1.
Aerospace manufacturer
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Aerospace is a high technology industry. In Russia, large companies like Oboronprom and the United Aircraft Corporation are among the major global players in this industry. In the United States, the Department of Defense and NASA are the two biggest consumers of technology and products. By 1999 U. S. share of the market fell to 52 percent. Important locations of the aerospace industry worldwide include Seattle, Wichita, Kansas, Dayton, Ohio. Several consolidations took place in the aerospace and defense industries over the last few decades, between 1988 and 2010, more than 5,452 mergers & acquisitions with a total known-value of US$579 billion were announced worldwide. The largest transactions include the merger of Boeing with McDonnell Douglas valued at US$13.3 billion in 1996, marconi Electronic Systems, a subsidiary of the General Electric Company plc, was acquired by British Aerospace for US$12.3 billion in 1999 merger, to forme BAE Systems. Raytheon acquired Hughes Aircraft Company for $9.5 billion in 1997, Aerospace Aviation accidents and incidents List of aircraft manufacturers List of spacecraft manufacturers Aerospace Industries Association Associação das Indústrias Aeroespaciais do Brasil
2.
Arms industry
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The arms industry, also known as the defense industry or the arms trade, is a global industry responsible for the manufacturing and sales of weapons and military technology. It consists of a commercial industry involved in the research and development, engineering, production, and servicing of military material, equipment, and facilities. Arms-producing companies, also referred to as arms dealers, defense contractors, or as the industry, produce arms for the armed forces of states. Departments of government also operate in the industry, buying and selling weapons, munitions. An arsenal is a place where arms and ammunition are made, maintained and repaired, stored, or issued, in any combination, the arms industry also provides other logistical and operational support. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute estimated in 2012 that 2012 military expenditures were roughly 1.8 trillion United States dollars and this represents a relative decline from 1990 when military expenditures made up 4% of world GDP. Part of the money goes to the procurement of military hardware, the combined arms sales of the top 100 largest arms-producing companies amounted to an estimated $395 billion in 2012 according to SIPRI. In 2004 over $30 billion were spent in the arms trade. According to SIPRI, the volume of transfers of major weapons in 2010–14 was 16 per cent higher than in 2005–2009. The five biggest exporters in 2010–2014 were the United States, Russia, China, Germany and France, and the five biggest importers were India, Saudi Arabia, China, many industrialized countries have a domestic arms-industry to supply their own military forces. Some countries also have a legal or illegal domestic trade in weapons for use by its citizens, primarily for self-defense. Illegal trade in small arms occurs in countries and regions affected by political instability. The Small Arms Survey estimates that 875 million small arms circulate worldwide, contracts to supply a given countrys military are awarded by governments, making arms contracts of substantial political importance. Various corporations, some publicly held, others private, bid for these contracts, other times, no bidding or competition takes place. The modern arms industry emerged in the half of the nineteenth century as a product of the creation and expansion of the first large military-industrial companies. In 1854, the British government awarded a contract to the Elswick Ordnance Company of industrialist William Armstrong for the supply of his latest breech loading rifled artillery pieces and this galvanised the private sector into weapons production, with the surplus being increasingly exported to foreign countries. Armstrong became one of the first international arms dealers, selling his weapon systems to governments across the world from Brazil to Japan. In 1884, he opened a shipyard at Elswick to specialise in warship production—at the time, it was the factory in the world that could build a battleship
3.
Andrei Tupolev
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Andrei Nikolayevich Tupolev was a pioneering Soviet aircraft designer. During his career, he designed and oversaw the design of more than 100 types of aircraft, in recognition of his work, he was made an honorary member of Britains Royal Aeronautical Society and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. He was honoured in his own country by being made an academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Colonel-General, Tupolev was born in the village of Pustomazovo, near the city of Kimry, Tver region, Russia. Tupolev was the sixth of seven born to his parents. After first being educated at home, he studied at the Gymnasium in Tver and he then applied for courses at two Russian universities and was accepted at both, Imperial Moscow Technical School and the Institute of Railway Engineers. He accepted the place at IMTU, in 1909, Tupolev began studying aerodynamics under the Russian aviation pioneer N. E. During this time he built one of the worlds first wind tunnels which led to the formation of a laboratory at IMTU. In 1911, Tupolev was accused of taking part in activities, including demonstrations and distribution of subversive literature. He was later released on condition that he return to his home in Pustomazovo and was only allowed to return to IMTU in 1914. He completed his studies in 1918 and was awarded the degree of Engineer-Mechanic when he presented his thesis on the development of seaplanes, by 1920 the IMTU had been renamed the Moscow Higher Technical School and Tupolev was teaching a course there on the basics of aerodynamic calculations. Tupolev was a light of the Moscow-based Central Aero and Hydrodynamics Institute from 1929 until his death in 1972. In 1925, he designed a twin-engine bomber, the TB-1, in 1937, an improved version from the earlier TB-1, the four-engined TB-3 made a landing at the North Pole. As the number of qualified aircraft designers increased, Tupolev set up his own office, many of his colleagues were executed. In 1939, Tupolev was moved from a prison to an NKVD sharashka for aircraft designers in Bolshevo near Moscow, the sharashka soon moved to Moscow and was dubbed Tupolevka after its most eminent inmate. Tupolev was tried and convicted in 1940 with a ten-year sentence, during this time he developed the Tupolev Tu-2, He was released in July 1941 to conduct important defence work. Tupolev headed the project of reverse engineering the American Boeing B-29 strategic bomber. The USSR had repeatedly asked unsuccessfully for lend-lease B-29s, using three machines which landed in Siberia after bombing Japan in 1945, Tupolev succeeded in replicating them down to trivial detail. Moreover, he got it into production, with crews fully trained in time for the 1947 May Day parade
4.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
5.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
6.
