occurs in the text after a traumatic incident for the tribe. Six hundred of the men from the tribe of Benjamin survived by hiding in a cave for four months, the other Israelite tribes were grieved at the near loss of the tribe of Benjamin. They decided to allow these 600 men to carry on the tribe of Benjamin,400 virgin women from the tribe of Machir we found and given in marriage to the Benjaminite men. They then grabbed a wife each and took her back to their land, according to the Hebrew Bible, following the completion of the conquest of Canaan by the Israelite tribes, Joshua allocated the land among the twelve tribes. Kenneth Kitchen dates this conquest to just after 1200 BCE, however, according to the consensus of modern scholars, the conquest as described in the book of Joshua did not occur. Modern Israeli scholars have identified most of the mentioned in the Book of Joshua. The Babylonian Talmud names three of these cities, all of which were enclosed by a wall, and belonged to the tribe of Benjamin, Lydda, Ono. Presumably, the boundary of the tribe of Benjamin would have stretched as far as the Mediterranean Sea. It is now an abandoned Arab village, the word Lifta is merely a corruption of the Hebrew name Nephtoah, and where a natural spring by that name still abounds. Though Jerusalem was in the allocated to the tribe of Benjamin
16.
Battle of Gibeah
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The Battle of Gibeah is an episode related in the Book of Judges in the Hebrew Bible. The battle was triggered by an incident in which the concubine of a man from the Tribe of Levi was raped by members of the Tribe of Benjamin, the Levite had offered his concubine to the mob in his place. In the morning he found the concubine unresponsive on the doorstep and he later cut her body into twelve pieces, and sent the pieces throughout all the territories of the Israelite tribes. The outraged tribes of Israel sought justice, and asked for the miscreants to be delivered for judgement, the first king of Israel, Saul, was descended from these surviving men. Due to this war, the Tribe of Benjamin was subsequently referred to as the smallest of all the tribes, a Levite from the mountains of Ephraim had a concubine, who left him and returned to the house of her father in Bethlehem in Judah. Heidi M. Szpek observes that this serves to support the institution of monarchy. The Levite travelled to Bethlehem to retrieve her, and for five days her father managed to persuade him to delay their departure, on the fifth day, the Levite declined to postpone their journey any longer, and they set out late in the day. As they approach Jebus, the servant suggested they stop for the night, but the Levite refused to stay in a Jebusite city, and they continued on to Gibeah. J. P. Fokkelman argues that Judges 19, 11–14 is a chiasm, in doing this, the narrator is hinting at the selfishness and rancid group egotism of the Levite. Yet, it is not the aliens of Jebus who commit a heinous crime and they arrive in Gibeah just at nightfall. The Levite and his party wait in the square. Eventually, an old man came in working in the field. He, too was from the mountains of Ephraim, but had lived among the Benjaminites for some time and he invited them to spend the night at his house rather than the open square. He brought him into his house, and gave fodder to the donkeys, they washed their feet, suddenly certain men of the city surrounded the house and beat on the door. They spoke to the master of the house, the old man, saying, Bring out the man who came to your house, “To know” is probably a euphemism for sexual intercourse here, as in other biblical texts and as the NRSV translates it. The Ephraimite host offers instead his own daughter and the Levites concubine. Ken Stone observes, Apparently the sexual violation of women was considered less shameful than that of men, such an attitude reflects both the social subordination of women and the fact that homosexual rape was viewed as a particularly severe attack on male honor. When the men would not be dissuaded, the Levite thrust the concubine out the door and they abused her all night, not letting her go until dawn, when she collapsed outside the door, where the Levite found her the next morning
17.
Book of Judges
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The Book of Judges is the seventh book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible. Judges can be divided into three sections, a double prologue, a main body, and a double epilogue. The book opens with the Israelites in the land which God has promised to them but worshiping foreign gods instead of Yahweh, the God of Israel, and with the Canaanites still present everywhere. Chapters 1, 1–2,5 are thus a confession of failure while chapters 2, 6–3,6 are a major summary and reflection from the Deuteronomists. Once peace was regained, for a time Israel does right and receives Yahwehs blessings, only to relapse later into doing evil, Judges follows on from the Book of Joshua and opens with reference to Joshuas death. The Israelites meet, most likely at the sanctuary at Gilgal or at Shechem, the cyclic pattern set out in the prologue is readily apparent at the beginning, but as the stories progress it begins to disintegrate, mirroring the disintegration of the world of the Israelites. The stories are not presented in order, but the judges as they appear in the text are, Othniel vs. Chushan-Rishathaim, King of Aram. Some scholars have inferred that the judges were actual adjudicators, whereas the major judges were leaders. The only time a judge is said to have made legal judgments was Deborah. Despite their appearance at the end of the book, certain characters, early in the period of the judges. Judges contains a chronology of its events and it is overtly schematic and, according to biblical scholar Jeremy Hughes, shows signs of having been introduced at a later period. The basic source for Judges was a collection of connected stories about tribal heroes who saved the people in battle. A statement repeated throughout the book, In those days there was no king in Israel implies a date in the monarchy for the redaction editing) of Judges. Since the second half of the 20th century most scholars have agreed with Martin Noths thesis that the books of Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings form parts of a single work. Noth believed that history was the work of a single author, living in the mid-6th century BCE. After a period of peace, the cycle recurs, further themes are also present, the sovereign freedom of Yahweh, the satirisation of foreign kings, the concept of the flawed agent and the disunity of the Israelite community. Although Judges probably had a monarchist redaction, the book contains passages and themes that represent anti-monarchist views, one of the major themes of the book is Yahwehs sovereignty and the importance of being loyal to Him and His laws above all other gods and sovereigns. Indeed, the authority of the judges comes not through prominent dynasties nor through elections or appointments, anti-monarchist theology is most apparent toward the end of the Gideon cycle in which the Israelites beg Gideon to create a dynastic monarchy over them and Gideon refuses
18.
Hoshea
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See also Hosea, who has the same name in Biblical Hebrew. Hoshea was the last king of the Israelite Kingdom of Israel, william F. Albright dated his reign to 732–721 BC, while E. R. Thiele offered the dates 732–723 BC. Assyrian records basically confirm the Biblical account of how he became king, an undated inscription of Tiglath-Pileser III boasts of making Hoshea king after his predecessor had been overthrown, Israel. overthrew their king Pekah and I placed Hoshea as king over them. I received from them 10 talents of gold,1,000 talents of silver as their bute, so long as Tiglath-pileser was on the throne Hoshea remained loyal, but when Shalmaneser V succeeded, Hoshea made an effort to regain his independence and entered into negotiations with Egypt. Probably misled by favorable promises on the part of Egypt, Hoshea discontinued paying tribute, Shalmaneser soon interpreted this as rebellious, and directed his armies against Samaria. The Assyrian Eponym Canon shows that Shalmaneser campaigned against in the years 727,726, and 725 BC, the Babylonian Chronicle states that Shalmaneser ravaged the city of Sha-ma-ra-in. The capital, though deprived of the ruler, made an effective defense, nonetheless, the Assyrians captured Samaria after a siege of three years. However, Shalmaneser died shortly after the city fell, and the Assyrian army was recalled to secure the succession of Sargon II, the land of Israel, which had resisted the Assyrians for years without a king, again revolted. The author of the Books of Kings states this occurred because the children of Israel sinned against the Lord. What happened to Hoshea following the end of the kingdom of Israel, Hoshea eventually withheld the tribute he promised Shalmaneser, expecting the support of So, the king of Egypt. There is some mystery as to the identity of this king of Egypt, some scholars have argued that So refers to the Egyptian city Sais, considering the fact that Osorkon reigned at the time of Hoshea, this is highly likely. Alternatively it may refer to a lesser Egyptian, such as Siebe, a commander mentioned in the Assyrian record. The calendars for reckoning the years of kings in Judah and Israel were offset by six months, that of Judah starting in Tishri, cross-synchronizations between the two kingdoms therefore often allow narrowing of the beginning and/or ending dates of a king to within a six-month range. In the case of Hoshea, synchronization with the reign of Hezekiah of Judah shows that he came to the some time between Tishri 1 of 732 BC and the day before the first of Nisan,731 BC. The end of his reign occurred between the first of Nisan,723 BC, and the day before Tishri 1 of the same year. This narrowing of the dates for Hoshea is supplied by later scholars who built on Thieles work and that Hoshea died before Tishri 1 in the fall of 723 BC is additional evidence that it was Shalmaneser V, not Sargon II, who initially captured Samaria. Shalmaneser did not die until December 722 or January 721 BC
19.
Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)
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According to the Hebrew Bible, the Kingdom of Israel was one of two successor states to the former United Kingdom of Israel and Judah. Historians often refer to the Kingdom of Israel as the Northern Kingdom or as the Kingdom of Samaria to differentiate it from the Southern Kingdom of Judah, the Kingdom of Israel existed roughly from 930 BCE until 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The major cities of the kingdom were Shechem, Tirzah, in the Hebrew Bible, the Kingdom of Israel has been referred to as the House of Joseph. It is also referenced as Ephraim, the tribe whose territory housed the capital cities. It has also referred to as Israel in Samaria. According to the Hebrew Bible, the territory of the Kingdom of Israel comprised the territories of the tribes of Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, Dan, Manasseh, Ephraim, Reuben and its capital was Samaria according to the Book of Isaiah. The United Kingdom of Israel and Judah is said to have existed from about 1030 to about 930 BCE and it was a union of all the twelve Israelite tribes living in the area that presently approximates modern Israel and the Palestinian territories. After the death of Solomon in about 931 BCE, all the Israelite tribes except for Judah and Benjamin refused to accept Rehoboam, the rebellion against Rehoboam arose after he refused to lighten the burden of taxation and services that his father had imposed on his subjects. Jeroboam, who was not of the Davidic line, was sent for from Egypt by the malcontents, the Tribe of Ephraim and all Israel raised the old cry, Every man to his tents, O Israel. Rehoboam fled to Jerusalem, and in 930 BCE, Jeroboam was proclaimed king over all Israel at Shechem, after the revolt at Shechem at first only the tribe of Judah remained loyal to the house of David. But very soon after the tribe of Benjamin joined Judah, the northern kingdom continued to be called the Kingdom of Israel or Israel, while the southern kingdom was called the kingdom of Judah. 2 Chronicles 15,9 also says that members of the tribes of Ephraim, Manasseh, both Eusebius and Josephus place the division in 997 BCE – lunar dates of Venus can be mistaken as 64 years later. Shechem was the first capital of the Kingdom of Israel, King Omri built his capital in Samaria, which continued as such until the destruction of the Kingdom by the Assyrians. Thus, around 720 BCE, after two centuries, the kingdom of the ten tribes came to an end, for the first sixty years, the kings of Judah tried to re-establish their authority over the northern kingdom, and there was perpetual war between them. For the following eighty years, there was no war between them, and, for the most part, they were in friendly alliance, co-operating against their common enemies. The conflict between Israel and Judah was resolved when Jehoshaphat, King of Judah, allied himself with the house of Ahab through marriage, later, Jehosophats son and successor, Jehoram of Judah, married Ahabs daughter Athaliah, cementing the alliance. However, the sons of Ahab were slaughtered by Jehu following his coup détat around 840 BCE, in c.732 BCE, Pekah of Israel, while allied with Rezin, king of Aram, threatened Jerusalem. Ahaz, king of Judah, appealed to Tiglath-Pileser III, the king of Assyria, people from these tribes including the Reubenite leader, were taken captive and resettled in the region of the Khabur River system
20.
Ten Lost Tribes
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The ten lost tribes were the ten of the twelve tribes of ancient Israel that were said to have been deported from the Kingdom of Israel after its conquest by the Neo-Assyrian Empire circa 722 BCE. Claims of descent from the lost tribes have proposed in relation to many groups. The motif of the lost tribes first appeared in the era. In the 7th and 8th centuries CE, the return of the lost tribes was associated with the concept of the coming of the messiah, recorded history is at variance with the legends elaborated in apocryphal texts. Zvi Ben-Dor Benite states, The fascination with the tribes has generated, alongside ostensibly nonfictional scholarly studies, anthropologist Shalva Weil has documented differing tribes and peoples claiming affiliation to the Lost Tribes throughout the world. Some DNA studies have refuted any connection between modern-day ethnic Jews and most of the ethnic groups proposed as possible Lost Tribe candidates, for example, a recently published study into the genetic origins of Japanese people does not support a genealogical link. The Scriptural basis for the idea of 10 Lost Tribes is 2 Kings 17,6, In the ninth year of Hoshea and he settled them in Halah, in Gozan on the Habor River and in the towns of the Medes. According to the Hebrew Bible, Jacob had 12 sons and at least one daughter by two wives and two concubines, the twelve sons fathered the twelve Tribes of Israel. When the land of Israel was apportioned among the tribes in the days of Joshua, however, the tribe of Levi were given cities. Six cities were to be refuge cities for all men of Israel, three of these cities were located on each side of the Jordan River. In addition,42 other cities, totaling 48 cities, were given to the Tribe of Levi, Jacob elevated the descendants of Ephraim and Manasseh to the status of full tribes in their own right, replacing the Tribe of Joseph. Each received its own land and had its own encampment during the 40 years of wandering in the desert, nine landed tribes formed the Northern Kingdom, the tribes of Reuben, Issachar, Zebulun, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Ephraim and Manasseh. In addition, some members of Tribe of Levi, who had no land allocation, were found in the Northern Kingdom, the Tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained loyal to Rehoboam, and formed the Kingdom of Judah. Members of Levi and the remnant of Simeon were also found in the Southern Kingdom, according to 2 Chronicles 15,9, members of the tribes of Ephraim, Manasseh and Simeon fled to Judah during the reign of Asa of Judah. Whether these groups were absorbed into the population or remained distinct groups, people from these tribes, including the Reubenite leader, were taken captive and resettled in the region of the Khabur River system in Assyria/Mesopotamia. Tiglath-Pilesar also captured the territory of Naphtali and the city of Janoah in Ephraim, according to 2 Kings 16,9 and 15,29, the population of Aram and the annexed part of Israel was deported to Assyria. Many also fled south to Jerusalem, which appears to have expanded in size fivefold during this period, requiring a new wall to be built, and a new source of water to be provided by King Hezekiah. 2 Kings 17,34 says of the newly exiled Israelites that were in Assyria and they neither worship Yahweh nor adhere to the decrees and regulations, the laws and commands that Yahweh gave the descendants of Jacob, whom he named Israel
21.
