1.
John Duncan (painter)
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John Duncan was a Scottish painter. Duncan was born in the Hilltown area of Dundee in 1866, John, however, had no interest in the family business and preferred the visual arts. By the age of 15 he was submitting cartoons to the local magazine The Wizard of the North and was taken on as an assistant in the art department of the Dundee Advertiser. At the same time he was also a student at the Dundee School of Art, in 1887-88 he worked in London as a commercial illustrator, then travelled to the continent to study at Antwerp Academy under Charles Verlat and the Düsseldorf Art Academy. In 1889 Duncan returned to Dundee and exhibited in the new Victoria Art Galleries extension of the Albert Institute, the following year he became one of the founder members of the Dundee Graphic Arts Association. Most of his income at this time was derived from portrait commissions, including jute merchant John L Luke, in 1892 Duncan moved to Edinburgh to work with the sociologist, botanist and urbanist Patrick Geddes, whom Duncan had met in Dundee. As part of the Celtic Revival movement, Duncan painted murals for Geddess halls of residence at Ramsay Garden and he also became the principal artist for Geddes 1895-97 seasonal magazine The Evergreen. The magazine also featured work by Dundee artist Nell Baxter and the decorative artist Robert Burns. Among other subjects, Duncan depicts Bacchus and Silenus in a mythical scene, Duncan also acted as director of Geddess short-lived Old Edinburgh School of Art. In 1897 Duncan returned to Dundee and exhibited Celtic and symbolist paintings at the Graphic Arts Association as well as the Royal Scottish Academy and it was at this time that he painted The Glaive of Light now in the University of Dundees collection. He continued to teach art and design, at the Dundee YMCA, the University, thanks to Patrick Geddess influence, in 1900 Duncan was appointed as a Professor at the Chicago Institute founded by Francis Wayland Parker. His stay there was not a one, and after Parkers death he returned to Scotland and settled in Edinburgh. Duncans last major work was entitled Mary Queen of Scots at Fotheringhay, the work was commissioned and is now held by the University of St Andrews. The painting was completed in spite of the critical antagonisms Duncan was facing at the time, a smaller scale replica is held in the Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery, Carlisle
2.
Irish mythology
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The mythology of pre-Christian Ireland did not entirely survive the conversion to Christianity. However, much of it was preserved in medieval Irish literature and this literature represents the most extensive and best preserved of all the branches of Celtic mythology. There are also a number of extant mythological texts that do not fit any of the cycles. Additionally, there are a number of recorded folk tales that, while not strictly mythological. Despite the dates of these sources, most of the material they contain predates their composition, the earliest of the prose can be dated on linguistic grounds to the 8th century, and some of the verse may be as old as the 6th century. The first of these part of the earliest known version of the Táin Bó Cúailnge and is housed in Trinity College. The other three are in the Royal Academy, when using these sources, it is, as always, important to question the impact of the circumstances in which they were produced. There was also a tendency to rework Irish genealogies to fit into the known schema of Greek or Biblical genealogy and it was once unquestioned that medieval Irish literature preserved truly ancient traditions in a form virtually unchanged through centuries of oral tradition back to the ancient Celts of Europe. A consensus has emerged which encourages the critical reading of the material, the Mythological Cycle, comprising stories of the former gods and origins of the Irish, is the least well preserved of the four cycles. The most important sources are the Metrical Dindshenchas or Lore of Places, Other manuscripts preserve such mythological tales as The Dream of Aengus, The Wooing Of Étain and Cath Maige Tuireadh, The Battle of Magh Tuireadh. One of the best known of all Irish stories, Oidheadh Clainne Lir, Lebor Gabála Érenn is a pseudo-history of Ireland, tracing the ancestry of the Irish back to before Noah. They faced opposition from their enemies, the Fomorians, led by Balor of the Evil Eye, Balor was eventually slain by Lug Lámfada at the second battle of Magh Tuireadh. With the arrival of the Gaels, the Tuatha Dé Danann retired underground to become the people of later myth. The Metrical Dindshenchas is the great work of early Ireland. It includes a lot of important information on Mythological Cycle figures and stories, including the Battle of Tailtiu, in which the Tuatha Dé Danann were defeated by the Milesians. It is important to note that by the Middle Ages the Tuatha Dé Danann were not viewed so much as gods as the shape-shifting magician population of an earlier Golden Age Ireland. Texts such as Lebor Gabála Érenn and Cath Maige Tuireadh present them as kings and heroes of the distant past, however, there is considerable evidence, both in the texts and from the wider Celtic world, that they were once considered deities. Even after they are displaced as the rulers of Ireland, characters such as Lug, a poem in the Book of Leinster lists many of the Tuatha Dé, but ends Although enumerates them, he does not worship them
3.
Deity
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A deity is a concept conceived in diverse ways in various cultures, typically as a natural or supernatural being considered divine or sacred. A male deity is a god, while a female deity is a goddess, the Oxford reference defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. Various cultures have conceptualized a deity differently than a monotheistic God, a plain deity need not be omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent, or eternal, however an almighty monotheistic God generally does have these attributes. Monotheistic religions typically refer to God in masculine terms, while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways – masculine, feminine, androgynous, some Avestan and Vedic deities were viewed as ethical concepts. In Indian religions, deities have been envisioned as manifesting within the temple of every living beings body, as sensory organs, but in Indian religions, all deities are also subject to death when their merit runs out. The English language word deity derives from Old French deité, the Latin deitatem or divine nature, deus is related through a common Proto-Indo-European language origin to *deiwos. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, in Old Persian, daiva- means demon, evil god, while in Sanskrit it means the opposite, referring to the heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones. The closely linked term god refers to supreme being, deity, which states Douglas Harper, is derived from Proto-Germanic *guthan, from PIE *ghut-, guth in the Irish language means voice. The term *ghut- is also the source of Old Church Slavonic zovo, Sanskrit huta-, from the root *gheu- An alternate etymology for the term god traces it to the PIE root *ghu-to-, the term *gheu- is also the source of the Greek khein to pour. Originally the German root was a noun, but the gender of the monotheistic God shifted to masculine under the influence of Christianity. In contrast, all ancient Indo-European cultures and mythologies recognized both masculine and feminine deities, the term deity often connotes the concept of sacred or divine, as a god or goddess, in a polytheistic religion. However, there is no accepted consensus concept of deity across religions and cultures. Huw Owen states that the deity or god or its equivalent in other languages has a bewildering range of meanings. Some engravings or sketches show animals, hunters or rituals, the Venus of Willendorf, a female figurine found in Europe and dated to about 25,000 BCE has been interpreted as an exemplar of a prehistoric divine feminine. In Buddhist mythology, devas are beings inhabiting certain happily placed worlds of Buddhist cosmology and these beings are mortal and numerous. It is also common for iṣṭadevatās to be called deities, although the nature of Yidams is distinct from what is meant by the term. Buddhism does not believe in a creator deity, however, deities are an essential part of Buddhist cosmology, rebirth and Saṃsāra doctrines
4.
Gaelic Ireland
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Gaelic Ireland was the Gaelic political and social order, and associated culture, that existed in Ireland from the prehistoric era until the early 17th century. Before the Norman invasion of 1169, Gaelic Ireland comprised the whole island, thereafter, it comprised that part of the country not under foreign dominion at a given time. For most of its history, Gaelic Ireland was a hierarchy of territories ruled by a hierarchy of kings or chiefs. Warfare between these territories was common, occasionally, a powerful ruler was acknowledged as High King of Ireland. Society was made up of clans and, like the rest of Europe, was structured according to class. Throughout this period, the economy was mainly pastoral and money not used. A Gaelic Irish style of dress, music, dance, sport, architecture, Gaelic Ireland was initially pagan and had an oral culture. Inscription in the alphabet began in the protohistoric period, perhaps as early as the 1st century. The conversion to Christianity accompanied the introduction of literature, and much of Irelands rich pre-Christian mythology and sophisticated law code were preserved, in the Early Middle Ages, Ireland was an important centre of learning. Irish missionaries and scholars were influential in western Europe, and helped to spread Christianity to much of Britain, in the 9th century, Vikings began raiding and founding settlements along Irelands coasts and waterways, which became its first large towns. Over time, these settlers were assimilated and became the Norse-Gaels, after the Norman invasion of 1169–71, large swathes of Ireland came under the control of Norman lords, leading to centuries of conflict with the native Irish. The King of England claimed sovereignty over this territory – the Lordship of Ireland –, however, the Gaelic system continued in areas outside Anglo-Norman control. The territory under English control gradually shrank to a known as the Pale and, outside this. In 1542, Henry VIII of England declared the Lordship a Kingdom, the English then began to conquer the island. By 1607, Ireland was fully under English control, bringing the old Gaelic political and social order to an end, Gaelic Ireland had a rich oral culture and appreciation of deeper and intellectual pursuits. Filí and draoithe were held in high regard during Pagan times and orally passed down the history, later, many of their spiritual and intellectual tasks were passed on to Christian monks, after said religion prevailed from the 5th century onwards. However, the continued to hold a high position. Poetry, music, storytelling, literature and other art forms were highly prized and cultivated in both pagan and Christian Gaelic Ireland, hospitality, bonds of kinship and the fulfilment of social and ritual responsibilities were highly important
5.