United Aircraft Corporation
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JSC United Aircraft Corporation is a Russian open joint-stock company. Its headquarters are in Krasnoselsky District, Central Administrative Okrug, Moscow, UAC was created in February 2006 by Russian President Vladimir Putin by merging shares from Ilyushin, Irkut, Sukhoi, Tupolev, and Yakovlev as a new company named United Aircraft Corporation. In October 2007 the Federal Financial Markets Service registered a primary issue of shares for the United Aircraft Building Corporation. The issue included 96,724,000,000 shares priced at 1 RUB and they also announced plans for a possible 10–15% share issue in 2008, planning to retain a 75% stake. Currently, after placing 5 additional share issues, the Corporations chartered capital amounts to 174.61 bln, the share of the Russian Federation in UAC’s chartered capital is 80. 29%. In December 2007, the second largest Russian bank Vneshtorgbank announced that it would sell its 5% share in EADS to UAC at market price, later that month VTB sold its share in EADS to the state-owned Russian Development Bank. EADS already owns a 10% stake in Irkut which it plans to convert into UAC shares, leading to EADS, UAC will realize seven projects proposed by the Russian aircraft industry, including the Sukhoi Superjet 100 and a medium-range plane, MS-21. In 2009, UAC delivered 90 aircraft, including 17 passenger models and this figure includes 31 MiG-29 and two Su-34 fighter jets produced for the Russian Air Force. The companys revenues for 2009 were expected to be 115 billion–120 billion rubles, in 2011-2015, UAC companies delivered to the Russian Defence Ministry more than 200 aircraft. United Aircraft Corporation has been described as one of the national champions, large companies that are expected not only to seek profit. As of September 2013 the President of BoD is Vladimir Dmitriev - Chairman of Vnesheconombank, starting 28 February 2011, Mikhail Pogosyan was appointed the President of UAC. The holding encompasses Irkut Mikoyan, Voronezh Aircraft Production Association, Sukhoi, Ilyushin and it has also been recently announced that the TAPO factory, in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, may also become a subsidiary of the group
7.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
8.
Aircraft industry of Russia
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Aircraft manufacturing is an important industrial sector in Russia, employing around 355,300 people. The dissolution of the Soviet Union led to a crisis for the industry. The situation started improving during the middle of the first decade of the 2000s due to growth in air transportation, a consolidation programme launched in 2005 led to the creation of the United Aircraft Corporation holding company, which includes most of the industrys key companies. In 2009, companies belonging to the United Aircraft Corporation delivered 95 new fixed-wing aircraft to its customers, in addition, the industry produced over 141 helicopters. Russia had twenty-four aircraft manufacturers at the outbreak of war, in particular they were dependent on foreign engines. It produced 1893 aircraft and imported 883 from 1914 to 1916, Production declined sharply after the February Revolution and had virtually ceased when Russia left the war in 1918. These competing designs would then be evaluated against each other and a winner chosen, ideally a single winning design would be chosen which would then be assigned to one or more manufacturing complexes. Most such complexes were within the Soviet Union, however some product lines were assigned to allies within the Warsaw Pact, due in part to political considerations the assignment of production was widely dispersed, creating supply chains in which the role of state planning was paramount. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, Warsaw Pact and Comecon there came a disconnect between end users, export companies, OKBs, assembly plants and component manufacturers, aerospace was a well-developed industry in the Soviet Union. In late 1980s, the Soviet Union accounted for 25% of the worldwide civilian, the consequences of the Soviet Unions dissolution in 1991 were however catastrophic. The whole manufacturing sector was devastated by imports, while the aerospace, on the positive side, the military aircraft industry managed to benefit from improving export possibilities. It profited from a stock of components and parts which had been produced during Soviet times. As the industry structure was deeply fractionalised, the consensus was that consolidation was necessary, for this purpose, President Boris Yeltsin created the VPK-MAPO, which included some key companies such as Mikoyan. MAPO later became the Russian Aircraft Company MiG and this stage of consolidation was however not very successful, and MAPO was later merged with Sukhoi. The aerospace industrys total output in 2000 was $2.7 billion, exports of military aircraft in 2000 amounted to $1.3 billion. At the turn of the millennium, the aircraft industry was in a deep crisis. Only a few aircraft were built and after-sale maintenance was minuscule, many planes, both new and old, failed to receive international safety and environmental certifications. Two key companies, Aviastar-SP and Voronezh Aircraft Production Association were almost bankrupt, the profits of the civilian aircraft industry totaled just $300 million in 2001
9.
Basmanny District
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Basmanny District is a district of Central Administrative Okrug of the federal city of Moscow, Russia. The district extends northeast from Kitai-gorod, within the boundaries of Vorontsovo Pole Street and Yauza River in the south and Myasnitskaya Street. It also includes the territory of Lefortovo Hospital on the opposite, historical Lefortovskaya Square also lies within Basmanny District, on the northern side of Yauza. The district contains Kursky Rail Terminal, historical areas of Khitrovka, Clean Ponds, Red Gates, German Quarter and it retains memorial buildings of Petrine Baroque, Neoclassicism and Art Nouveau periods. Its history is associated with Peter I of Russia, Matvey Kazakov. The district is home to Russias largest engineering college, Moscow State Technical University, Central part of the district, with radial Myasnitskaya Street, Pokrovka Street and Solyanka Street, was gradually urbanized since 15th century. Most of the burnt down in the Fire of 1812 and was rebuilt in neoclassical style. Notable 18th-century buildings include Menshikov Tower, a unique Petrine Baroque church that rivalled Ivan the Great Bell Tower in height, and late Baroque Apraksin-Trubetskoy palace. Date of foundation of Ivanovsky Convent remains unknown, it was used as a security prison for state prisoners like Maria Shuiskaya, wife of deposed Vasili IV of Russia. Present-day cathedral and towers were built by Mikhail Bykovsky in 1861, nearby Moscow Choral Synagogue was completed in 1906. Armyansky Lane, in the beginning of Pokrovka Street, has been a hub of Moscows Armenian community since the late 18th century, starting as the base of Lazarev merchant family of Armenian descent. Lazarevs Institute of Oriental Languages, founded in 1814, has been a school for Russian diplomats since 1827, today. Nearby Maly Zlatoustinsky Lane was home to Matvey Kazakovs home and workshop, southern end of central Basmanny District hides the infamous Khitrovka - former bottom of Moscow between present-day Pokrovsky Boulevard, Khokhlovsky Lane and Solyanka Street. Khitrov market, set up in the 1820s, became a district in the 1860s. Many original buildings of Khitrovka still stand, although the market, in Soviet period, reconstruction of Basmanny District lagged behind that of western districts. In the 1930s, Basmanny lost landmarks like Red Gates and Assumption Church in Pokrovka, apartment buildings on the boulevards, instead of demolition, were expanded in depth and height, retaining original finishes. Basman in the 17th century referred to a sort of bread supplied to the court and troops, however. Church of St. Peter and Paul in this area was built in 1705–1723 to the draft made by Peter himself, in early Baroque style
10.