Solomon's Temple
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Because of the religious sensitivities involved, and the politically volatile situation in Jerusalem, only limited archaeological surveys of the Temple Mount have been conducted. No archaeological excavations have been allowed on the Temple Mount during modern times, therefore, there are very few pieces of archaeological evidence for the existence of Solomons Temple. The only source of information on the First Temple is the Hebrew Bible, according to the biblical sources, the temple was constructed under Solomon, during the united monarchy of Israel and Judah. The Bible describes a Hiram I of Tyre who furnished architects, workmen and he also co-operated with Solomon in mounting an expedition on the Red Sea. 1 Kings 6,1 puts the date of the beginning of building the temple in the year of Solomons reign over Israel. The conventional dates of Solomons reign are circa 970 to 931 BCE and this puts the date of its construction in the mid-10th century BCE. Some scholars have speculated that a Jebusite sanctuary may have occupied the site. 1 Kings 9,10 says that it took Solomon 20 years altogether to build the Temple, the Temple itself finished being built after 7 years. During the united monarchy the Temple was dedicated to Yahweh, the God of Israel, according to the Hebrew Bible, the Temple was plundered by the Neo-Babylonian Empire king Nebuchadnezzar II when the Babylonians attacked Jerusalem during the brief reign of Jehoiachin c. A decade later, Nebuchadnezzar again besieged Jerusalem and after 30 months finally breached the city walls in 587 BCE, subsequently burning the Temple, according to Jewish tradition, the Temple was destroyed on Tisha BAv, the 9th day of Av. The Temple of Solomon is considered to be according to Phoenician design. The detailed descriptions provided in the Tanakh are the sources for reconstructions of its appearance, technical details are lacking, since the scribes who wrote the books were not architects or engineers. Nevertheless, the descriptions have inspired modern replicas of the temple, the usual explanation for the discrepancy between its height and the 30-cubit height of the temple is that its floor was elevated, like the cella of other ancient temples. It was floored and wainscotted with cedar of Lebanon, and its walls, there was a two-leaved door between it and the Holy Place overlaid with gold, also a veil of tekhelet, purple, and crimson and fine linen. It had no windows and was considered the dwelling-place of the name of God, kodesh haKodashim was prepared to receive and house the Ark, and when the Temple was dedicated, the Ark, containing the original tablets of the Ten Commandments, was placed therein. When the priests emerged from the place after placing the Ark there. The Hekhal, or Holy Place, is called the greater house and the temple, the word also means palace, was of the same width and height as the Holy of Holies. Its walls were lined with cedar, on which were carved figures of cherubim, palm-trees, and open flowers, chains of gold further marked it off from the Holy of Holies
22.
Torah study
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Torah study is the study of the Torah, Hebrew Bible, Talmud, responsa, rabbinic literature and similar works, all of which are Judaisms religious texts. According to Rabbinic beliefs the study is ideally done for the purpose of the mitzvah of Torah study itself and this practice is present to an extent in all religious branches of Judaism and is considered of paramount importance among religious Jews. Torah study has evolved over the generations, as lifestyles changed, in rabbinic literature, the highest ideal of all Jewish men is Torah study, women being exempt from Torah study. This literature teaches an eagerness for such study and a thirst for knowledge that expands beyond the text of the Tanakh to the entire Oral Torah and this paragraph was incorporated in the daily prayer service. According to R. Meir, when one studies Torah for its own sake the creation of the world is worthwhile for him alone. As the child must satisfy its hunger day by day, so must the grown man busy himself with the Torah each hour, Torah study is of more value than the offering of daily sacrifice. A single day devoted to the Torah outweighs 1,000 sacrifices, the fable of the Fish and the Fox, in which the latter seeks to entice the former to dry land, declares Israel can live only in the Law as fish can live only in the ocean. Whoever learns Torah at night is granted grace during the day, God weeps over one who might have occupied himself with Torah study but neglected to do so. The study must be unselfish, one should study the Torah with self-denial, even at the sacrifice of ones life, all, even lepers and the ritually unclean, are required to study the Torah. It is the duty of everyone to read the weekly portion twice. According to R. Meir, a Gentile who studies the Torah is as great as the High Priest, an even stronger statement is found in the Mishnah where it discusses the social hierarchy of ancient Israel. The High Priest was close to the top of the pyramid. However, the learned bastard takes precedence over the ignorant high priest, according to R. Yehudah, God Himself studies the Torah for the first three hours of every day. Torah study is counted amongst the 613 mitzvot, finding its source in the verse, And you shall teach it to your children, the importance of study is attested to in another Talmudic discussion about which is preferred, study or action. The answer there, a compromise, is study that leads to action. In some traditional circles, most notably the Orthodox and Haredi, women do not study Torah, but gain merit for facilitating Torah study for the men. In some communities, men forgo other occupations and study Torah full-time, Haredi Israelis often choose to devote many years to Torah study, often studying at a Kollel. National Religious Israelis often choose to time after high school to Torah study, either during their army service at a Hesder yeshiva
23.
Solstice
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The Solstice occurs twice each year as the Sun reaches its most northerly or southerly excursion relative to the celestial equator on the celestial sphere. The seasons of the year are directly connected to both the solstices and the equinoxes, the term solstice can also be used in a broader sense, as the day when this occurs. The day of the solstice has either the most sunlight of the year or the least sunlight of the year for any other than the equator. Alternative terms, with no ambiguity as to which hemisphere is the context, are June solstice and December solstice, at latitudes outside the tropics, the summer solstice marks the day when the sun appears highest in the sky. Within the tropics, the sun directly overhead from days to months before the solstice and again after the solstice. For an observer on the North Pole, the sun reaches the highest position in the sky once a year in June, the day this occurs is called the June solstice day. Similarly, for an observer on the South Pole, the sun reaches the highest position on December solstice day, when it is the summer solstice at one Pole, it is the winter solstice on the other. The suns westerly motion never ceases as the Earth is continually in rotation, however, the suns motion in declination comes to a stop at the moment of solstice. In that sense, solstice means sun-standing and this modern scientific word descends from a Latin scientific word in use in the late Roman republic of the 1st century BC, solstitium. Pliny uses it a number of times in his Natural History with a meaning that it has today. It contains two Latin-language morphemes, sol, sun, and -stitium, stoppage, the Romans used standing to refer to a component of the relative velocity of the Sun as it is observed in the sky. Relative velocity is the motion of an object from the point of view of an observer in a frame of reference, from a fixed position on the ground, the sun appears to orbit around the Earth. To an observer in a frame of reference, the planet Earth is seen to rotate about an axis. The Earths axis is tilted with respect to the plane of the Earths orbit, an observer on Earth therefore sees a solar path that is the result of both rotation and revolution. At maximum or minimum elevation, the relative motion of the Sun perpendicular to the horizon stops. Outside of the tropics, the maximum occurs at the summer solstice. The path of the Sun, or ecliptic, sweeps north and south between the northern and southern hemispheres, the days are longer around the summer solstice and shorter around the winter solstice. When the Suns path crosses the equator, the length of the nights at latitudes +L° and -L° are of equal length and this is known as an equinox
24.
Betar (fortress)
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Betar fortress was an ancient, terraced farming village in the Judean highlands. The Betar fortress was the last standing Jewish fortress in the Bar Kochba revolt of the 2nd century CE, the site of historic Betar, next to the modern Palestinian village of Battir, southwest of Jerusalem, is known as Khirbet al-Yahud in Arabic. Today, the Israeli settlement and city Beitar Illit is also located nearby, the city was the stronghold of Bar Kokhba, the leader of the Jewish Revolt under Hadrian. Hadrian sent against the city several of his Roman legions to capture the city, according to historical records, the city was besieged for three and a half years before it finally fell, and its defenders were put to death. The horrendous scene after the capture could be best described as a massacre. A stone inscription bearing Latin characters and discovered near the city shows that the Fifth Macedonian Legion, the destruction of Betar in 135 put an end to the last great Jewish revolt against Rome, and effectively quashed any Jewish hopes for self-governance in that period. Accounts of the event in Talmudic and Midrashic writings thus reflect and amplify its importance in the Jewish psyche, the best known is from the Babylonian Talmud, Gittin 57a-b, Through the shaft of a litter Bethar was destroyed. It was the custom when a boy was born to plant a tree and when a girl was born to plant a pine tree, and when they married, the tree was cut down. One day the daughter of the Emperor was passing when the shaft of her litter broke, so they lopped some branches off a cedar tree, the Jews thereupon fell upon them and beat them. They reported to the Emperor that the Jews were rebelling, and he hath cut off in fierce anger all the horn of Israel. Do you think this was near, gamaliel, What is signified by the verse, Mine eye affecteth my soul, because of all the daughters of my city. Such hyperbolic speech was used only to emphasize the horrendous scene after the capture of the city, and the ensuing massacre of its inhabitants. If you should come to take account, you would find that they amounted to three-hundred measures. ”Rabban Gamliel said, “Five-hundred schools were in Betar. Hadrian had prohibited their burial, and so all the bodies remained above ground, many years later Hadrians successor, Antoninus, allowed the dead to be afforded a decent burial. Mevo Betar David Ussishkin, Archaeological Soundings at Betar, Bar-Kochbas Last Stronghold, in, journal of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 20 66ff. Other Midrashic sources can be seen here
25.