Fomorians
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The Fomorians are a supernatural race in Irish mythology. They are often portrayed as hostile and monstrous beings who come from the sea or underground, later, they were portrayed as giants and sea raiders. They are enemies of Irelands first settlers and opponents of the Tuatha Dé Danann, however, their relationship with the Tuath Dé is complex and some of their members intermarry and have children. The Fomorians have thus been likened to the jötnar of Norse mythology, the Fomorians seem to have been gods who represent the harmful or destructive powers of nature, personifications of chaos, darkness, death, blight and drought. The Tuath Dé, in contrast, seem to represent the gods of growth and it has also been suggested that the Fomorians derive from an older group of gods who were displaced by a newer group. In Old and Middle Irish, the race is called the Fomoire or Fomoiri. In Middle Irish, they are called the Fomóraiġ and a Fomórach. This is spelt Fomhóraigh and Fomhórach in Modern Irish, in English, they are often called the Fomorians, Fomori or Fomors. The etymology of the name is debated, the first part is now generally agreed to be the Old Irish fo, meaning under, below, lower, beneath, nether, etc. The meaning of the part is unclear. One suggestion is that it comes from the Old Irish mur, and this was the interpretation offered by some medieval Irish writers. Another suggestion is that it comes from mór and means something like the great under ones, the name would thus mean something like under demons or nether demons. Building on this, Marie-Louise Sjoestedt interprets the name as meaning inferior or latent demons, saying the Fomorians are like the powers of chaos, ever latent, donald Schlegel suggested that the Fomorians were Carthaginians who established a trading post on Irelands west coast. He suggests the name Fomoraige comes from the name of the Carthaginian god Pumay combined with the Old Irish suffix -raige, the Genealogies from Rawlinson B502 lists the full genealogy of the Fomorians going right back to the Biblical Noah, who was 10th from Adam and Eve. Rawlinson B502, Section 26, page 330, says, Bres himself carries the epithet the Beautiful. Geoffrey Keating in his History of Ireland appearing in the 1630s claimed that the Fomorians had been a people descended from Noahs other son. Partholon defeated Cíocal in the Battle of Mag Itha, but all his people died of plague. Then came Nemed and his followers, Ireland is said to have been empty for thirty years following the death of Partholons people, but Nemed and his followers encountered the Fomorians when they arrived
6.
Book of Leinster
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The Book of Leinster, is a medieval Irish manuscript compiled ca.1160 and now kept in Trinity College, Dublin, under the shelfmark MS H2.18. It was formerly known as the Lebor na Nuachongbála Book of Nuachongbáil, some fragments of the book, such as the Martyrology of Tallaght, are now in the collection of University College, Dublin. The manuscript is a work and more than one hand appears to have been responsible for its production. Internal evidence from the manuscript itself bears witness to Áeds involvement and his signature can be read on f. 32r, Aed mac meic Crimthaind ro scrib in leborso 7 ra thinoil a llebraib imdaib, an alternative theory was that by Eugene OCurry, who suggested that Finn mac Gormáin transcribed or compiled the Book of Leinster for Áed. The manuscript was produced by Aéd and some of his pupils over a period between 1151 and 1224. From annals recorded in the manuscript we can say it was written between 1151 and 1201, with the bulk of the work complete in the 1160s. As Terryglass was burnt down in 1164, the manuscript must have been finalised in another scriptorium, suggested locations include Stradbally and Clonenagh, the home of Uí Chrimthainn. Eugene OCurry suggested that the manuscript may have been commissioned by Diarmait Mac Murchada, king of Leinster, when Meiler fitz Henry established an Augustinian priory in Co. Laois, Oughaval was included in the lands granted to the priory, nothing certain is known of the manuscripts whereabouts in the next century or so after its completion, but in the 14th century, it came to light at Oughaval. It may have kept in the vicarage in the intervening years. However, it is now accepted that the manuscript was originally known as the Lebor na Nuachongbála. This was established by R. I. MS4821 and these extracts are attributed to the Book of Noghoval and were written at a time when Ware stayed at Ballina, enjoying the hospitality of Rory OMoore. His family, the OMoores, had been lords of Noghoval since the early 15th century if not earlier, bests suggestion is corroborated by evidence from Dublin, Royal Irish Academy MS B. iv. 2, also of the early 17th century, as Rudolf Thurneysen noted, the scribe copied several texts from the Book of Leinster, identifying his source as the Leabhar na h-Uachongbála, presumably for Leabhar na Nuachongbála. Third, in the 14th century, the Book of Leinster was located at Stradbally, the manuscript has 187 leaves, each approximately 13 by 9. A note in the manuscript suggests as many as 45 leaves have been lost, a diplomatic edition was published by the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies in six volumes over a period of 29 years. The Book of Leinster, sometimes called the Book of Glendalough, Book of Leinster, ed. R. I. Best, Osborn Bergin, M. A. OBrien, Anne OSullivan
7.
The Dagda
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The Dagda is an important god of Irish mythology. One of the Tuatha Dé Danann, the Dagda is portrayed as a father-figure, chieftain and he is associated with fertility, agriculture, manliness and strength, as well as magic, druidry and wisdom. He is said to have control over life and death, the weather and crops, as well as time and he is often described as large man or giant wearing a hooded cloak. He owns a staff or club which can kill with one end and bring to life with the other, a cauldron which never runs empty. The Dagda mates with many goddesses, including Boann and the Morrígan and his children include Aengus, Brigit, Bodb Derg, Cermait, Aed, and Midir. The name Dagda is believed to come from Proto-Celtic, *Dagodeiwos and he is also known by the epithets Eochu or Eochaid Ollathair, Ruad Rofhessa, Samildánach, Aed Abaid of Ess Ruad, Fer Benn, Cera, Cerrce, Easal, Eogabal and Crom-Eocha. Dáire also appears to have another name for the Dagda. Furthermore, some scholars have linked him with the harvest god Crom Cruach and Crom Dubh, as well as with the death, the Dagda has been likened to the Germanic god Odin and the pan-Celtic god Sucellos. Tales depict the Dagda as a figure of power, armed with a magic club. The club was supposed to be able to kill nine men with one blow, the cauldron was known as the Undry and was said to be bottomless, from which no man left unsatisfied. He possessed two pigs, one of which was always growing whilst the other was always roasting, the Dagda was a High King of the Tuatha Dé Danann after his predecessor Nuada was injured in battle. The Tuatha Dé Danann are the race of beings who conquered the Fomorians. His lover was Boann and his daughter was Breg, prior to the battle with the Fomorians, he coupled with the goddess of war, the Mórrígan, on Samhain in exchange for a plan of battle. Such features are thought to be the additions of Christian redactors for comedic purposes, the Dagda had an affair with Bóand, wife of Elcmar. In order to hide their affair, Dagda made the sun stand still for nine months, therefore their son, Aengus, was conceived, gestated and he, along with Bóand, helped Aengus search for his love. Whilst Aengus was away the Dagda shared out his land among his children, under the guidance of Lugh Aengus later tricked his father out of his home at the Brú na Bóinne. In The Wooing of Étaín, on the hand, Aengus uses the same ploy to trick Elcmar out of Brú na Bóinne. The Dagda was also the father of Bodb Dearg, Cermait, Midir, Áine, and Brigit
8.
Lugh
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Lugh or Lug is an important god of Irish mythology. A member of the Tuatha Dé Danann, Lugh is portrayed as a warrior hero. He is associated with skill, crafts and the arts as well as with oaths, truth and he is sometimes interpreted as a sun god, a storm god or a sky god. Lugh is also associated with the harvest festival of Lughnasadh. Lugh is known by the epithets Lámfada, possibly for his skill with a spear or sling, Ildánach, Samildánach, Lonnbéimnech, Macnia, as to ancestry, Lugh is given the matriname mac Ethlenn or mac Ethnenn and the patriname mac Cein. He is the grandson of the Fomorian, Balor, whom Lugh kills in the Battle of Mag Tuired. His foster-father is the sea god Manannán, Lughs son is the hero Cú Chulainn, who is believed to be an incarnation of Lugh. He wields a fiery spear, a sling stone. He also owns a boat named Scuabtuinne, a horse named Enbarr. He is a reflex of the pan-Celtic god Lugus, and his Welsh counterpart is Lleu Llaw Gyffes, Lughs father is Cian of the Tuatha Dé Danann, and his mother is Ethniu, daughter of Balor, of the Fomorians. In Cath Maige Tuired their union is a dynastic marriage following an alliance between the Tuatha Dé and the Fomorians, in the Lebor Gabála Érenn Cian gives the boy to Tailtiu, queen of the Fir Bolg, in fosterage. In the Dindsenchas Lugh, the foster-son of Tailtiu, is described as the son of the Dumb Champion, a folktale told to John ODonovan by Shane ODugan of Tory Island in 1835 recounts the birth of a grandson of Balor who grows up to kill his grandfather. In this tale, Balor hears a prophecy that he will be killed by his own grandson. To prevent this he imprisons his daughter in the Tór Mór of Tory Island, cared for by twelve women. On the mainland, Mac Cinnfhaelaidh owns a cow who gives such abundant milk that everyone, including Balor. While the cow is in the care of Mac Cinnfhaelaidhs brother Mac Samthainn, Balor appears in the form of a little red-haired boy and tricks him into giving him the cow. Looking for revenge, Mac Cinnfhaelaidh calls on a leanan sídhe called Biróg, who transports him by magic to the top of Balors tower, in time she gives birth to triplets, which Balor gathers up in a sheet and sends to be drowned in a whirlpool. The messenger drowns two of the babies, but unwittingly drops one child into the harbour, where he is rescued by Biróg and she takes him to his father, who gives him to his brother, Gavida the smith, in fosterage
9.