Central Administrative Okrug
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Central Administrative Okrug, or Tsentralny Administrativny Okrug, is one of the twelve administrative okrugs of Moscow, Russia, located within the Kamer-Kollezhny Bank. The Kremlin Hill, from which the colonization of Moscow began, is depicted under Yury Dolgoruky, the purple background symbolizes the supreme power of Russia, concentrated in Central Administrative Okrug. The gold unicorn was a symbol of the Russian Tsars. Below him an ancient Kremlin white-stone wall is featured, the Interstate Aviation Committee, the aviation accident technical investigation body of the Commonwealth of Independent States, has its head office in the Yakimanka District in the okrug. The Federal Penitentiary Service has its office in Yakimanka District. The Ministry of Education and Science has its office in the Tverskoy District. Aeroflot has its office in the Arbat District in the okrug. United Aircraft Corporation has its office in the Krasnoselsky District in the okrug. Tupolev has its office in the Basmanny District in the okrug. The All Nippon Airways Moscow sales office is located in the Presnensky District in the okrug, korean Air operates its CIS office in the Tverskoy District in the okrug. The Lycée Français Alexandre Dumas de Moscou, a French international school, is located in the Krasnoselsky District in the okrug, daugavpils, Latvia Riga, Latvia Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany Official website of Central Administrative Okrug
11.
Russian Aircraft Corporation MiG
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Russian Aircraft Corporation MiG, or RSK MiG, is a Russian aerospace joint stock company. Formerly Mikoyan-and-Gurevich Design Bureau, then simply Mikoyan, it is an aircraft design bureau. Its head office is in Begovoy District, Northern Administrative Okrug and it was formerly a Soviet design bureau, and was founded by Artyom Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich as Mikoyan and Gurevich, with the bureau prefix MiG. Upon Gurevichs death in 1976, Gurevichs name was dropped from the name of the bureau, the firm also operates several machine-building and design bureaus, including the Kamov helicopter plant. MiG aircraft are a staple of the Soviet and Russian air forces, and they have been used by the militaries of China, North Korea, and North Vietnam in aerial confrontations with American and allied forces, and form part of the air forces of many Arab nations. In 2006, the Russian government merged 100% of Mikoyan shares with Ilyushin, Irkut, Sukhoi, Tupolev, specifically, Mikoyan and Sukhoi were placed within the same operating unit. MiG-1 -1940 MiG-3 -1941 MiG-9 -1946, MiGs first jet MiG-15 -1949 MiG-17 -1952 MiG-19 -1955, miG-21 -1956, multirole fighter that would be widely exported and become the backbone of dozens of air forces. MiG-23 -1967 MiG-25 -1965, interceptor fighter and recon/strike aircraft, miG-27 -1970, a ground-attack aircraft derived from the MiG-23. MiG-29 -1977, a multirole/air superiority fighter, miG-29K -1988, multirole/air superiority fighter and the naval variant of the MiG-29M. MiG-31 -1975, interceptor. 44/1.42, 1986–2000 MiG LFI project MiG-105 Spiral,1965 MiG-33 Mikoyan LMFS MiG Skat MiGs follow the convention of using odd numbers for fighter aircraft. However, this convention is maintained not directly by MiG. The original designations for MiG aircraft are 2- or 3-digit numbers,1.44 or 1.42 is an example of original naming. Although the MiG-8 and MiG-110 exist, they are not fighters, the MiG-105 Spiral was designed as an orbital interceptor, contemporaneous with the U. S. Air Forces cancelled X-20 Dyna-Soar. Aircraft industry of Russia List of military aircraft of the Soviet Union and the CIS Migavia. ru – official site of MiG OKB successor enterprise Russian Aviation Museum, MiG Pages
12.
Ilyushin
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Open Joint Stock Company «Ilyushin Aviation Complex», operating as Ilyushin or Ilyushin Design Bureau, is a Russian aircraft manufacturer and design bureau, founded by Sergey Vladimirovich Ilyushin. Ilyushin was established under the Soviet Union and its operations began on January 13,1933, by order of P. I. Baranov, Peoples Commissar of the Heavy Industry and the Head of the Main Department of Aviation Industry, in Soviet/Russian nomenclature, aircraft from Ilyushin are prefixed Il. The head office of Ilyushin is located in Aeroport District, Northern Administrative Okrug, Aviation Industries Ilyushin is a subsidiary established in 1992 to act as Ilyushins marketing and customer service arm. The Russian government has merged Ilyushin with Mikoyan, Irkut, Sukhoi, Tupolev, in July 2014 it was reported that Ilyushin and Myasishchev would merge to form the United Aircraft Corporation business unit Transport Aircraft. Notable Ilyushin aircraft include, I-21 fighter,1936, il-2 Sturmovik ground-attack aircraft, NATO codename Bark,1939, most-produced military aircraft of all time. Il-10, ground-attack aircraft, NATO codename Beast,1943, il-16 ground attack prototype developed from the Il-10,1945. Il-40 Brawny jet-powered ground-attack prototype,1953, il-102 experimental jet-powered ground-attack aircraft, project cancelled,1982. Il-4 Bob bomber/torpedo bomber developed from the DB-3,1939, il-6 long-range bomber prototype developed from the Il-4,1942. Il-28 Beagle and Mascot medium bomber/trainer,1949, Il-30 tactical swept-wing bomber prototype developed from the Il-28,1951. Il-46 jet-powered bomber prototype developed from the Il-30,1952, il-54 Blowlamp supersonic bomber prototype,1955. Il-12 Coach twin-engined cargo/transport aircraft,1945, il-34 prototype motorized variant of Il-32. Il-78 Midas, an aerial refuelling variant of the Il-76,1982, il-82 airborne command post developed from the Il-76. UAC/HAL Il-214 experimental medium-lift military transport aircraft, il-476 internal designation for the Il-76MD-90A. Il-14 Crate twin-engined airliner developed from the Il-12,1950, Il-18 Clam four-engined airliner prototype,1946. Il-62 Classic long range jet airliner,1963, Il-86 Camber medium-range wide-body jet airliner,1976. Il-80 Maxdome airborne command post developed from the Il-86,1985, il-87 Aimak airborne control variant of the Il-86. Il-96 long-haul widebody airliner developed from the Il-86,1988, il-98 aerial refuelling variant of the Il-96
13.