Bar Kokhba revolt
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The Bar Kokhba revolt was a rebellion of the Jews of the Roman province of Judea, led by Simon bar Kokhba, against the Roman Empire. Fought circa 132–136 CE, it was the last of three major Jewish–Roman wars, so it is known as The Third Jewish–Roman War or The Third Jewish Revolt. Some historians also refer to it as the Second Revolt of Judea, not counting the Kitos War, the revolt erupted as a result of ongoing religious and political tensions in Judea following on the failure of the First Revolt in 66−70 CE. The Church Fathers and rabbinic literature emphasize governor of Judaea Rufus role in provoking the revolt, in 132, a revolt led by Bar Kokhba quickly spread from Modiin across the country, cutting off the Roman garrison in Jerusalem. Roman Governor Rufus then unsuccessfully engaged the early phase of the uprising, Rufus is last recorded in 132, the first year of the rebellion, whether he died or was replaced is uncertain, but Gargilius Antiques is recorded as the Roman Prefect of Judea during the conflict. Initial rebel victories over the Romans established an independent state of Israel over parts of Judea for over two years, as Bar Kokhba took the title of Nasi. Simon bar Kokhba, the commander of the revolt, was regarded by many Jews as the Messiah, who would restore their national independence. This setback, however, caused Roman Emperor Hadrian to assemble a large scale Roman force from across the Empire, the Roman army was made of six full legions with auxiliaries and elements from up to six additional legions, which finally managed to crush the revolt. The Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in the depopulation of Judean communities. According to Cassius Dio,580,000 Jews perished in the war and many died of hunger. In addition, many Judean war captives were sold into slavery, the Jewish communities of Judea were devastated to an extent which some scholars describe as a genocide. Roman casualties were also considered heavy - XXII Deiotariana was disbanded after serious losses, in addition, some historians argue that Legio IX Hispanas disbandment in the mid-2nd century could also have been a result of this war. In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or Ancient Israel, Emperor Hadrian wiped the name off the map, the Bar Kokhba revolt greatly influenced the course of Jewish history and the philosophy of the Jewish religion. Despite easing the persecution of Jews following Hadrians death in 138 CE, Jewish messianism was abstracted and spiritualized, and rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative. The Talmud, for instance, refers to Bar Kokhba as Ben-Kusiba and it was also among the key events to differentiate Christianity as a religion distinct from Judaism. Although Jewish Christians regarded Jesus as the Messiah and did not support Bar Kokhba, after the First Jewish–Roman War in 70 CE, the Roman authorities took measures to suppress the rebellious province of Judea. Instead of a procurator, they installed a praetor as a governor and stationed an entire legion, tensions continued to build up in the wake of the Kitos War, the second large-scale Jewish insurrection in the Eastern Mediterranean, the final stages of which saw fighting in Judea. Historians have suggested reasons for the sparking of the Bar Kokhba revolt, long-term
26.
Tisha B'Av
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Tisha BAv is regarded as the saddest day in the Jewish calendar and it is thus believed to be a day which is destined for tragedy. Tisha BAv falls in July or August in the Western calendar, the observance of the day includes five prohibitions, most notable of which is a 25-hour fast. According to Rabbinic tradition, the sin of the Ten Spies produced the annual fast day of Tisha BAv. When the Israelites accepted the report that the land of Canaan would be impossible to conquer. The night that the people cried was the ninth of Av, the fast commemorates the destruction of the Jewish First Temple and the Second Temple, both of which occurred on the 9th of the Hebrew month of Av, about 655 years apart. The three weeks leading up to Tisha BAv are known as The Three Weeks, while the nine days leading up to Tisha BAv are known as The Nine Days. According to the Mishnah, five specific events occurred on the ninth of Av that warrant fasting, only two of the spies, Joshua and Caleb, brought a positive report, while the others spoke disparagingly about the land. The majority report caused the Children of Israel to cry, panic, for this, they were punished by God that their generation would not enter the land. Because of the Israelites lack of faith, God decreed that for all generations this date would become a day of crying and misfortune for their descendants. According to the Talmud in tractate Taanit, the destruction of the First Temple began on the Ninth of Av. The Second Temple built by Ezra and Nehemiah was destroyed by the Romans in August 70 CE, scattering the people of Judea, the Romans subsequently crushed Bar Kokhbas revolt and destroyed the city of Betar, killing over 500,000 Jewish civilians on August 4,135 CE. Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Roman commander Turnus Rufus plowed the site of the Temple in Jerusalem, note, Due to a two-year difference within the Hebrew calendar, the years in which the First and Second Temple were destroyed have been disputed. Regardless of the dates of these events, for many Jews, Tisha BAv is the designated day of mourning for them. The Jews were expelled from England on July 18,1290, the Jews were expelled from France on July 22,1306. The Jews were expelled from Spain on July 31,1492, germany entered World War I on August 1–2,1914, which caused massive upheaval in European Jewry and whose aftermath led to the Holocaust. On August 2,1941, SS commander Heinrich Himmler formally received approval from the Nazi Party for The Final Solution, as a result, the Holocaust began during which almost one third of the worlds Jewish population perished. On July 23,1942, began the deportation of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto. The Israeli disengagement from Gaza starts in the Gaza Strip, expelling 8000 Jews who lived in Gush Katif,15 August 2005,10 Av,5765, Tisha BAv falls in July or August in the Western calendar
27.
Mincha
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Mincha is the afternoon prayer service in Judaism. The name Mincha, meaning present, is derived from the offering that accompanied each sacrifice offered in the Temple. The Hebrew noun minħah is used 211 times in the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible with the first instances being the minkhah offered by both Cain and Abel in Genesis 4. The Talmud states that Mincha was originated by Isaac, and described in Genesis 24,63 by the words Isaac went out to converse in the field, where the verb converse refers to with God. Mincha is different from Shacharit and Maariv in that it is recited in the middle of the secular day, Mincha may be recited from half an hour after halachic noontime. This earliest time is referred to as mincha gedola and it is, however, preferably recited after mincha ketana. Ideally, one should complete the prayers before sunset, although many authorities permit reciting Mincha until nightfall. While it is permissible to recite mincha after shkiah, the Mishnah Berurah states that is preferable to recite mincha without a minyan before shkiah than to recite it with a minyan after shkia. However one may repeat the Shabbos Maariv and have in mind that the missed mincha is being compensated for through the second Amidah, Mincha on a weekday exclusive includes prayers found at Shacharit. The opening section is concluded with Malachi 3,4, ashkenaz and Polin begin with a Ribon HaOlamim, then a Ribon HaOlam, then Korban HaTamid, and then Ashrei. From Rosh Hashanah to Yom Kippur and on public fast days, except on Shabbat, erev Shabbat, on Yom Kippur, Uva Letzion are omitted from Mincha, and it begins with the Torah reading. Ashrei and Uva Letzion are a part of the Neila service
28.