Aengus
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In Irish mythology, Aengus is a member of the Tuatha Dé Danann and probably a god of love, youth and poetic inspiration. He is traditionally described as having singing birds circling his head, in Old Irish his name is spelled Oíngus or Óengus, from Proto-Celtic *oino- one and gus strength. In Middle Irish this became Áengus, and in Modern Irish Aengus or Aonghus and his parents were the Dagda and Boann. He was said to have lived at Newgrange by the River Boyne, the Dagda had an affair with the river goddess Boann, wife of Nechtan. To hide her pregnancy, the Dagda made the sun stand still for nine months so that Aengus was conceived, gestated, when he came of age Aengus dispossessed the Dagda of his home, Brú na Bóinne. Irish has no article, so a day and a night is the same as day and night, which covers all time. In a different version of story, appearing in The Wooing of Etain, Aengus uses the same ploy to trick Elcmar out of Brú na Bóinne. In this version, Midir is Aenguss foster-father, while Elcmar is the husband of Boann cuckolded by the Dagda, according to Death Tales of the Tuatha de Danaan, Aengus killed his stepfather Elcmar for killing Midir. Aengus also killed Lugh Lámhfhadas poet for lying about his brother Ogma an Cermait, the poet claimed that Ogma an Cermait was having an affair with one of Lughs wives. In The Wooing of Etain, Aengus was able to lift a spell against Étaín. Midirs wife Fuamnach in a jealous rage had turned Etain into a beautiful fly, turning her into a woman at night, Aengus made her his lover until Fuamnach found out about it and drove her away. Aengus killed his mother for her treachery. In the Tale of the Two Pails, a woman, foster daughter of Aengus, got lost. The girl converted to Christianity, and Aengus could not win her back and he left, and she died of grief. Aengus fell in love with a girl he had seen in his dreams. His mother, Boann, goddess of the River Boyne, and a cow goddess whose milk formed the Milky Way, searched Ireland for a year, then his father, finally, King Bodb Derg of Munster found her after a further year. Aengus went to the lake of the Dragons Mouth and found 150 girls chained in pairs, his girl, Caer Ibormeith, on November 1, Caer and the other girls would turn into swans for a year, every second Samhain. Aengus was told he could marry Caer if he could identify her in her swan form, Aengus turned himself into a swan and they flew away, singing beautiful music that put all listeners asleep for three days and nights
10.
Celtic deities
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The gods and goddesses of the pre-Christian Celtic peoples are known from a variety of sources, including ancient places of worship, statues, engravings, cult objects and place or personal names. The ancient Celts appear to have had a pantheon of deities comparable to others in Indo-European religion, each linked to aspects of life and the natural world. By a process of synthesism, after the Roman conquest of Celtic areas, these associated with their Roman equivalent. Most of the information we have therefore comes from Latin writers. More tentatively, links can be made between ancient Celtic deities and figures in early medieval Irish and Welsh literature, although all this was produced well after Christianization. The locus classicus for the Celtic gods of Gaul is the passage in Julius Caesars Commentarii de Bello Gallico in which he names six of them and he says that Mercury was the most honoured of all the gods and many images of him were to be found. Mercury was regarded as the inventor of all the arts, the patron of travellers and of merchants, and the most powerful god in matters of commerce and gain. After him, the Gauls honoured Apollo, who drove away diseases, Mars, who controlled war, Jupiter, who ruled the heavens, and Minerva and he adds that the Gauls regarded Dis Pater as their ancestor. He also presents a neat schematic equation of god and function that is foreign to the vernacular literary testimony. Yet, given its limitations, his brief catalog is a valuable witness, the gods named by Caesar are well-attested in the later epigraphic record of Gaul and Britain. Not infrequently, their names are coupled with native Celtic theonyms and epithets, such as Mercury Visucius, Lenus Mars, Jupiter Poeninus, unsyncretised theonyms are also widespread, particularly among goddesses such as Sulevia, Sirona, Rosmerta, and Epona. In all, several hundred names containing a Celtic element are attested in Gaul, the majority occur only once, which has led some scholars to conclude that the Celtic gods and their cults were local and tribal rather than national. Supporters of this view cite Lucans mention of a god called Teutates, the multiplicity of deity names may also be explained otherwise – many, for example, may be simply epithets applied to major deities by widely extended cults. Evidence from the Roman period presents an array of gods. Certain deities were venerated widely across the Celtic world, while others were limited only to a religion or even to a specific locality. Certain local or regional deities might have greater popularity within their spheres than supra-regional deities, the Celtic sky-god too had variations in the way he was perceived and his cult expressed. Yet the link between the Celtic Jupiter and the wheel is maintained over a wide area, from Hadrians Wall to Cologne. It is sometimes possible to identify regional, tribal, or sub-tribal divinities, specific to the Remi of northwest Gaul is a distinctive group of stone carvings depicting a triple-faced god with shared facial features and luxuriant beards
11.
Celts
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The history of pre-Celtic Europe remains very uncertain. According to one theory, the root of the Celtic languages, the Proto-Celtic language, arose in the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of Central Europe. Thus this area is called the Celtic homeland. The earliest undisputed examples of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions beginning in the 6th century BC. Continental Celtic languages are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names, Insular Celtic languages are attested beginning around the 4th century in Ogham inscriptions, although it was clearly being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with Old Irish texts around the 8th century, coherent texts of Early Irish literature, such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge, survive in 12th century recensions. Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a cohesive cultural entity. They had a linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from the culture of the surrounding polities. By the 6th century, however, the Continental Celtic languages were no longer in wide use, Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of the Gaels and the Celtic Britons of the medieval and modern periods. A modern Celtic identity was constructed as part of the Romanticist Celtic Revival in Great Britain, Ireland, today, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton are still spoken in parts of their historical territories, and Cornish and Manx are undergoing a revival. The first recorded use of the name of Celts – as Κελτοί – to refer to a group was by Hecataeus of Miletus, the Greek geographer, in 517 BC. In the fifth century BC Herodotus referred to Keltoi living around the head of the Danube, the etymology of the term Keltoi is unclear. Possible roots include Indo-European *kʲel ‘to hide’, IE *kʲel ‘to heat’ or *kel ‘to impel’, several authors have supposed it to be Celtic in origin, while others view it as a name coined by Greeks. Linguist Patrizia De Bernardo Stempel falls in the group. Yet he reports Celtic peoples in Iberia, and also uses the ethnic names Celtiberi and Celtici for peoples there, as distinct from Lusitani, pliny the Elder cited the use of Celtici in Lusitania as a tribal surname, which epigraphic findings have confirmed. Latin Gallus might stem from a Celtic ethnic or tribal name originally and its root may be the Proto-Celtic *galno, meaning “power, strength”, hence Old Irish gal “boldness, ferocity” and Welsh gallu “to be able, power”. The tribal names of Gallaeci and the Greek Γαλάται most probably have the same origin, the suffix -atai might be an Ancient Greek inflection. Proto-Germanic *walha is derived ultimately from the name of the Volcae and this means that English Gaul, despite its superficial similarity, is not actually derived from Latin Gallia, though it does refer to the same ancient region
12.
Prehistoric Britain
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The recorded history of Britain is conventionally reckoned to begin in AD43 with the Roman invasion of Britain, though some historical information is available from before then. Archaeological prehistory, which comprises the bulk of this article, is divided into distinct chronological periods. These are based on the development of tools, from stone to bronze and iron, as well as changes in culture, the boundaries of these periods are uncertain, as the changes between them are gradual. In addition, the dates of these changes demonstrated in Britain are generally different from those of Continental Europe, Britain has been intermittently inhabited by members of the Homo genus for hundreds of thousands of years, and by Homo sapiens for tens of thousands of years. Modern humans reached Britain by around 42,000 years before present, people then briefly re-occupied Britain, but cold conditions returned during the Younger Dryas, about 12,900 to 11,600 years ago. It is not known whether Britain was wholly uninhabited during the Younger Dryas, Britain and Ireland were then joined to the Continent, but rising sea levels cut the land bridge between Britain and Ireland by around 11,000 years ago. A large plain between Britain to Continental Europe, known as Doggerland, persisted much longer, probably until around 5600 BC, by around 4000 BC, the island was populated by people with a Neolithic culture. However, none of the inhabitants of Britain had any known, surviving. Because no literature of pre-Roman Britain has survived, its history, culture, though the main evidence for the period is archaeological, there is a growing amount of genetic evidence, which continues to change. There is also an amount of linguistic evidence, from river and hill names, which is covered in the article about Pre-Celtic Britain. The first significant written record of Britain and its inhabitants was made by the Greek navigator Pytheas, however, there may be some additional information on Britain in the Ora Maritima, a text which is now lost but which is incorporated in the writing of the later author Avienus. Julius Caesar also wrote of Britain in about 50 BC after his two expeditions to the island in 55 and 54 BC. The 54 invasion was probably an attempt to conquer at least the southeast of Britain, located at the fringes of Europe, Britain received European technological and cultural achievements much later than Southern Europe and the Mediterranean region did during prehistory. The story of ancient Britain is traditionally seen as one of successive waves of invasion from the continent, more recent archaeological theories have questioned this migrationist interpretation and argue for a more complex relationship between Britain and the Continent. Palaeolithic Britain is the period of the earliest known occupation of Britain by humans and this huge period saw many changes in the environment, encompassing several glacial and interglacial episodes greatly affecting human settlement in the region. Providing dating for this distant period is difficult and contentious, the inhabitants of the region at this time were bands of hunter-gatherers who roamed Northern Europe following herds of animals, or who supported themselves by fishing. Recent scientific evidence regarding mitochondrial DNA sequences from ancient and modern Europe has shown a pattern for the different time periods sampled in the course of the study. Despite some limitations regarding sample sizes, the results were found to be non-random, as such, the results indicate that, in addition to populations in Europe expanding from southern refugia after the last glacial maximum, evidence also exists for various northern refugia
13.