Irkut Corporation
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Irkut Corporation is a Russian aircraft manufacturer, member of the United Aircraft Corporation. It is best known as being the manufacturer of the Sukhoi Su-30 family of interceptor/ground-attack aircraft, the company was founded in 1932 in the Transbaykal region in the Russian Federation. Irkut has its office in Aeroport District, Northern Administrative Okrug. Irkut produces Sukhoi Su-27 and Sukhoi Su-30 fighters and amphibious planes in the Be family, the company includes the Irkutsk Aviation Plant, Beriev Aircraft Company, Yakovlev Design Bureau, and BETA AIR. It is also working on the design and series production of the MC-21 passenger jet, the company employs over 14,000 people. In 2006, the Russian government merged Irkut with Ilyushin, Mikoyan, Sukhoi, Irkut has also entered into a joint venture with Indian military aircraft manufacturer HAL to manufacture the UAC/HAL Il-214, which will be designed by Ilyushin. In 2008, Irkut earned net income equivalent to US$34.8 million, the companys revenue was the equivalent to US$1.25 billion, 25% more than in 2007
14.
Sukhoi
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Sukhoi Company is a major Russian aircraft manufacturer, headquartered in Begovoy District, Northern Administrative Okrug, Moscow, and designs both civilian and military aircraft. It was founded by Pavel Sukhoi in 1939 as the Sukhoi Design Bureau, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, each of the multitude of bureaus and factories producing Sukhoi components was privatized independently. In 1996, the government re-gathered the major part of them forming Sukhoi Aviation Military Industrial Combine, in parallel, other entities, including Ulan Ude factory, Tbilisi factory, Belarus and Ukraine factories, established alternate transnational Sukhoi Attack Aircraft. The Sukhoi AIMC comprises the JSC Sukhoi Design Bureau located in Moscow, the Novosibirsk Aviation Production Association, finmeccanica owns 25% +1 share of Sukhois civil division. The Russian government merged Sukhoi with Mikoyan, Ilyushin, Irkut, Tupolev, Mikoyan and Sukhoi were placed within the same operating unit. Sukhoi is also working on what is to be Russias fifth-generation stealth fighter, the maiden flight took place on the 29 January 2010. Sukhois Su-24, Su-25, Su-27, Su-30, Su-34, Su-35 and shipborne Su-33 aircraft are in service with the Russian Air Force, the Su-25 is the oldest Sukhoi still in production. Venezuela signed contracts for the purchase of 30 Su-30 fighter jets in July 2006, more than 2,000 Sukhoi aircraft were supplied to foreign countries on export contracts. With its Su-26, Su-29 and Su-31 models Sukhoi is also a manufacturer of aerobatic aircraft, on August 4,2006, the U. S. State Department imposed sanctions on Sukhoi for allegedly supplying Iran in violation of the United States Iran Nonproliferation Act of 2000. Sukhoi was prohibited from doing business with the United States Federal Government, in November 2006, the U. S. State Department reversed its sanctions against Sukhoi. In September 2007, Sukhoi launched its first modern commercial regional airliner—the Superjet 100, the maiden flight was made on May 19,2008. Sukhoi KR-860, doubledeck superjumbo jet design, Sukhoi T-50/PAK FA, fifth generation fighter. Basic future aircraft of Russian Frontline Aviation, sukhoi/HAL FGFA, FGFA is a derivative project from the PAK FA being developed by the Sukhoi OKB and HAL for the Indian Air Force. Sukhoi S-54 Sukhoi Superjet 130 Note, The Sukhoi OKB has reused aircraft designations, for example, the Su-9 from 1946 and the later Su-9 from 1956, Sukhoi prototype designations are based on wing layout planform. Straight and swept wings are assigned the S prefix, while delta winged designs have T for a designation prefix
15.
Yakovlev
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Yakovlev Design Bureau is a Russian aircraft designer and manufacturer. Its head office is in Aeroport District, Northern Administrative Okrug, during World War II Yakovlev designed and produced a famed line of fighter aircraft. Yakovlev was acquired by Irkut in April 2004, the Russian government merged the holding company with Mikoyan, Ilyushin, Irkut, Sukhoi and Tupolev as a new company named United Aircraft Building Corporation in February 2006. The firm is the designer of the Pchela drone reconnaissance aircraft and is perhaps best known for its successful line of World War II-era piston-engined fighter aircraft. The name Yakovlev is used commonly in the West, but in Russia it is abbreviated as Yak as a part of an aircraft name. The German transliteration, often used by the Russians, Poles, Yak Fighters in WWII Степанец А. Т. - Истребители Як периода Великой Отечественной войны. ил, http, //www. yak. ru click on ENG for English
16.