Yedioth Ahronoth
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Yedioth Ahronoth is a national daily newspaper published in Tel Aviv, Israel. Founded in 1939 in Mandatory Palestine, the Yedioth Ahronoth has been for years the largest newspaper in Israel by sales. Yedioth Ahronoth was established in 1939 by an investor named Gershom Komarov and it was the first evening paper in the British Mandate of Palestine, and attempted to emulate the format of the London Evening Standard. Running into financial difficulties, Komarov sold the paper to Yehuda Mozes, a wealthy land dealer who regarded the paper as an interesting hobby and his sons, Reuben and Noah ran the paper with Noah as the first managing editor. In 1948, a group of journalists and staff members led by chief editor Ezriel Carlebach left to form Yedioth Maariv. Carlebach was replaced by Herzl Rosenblum and this began an ongoing battle for circulation and prestige between the rival newspapers, which peaked during the 1990s when both papers were discovered to have bugged one anothers phones. As of 2017, the paper is headed by Noah Mozess son, Arnon Mozes, for many years it was edited by Herzl Rosenblums son, Moshe Vardi, who was replaced in 2005 by Rafi Ginat. It is published in format, and according to one author, its marketing strategy emphasizes drama. It has been described as undoubtedly the countrys number-one paper, the paper is open to a wide range of political views. Shilo De-Beer was promoted to editor in April 2007.9 to 33.9 percent. In July 2010, a TGI survey reported that Israel HaYom had overtaken Yedioth Ahronoth as the most read newspaper in terms of exposure with a rate of 35. 2% compared to Yedioths 34. 9%. After only a few months of publication of a weekend edition, Yedioth Ahronoth is generally critical of Benjamin Netanyahu. Oren Frisco reached a conclusion after the 2009 Knesset elections, writing that throughout the campaign. List of newspapers in Israel Media of Israel Ynet, internet version of the newspaper in Hebrew Ynetnews, internet version of the newspaper in English Official website Official website of Ynetnews
29.
Jewish holidays
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Certain terms are used very commonly for groups of holidays. These include the first and seventh days of Passover, Shavuot, by extension, outside the Land of Israel, the second-day holidays known under the rubric Yom tov sheni shel galuyot are also included in this grouping. Colloquially, Yom Kippur, a Biblically-mandated date on which even food preparation is prohibited, is included in this grouping. The English-language term High Holy Days refers to Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur collectively, the term Three Pilgrimage Festivals refers to Passover, Shavuot and Sukkot. Within this grouping Sukkot normally includes Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah, certain terminology is used in referring to different categories of holidays, depending on their source and their nature, Shabbat, or Sabbath, is referred to by that name exclusively. Similarly, Rosh Chodesh is referred to by that name exclusively, moed, plural moadim, refers to any of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals of Passover, Shavuot and Sukkot. When used in comparison to Yom Tov, it refers to Chol HaMoed, Ḥag or chag, plural chagim, can be used whenever yom tov or moed is. It is also used to describe Hanukkah and Purim, as well as Yom Haatzmaut, Taanit, or, less commonly, tzom, refers to a fast. These terms are used to describe the rabbinic fasts, although tzom is used liturgically to refer to Yom Kippur as well. The most notable feature of Shabbat and the Biblical festivals is the requirement to refrain from melacha on these days. Melacha is most commonly translated as work, perhaps a translation is creative-constructive work. Strictly speaking, Melacha is defined in Jewish law by 39 categories of labor that were used in constructing the Tabernacle while the Jews wandered in the desert, as understood traditionally and in Orthodox Judaism, On Shabbat and Yom Kippur all melacha is prohibited. On a Yom Tov which falls on a weekday, not Shabbat, some melacha related to preparation of food is permitted. On weekdays during Chol HaMoed, melacha is not prohibited per se, however, melacha should be limited to that required either to enhance the enjoyment of the remainder of the festival or to avoid great financial loss. On other days, there are no restrictions on melacha, in principle, Conservative Judaism understands the requirement to refrain from melacha in the same way as Orthodox Judaism. In practice, Conservative rabbis frequently rule on prohibitions around melacha differently from Orthodox authorities, still, there are a number of Conservative/Masorti communities around the world where Sabbath and Festival observance fairly closely resembles Orthodox observance. However, many, if not most, lay members of Conservative congregations in North America do not consider themselves Sabbath-observant, at the same time, adherents of Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism do not accept halacha, and therefore restrictions on melacha, as binding at all. Jews fitting any of these descriptions refrain from melacha in practice only as they see fit
30.
Shabbat
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Shabbat observance entails refraining from work activities, often with great rigor, and engaging in restful activities to honor the day. Judaisms traditional position is that unbroken seventh-day Shabbat originated among the Jewish people, as their first and most sacred institution, variations upon Shabbat are widespread in Judaism and, with adaptations, throughout the Abrahamic and many other religions. According to halakha, Shabbat is observed from a few minutes before sunset on Friday evening until the appearance of three stars in the sky on Saturday night, Shabbat is ushered in by lighting candles and reciting a blessing. Traditionally, three meals are eaten, in the evening, in the early afternoon, and late in the afternoon. The evening meal begins with a blessing called kiddush and another blessing recited over two loaves of challah. Shabbat is closed the evening with a havdalah blessing. Shabbat is a day when Jews exercise their freedom from the regular labors of everyday life. It offers an opportunity to contemplate the spiritual aspects of life, the word Shabbat derives from the Hebrew verb shavat. Although frequently translated as rest, another translation of these words is ceasing. The related modern Hebrew word shevita, has the implication of active rather than passive abstinence from work. The notion of active cessation from labor is also regarded as consistent with an omnipotent Gods activity on the seventh day of Creation according to Genesis. Sabbath is given status as a holy day at the very beginning of the Torah in Genesis 2. It is first commanded after the Exodus from Egypt, in Exodus 16,26 and in Exodus 20, Sabbath is commanded and commended many more times in the Torah and Tanakh, double the normal number of animal sacrifices are to be offered on the day. Sabbath is also described by the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Amos, the longstanding traditional Jewish position is that unbroken seventh-day Shabbat originated among the Jewish people, as their first and most sacred institution. The Mosaic tradition quotes an origin from the Bible of special creation, though some suggest a later, naturalistic origin. Seventh-day Shabbat did not originate with the Egyptians, to whom it was unknown, the first non-Biblical reference to Sabbath is in an ostracon found in excavations at Mesad Hashavyahu, which is dated 630 BCE. The prohibitions on these days, spaced seven days apart, include abstaining from chariot riding, on these days officials were prohibited from various activities and common men were forbidden to make a wish, and at least the 28th was known as a rest-day. The difficulties of this theory include reconciling the differences between a week and a lunar week, and explaining the absence of texts naming the lunar week as Sabbath in any language
31.
High Holy Days
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The term High Holy Days most probably derives from the popular English phrase, “high days and holydays”. The Hebrew equivalent, Yamim Noraim, is neither Biblical nor Talmudic, many prefer the term High Holy Days over High Holidays because the former emphasizes the personal, reflective, introspective aspects of this period. By contrast, Holidays suggests a time of communal celebrations of events in the history of the Jewish people, the Hebrew month preceding Rosh Hashanah, Elul, is designated as a month of introspection and repentance. In preparation for the Jewish New Year, special prayers are recited, Psalms 27 is added at the end of morning and evening prayers, and the shofar is blown at the end of morning services on weekdays. Among Sephardi Jews, Selichot are recited at dawn on weekdays throughout the month, also, many complete the entire Book of Psalms twice during the month. It is customary to increase the giving of charity and to ask forgiveness from people one may have wronged, at midnight on the Saturday night before Rosh Hashanah, Ashkenazi Jews begin reciting selichot. On the following days, however, they recite the selichot before the regular morning prayers. On the eve of Rosh Hashanah, extra prayers are recited, Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year, and falls on the first and second days of the Jewish month of Tishri. The Mishnah, the work of the Jewish Oral Torah, sets this day aside as the new year for calculating calendar years and Sabbatical. Rabbinic literature describes this day as a day of judgment, God is sometimes referred to as the Ancient of Days. Some descriptions depict God as sitting upon a throne, while containing the deeds of all humanity are opened before Him. Prayer services are longer than on a regular Shabbat or other Jewish holidays, on the afternoon of the first day, the ritual tashlikh is performed, in which sins are cast into open water, such as a river, sea, or lake. They include the Fast of Gedaliah, on the day of Tishri, and Shabbat Shuvah. Shabbat Shuvah has a special Haftarah that begins Shuvah Yisrael, hence the name of that Shabbat, traditionally the rabbi gives a long sermon on that day. It is held that, while judgment on each person is pronounced on Rosh Hashanah, the Ten Days are therefore an opportunity to mend ones ways in order to alter the judgment in ones favor. Yom Kippur is the Jewish festival of the Day of Atonement, the Hebrew Bible calls the day Yom Hakippurim. In the Hebrew calendar, the day of Tishri is known as Erev Yom Kippur. Yom Kippur itself begins around sunset on that day and continues into the day until nightfall
32.