Nodens
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Nodens is a Celtic deity associated with healing, the sea, hunting and dogs. He was worshipped in ancient Britain, most notably in a complex at Lydney Park in Gloucestershire. He is equated with the Roman gods Mars, Mercury, Neptune and Silvanus, and his name is cognate with that of the Irish mythological figure Nuada and the Welsh Nudd. The name Nodens probably derives from a Celtic stem *noudont- or *noudent-, making the connection with Nuada and Lludds hand, he detected an echo of the ancient fame of the magic hand of Nodens the Catcher. Similarly, Julius Pokorny derives the name from a Proto-Indo-European root *neu-d- meaning acquire, utilise, ranko Matasović has proposed that the name of this deity may come from proto-Celtic *snowdo-, meaning mist, clouds. The transition from *snoudo- to Nodons happened because the particle sN was changed to N in P-Celtic languages, such as Gaulish, furthermore, Nodons name - which is in the nominative case - appears in inscriptions as Nodontī due to a change to the dative case. However, sN- was not reduced in Old Irish in which the cognate is attested as Núada ~ Núadat not *Snúada, which evidence reinforces Tolkiens derivation. This imposing, Classical style temple building has been interpreted as an incubatio or dormitory for pilgrims to sleep. The complex was excavated in the 1920s by Sir Mortimer Wheeler. It has produced several inscriptions to Nodens, one, on a lead curse tablet, reads, It is conjectured that this lost ring is the ring of Silvianus found in the 19th century far away from Lydney. There is also evidence of at least one temple priest. The cella has a floor, the surviving fragments of which depict dolphins, fish. The floor dates to the 4th century and was dedicated to the temple of Nodens by one Titus Flavius Senilis, the artifacts recovered include a bronze object, which may be a headdress or a vessel, showing a sea-god driving a chariot between torch-bearing putti and tritons. Miranda Green speculates that Senilis may have been the individual who wore this artifact, images of pilgrims and deities holding dogs occur at many Gaulish spring sanctuaries, and live sacred dogs were kept at the temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus in the Peloponnese. The pins are associated with childbirth, the dogs, and the equating of Nodens with Silvanus, also suggest a connection with hunting. According to Cook, the toponym Lydney derives from the Old English *Lydan-eġ, ‘Lludd’s Island. ’ However, the god Noadatus, equated with Mars in an inscription found at Mainz in Germany may be the same deity. The placename Maynooth, a town in north Co, kildare, Ireland, is an anglicisation of Magh Núad, which means plain of Núadu. The Gaelic-Irish surname Ó Nuadhain is believed to derive from the forename Nuadha, found particularly in County Galway, County Mayo and County Roscommon, the family were a sept of the Uí Fiachrach who settled in Cálraighe, in what is now County Sligo
14.
Lugus
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Lugus was a deity of the Celtic pantheon. The exact etymology of Lugus is unknown and contested, L Urcico collegio sutorum d d L. L. His name was commemorated in numerous place-names, such as Lugdunum, other such place-names include Lugdunum Clavatum and Luguvalium. It is also possible that Lucus Augusti is derived from the theonym Lugus and he said that Mercury was the god most revered in Gaul, describing him as patron of trade and commerce, protector of travellers, and the inventor of all the arts. The Irish god Lug bore the epithet samildánach, which has led to the identification of Caesars Mercury as Lugus. Mercurys importance is supported by the more than 400 inscriptions referencing him in Roman Gaul and he is often armed with a spear. He is frequently accompanied by his consort Rosmerta, who bears the ritual drink with which kingship was conferred, unlike the Roman Mercury, who is always a youth, Gaulish Mercury is occasionally also represented as an old man. Gaulish Mercury is associated with triplism, sometimes he has three faces, sometimes three phalluses, which may explain the plural dedications and this also compares with Irish myth. In some versions of the story Lug was born as one of triplets, and his father, Cian, is mentioned in the same breath as his brothers Cú and Cethen. High places, including Montmartre, the Puy-de-Dôme and the Mont de Sène, were dedicated to him, in Ireland, Lugh was the victorious youth who defeats the monstrous Balor of the venomous eye. His festival, called Lughnasadh in Ireland, was commemorated on 1 August, when the Emperor Augustus inaugurated Lugdunum as the capital of Roman Gaul in 18 BC, he did so with a ceremony on 1 August. At least two of the ancient Lughnasadh locations, Carmun and Tailtiu, were supposed to enclose the graves of goddesses linked with terrestrial fertility. Triple deities AE = LAnnée épigraphique CIL = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, Vol XIII, Inscriptiones trium Galliarum et Germaniarum Latinae, Vol II, Inscriptiones Hispaniae Latinae
15.
Brigantia (goddess)
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Brigantia was a goddess in Celtic religion of Late Antiquity. Through interpretatio Romana, she was equated with Victoria, the tales connected to the characters of Brigid and Saint Brigid in Irish mythology and legend have been argued to be connected to Brigantia although the figures themselves remain distinct. The name Brigantia continues the feminine PIE *bhr̥ghntī, from a root bergh high, lofty, the name is in origin an adjectival epithet simply meaning the high one, the elevated one. An exact cognate is found in the Germanic Burgundi, in Sanskrit br̥hatī, the ethnonym Brigantes may either translate to the high, noble ones or to highlanders. Seven inscriptions to Brigantia are known, all from Britain, at Birrens, Dumfries and Galloway, in Scotland, is an inscription, Brigantiae s Amandus / arcitectus ex imperio imp. Brigantia is assimilated to Victoria in two inscriptions, one from Castleford in Yorkshire and one from Greetland near Halifax, also in Yorkshire, Garret Olmstead noted numismatic legends in Iberian script, BRIGANT_N inscribed on a Celtiberian coin, suggesting a cognate Celtiberian goddess. The inscription mentioned above assures the identification of the statue as Brigantia rather than Minerva, a statue found in Brittany also seems to depict Brigantia with the attributes of Minerva. There are several placenames deriving from Brigantium, the form of the same adjective of which the feminine became the name of the goddess. Association of these with the goddess is however dubious, since the placenames are easily explained as referring to a fort or high place in the literal sense. The rivers Brent in England, Braint in Wales, and Brigid in Ireland are all related linguistically, ptolemy, a second-century geographer, did mention a tribe calling itself the Brigantes in Leinster. But nothing remains of the Irish Brigantes except this single tribal name on a Greeks map, the river Brigid, other towns which may also preserve this theonym include Brigetio in Hungary, also Brianconnet and Briançon, both in Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur, France. In antiquity, Briançon was called Brigantio and was the first town on the Via Domitia and it is attested by an inscriptions mentioning munic Brigantien and Bri/gantione geniti. At Brianconnet, an inscription mentions ord Brig, there, oak trees were particularly venerated. The ancient name of Bragança in Trás-os-Montes, Portugal, was Brigantia, the inhabitants today are still called brigantinos. Braga is another town in Portugal and it is the capital of the district of the same name in the province of Minho. A short distance up the coast, the cities of A Coruña and Betanzos in present-day Galicia were respectively named Brigantia and Brigantium. Bitel, Lisa M. St. Brigit of Ireland, From Virgin Saint to Fertility Goddess on-line) Claus, Manfredd, Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss / Slaby, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt. Online epigraphic search tool Ellis, Peter Berresford Dictionary of Celtic Mythology Oxford Paperback Reference, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-508961-8 Gree, ISBN 0-7509-1581-1 Green, Miranda Celtic Goddesses, Warriors, Virgins, and Mothers New York, pp 195–202
16.
Taranis
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In Celtic mythology Taranis was the god of thunder worshipped primarily in Gaul, Gallaecia, the British Isles, but also in the Rhineland and Danube regions, amongst others. Taranis, along with Esus and Toutatis as part of a triad, was mentioned by the Roman poet Lucan in his epic poem Pharsalia as a Celtic deity to whom human sacrificial offerings were made. Taranis was associated, as was the cyclops Brontes in Greek mythology, many representations of a bearded god with a thunderbolt in one hand and a wheel in the other have been recovered from Gaul, where this deity apparently came to be syncretised with Jupiter. The name as recorded by Lucan is unattested epigraphically, but variants of the include the forms Tanarus, Taranucno-, Taranuo-. The name is continued in Irish as Tuireann, and is connected with those of Germanic. Taranis is likely associated with the Gallic Ambisagrus, and in the interpretatio romana with Jupiter, the reconstructed Proto-Celtic form of the name is *Toranos thunder. In present-day Welsh taranu and taran means to thunder and thunder, Taranis, as a personification of thunder, is often identified with similar deities found in other Indo-European pantheons. Of these, Old Norse Þórr, Anglo-Saxon Þunor, Old High German Donar—all from Proto-Germanic *þunraz —and the Hittite theonym Tarhun contain a comparable *torun- element, the Thracian deity names Zbel-thurdos, Zbel-Thiurdos also contain this element. The name of the Sami thunder god Horagalles derives from Thors, numerous Celtic coins also depict such a wheel. It is thought to correspond to a practiced in Bronze Age Europe. The half-wheel shown in the Gundestrup broken wheel panel also has eight visible spokes, symbolic votive wheels were offered at shrines, cast in rivers, buried in tombs or worn as amulets since the Middle Bronze Age. Such wheel pendants from the Bronze Age usually had four spokes, artefacts parallel to the Celtic votive wheels or wheel-pendants are the so-called Zierscheiben in a Germanic context. The identification of the Sun with a wheel, or a chariot, has parallels in Germanic, Greek, in 2013 a British combat drone system developed by defence contractor BAE Systems was named Taranis in reference to the Celtic god. Delbáeth Fontes Tamarici Indra Perun Thor Tuireann Ellis, Peter Berresford, Dictionary of Celtic Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-508961-8 MacKillop, James. Wood, Juliette, The Celts, Life, Myth, and Art, Thorsons Publishers, ISBN 0-00-764059-5 Celtic Gods and Associates Images of Taranis Celtic Gods Doran, marvel Teaser, The NEW God of Thunder
17.