Missile
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In modern language, a missile is a self-propelled precision-guided munition system, as opposed to an unguided self-propelled munition, referred to as a rocket. Missiles have four components, targeting and/or missile guidance, flight system, engine. Missiles come in types adapted for different purposes, surface-to-surface and air-to-surface missiles, surface-to-air missiles, air-to-air missiles, all known existing missiles are designed to be propelled during powered flight by chemical reactions inside a rocket engine, jet engine, or other type of engine. Non-self-propelled airborne explosive devices are referred to as shells and usually have a shorter range than missiles. In ordinary British-English usage predating guided weapons, a missile is any thrown object, the word missile comes from the Latin verb mittere, meaning to send. In military usage, munitions projected towards a target are broadly categorised as follows, a powered, unguided munition is known as a rocket. Unpowered munitions not fired from a gun are called bombs whether guided or not, munitions that are fired from a gun are known as projectiles whether guided or not. If explosive, they are more specifically as shells or mortar bombs. Powered munitions that travel through water are called torpedoes, hand grenades are not usually classed as missiles. The first missiles to be used operationally were a series of missiles developed by Nazi Germany in World War II, most famous of these are the V-1 flying bomb and V-2 rocket, both of which used a simple mechanical autopilot to keep the missile flying along a pre-chosen route. Less well known were a series of anti-shipping and anti-aircraft missiles, however, these early systems in World War II were only built in small numbers. Guided missiles have a number of different system components, Targeting and/or missile guidance Flight system Engine Warhead Missiles may be targeted in a number of ways. The most common method is to use some form of radiation, such as infrared, lasers or radio waves and this radiation may emanate from the target, it may be provided by the missile itself, or it may be provided by a friendly third party. The first two are known as fire-and-forget as they need no further support or control from the launch vehicle/platform in order to function. Another method is to use a TV guidance—using either visible light or infrared—in order to see the target, the picture may be used either by a human operator who steers the missile onto its target or by a computer doing much the same job. One of the more bizarre guidance methods instead used a pigeon to steer the missile to its target, many missiles use a combination of two or more of the above methods to improve accuracy and the chances of a successful engagement. Another method is to target the missile by knowing the location of the target and using a system such as INS. This guidance system guides the missile by knowing the current position and the position of the target
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Naval aviation
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Naval aviation is the application of military air power by navies, whether from warships that embark aircraft, or land bases. In contrast, maritime aviation is the operation of aircraft in a maritime role, an exception to this is the United States Coast Guard, which is considered part of U. S. naval aviation. S. Naval aviation, whether based afloat or ashore, Naval aviation is typically projected to a position nearer the target by way of an aircraft carrier. Carrier-based aircraft must be enough to withstand demanding carrier operations. Early experiments on the use of kites for naval reconnaissance took place in 1903 at Woolwich Common for the Admiralty, in 1908 Prime Minister H. H. Asquith approved the formation of an Aerial Sub-Committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence to investigate the potential for naval aviation. This resulted in the construction of Mayfly in 1909, the first air component of the navy to become operational, and the genesis of modern naval aviation. Two hundred applications were received, and four were accepted, Lieutenant C R Samson, Lieutenant A M Longmore, Lieutenant A Gregory and Captain E L Gerrard, RMLI. The French also established an aviation capability in 1910 with the establishment of the Service Aeronautique. U. S. naval aviation began with pioneer aviator Glenn Curtiss who contracted with the Navy to demonstrate that airplanes could take off from, one of his pilots, Eugene Ely, took off from the USS Birmingham anchored off the Virginia coast in November 1910. Two months later Ely landed aboard another cruiser, USS Pennsylvania, in San Francisco Bay, however, the platforms erected on those vessels were temporary measures. The U. S. Navy and Glenn Curtiss experienced two firsts during January 1911, $25,000 was appropriated for the Bureau of Navigation to purchase three airplanes and in the spring of 1911 four additional officers were trained as pilots by the Wright brothers and Curtiss. A camp with a landing field was established on the Severn River at Greenbury Point, near Annapolis. Mustin successfully tested the concept of the launch in August 1912. The first permanent naval air station was established at Pensacola, Florida, in January 1912, the British battleship HMS Africa took part in aircraft experiments at Sheerness. Africa then transferred her flight equipment to her sister ship Hibernia, in May 1912, with Commander Samson again flying the S.38, the first ever instance of an aircraft to take off from a ship which was underway occurred. Hibernia steamed at 10.5 knots at the Royal Fleet Review in Weymouth Bay, Hibernia then transferred her aviation equipment to battleship London. The first aircraft participation in naval manoeuvres took place in 1913 with the cruiser Hermes converted into a seaplane carrier, in 1914, naval aviation was split again, and became the Royal Naval Air Service. However, shipboard naval aviation had begun in the Royal Navy, other early operators of seaplanes were Germany, within its Marine-Fliegerabteiling naval aviation units within the Kaiserliche Marine, and Russia
18.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
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Eastern Bloc
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The Eastern Bloc was the group of communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact. The terms Communist Bloc and Soviet Bloc were also used to denote groupings of states aligned with the Soviet Union, although these terms might include states outside Central and Eastern Europe. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, who viewed the Soviet Union as a socialist island, Eastern Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Bessarabia in northern Romania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence. Lithuania was added in a secret protocol in September 1939. During the Occupation of East Poland by the Soviet Union, the Soviets liquidated the Polish state, Soviet authorities immediately started a campaign of sovietization of the newly Soviet-annexed areas. Soviet authorities collectivized agriculture, and nationalized and redistributed private and state-owned Polish property, the international community condemned this initial annexation of the Baltic states and deemed it illegal. In June 1941, Germany broke the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact by invading the Soviet Union, from the time of this invasion to 1944, the areas annexed by the Soviet Union were part of Germanys Ostland. Thereafter, the Soviet Union began to push German forces westward through a series of battles on the Eastern Front, from 1943 to 1945, several conferences regarding Post-War Europe occurred that, in part, addressed the potential Soviet annexation and control of countries in Central Europe. I think that if I give him everything I possibly can and ask for nothing from him in return, noblesse oblige, he wont try to annex anything and will work with me for a world of democracy and peace. While meeting with Stalin and Roosevelt in Tehran in 1943, Churchill stated that Britain was vitally interested in restoring Poland as an independent country, Britain did not press the matter for fear that it would become a source of inter-allied friction. In February 1945, at the conference at Yalta, Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of influence in Central Europe. Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany, after resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin promised a re-organization of the current pro-Soviet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland. He stated that the new primary task would be to prepare elections. In addition to reparations, Stalin pushed for war booty, which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations. At first, the Soviets concealed their role in other Eastern Bloc politics, as a young communist was told in East Germany, its got to look democratic, but we must have everything in our control. Moscow-trained cadres were put into crucial power positions to fulfill orders regarding sociopolitical transformation, elimination of the bourgeoisies social and financial power by expropriation of landed and industrial property was accorded absolute priority. These measures were publicly billed as reforms rather than socioeconomic transformations, the bloc system permitted the Soviet Union to exercise domestic control indirectly. Crucial departments such as responsible for personnel, general police, secret police
20.