Rosh Hashanah
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Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year. The biblical name for this holiday is Yom Teruah, literally day shouting/blasting and it is the first of the Jewish High Holy Days specified by Leviticus 23, 23–32, which usually occur in the early autumn of the Northern Hemisphere. Rosh Hashanah is a celebration, which begins on the first day of Tishrei. Tishrei is the first month of the Jewish civil year, according to one secular opinion its origin is in the beginning of the economic year in the ancient Near East, marking the start of the agricultural cycle. Rosh is the Hebrew word for head, ha is the definite article, thus Rosh HaShanah means head the year, referring to the Jewish day of new year. The term Rosh Hashanah in its current meaning does not appear in the Torah and these same words are commonly used in the Psalms to refer to the anointed days. In the Siddur and Machzor Jewish prayer-books Rosh Hashanah is also called Yom Hazikaron, the Hebrew Rosh HaShanah is etymologically related to the Arabic Ras as-Sanah, the name chosen by Muslim lawmakers for the Islamic New Year. Rosh Hashanah marks the start of a new year in the Hebrew calendar and it is the new year for people, animals, and legal contracts. The Mishnah also sets this day aside as the new year for calculating calendar years, shmita, Jews are confident that Rosh Hashanah represents either figuratively or literally Gods creation ex nihilo. However, according to Rabbi Eleazar ben Shammua, Rosh Hashanah commemorates the creation of man, the earliest origins of the Hebrew New Year are connected to the beginning of the economic year in the agricultural societies of the ancient Near East. The New Year was the beginning of the cycle of sowing, growth, and harvest, the Mishnah contains the second known reference to Rosh Hashanah as the day of judgment. The names of the righteous are immediately inscribed in the book of life, the intermediate class are allowed a respite of ten days, until Yom Kippur, to reflect, repent and become righteous, the wicked are blotted out of the book of the living forever. In Jewish liturgy, Rosh Hashanah leads to Yom Kippur, which is described as the day of judgment, the assumption is that everyone was sealed for life and therefore the next festival is Sukkot that is referred to as the time of our joy. The shofar is traditionally blown each morning for the month of Elul. The sound of the shofar is intended to awaken the listeners from their slumbers, the shofar is not blown on Shabbat. In the period leading up to the Yamim Noraim, penitential prayers, Rosh Hashanah is also the day of Yom Hadin, known as Judgment day. The final judgment is not done from Yom Hadin before the start of Yom Kippur, additionally, Karaites believe the adoption of Rosh Hashanah in place of Yom Teruah is the result of pagan Babylonian influence upon the Jewish nation. The first stage in the transformation was the adoption of the Babylonian month names, in the Torah the months are numbered as First Month, Second Month, Third Month, etc
33.
Passover
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Passover or Pesach, is an important, biblically derived Jewish holiday. The Jewish people celebrate Passover as a commemoration of their liberation by God from slavery in Egypt and it commemorates the story of the Exodus as described in the Hebrew Bible especially in the Book of Exodus, in which the Israelites were freed from slavery in Egypt. According to standard biblical chronology, this event would have place at about 1300 BCE. Passover commences on the 15th of the Hebrew month of Nisan and lasts for seven days or eight days for Orthodox, Hasidic. The rituals unique to the Passover celebrations commence with the Passover Seder when the 15th of Nisan has begun, in the Northern Hemisphere Passover takes place in spring as the Torah prescribes it, in the month of spring. It is one of the most widely observed Jewish holidays, when the Pharaoh freed the Israelites, it is said that they left in such a hurry that they could not wait for bread dough to rise. In commemoration, for the duration of Passover no leavened bread is eaten, thus matzo is eaten during Passover and it is a tradition of the holiday. Samaritans still make this pilgrimage to Mount Gerizim, but only men participate in public worship, the Passover begins on the 15th day of the month of Nisan, which typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. Passover is a festival, so the 15th day of Nisan typically begins on the night of a full moon after the northern vernal equinox. However, due to months or leap months falling after the vernal equinox, Passover sometimes starts on the second full moon after vernal equinox. If the barley was not ripe, or various other phenomena indicated that spring was not yet imminent, however, since at least the 4th century, the date has been fixed mathematically. Diaspora Jews historically observed the festival for eight days, and most still do, reform and Reconstructionist Jews and Israeli Jews, wherever they are, usually observe the holiday over seven days. The reason for this day is due to enactment of the ancient Jewish sages. It is thought by scholars that Jews outside of Israel could not be certain if their local calendars fully conformed to practice of the Temple at Jerusalem. Karaites and Samaritans use different versions of the Jewish calendar, which are out of sync with the modern Jewish calendar by one or two days. In 2009, for example, Nisan 15 on the Jewish calendar used by Rabbinic Judaism corresponds to April 9, on the calendars used by Karaites and Samaritans, Abib or Aviv 15 corresponds to April 11 in 2009. The Karaite and Samaritan Passovers are each one day long, followed by the six-day Festival of Unleavened Bread – for a total of seven days, scholarly consensus dates the origin of the festival to a period earlier than the Exodus. Hyssop was employed to daub the blood of a sheep on the lintels
34.
Fast of the Firstborn
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Fast of the Firstborn, is a unique fast day in Judaism which usually falls on the day before Passover. Usually, the fast is broken at a celebration, which, according to prevailing custom. Unlike all other Jewish fast days, only firstborns are required to fast on the Fast of the Firstborn and this fast commemorates the salvation of the Israelite firstborns during the Plague of the Firstborn, when, according to Exodus. God struck every firstborn in the Land of Mitzrayim. The origins of the Fast of the Firstborn are found in the Talmud, Rabbi Grunwald thus posits that this was the precedent for the Fast of the Firstborn. In Judaism, there are three potential purposes in fasting, and a combination of some or all of these could apply to any given fast. One purpose in fasting is the achievement of atonement for sins and omissions in Divine service, fasting is not considered the primary means of acquiring atonement, rather, sincere regret for and rectification of wrongdoing is key. Nevertheless, fasting is conducive to atonement, for it tends to precipitate contrition in the one who fasts and this is why the Bible requires fasting on Yom Kippur. Most of the Talmuds Tractate Taanit is dedicated to the involved in declaring and observing fast days. The second purpose in fasting is commemorative mourning, indeed, most communal fast days that are set permanently in the Jewish calendar fulfill this purpose. These fasts include, Tisha BAv, the Seventeenth of Tammuz, the Tenth of Tevet, the purpose of a fast of mourning is the demonstration that those fasting are impacted by and distraught over earlier loss. This serves to heighten appreciation of that which was lost, the third purpose in fasting is commemorative gratitude. Since food and drink are corporeal needs, abstinence from them serves to provide an opportunity for focus on the spiritual. Indeed, the Midrash explains that fasting can potentially elevate one to the level of the ministering angels. This dedication is considered appropriate gratitude to God for providing salvation, indeed, Jewish philosophy considers this appreciation one of the fundamental reasons for which God endowed mankind with such basic physical needs as food and drink. Blessed is the Life-giver to the universe, fasting on the Fast of the Firstborn incorporates the first purpose and the third, as detailed in the introduction to this article. Additionally, according to Rabbi Jacob Emden, the Fast of the Firstborn, like the Fast of Esther, commemorates the salvation of the Jews from the plot of Haman. This is because Haman advanced his plot on the thirteenth of Nisan, for this reason, even some non-firstborns maintain the custom to fast on the fourteenth of Nisan. Furthermore, during the Temple period, this loss was most profoundly felt on the fourteenth of Nisan, there is disagreement among the early halakhic authorities as to who qualifies as a firstborn for purposes of the Fast of the Firstborn
35.