Ogmios
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Ogmios was the Celtic deity of eloquence. He looked like a version of Heracles who would use his powers of persuasion to bind men to himself. Most of the knowledge about Ogmios comes from comparisons between him and powerful deities and heroes in ancient cultures. Even though there is not much on the history of Ogmios, we can tell that he was a deity worshipped by the Gauls. He is attested not only in Lucians account, but also in archaeological remains, such as coins and statuary, from the time of the Roman conquest of the Gauls. French specialists give two different explications of the Gaulish name, Philippe Jouët proposed to connect Ogme to the Indo-European root word *Hek- ‘sharp’, ‘stone’, ‘vault’, according to Xavier Delamarre, the root word would be ‘path’, ‘guide’, confirming in this his role as a psychopomp. Ogmios was recorded by Lucian, a writer in 2nd-century Samosata in his Prolalia-Heraklès. He is described as resembling an older, more tanned version of Heracles, Ogmios and Heracles both wear lion skins and carry a bow and club in their hands. However Ogmios is depicted with long chains through his mouth that pierce his tongue. Anne Ross describes dark complexion as a not uncommon feature of powerful or malevolent supernatural beings, the most striking aspects of Lucians image of Ogmios are the thin, long chains running from his tongue to the ears of his followers. The chains, made out of amber and gold, represent Ogmios using his powers of persuasion, from the description it appears that Ogmios followers willingly follow him with cheerful faces and try to get as close to Ogmios as they can. This shows that he has the power to change and influence men’s minds so that they want to follow him to the ends of the earth, Ogmios is considered to be a binding god and a psychopomp, both very powerful positions. As a binding god he has the ability to bind people onto himself and he can also create defixiones, which are tablets that have curses which he can bind on to other people. There are two known defixiones, recovered from Bregenz, Austria, that Ogmios is said to have created. Not much is known about the story behind the defixiones, Ogmios is also a psychopomp, binding the souls of the dead onto himself and leading them to the afterlife. Almost all of the knowledge about Ogmios comes from the comparisons of him to other deities or divine heroes of different ancient cultures, by about 51 B. C. the Roman Empire had conquered Gaul. When the Gauls disappeared so did Ogmios, however the existence of Ogmios can still be seen in Irish mythology. Their deity, Ogma, has similarities to Ogmios, which could mean that they were once the same deity
18.
Badb
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In Irish mythology, the Badb or Badhbh —meaning crow—is a war goddess who takes the form of a crow, and is thus sometimes known as Badb Catha. She is known to cause fear and confusion among soldiers to move the tide of battle to her favoured side, Badb may also appear prior to a battle to foreshadow the extent of the carnage to come, or to predict the death of a notable person. She would sometimes do this through wailing cries, leading to comparisons with the bean-sídhe, with her sisters, Macha and the Morrígan, Badb is part of a trio of war goddesses known as the Morrígna. In Irish legends, Badb is associated with war and death, appearing either to foreshadow imminent bloodshed or to participate in battles, as a harbinger of doom, she appears in a number of different guises. In Togail Bruidne Dá Derga, she takes the form of a hag who prophesies Conaire Mórs downfall. In this role she has much in common with the bean-sídhe and she was also regularly depicted as an active participant in warfare, indeed, the battlefield was sometimes referred to as the garden of the Badb. During the First Battle of Mag Tuired, Badb—along with her sisters, Macha, Badb plays a similar role in the Táin Bó Cúailnge, terrorising and disorienting the forces of Queen Medb and causing many to fall on their own weapons. She would often take the form of a raven or crow, striking fear into those who heard her. Doman fo ním, nert hi cach, án forlann, lan do mil, sam hi ngam, gai for sciath, sciath for durnd. Dunad lonngarg, longait-tromfoíd fod di uí ross forbiur benna abu airbe imetha, mess for crannaib, craob do scis scis do áss saith do mac mac for muin, muinel tairb tarb di arccoin odhb do crann, crann do ten. Ail a n-uír uích a mbuaib boinn a mbru, Brú lafefaid ossglas iaer errach, foghamar forasit etha. Iall do tir, tir co trachd lafeabrae, bidruad rossaib síraib rithmár, Nach scel laut. Earth under sky, strength in each, a cup full, full of honey, summer in winter, spear over shield, shield over fist. Fort of spears, a battle-cry, land for sheep, bountiful forests mountains forever, magic enclosure. Mast on branches, branches heavy, heavy fruit, wealth for a son, a gifted son, strong neck of bull, a bull for a poem. Stone from earth, wealth from cows, belly of the Brú, doe cries from mist, stream of deer after spring, corn in autumn, upheld by peace. Warrior band for the land, prosperous land to the shore, from wooded headlands, waters rushing, “What news have you. ”Peace to the sky, life and land everlasting. Then she delivers a prophecy of the end of the world, foretelling every evil that would be therein
19.
Catubodua
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Cathubodua is the name of a Gaulish goddess inferred from a single inscription at Mieussy in Haute Savoie, eastern France, which actually reads ATHVBODVAE AVG SERVILIA TERENTIA S L M. She appears to be identical to the Irish goddess Badb Catha and she would therefore be comparable to the Roman Victoria and the Greek goddess Nike and possibly the Nordic goddess Sigyn. A story of the Roman wars against the Gauls of the 4th century BC, recorded by Livy, Aulus Gellius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Roman soldier, Marcus Valerius, accepted a challenge to single combat with a Gaulish champion. When the fight began, a crow landed on Valeriuss helmet and began to attack the Gaul, Valerius adopted the cognomen Corvus, and as Marcus Valerius Corvus went on to be a famous general and politician of the Roman Republic. In the Gaulish language, the name Cathubodua is believed to mean battle-crow, nonetheless it is this second element *bodwā which appears to be the Proto-Celtic root of the later form of the name Badhbh. The masculine form *bodwos developed in Gaelic into Bodb
20.
Celtic mythology
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Celtic mythology is the mythology of Celtic polytheism, the religion of the Iron Age Celts. Like other Iron Age Europeans, the early Celts maintained a polytheistic mythology and it is mostly through contemporary Roman and Christian sources that their mythology has been preserved. The Celtic peoples who maintained either their political or linguistic identities left vestigial remnants of their ancestral mythologies, however, from what has survived of Celtic mythology, it is possible to discern commonalities which hint at a more unified pantheon than is often given credit. Indeed, many Gaelic myths were first recorded by Christian monks, the oldest body of myths stemming from the Heroic Age is found only from the early medieval period of Ireland. As Christianity began to take over, the gods and goddesses were slowly eliminated as such from the culture, the Tuatha Dé represent the functions of human society such as kingship, crafts and war, while the Fomorians represent chaos and wild nature. The leader of the gods for the Irish pantheon appears to have been the Dagda, the Dagda was the figure on which male humans and other gods were based because he embodied ideal Irish traits. Celtic gods were considered to be a clan due to their lack of specialization. Irish tales depict the Dagda as a figure of power, armed with a club, in Dorset there is a famous outline of an ithyphallic giant known as the Cerne Abbas Giant with a club cut into the chalky soil. While this was produced in relatively modern times, it was long thought to be a representation of the Dagda. In Gaul, it is speculated that the Dagda is associated with Sucellus, the Morrígan was a tripartite battle goddess of the Celts of Ancient Ireland. She was known as the Morrígan, but the different sections she was divided into were also referred to as Nemain, Macha and she is most commonly known for her involvement in the Táin Bó Cúailnge. The god appearing most frequently in the tales is Lugh, the most famous of these are the cities of Lugdunum, Lugdunum Batavorum and Lucus Augusti. Lug is described in the Celtic myths as the last to be added to the list of deities, in Ireland a festival called the Lughnasadh was held in his honour. Other important goddesses include Brigid, the Dagdas daughter, Aibell, Áine, Macha, notable is Epona, the horse goddess, celebrated with horse races at the summer festival. Significant Irish gods include Nuada Airgetlám, the first king of the Tuatha Dé Danann, Goibniu, the smith and brewer, Dian Cecht, the patron of healing, less is known about the pre-Christian mythologies of Britain than those of Ireland. Important reflexes of British mythology appear in the Four Branches of the Mabinogi, especially in the names of characters, such as Rhiannon, Teyrnon. The children of Llŷr in the Second and Third Branches, and the children of Dôn in the Fourth Branch are major figures, indeed, though there is much in common with Irish myth, there may have been no unified British mythological tradition per se. Whatever its ultimate origins, the material has been put to good use in the service of literary masterpieces that address the cultural concerns of Wales in the early
21.