Aeronautics
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Aeronautics is the science or art involved with the study, design, and manufacturing of air flight capable machines, and the techniques of operating aircraft and rockets within the atmosphere. The British Royal Aeronautical Society identifies the aspects of aeronautical Art, Science and Engineering and the profession of Aeronautics. A significant part of science is a branch of dynamics called aerodynamics, which deals with the motion of air. Attempts to fly without any real aeronautical understanding have been made from the earliest times, typically by constructing wings, wiser investigators sought to gain some rational understanding through the study of bird flight. An early example appears in ancient Egyptian texts, later medieval Islamic scientists also made such studies. The founders of modern aeronautics, Leonardo da Vinci in the Renaissance and Cayley in 1799, man-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China. In 1282 the European explorer Marco Polo described the Chinese techniques then current, the Chinese also constructed small hot air balloons, or lanterns, and rotary-wing toys. The lifting medium for his balloon would be an aether whose composition he did not know, although his designs were rational, they were not based on particularly good science. Many of his designs, such as a four-person screw-type helicopter, have severe flaws and he did at least understand that An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object. His analysis led to the realisation that manpower alone was not sufficient for sustained flight, da Vincis work was lost after his death and did not reappear until it had been overtaken by the work of George Cayley. The modern era of lighter-than-air flight began early in the 17th century with Galileos experiments in which he showed that air has weight and these would be lighter than the displaced air and able to lift an airship. His proposed methods of controlling height are still in use today, by carrying ballast which may be dropped overboard to gain height, in practice de Terzis spheres would have collapsed under air pressure, and further developments had to wait for more practicable lifting gases. From the mid-18th century the Montgolfier brothers in France began experimenting with balloons and their balloons were made of paper, and early experiments using steam as the lifting gas were short-lived due to its effect on the paper as it condensed. Meanwhile, the discovery of hydrogen led Joseph Black in c.1780 to propose its use as a lifting gas, on hearing of the Montgolfier Brothers invitation, the French Academy member Jacques Charles offered a similar demonstration of a hydrogen balloon. Charles and two craftsmen, the Robert brothers, developed a material of rubberised silk for the envelope. The hydrogen gas was to be generated by chemical reaction during the filling process, the Montgolfier designs had several shortcomings, not least the need for dry weather and a tendency for sparks from the fire to set light to the paper balloon. The manned design had a gallery around the base of the rather than the hanging basket of the first, unmanned design. On their free flight, De Rozier and dArlandes took buckets of water, on the other hand, the manned design of Charles was essentially modern
21.
Airplane
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An airplane or aeroplane is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine or propeller. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations, the broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research. Commercial aviation is a massive industry involving the flying of tens of thousands of daily on airliners. Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, the Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903, recognized as the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight. They built on the works of George Cayley dating from 1799, between 1867 and 1896, the German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal also studied heavier-than-air flight. Following its limited use in World War I, aircraft continued to develop. Airplanes had a presence in all the battles of World War II. The first jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178 in 1939, the first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952. The Boeing 707, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in service for more than 50 years. Aéroplane originally referred just to the wing, as it is a plane moving through the air, in an example of synecdoche, the word for the wing came to refer to the entire aircraft. In the United States and Canada, the airplane is used for powered fixed-wing aircraft. In the United Kingdom and most of the Commonwealth, the aeroplane is usually applied to these aircraft. Many stories from antiquity involve flight, such as the Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus, and this machine may have been suspended for its flight. Some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-century poet Abbas ibn Firnas, leonardo da Vinci researched the wing design of birds and designed a man-powered aircraft in his Codex on the Flight of Birds. In 1799, George Cayley set forth the concept of the airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, in 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider LAlbatros artificiel pulled by a horse on a beach. Then Alexander F. Mozhaisky also made some innovative designs, in 1883, the American John J. Montgomery made a controlled flight in a glider. Other aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower steam engines driving two propellers
22.
Hugo Junkers
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Hugo Junkers was a German engineer and aircraft designer. As such, he is credited with pioneering the design of all-metal airplanes. As founder of the Junkers Flugzeug- und Motorenwerke AG, he was one of the mainstays of the German aircraft industry in the years between World War I and World War II. In particular, his multi-engined all-metal passenger- and freight planes helped establish airlines in Germany, although his name is also linked to some of the most successful German warplanes of the Second World War, Hugo Junkers himself had nothing to do with their development. He was forced out of his own company by the Nazi government in 1934 and died on his 76th birthday, as well as aircraft, Junkers also built both diesel and petrol engines and held various thermodynamic and metallurgical patents. He was also one of the sponsors of the Bauhaus movement. Junkers was born in Rheydt in the Prussian Rhine Province, the son of a well-off industrialist, after taking his Abitur exams in 1878, he attended the Royal Polytechnic University in Charlottenburg and the Royal Technical University in Aachen, where he completed his engineering studies in 1883. At first, he returned to Rheydt to work in his fathers company, Slaby placed him with the Continental-Gasgesellschaft in Dessau, where he worked on the development of the first opposed-piston engine. In order to measure heating value, Junkers patented a calorimeter, Junkers personally introduced the calorimeter at the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, where it was awarded a gold medal. The next year, he patented a gas-fired bath boiler, which he refined as a tankless heater, in 1895, he founded Junkers & Co. to utilize his inventions. From 1897, he was offered a professorship of engineering at Aachen. Junkers aeronautical work began in earnest only at the age of fifty, Reissner had developed an all-metal aircraft, on which work first started in 1909 at the Brand Heath, equipped with corrugated iron wings built by Junkers & Co. in Dessau. The iron wings were patented one year later, Junkers had a wind tunnel built and invented a hydraulic brake. He had far-sighted ideas of metal aeroplanes and flying wings, during World War I, the government forced him to focus on aircraft production. In 1915, he developed the worlds first practical aircraft design, the Junkers J1 Blechesel. During this time, the German governments IdFlieg military aviation inspectorate forced him to merge his firm with Anthony Fokkers to form the Junkers-Fokker Aktiengesellschaft on 20 October 1917. By 1918, his firm had created the worlds first low-winged, single-seat fighter aircraft, the Junkers D. I, however, the D. I did not enter production until 1918. He also produced a two-seat fighter, the Junkers CL. I, the Junkers F.13 of 1919 was the first of several successful civil aircraft designs produced by Junkers Flugzeugwerke, later designs include the Junkers Ju 52/3m from 1932
23.