Pesach Sheni
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Pesach Sheni occurs every year on 14 Iyar. This is exactly one month after 14 Nisan, the day before Passover, as described in the source text for this mitzvah, the Israelites were about to celebrate Passover one year after leaving Egypt. The offering of the Korban Pesach was at the core of that celebration, however certain men were ritually impure from contact with human corpses, and were therefore ineligible to participate in the Korban Pesach. As described in Numbers 9, 9-13, a Jew may bring the Korban Pesach on Pesach Sheni if s/he is ritually impure due to contact with a body or were on a distant journey. As elucidated in Mishnah Pesahim and its Gemara, The definition of distant journey for this purpose is generally construed liberally, all types of ritual impurity are generally included, not only those due to contact with a human body. In net effect, anyone unavoidably prevented from offering the Korban Pesach on Passover may do so on Pesach Sheni, however one may not intentionally defer the Korban Pesach if it is in his/her power to offer it on Passover. Same - Hallel is recited during its offering, offering overrides Shabbat prohibitions, different - The only restriction concerning chametz is that it cannot be eaten with the Korban Pesach. It is otherwise permissible to own it, unlike on Passover, more generally, the full seven-day Ḥag haMatzot —the holiday now commonly referred to as Passover—is not observed in conjunction with Pesach Sheni. Different - Hallel is not recited at the meal when the Korban Pesach is consumed, due to the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, Jews are unable to perform the Passover sacrifice, neither on Passover nor on Pesach Sheni. Some have the custom to eat matzo during Pesach Sheni in memory of the sacrifice, some have the custom to omit Tahanun from the daily prayer service, though this custom is not observed universally. Pesach Sheni is relatively prominent in Chabad and other Hasidic thought, one theme commonly expressed for this holiday is second chances. In several Hasidic groups, the rebbe conducts a tish on Pesach Sheni, the Rebbes of Nadvorna and related groups conduct a tish with four cups of wine, matza and maror, in the manner of a seder. Chol HaMoed, the days of Passover and Sukkot. Isru chag refers to the day each of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals. Mimouna, a traditional North African Jewish celebration held the day after Passover, Purim Katan is when during a Jewish leap year Purim is celebrated during Adar II so that the 14th of Adar I is then called Purim Katan. Shushan Purim falls on Adar 15 and is the day on which Jews in Jerusalem celebrate Purim, yom Kippur Katan is a practice observed by some Jews on the day preceding each Rosh Chodesh or New-Moon Day. Yom tov sheni shel galuyot refers to the observance of a day of Jewish holidays outside of the land of Israel. Torah. org, Pesach Sheni, the Second Pesach Shulchanaruchharav. com Pesach Sheiyni-Laws & Customs
36.
Shavuot
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The holiday is one of the Shalosh Regalim, the three Biblical pilgrimage festivals. It marks the conclusion of the Counting of the Omer, the Torah mandates the seven-week Counting of the Omer, beginning on the second day of Passover, to be immediately followed by Shavuot. This counting of days and weeks is understood to express anticipation, on Passover, the people of Israel were freed from their enslavement to Pharaoh, on Shavuot they were given the Torah and became a nation committed to serving God. The word Shavuot means weeks, and the festival of Shavuot marks the completion of the seven-week counting period between Passover and Shavuot, the yahrzeit of King David is traditionally observed on Shavuot. Hasidic Jews also observe the yahrzeit of the Baal Shem Tov, Shavuot is one of the less familiar Jewish holidays to secular Jews in the Jewish diaspora, while those in Israel as well as the Orthodox community are more aware of it. According to Jewish law, Shavuot is celebrated in Israel for one day, Reform Judaism celebrates only one day, even in the Diaspora. Shavuot is not explicitly named as the day on which the Torah was revealed by God to the Israelite nation at Mount Sinai in the Bible, although this is commonly quoted to be its main significance. What is indeed textually connected in the Bible to the Feast of Shavuot, is the season of the grain harvest, specifically of the wheat, in ancient times, the grain harvest lasted seven weeks and was a season of gladness. It began with the harvesting of the barley during Passover and ended with the harvesting of the wheat at Shavuot, Shavuot was thus the concluding festival of the grain harvest, just as the eighth day of Sukkot was the concluding festival of the fruit harvest. During the existence of the Temple in Jerusalem, an offering of two loaves of bread from the wheat harvest was made on Shavuot, in the Bible, Shavuot is called the Festival of Weeks, Festival of Reaping, and Day of the First Fruits. Shavuot, the plural of a word meaning week or seven, the Talmud refers to Shavuot as Atzeret, referring to the prohibition against work on this holiday and to the conclusion of the holiday and season of Passover. Since Shavuot occurs 50 days after Passover, Hellenistic Jews gave it the name Pentecost, Shavuot was also the first day on which individuals could bring the Bikkurim to the Temple in Jerusalem. The Bikkurim were brought from the Seven Species for which the Land of Israel is praised, wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and dates. In the largely agrarian society of ancient Israel, Jewish farmers would tie a reed around the first ripening fruits from each of these species in their fields. At the time of harvest, the fruits identified by the reed would be cut and placed in baskets woven of gold and silver. The baskets would then be loaded on oxen whose horns were gilded and laced with garlands of flowers, as the farmer and his entourage passed through cities and towns, they would be accompanied by music and parades. At the Temple in Jerusalem, each farmer would present his Bikkurim to a Kohen in a ceremony that followed the text of Deut, the ceremony of Bikkurim conveys the Jews gratitude to God both for the first fruits of the field and for His guidance throughout Jewish history. However, it is characterized by many minhagim
37.