Coventina
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Coventina was a Romano-British goddess of wells and springs. She is known from inscriptions at one site in Northumberland county of the United Kingdom. It is possible that other inscriptions, two from Hispania and one from Narbonensis, refer to Coventina, but this is disputed, dedications to Coventina and votive deposits were found in a walled area which had been built to contain the outflow from a spring now called Coventinas Well. The remains of a Roman Mithraeum and Nymphaeum are also found near the site. The well itself was a spring in a rectangular basin 2. 6m x 2. 4m in the centre of a walled enclosure 11. 6m x 12. 2m within a wall 0. 9m thick. The site near Coventinas Well was excavated by British archaeologist, John Clayton, the date of the wall at Coventinas Well is uncertain, but some have theorized that it was built sometime after the completion of the Roman fort. Since Hadrians Wall does not deviate to avoid the well, this may suggest that the wall around the well was built some time after in order to control the flow of water in a marshy area. Evidence from coin hoards and stones which covered them and those blocking the well suggest a fairly abrupt end around 388. Excavation of the site revealed several inscribed altars, some depictions of Coventina in typical Roman nymph form - reclining. On one, Coventina is either depicted in form or with two attendants. At least ten inscriptions to Coventina are recorded from Carrawburgh, several stone altars contained dedications to Coventina, as did two pottery incense burners. ”Three altars dedicated to Mithras were placed there by the Prefects of the military garrison. In his book The Skystone, Jack Whyte represents Coventina as the inspiration for The Lady of the Lake, seamus Heaneys poem Grotus and Conventina from his 1987 collection The Haw Lantern. Tehomet. net has historical, archaeological, folkloric, theological and literary resources for Coventina, plus photographs of the archaeological site, also includes directions to the site and associated museum
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Celtic polytheism
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Celtic polytheism was one of a larger group of Iron Age polytheistic religions of the Indo-European family. The Celtic pantheon consists of numerous recorded theonyms, both from Greco-Roman ethnography and from epigraphy, among the most prominent ones are Teutatis, Taranis and Lugus. Figures from medieval Irish mythology have also been adduced by comparative mythology, the most salient feature of Celtic religion as reflected in Roman historiography is their extensive practice of human sacrifice. In the later 5th and the 6th centuries, the Celtic region was Christianized, comparatively little is known about Celtic polytheism because the evidence for it is fragmentary, due largely to the fact that the Celts who practiced it wrote nothing down about their religion. Therefore, all we have to study their religion from is the literature from the early Christian period, commentaries from classical Greek and Roman scholars, the archaeologist Barry Cunliffe summarised the sources for Celtic religion as fertile chaos, borrowing the term from the Irish scholar Proinsias MacCana. Cunliffe went on to note there is more, varied. The only problem is to assemble it in a form which does not too greatly oversimplify the intricate texture of its detail. The archaeological evidence does not contain the bias inherent in the literary sources, nonetheless, the interpretation of this evidence can be colored by the 21st century mindset. Various archaeological discoveries have aided understanding of the religion of the Celts and these include the coins of the Roman provinces in the Celtic lands of Gaul, Raetia, Noricum, and Britannia, and another is the sculptures, monuments, and inscriptions associated with the Celts. The evidence from Ireland has been recognised as better than that from Wales, because they were written in a very Christian context, these sources must be scrutinised with even more rigor than the classical sources in assessing their validity as evidence for Celtic religion. Various Greek and Roman writers of the ancient world commented on the Celts, however, the key problem with the use of these sources is that they were often biased against the Celts, whom the classical peoples viewed as barbarians. The names of two hundred of these deities have survived to us today, although it is possible that some of these names were different titles or epithets used for the same deity. Some Celtic theonyms can be established as Pan-Celtic by comparing Continental with Insular Celtic evidence, an example of this is Gaulish Lugus, whose name is cognate with Irish Lugh and Welsh Lleu. Another example is Gaulish Brigantia, cognate with Irish Brigid and this latter theonym can even be reconstructed as a Proto-Indo-European epithet of the dawn goddess, as *bhr̥ghntī the one on high. He declared that the most widely venerated god in Gaul was Mercury, the Roman god of trade, several of these deities, including Lugus and Matrones, were triple deities. Brighid, probably were indeed once regarded as divine, the warriors who are the main protagonists of the stories have the same status as those in the Greek myths, standing between the human and divine orders. To regard characters such as Cú Chulainn, Fergus Mac Roich or Conall Cernach as former gods turned into humans by a storyteller is to misunderstand their literary. Cú Chulainn is no more a god than Superman is
23.
Celtic animism
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According to classical sources, the ancient Celts were animists. They honoured the forces of nature, saw the world as inhabited by many spirits, the Celts of the ancient world believed that many spirits and divine beings inhabited the world around them, and that humans could establish a rapport with these beings. The pagan Celts perceived the presence of the supernatural as integral to, and interwoven with, every mountain, river, spring, marsh, tree and rocky outcrop was inspirited. While the polytheistic cultures of ancient Greece and Rome revolved around urban life, the close link with the natural world is reflected in what we know of the religious systems of Celtic Europe during the late 1st millennium BCE and early 1st millennium CE. As in many systems, the local spirits honoured were those of both the wild and cultivated landscapes and their inhabitants. As what some may consider spirits are considered by authors to be deities. The ancient Celts venerated the spirits who inhabited local mountains, forests, certain animals were seen as messengers of the spirits or gods. In Tribal territories, the ground and waters which received the dead were imbued with sanctity, sanctuaries were sacred spaces separated from the ordinary world, often in natural locations such as springs, sacred groves or lakes. Many topographical features were honored as the abodes of spirits or deities. Offerings of jewelry, weapons or foodstuffs were placed in offering pits and these offerings linked the donor to the place and spirits in a concrete way. The spirits of places were honoured as givers of life. In Ireland, the tutelary goddesses Boann and Sionnan give their names to the rivers Boyne and Shannon, the threefold goddess Brighid is associated with a number of holy wells and The Morrígan is connected with the River Unius. There is abundant evidence for the veneration of water by the Celts, in the Pre-Roman Iron Age, lakes, rivers, springs and bogs received special offerings of metalwork, wooden objects, animals and, occasionally, of human beings. By the Roman period, the names of some water-deities were recorded on inscriptions or were included in contemporary texts. The ancient name for the River Marne was Matrona ‘Great Mother, ’ the Seine was Sequana, the Severn, Sabrina, the Wharfe, Verbeia, the Saône, Souconna, and there are countless others. Natural springs were foci for healing cults, Sulis was prayed to as a healer at Aquae Sulis, nemausus, for example, was not only the Gallic name for the town of Nîmes but also that of its presiding spring-god. He had a set of three female counterparts, the Nemausicae, in the same region, the town of Glanum possessed a god called Glanis, an altar from a sacred spring is inscribed ‘to Glanis and the Glanicae’. Meteorological patterns and phenomena, especially wind, rain and thunder, were acknowledged as inspirited and propitiated, inscribed dedications and iconography in the Roman period show that these spirits were personifications of natural forces
24.
Scottish mythology
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It was the belief that Beira, the Queen of Winter, had a firm hold on the country by raising storms during January and February thus preventing greenery to emerge. She was considered a tough and brutal old woman who stirred the deadly spiraling action of Corryvreckan, ushering snow, even the creation of lochs and mountains were attributed to her. Scottish mythology is not like the Greek and Roman myths as it deals with aspects of nature. In this context the most powerful and feared goddess representing winter is Beira who rules winter for its entire duration, immediately, the following season she readily concedes to Dual Lord and Lady who then enjoy equal power during the ensuing season. This myth is akin to the myth of the Mayans and deals with female power in the creation. However, Donald Mackenzie in his book Scottish Wonder Tales from Myth and Legend states that the goddesses of the Scottish myths are not glorified, Scottish mythology is dominated by goddesses, and according to Donald Mackenzie they are greater and stronger than the gods. The Celtic goddesses were authoritative and were associated with female fertility as related to female divinity, in olden times the Celtics land and national societies were both linked with the body of the goddess and her representative on earth was the queen. Another ambivalent character in Scottish myths was the hag, the Goddess, the Gaelic Cailleach, and the Giantess, the hag is also considered a healer and helpful during childbirth and is divine and said to have long ancestry and incredible longevity. She is also known as at once creator and destroyer, gentle and fierce, several origin legends for the Scots arose during the historical period, serving various purposes. One Scottish origin legend, or pseudo-historical account of the foundation of the Scottish people, as they roamed through Ireland, from Clonmacnoise, Armagh and Kildare to Cork, and finally, to Bangor, they were continually engaged at war with the Pictanei. After some time, they crossed the Irish Sea to invade Caledonia North of Roman Britain, successively capturing Iona, the latter places are echoed by the appearance of Cinnrígmonaid and Cinnbelathoir in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba. The territory so conquered was then named Scotia after Scota, the Egyptian wife of Spartan commander Nél or Niul, once the Picts adopted Gaelic culture and their actual characteristics faded out of memory, folkloric elements filled the gaps of history. In the eighteenth century the Picts were co-opted as a Germanic race, in the Celtic domains of Scotland, also known as Gaelteached, there were ancient pre-Christian structures. These are the Ulaid, or people of the North-Eastern corner of Ireland, the Ulaid had close links with Gaelic Scotland, where Cúchulainn is said to have learned the arts of war. These stories are written for the most part in prose, the centrepiece of the Ulster Cycle is the Táin Bó Cúailnge. Other important Ulster Cycle tales include The Tragic Death of Aifes only Son, Fled Bricrenn Bricrius Feast and this cycle is, in some respects, close to the mythological cycle of the rest of the Gaelic speaking world. Some characters from the latter reappear, and the sort of shape-shifting magic is much in evidence, side by side with a grim. Scottish Gaelic adaptations of Ulster Cycle tales appear in the Glenmasan manuscript, the stories of Finn mac Cumhaill and his band of soldiers the Fianna, appear to be set around the 3rd century in Gaelic Ireland and Scotland
25.