Tupolev ANT-20
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The Tupolev ANT-20 Maksim Gorki was a Soviet eight-engine aircraft, the largest of the 1930s. Its wingspan was similar to that of a modern Boeing 747 and it was one of two aircraft of its kind built by the Soviets. The aircraft was named after Maxim Gorky and dedicated to the 40th anniversary of his literary, in a first-in-aviation history the aircraft was equipped with a ladder which would fold on itself to become part of the floor. Another first for the plane is that it used direct current and alternating current. The aircraft could be dismantled and transported by rail if needed, the aircraft set several carrying-capacity world records and is also the subject of a 1934 painting by Vasily Kuptsov, which is now in the collection of the Russian Museum at St. Petersburg. On 18 May 1935, the Maxim Gorky and three aircraft took off for a demonstration flight over Moscow. The main purpose of the three aircraft flying so close was to make evident the difference in size. The accompanying I-5 fighter piloted by Nikolai Blagin had performed two loop manoeuvres around the Maxim Gorky, on the third loop, they collided. The Maxim Gorky crashed into a residential neighbourhood west of present-day Sokol metro station. Thirty-five people were killed in the crash, including pilots and their 33 passengers, and family members of some of those who had built the aircraft. While authorities announced that the manoeuvre was impromptu and reckless. Also killed was the pilot, Blagin, who was made a scapegoat in the crash and subsequently had his name used eponymously to mean, roughly. However, Blagin was given a funeral at Novodevichy Cemetery together with ANT-20 victims. A replacement aircraft, designated ANT-20bis had begun production the following year and it was largely identical in design but with six more-powerful Mikulin AM-34FRNV engines. This plane, designated PS-124 and registered CCCP-L760, served with Aeroflot on transport routes in Russia, the Osprey Encyclopedia of Russian Aircraft 1875–1995. Istoriya konstruktskii samoletov v SSSR do 1938 g, military Intelligence Film Russian Air Show is available for free download at the Internet Archive
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Stalinism
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Stalinism is the means of governing and related policies implemented by Joseph Stalin. These included not only people but also working-class people accused of counter-revolutionary sympathies. Rapid industrialization was accompanied with mass collectivization of agriculture and rapid urbanization, rapid urbanization converted many small villages into industrial cities. After the American private enterprises completed their tasks, Soviet state enterprises took over, the term came into prominence during the mid-1930s, when Lazar Kaganovich, a Soviet politician and associate of Stalin, reportedly declared, Lets replace Long Live Leninism with Long Live Stalinism. Stalin initially met this usage with hesitancy, dismissing it as excessively praiseful, Stalinism usually denotes a style of a government, and an ideology. From 1917 to 1924, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin often appeared united, in his dispute with Leon Trotsky, Stalin de-emphasized the role of workers in advanced capitalist countries. Also, Stalin polemicized against Trotsky on the role of peasants, as in China, in Stalins view, counterrevolutionary elements will try to derail the transition to full Communism, and the state must be powerful enough to defeat them. For this reason, Communist regimes influenced by Stalin have been described as totalitarian. Soviet puppet Sheng Shicai extended Stalinist rule in Xinjiang province in the 1930s, Sheng conducted a purge similar to Stalins Great Purge in 1937. Stalin blamed the Kulaks as the inciters of reactionary violence against the people during the implementation of agricultural collectivisation, in response, the state under Stalins leadership initiated a violent campaign against the Kulaks, which has been labeled as classicide. Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party, in the 1930s, Stalin apparently became increasingly worried about the growing popularity of the Leningrad party boss Sergei Kirov. After the assassination of Kirov, which may have been orchestrated by Stalin, Stalin invented a detailed scheme to implicate opposition leaders in the murder, including Trotsky, thereafter, several trials known as the Moscow Trials were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout the country. Article 58 of the code, which listed prohibited anti-Soviet activities as counterrevolutionary crime, was applied in the broadest manner. The Russian word troika gained a new meaning, a quick, Stalins hand-picked executioner, Vasili Blokhin, was entrusted with carrying out some of the high-profile executions in this period. Many military leaders were convicted of treason and a purge of Red Army officers followed. The repression of so many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Leon Trotsky to claim that a river of blood separated Stalins regime from that of Lenin. In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, where he had lived in exile since January 1937, this eliminated the last of Stalins opponents among the former Party leadership. With the exception of Vladimir Milyutin and Joseph Stalin himself, all of the members of Lenins original cabinet who had not succumbed to death from natural causes before the purge were executed
25.
Propaganda
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Propaganda is information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view. Propaganda is often associated with material prepared by governments, but activist groups, in the 2010s, the term propaganda is associated with a manipulative approach, but propaganda historically was a neutral descriptive term. Propaganda is a modern Latin word, the form of propagare, meaning to spread or to propagate. Originally this word derived from a new body of the Catholic church created in 1622, called the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide. Its activity was aimed at propagating the Catholic faith in non-Catholic countries, from the 1790s, the term began being used also to refer to propaganda in secular activities. The term began taking a pejorative or negative connotation in the mid-19th century, primitive forms of propaganda have been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The Behistun Inscription detailing the rise of Darius I to the Persian throne is viewed by most historians as an example of propaganda. During the era of the American Revolution, the American colonies had a network of newspapers and printers who specialized in the topic on behalf of the Patriots. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era, propaganda was widely used, abolitionists in Britain and the United States in the 19th century developed large, complex propaganda campaigns against slavery. The first large-scale and organised propagation of government propaganda was occasioned by the outbreak of war in 1914, after the defeat of Germany in the First World War, military officials such as Erich Ludendorff suggested that British propaganda had been instrumental in their defeat. Adolf Hitler came to echo this view, believing that it had been a cause of the collapse of morale. Later, the Nazis adapted many British propaganda techniques during their time in power, most propaganda in Germany was produced by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. Joseph Goebbels was placed in charge of this ministry, the 1930s and 1940s, which saw the rise of totalitarian states and the Second World War, are arguably the Golden Age of Propaganda. Leni Riefenstahl, a filmmaker working in Nazi Germany, created one of the propaganda movies. US war films in the early 1940s in the United States were designed to create a patriotic mindset, the West and the Soviet Union both used propaganda extensively during the Cold War. Both sides used film, television, and radio programming to influence their own citizens, each other, george Orwells novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are virtual textbooks on the use of propaganda. During the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Castro stressed the importance of propaganda, Propaganda was used extensively by Communist forces in the Vietnam War as means of controlling peoples opinions. During the Yugoslav wars, propaganda was used as a strategy by governments of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Croatia
26.