Sukkot
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It is a biblical Jewish holiday celebrated on the 15th day of the month of Tishrei. During the existence of the Jerusalem Temple it was one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals on which the Israelites were commanded to perform a pilgrimage to the Temple. The more elaborate religious significance from the Book of Leviticus is that of commemorating the Exodus, the holiday lasts seven days in Israel and eight in the diaspora. The first day is a Shabbat-like holiday when work is forbidden and this is followed by intermediate days called Chol Hamoed, when certain work is permitted. The festival is closed with another Shabbat-like holiday called Shemini Atzeret, Shemini Atzeret coincides with the eighth day of Sukkot outside of Israel. The Hebrew word sukkōt is the plural of sukkah, booth or tabernacle, a sukkah is the name of the temporary dwelling in which farmers would live during harvesting, a fact connecting to the agricultural significance of the holiday stressed by the Book of Exodus. Throughout the holiday, meals are eaten inside the sukkah and many people there as well. On each day of the holiday it is mandatory to perform a ceremony with the Four Species. The origins of Sukkot are both historical and agricultural, historically, Sukkot commemorates the forty-year period during which the children of Israel were wandering in the desert, living in temporary shelters. Agriculturally, Sukkot is a harvest festival and is referred to as Chag HaAsif. Sukkot is a holiday, with the first day celebrated as a full festival with special prayer services. The seventh day of Sukkot is called Hoshana Rabbah and has a special observance of its own, outside Israel, the first and last two days are celebrated as full festivals. The intermediate days are known as Chol HaMoed, according to Halakha, some types of work are forbidden during Chol HaMoed. In Israel many businesses are closed during this time, throughout the week of Sukkot, meals are eaten in the sukkah and the males sleep there, although the requirement is waived in case of rain. Every day, a blessing is recited over the Lulav and the Etrog. Observance of Sukkot is detailed in the Book of Nehemiah 8, 13-18, Zechariah 14, 16-19 and Leviticus 23, 34-44 in the Bible, the Mishnah, the Tosefta, the sukkah walls can be constructed of any material. The walls can be free-standing or include the sides of a building or porch, the roof must be of organic material, known as schach, such as leafy tree overgrowth, schach mats or palm fronds. It is customary to decorate the interior of the sukkah with hanging decorations of the four species
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Hoshana Rabbah
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The seventh day of the Jewish holiday of Sukkot, 21st day of Tishrei, is known as Hoshana Rabbah. This day is marked by a synagogue service, the Hoshana Rabbah, in which seven circuits are made by the worshippers with their lulav and etrog. It is customary for the scrolls of the Torah to be removed from the ark during this procession, in a few communities a shofar is sounded after each circuit. Hoshana Rabbah is known as the last of the Days of Judgment which began on Rosh Hashana. Consequently, an Aramaic blessing which Jews give each other on Hoshana Rabbah, פתקא טבא, in this spirit, it is a custom in many congregations that the cantor wears a kittel as on the High Holidays. Among Sephardi Jews, prayers known as Selichot are recited before the morning service. In the different prayers of this day, Syrian Jews pray in the maqam as on the high holidays. In Amsterdam and in a few places in England, America, and elsewhere, the latter practice reflects the idea that Hoshana Rabbah is the end of the High Holy Day season, when the world is judged for the coming year. Some communities such as Bobov will only do if it is on Friday. However this practice is not generally done and it is customary to read the whole of Tehillim on Hoshana Rabbah eve. There is also a custom to read the book of Deuteronomy on the night of Hoshana Rabbah, the reasons for many of the customs of the day are rooted in Kabbalah. The modern day observance of the rituals of Hoshana Rabbah are reminiscent of the practices that existed in the times of the Holy Temple in Jerusalem, during Sukkot, the four species are taken in a circuit around the synagogue once daily. On Hoshana Rabbah, there are seven circuits, the priests carried the palm branches or willows in their hands. The entire ceremony is to demonstrate rejoicing and gratitude for a blessed, moreover, it serves to tear down the iron wall that separates us from our Father in Heaven, as the wall of Jericho was encompassed and the wall fell down flat. Furthermore, the seven circuits correspond to the seven words in the verse Erhatz benikayon kappay, vaasovevah et mizbahakha Hashem - I wash my hands in purity and circle around Your altar, each hoshana is done in honor of a patriarch. In Orthodox Jewish circles, some men will stay up all night learning Torah, sephardim have a tradition of staying up the entire night on the eve of this day. Throughout the night in the synagogues, Torah learning takes place as well as praying the Selichot prayers, the entire book of Deuteronomy is read and reviewed. In Hasidic communities which follow the customs of Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Rimanov and this may be followed by a tish in honor of the festival
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Shemini Atzeret
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Shemini Atzeret is a Jewish holiday. It is celebrated on the 22nd day of the Hebrew month of Tishrei in the Land of Israel and it directly follows the Jewish festival of Sukkot which is celebrated for seven days, and thus Shemini Atzeret is literally the eighth day. It is a separate—yet connected—holy day devoted to the aspects of the festival of Sukkot. Part of its duality as a day is that it is simultaneously considered to be both connected to Sukkot and also a separate festival in its own right. Outside the Land of Israel, this is complicated by the additional day added to all Biblical holidays except Yom Kippur. The celebration of Simchat Torah is the most distinctive feature of the holiday, in the Land of Israel, the celebrations of Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are combined on a single day, and the names are used interchangeably. In the Diaspora, the celebration of Simchat Torah is deferred to the day of the holiday. Commonly, only the first day is referred to as Shemini Atzeret, Karaite Jews and Samaritans also observe Shemini Atzeret, as they do all Biblical holidays. However, it may occur on a different day from the conventional Jewish celebration, Karaites and Samaritans do not include the rabbinical innovation of Simchat Torah in their observance of the day, and do not observe a second day in the Diaspora. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, atzeret is the given to it in Leviticus 23,36, Numbers 29,35, Nehemiah 8,18. It is not mentioned in Deuteronomy 16, and is only in those parts of the Bible known as the Priestly Code. Like atzarah, atzeret denotes day of assembly, from atzar = to hold back or keep in, owing, however, to the fact that both Shemini Atzeret and the seventh day of Pesaḥ are described as atzeret, the name was taken to mean the closing festival. When Shemini Atzeret is mentioned in the Torah, it is mentioned in the context of the seven-day festival of Sukkot, the Feast of Tabernacles. For example, Sukkot is described in detail in Leviticus 23, Shemini Atzeret is mentioned there only in verse 39. The Hebrew word shemini means eighth and this refers to the date of Shemini Atzeret relative to Sukkot, it falls on the eighth day. It is therefore assumed that Shemini Atzeret is simply the eighth day of Sukkot. That characterization, however, is only partly accurate, the celebration of Sukkot is characterized by the use of the sukkah and the Four Species. However, the Torah specifies use of objects for seven days only
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Simchat Torah
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Simchat Torah or Simhat Torah is a Jewish holiday that celebrates and marks the conclusion of the annual cycle of public Torah readings, and the beginning of a new cycle. Simchat Torah is a component of the Biblical Jewish holiday of Shemini Atzeret, the main celebrations of Simchat Torah take place in the synagogue during evening and morning services. In Orthodox as well as many Conservative congregations, this is the time of year on which the Torah scrolls are taken out of the ark. In the morning, the last parashah of Deuteronomy and the first parashah of Genesis are read in the synagogue. On each occasion, when the ark is opened, the leave their seats to dance. The morning service is also characterized by the calling up of each male member of the congregation for an aliyah. There is also a special aliyah for all the children, on the Hebrew calendar, the seven-day holiday of Sukkot in the autumn is immediately followed by the holiday of Shemini Atzeret. In Orthodox and Conservative communities outside Israel, Shemini Atzeret is a two-day holiday, the first day is referred to as Shemini Atzeret and the second day as Simchat Torah, although both days are officially Shemini Atzeret according to Halakha, and this is reflected in the liturgy. Many Hasidic communities have Hakafot on the eve of the first day of Shemini Atzeret as well, in Israel, Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are celebrated on the same day. Reform congregations, even outside Israel, may do likewise, many communities in Israel have Hakafot Shniyot on the evening following the holiday, which is the same day as Simchat Torah evening in the diaspora. The custom was started by the former Chief Rabbi of Tel Aviv, the Simhat Torah festivities begin with the evening service. All the synagogues Torah scrolls are removed from the ark and are carried around the sanctuary in a series of seven hakafot. Although each hakafa need only one circuit around the synagogue, the dancing and singing with the Torah often continues much longer. In Orthodox and Conservative Jewish synagogues, each circuit is announced by a few melodious invocations imploring God to Hoshiah Na and ending with the refrain, congregations may also sing other, popular songs during the dancing. Children are often given flags, candies and other treats, the vigour of the dancing and degree of festive merriment varies with congregational temperament. In Orthodox synagogues, the dancing is mainly carried out by men and boys, women and older girls often have their own dancing circles sometimes with the Torah scrolls, or look on from the other side of a mechitza, in accordance with the value of tzniut. In 2014, an Israeli modern Orthodox rabbinical organization called Beit Hillel ruled that women are permitted to dance with a Torah scroll on Simchat Torah, in Conservative and progressive congregations, men and women dance together. In some congregations, the Torah scrolls are carried out into the streets, after the hakafot, many congregations recite a portion of the last parashah of the Torah, VZot HaBerachah in Deuteronomy