Hebridean mythology and folklore
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The Inner and Outer Hebrides off the western coast of Scotland are made up of a great number of large and small islands. These isolated and mostly uninhabited islands are the source of a number of Hebridean myths, kelpies were said to occupy several lochs, including one at Leurbost. The Blue men of the Minch, who occupy the stretch of water between Lewis and mainland Scotland, looking for sailors to drown and stricken boats to sink, seonaidh - a water-spirit who had to be offered ale. It has been claimed there is a mermaids grave in Benbecula. The mermaid was killed in the nineteenth century after having been seen for a couple of days, before a teenage boy threw a rock at it. Accounts stated that the part of the creature was the size of an infant. Searrach Uisge - a monster who was said to occupy Loch Suainbhal, resembling a capsized boat, this creature has been reported swimming around for one and a half centuries. Locals say lambs were once offered annually to the creature, other such creatures have been reported in several other lochs, including Loch Urubhal. At Loch Duvat in Eriskay, while out looking for a horse that escaped his farm in the mist, as he approached, he realised he was looking at a strange creature which gave an unearthly yell, sending the farmer running home. Various sea monsters have been reported off the shores of Lewis over the years, the ship,15 kilometres off the coast, reported a sea serpent around 40 metres in length, with several bumps protruding from the water, along its back. Sea serpents have also reported at the southern side of the island. A family of werewolves were said to occupy an island on Loch Langavat, although long deceased, they promised to rise if their graves were disturbed. Wills-o-the-wisp have been reported in the area of Sandwick, the lights that float around the area normally announce approaching death for a local. Some say the light belongs to an Irish merchant who was robbed and murdered on the island, at Luskentyre in Harris, a hound has been known to leave oversized paw prints on the damp sand which vanish suddenly half way across the beach. It is alleged that this is a fairy hound, then in South Uist, a woman walking with two friends in the pitch dark watched as a self-illuminating dog, the size of a collie but with a small head and no eyes, ran towards her. The creature vanished as it bounded past, on reaching home, she described what had happened to her aunt, the older woman told her it was a Cu Sìth, a fairy dog. One of the heirlooms of the chiefs of Clan Macleod is the Fairy Flag, numerous traditions state that the flag originated as a gift from the fairies. Scottish mythology Celtic mythology History of the Outer Hebrides Hebrides Rocabarraigh
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Mythological Cycle
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It is one of the four major cycles of early Irish literary tradition, the others being the Ulster Cycle, the Fenian Cycle and the Cycles of the Kings. The term Mythological Cycle seems to have gained currency with Arbois de Jubainville, 1881–1883, usage predating this applies the term generically, e. g. to Norse mythology. In the opinion of Mackillop, use of the term is somewhat awkward today, the characters appearing in the cycle are essentially gods from the pre-Christian pagan past in Ireland. Commentators exercising caution, however, qualify them as representing only godlike beings and this is because the Christian scribes who composed the writings were generally careful not to refer to the Tuatha Dé Danann and other beings explicitly as deities. The disguises are thinly veiled nonetheless, and these writings contain discernible vestiges of early Irish polytheistic cosmology, examples of works from the cycle include numerous prose tales, verse texts, as well as pseudo-historical chronicles found in medieval vellum manuscripts or later copies. Some of the romances are of later composition and found only in manuscripts dating to near-modern times. The god-folk of the invasions are euhemerised, i. e. described as having dwelt terrestrially. Afterwards, the Tuatha Dé Danann are said to have retreated into the sídhe, having disappeared but not died, the deities oftentimes make guest appearances in narratives categorised under other cycles. Collected #lore literature, while they do not belong to the cycle in entirety, in the list that follows, citations are generally only given if the wiki page for that work is not developed. Otherwise, citations are deferred to the article in question. See #External links for additional titles, aislinge Óenguso Altram Tige Dá Medar. Cath Muige Tuired Cunga Cath Maige Tuired Ceithri cathracha i r-robadar Tuatha De Danand De Gabáil in t-Sída Echtra Nera Eachtra Léithín How the Dagda Got His Magic Staff, Oidheadh Chloinne Lir Oidheadh Chloinne Tuirenn Scél Tuáin meic Chairill Tochomlod Nemid co hErin Tochomlod mac Miledh a hEspain i nErind. Besides independent verses, a number of poems are embedded in prose tales, a number of them are also preserved in the pseudohistorical LGE, Keating, etc. Arsaidh sin a eóuin Accla Coire Érmai / Coire Goriath Collected lore are not wholly of mythological content, the Fitness of Names provides interesting explanations on names of Dian Cecht among others. Irish onomastica, the Dindshenchas, also include stories about such as Boann. Genealogical tracts and the Roll of the Kings, various glosses may also be culled for information, banshenchus Dobbs 1932 Cóir Anmann, Stokes 1897 Dindsenchas Sanas Cormaic, Nes Triads of Ireland, mention of the indeoin Dagdai, ox of Díl, etc. Chronicon Scotorum Lebor Gabála Érenn Glas Gaibhnenn The euhemerised deities arrived in five sets of migrations, remnants of the migration tales are the summarised accounts given in the LGE. Apart from these are the tale of Tuan mac Cairill, Fintan mac Bóchra colloquy, Tuan and Fintan are ancient beings from the Antediluvian past, who have reincaranted into different creatures, and are referred to in the LGE as well
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Fenian Cycle
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It is one of the four major cycles of Irish mythology along with the Mythological Cycle, the Ulster Cycle, and the Historical Cycle. Put in chronological order, the Fenian cycle is the third cycle, the cycle also contains stories about other famous Fianna members, including Diarmuid, Caílte, Oisíns son Oscar, and Fionns enemy, Goll mac Morna. Cormac mac Art, the High King of Ireland formed the Fianna, the Fianna was dominated by Clan Bascna, led by Cumhal, and Clan Morna, led by Goll, with Liath Luachra, the treasurer. After the Battle of Knock, Cumhal is killed by the Morna, cumhals wife, Muirne, runs away and has a son, Demna, who is cared for by two warrior women, Liath and the druidess Bodhmall. Muirne marries the king of Kerry, Demna got the name Fionn because of his fair hair, and as soon as he came of age he set off for revenge. He kills Liath Luachra, and retrieves the bag, which he then gives to the survivors of the Battle of Knock. While studying with the poet Finn Eces, Fionn accidentally eats the Salmon of Knowledge, after he was admitted, Fionn became the leader of Clan Bascna. Every Samhain, the phantom Aillén mac Midgna, or Aillén the Burner, would terrorise Tara, using a magic spear that rendered him immune to the music, Fionn killed the phantom. As a reward, Fionn was made the leader of the Fianna, replacing Goll, the spell had been broken by the Dun of Allen, Fionns base, where, as long as she remained within she was protected by the spell. Some while later, Fionn went out to repulse some invaders, fer Doirich impersonated Fionn, tempting Sadbh out of the Dun, whereupon she immediately became a fawn again. Fionn searched for her, but all he found was a boy, whom he named Oisín, Oisín became famous as a bard, but Sadbh was never seen again. One of the most famous stories of the cycle, the lovers are aided by Diarmuids foster-father, the god Aengus. Eventually Fionn makes his peace with the couple, years later, however, Fionn invites Diarmuid on a boar hunt, and Diarmuid is badly gored by their quarry. Water drunk from Fionns hands has the power of healing, and his grandson Oscar threatens him if does not bring water for Diarmuid, but when Fionn finally returns it is too late, Diarmuid has died. Between the birth of Oisin and the Battle of Gabhra is the rest of the cycle, Goll sides with the king against Clan Bascna at the battle. Some stories say five warriors murdered Fionn at the battle, while others say he died in the battle of the Ford of Brea, in any case, only twenty warriors survive the battle, including Oisín and Caílte. Poem ascribed to Flannacán mac Cellaig, king of Bregia, in the Yellow Book of Lecan, story according to which Mongán was Finn. Tenth century, Triads of Ireland, anecdote about Finn and the boar of Druimm Leithe, Poem ascribed to Cináed úa Hartacáin on the cemetery of the Brug on the Boyne, on Finns death
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Welsh mythology
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Welsh mythology consists of both folk traditions developed in Wales, and traditions developed by the Celtic Britons elsewhere before the end of the first millennium. Like most predominately oral societies found in the prehistoric Britain, Welsh mythology and this oral record has been lost or altered as result of outside contact and invasion over the years. The only character to appear in every branch is Pryderi fab Pwyll, the king of Dyfed, who is born in the first Branch, is killed in the fourth, and is probably a reflex of the Celtic god Maponos. The only other recurring characters are Pryderis mother Rhiannon, associated with the peaceful British prince Manawydan and he manages to win her hand at the expense of Gwawl, to whom she is betrothed, and she bears him a son, but the child disappears soon after his birth. Rhiannon is accused of killing him and forced to carry guests on her back as punishment. The child has been taken by a monster, and is rescued by Teyrnon and his wife and they return him to his real parents, Rhiannon is released from her punishment, and the boy is renamed Pryderi. In the second branch, Branwen, sister of Brân the Blessed, king of Britain, is given in marriage to Matholwch, Matholwch and Branwen have a son, Gwern, but Matholwch proceeds to mistreat Branwen, beating her and making her a drudge. Branwen trains a starling to take a message to Bran, who goes to war against Matholwch and his army crosses the Irish Sea in ships, but Brân is so huge he wades across. The Irish offer to make peace, and build a big enough to entertain Bran, but inside they hang a hundred bags, telling Efnysien they contain flour. Efnysien kills the warriors by squeezing the bags, later, at the feast, Efnysien throws Gwern on the fire and fighting breaks out. Seeing that the Irish are using the cauldron to revive their dead, Efnysien hides among the corpses and destroys the cauldron, only seven men, all Britons, survive the battle, including Pryderi, Manawyddan and Bran, who is mortally wounded by a poisoned spear. Brân asks his companions to cut off his head and take it back to Britain, Branwen dies of grief on returning home. Five pregnant women survive to repopulate Ireland, Pryderi and Manawydan return to Dyfed, where Pryderi marries Cigfa and Manawydan marries Rhiannon. However, a mist descends on the land, leaving it empty, eventually they return to Dyfed and become hunters again. While hunting, a white boar leads them to a mysterious castle, Pryderi, against Manawydans advice, goes inside, but does not return. Rhiannon goes to investigate and finds him clinging to a bowl, the same fate befalls her, and the castle disappears. Manawydan and Cigfa return to England as shoemakers, but once again the locals drive them out and they sow three fields of wheat, but the first field is destroyed before it can be harvested. The next night the field is destroyed
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Breton mythology
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Breton mythology is the mythology or corpus of explanatory and heroic tales originating in Brittany. The Bretons are the descendants of insular Britons who settled in Brittany from at least the third century, while the Britons were already Christianised in this era, the migrant population maintained an ancient Celtic mythos, similar to those of Wales and Cornwall. Breton mythology has many gods and mythical creatures specifically associated with nature cults, in this tradition of gods and creatures rooted in nature, there exist traces of certain Breton Catholic saints. This mythological background was accepted by Romans who were soon Christianized, resulting in the loss of grand epics
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Cornish mythology
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Cornish mythology is the folk tradition and mythology of the Cornish people. Some of this contains remnants of the mythology of pre-Christian Britain, the fairy tale Jack the Giant Killer takes place in Cornwall. Cornwall shares its ancient cultural heritage with its Brythonic cousins Brittany and Wales, as well as Ireland, part of Cornish mythology is derived from tales of seafaring pirates and smugglers who thrived in and around Cornwall from the early modern period through to the 19th century. Cornish pirates exploited both their knowledge of the Cornish coast as well as its sheltered creeks and hidden anchorages, for many fishing villages, loot and contraband provided by pirates supported a strong and secretive underground economy in Cornwall. Legendary creatures that appear in Cornish folklore include buccas, knockers, Giants, the knocker or bucca is the Welsh and Cornish equivalent of Irish leprechauns and English and Scottish brownies. About two feet tall and grizzled, but not misshapen, they live beneath the ground, Old Michaelmas Day falls on 11 October. According to an old legend, blackberries should not be picked after this date and this is because, so British folklore goes, Satan was banished from Heaven on this day, fell into a blackberry bush and cursed the brambles as he fell into them. In Cornwall, a similar legend prevails, according to which the devil urinated on them, weather lore Mist from the hill / Brings water for the mill, / Mist from the sea /Brings fine weather for me. When he see a sign for Roach, turnaround, nellie Sloggett of Padstow devoted much of her attention to Cornish folklore and legend. She collected and recorded stories about the Piskey folk, fairies of Cornish myth. She published most of her works in this category under her better-known pen-name of Enys Tregarthen, another legend relating to the pool concerns Jan Tregeagle. The Beast of Bodmin has been reported many times but never identified with certainty, Doom Bar According to legend, the Mermaid of Padstow created the Doom Bar as a dying curse, after being shot by a sailor. However, there are different versions of the story and the precise details are unclear. She then met a man, and one fell in love with the other, One version explains that she was love sick, and tried to lure him beneath the waves, however he escaped by shooting her. Another version suggested the man, Tristram Bird, fell in love with her and asked her to marry him, another suggestion is that a fisherman, Tom Yeo, shot her because he thought she was a seal. The ending of the legend is generally similar, with her dying breath, she levelled a curse at Padstow, or at the harbour itself, stating that the harbour will be desolate or unsafe. With that, a storm came, wrecking many boats. Within the bounds of Gulval parish lies the disused Ding Dong mine, popular local legend claims that Joseph of Arimathea, a tin trader, visited the mine and brought a young Jesus to address the miners, although there is no evidence to support this
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British Iron Age
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The parallel phase of Irish archaeology is termed the Irish Iron Age. The Iron Age is not a horizon of common artefacts. The British Iron Age lasted in theory from the first significant use of iron for tools, the Romanised culture is termed Roman Britain and is considered to supplant the British Iron Age. The Irish Iron Age was ended by the rise of Christianity, at a minimum, Celtic is a linguistic term without an implication of a lasting cultural unity connecting Gaul with the British Isles throughout the Iron Age. However it cannot be assumed that particular cultural features found in one Celtic-speaking culture can be extrapolated to the others. At present over 100 large-scale excavations of Iron Age sites have taken place, dating from the 8th century BC to the 1st century AD, hundreds of radiocarbon dates have been acquired and have been calibrated on four different curves, the most precise being based on tree ring sequences. In parts of Britain that were not Romanised, such as Scotland, the geographer closest to AD100 is perhaps Ptolemy. Pliny and Strabo are a bit older, but Ptolemy gives the most detail, during the later Bronze Age there are indications of new ideas influencing land use and settlement. Extensive field systems, now called Celtic fields, were being set out and settlements were becoming more permanent, long ditches, some many miles in length, were dug with enclosures placed at their ends. These are thought to indicate territorial borders and a desire to control over wide areas. By the 8th century BC, there is increasing evidence of Great Britain becoming closely tied to continental Europe, especially in Britains South and East. New weapon types appeared with clear parallels to those on the continent such as the Carps tongue sword, phoenician traders probably began visiting Great Britain in search of minerals around this time, bringing with them goods from the Mediterranean. At the same time, Northern European artefact types reached Eastern Great Britain in large quantities from across the North Sea, defensive structures dating from this time are often impressive, for example the brochs of Northern Scotland and the hill forts that dotted the rest of the islands. Some of the most well-known hill forts include Maiden Castle, Dorset, Cadbury Castle, Somerset and Danebury, hill forts first appeared in Wessex in the Late Bronze Age, but only become common in the period between 550 and 400 BC. The earliest were of a simple form, and often connected with earlier enclosures attached to the long ditch systems. Few hill forts have been excavated in the modern era, Danebury being a notable exception. However, it appears that forts were also used for domestic purposes, with examples of food storage, industry. Many hill forts are not in fact forts at all, the development of hill forts may have occurred due to greater tensions that arose between the better structured and more populous social groups
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Mabinogion
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The Mabinogion are the earliest prose literature of Britain. The stories were compiled in Middle Welsh in the 12th–13th centuries from oral traditions. The two main source manuscripts were created c, 1350–1410, as well as some earlier fragments. The title covers a collection of prose stories of widely different types. The highly sophisticated complexity of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi defy categorisation, the list is so diverse a leading scholar has challenged them as a true collection at all. Early scholars from the 18th century to the 1970s predominantly viewed the tales as fragmentary pre-Christian Celtic mythology and they are now seen as a sophisticated narrative tradition, both oral and written, with ancestral construction from oral storytelling, and overlay from Anglo-French influences. The first modern publications were English translations of several tales by William Owen Pughe in journals 1795,1821,1829, however it was Lady Charlotte Guest 1838–45 who first published the full collection, and bilingually in both Welsh and English. She is often assumed to be responsible for the name Mabinogion, indeed, as early as 1632 the lexicographer John Davies quotes a sentence from Math fab Mathonwy with the notation Mabin. in his Antiquae linguae Britannicae. The later Guest translation of 1877 in one volume, has been widely influential, the most recent translation is a compact version by Sioned Davies. John Bollard has published a series of volumes between with his own translation, with photography of the sites in the stories. The tales continue to inspire new fiction, dramatic retellings, visual artwork, the name first appears in 1795 in William Owen Pughes translation in the journal Cambrian Register, The Mabinogion, or Juvenile Amusements, being Ancient Welsh Romances. The name appears to have been current among Welsh scholars of the London-Welsh Societies and it was inherited as the title by the first publisher of the complete collection, Lady Charlotte Guest. The form mabynnogyon occurs once at the end of the first of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi in one manuscript and it is now generally agreed that this one instance was a mediaeval scribal error which assumed mabinogion was the plural of mabinogi. But mabinogi is already a Welsh plural, which occurs correctly at the end of the three branches. The word mabinogi itself is something of a puzzle, although derived from the Welsh mab. Eric P. Hamp of the school traditions in mythology, found a suggestive connection with Maponos the Divine Son. Mabinogi properly applies only to the Four Branches, which is a tightly organised quartet very likely by one author, each of these four tales ends with the colophon thus ends this branch of the Mabinogi, hence the name. Lady Charlotte Guests work was helped by the research and translation work of William Owen Pughe