Electrical steel
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Electrical steel is a special steel tailored to produce specific magnetic properties, small hysteresis area resulting in low power loss per cycle, low core loss, and high permeability. Electrical steel is usually manufactured in cold-rolled strips less than 2 mm thick and these strips are cut to shape to make laminations which are stacked together to form the laminated cores of transformers, and the stator and rotor of electric motors. Laminations may be cut to their shape by a punch and die or, in smaller quantities, may be cut by a laser. Electrical steel is an alloy which may have from zero to 6. 5% silicon. Commercial alloys usually have silicon content up to 3. 2%, manganese and aluminum can be added up to 0. 5%. Silicon significantly increases the electrical resistivity of the steel, which decreases the induced currents and narrows the hysteresis loop of the material. However, the grain structure hardens and embrittles the metal, which affects the workability of the material. When alloying, the levels of carbon, sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen must be kept low. These compounds, even in particles as small as one micrometer in diameter, the presence of carbon has a more detrimental effect than sulfur or oxygen. Carbon also causes magnetic aging when it leaves the solid solution and precipitates as carbides. For these reasons, the level is kept to 0. 005% or lower. The carbon level can be reduced by annealing the steel in a decarburizing atmosphere, cold-rolled non-grain-oriented steel is often abbreviated to CRNGO. Grain-oriented electrical steel usually has a level of 3%. It is processed in such a way that the properties are developed in the rolling direction. The magnetic flux density is increased by 30% in the rolling direction. It is used for the cores of power and distribution transformers, CRGO is usually supplied by the producing mills in coil form and has to be cut into laminations, which are then used to form a transformer core, which is an integral part of any transformer. Grain-oriented steel is used in power and distribution transformers and in certain audio output transformers. CRNGO is less expensive than CRGO and it is used when cost is more important than efficiency and for applications where the direction of magnetic flux is not constant, as in electric motors and generators with moving parts
27.
Junkers J 1
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The Junkers J1, nicknamed the Blechesel, was the worlds first practical all-metal aircraft. It should not be confused with the later, armoured all-metal Junkers J4 sesquiplane, five years later Reissner, with Junkers help, began construction of his all-metal canard design, which he named the Ente. Junkers firm built the flying surfaces, and radiator of Reissners design and he patented the concept of the flying wing aircraft in Germany in 1910. When World War I began, he turned to military projects, in July 1915 the Junkers firm received its first aircraft construction contract No. 96/7.17 A7/L from the German government, to produce a two-seat all-metal aircraft with a 130 km/h top speed, a loading of 50 kg/m². The Junkers J1 was a monoplane with a cantilever wing. External bracing was used only for support of the horizontal stabilisers, the innovative cantilever structure for the wings were also covered in chordwise sheet steel panels. These changes in wing section would become a Junkers design hallmark on the later 1918 Junkers D. I. single-seat all-metal fighter design, which was covered with corrugated duralumin. The J1 also relied on steel panels with span-wise corrugations running from root to tip as a structural element hidden under the outer metal covering to increase the wings strength. This particular design element of the J1 was used on later all-metal aircraft, the static tests were completed on 3 December 1915, preceding the engine thrust tests. Repairs were made through the period at the end of 1915. The second attempt at flight for the J1 was carried out at Döberitz by Gefreiter Paul Arnold of the FEA1 unit, the inflight handling of the J1 was acceptable, and it was stable in flight. The Junkers J1 was probably not flown again after January 1916, however, it survived World War I, and was displayed in 1926 at the Deutsches Museum in Munich. In December 1944 it was destroyed during a World War II bombing raid, a metal scale display model of the J1 was made by Junkers factory workers following its initial flights, and exhibited at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, after World War I. The Junkers Technology Museum in Dessau, Germany, intends to build a replica of this pioneering aircraft J1. Data from General characteristics Crew, one Length,8.64 m Wingspan,12.92 m Height,3.11 m Wing area,24.34 m2 Empty weight,920 kg Gross weight,1,080 kg Powerplant,1 × Mercedes D. II 6-cyl. Water-cooled in-line piston engine,90 kW Performance Maximum speed,170 km/h www. J1-project. com, Junkers J1 in Döberitz,1915 The J1 Projekt, homepage for a reproduction of the J1 being built in Germany
28.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
29.
Tupolev Tu-2
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The Tupolev Tu-2 was a twin-engine Soviet high-speed daylight and frontline bomber aircraft of World War II vintage. The Tu-2 was tailored to meet a requirement for a bomber or dive-bomber, with a large internal bombload. Designed to challenge the German Junkers Ju 88, the Tu-2 proved comparable, the Tu-2 was one of the outstanding combat aircraft of World War II and it played a key role in the Red Armys final offensives. In 1937, Andrei Tupolev, along with many Soviet designers at the time, was arrested on charges of activities against the State. Despite the actions of the Soviet government, he was considered important to the war effort and following his imprisonment, designed as Samolyot 103, the Tu-2 was based on earlier ANT-58, ANT-59 and ANT-60 light bomber prototypes. Mass production began in September 1941, at Omsk Aircraft Factory Number 166, modifications were made based on combat experience, and Plant Number 166 built a total of 80 aircraft. The AM-37 engine was abandoned to concentrate efforts on the AM-38F for the Il-2, modifications of this bomber took ANT-58 through ANT-69 variants. A further 2527 aircraft were built at Kazan, with these modifications, production ceased in 1951 after a total of some 3,000 aircraft were delivered to various Soviet Bloc air forces. Built from 1941 to 1948, the Tu-2 was the USSRs second most important twin-engine bomber, the design brought Andrei Tupolev back into favour after a period of detention. Crews were universally happy with their Tupolevs, pilots could maneuver the aircraft like a fighter, it could survive heavy damage, and it was fast. The Tu-2 remained in service in the USSR until 1950, some surplus Tu-2s were provided to the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army Air Force for use in the Chinese Civil War. Some Chinese Tu-2s were shot down by United Nations airmen during the Korean War, the Chinese Tu-2s were retired at the end of the 1970s. After World War II, the Tu-2 proved to be an ideal test aircraft for various powerplants, Aircraft 103 The initial three-seat version. Top speed 635 km/h at 8,000 m, Two 1,044 kW Mikulin AM-37,1941. Aircraft 103U Redesigned for four-seat crew, top speed dropped to 610 km/h. It used the engines as the ANT-58. Aircraft 103V As ANT-59 but powered by air-cooled Shvetsov ASh-82 engines after the AM-37 was cancelled, Aircraft 104 Tu-2S modified for interceptor role. ANT-62T Torpedo bomber prototype developed from the Tu-2D, aNT-64 Long-range four-engine heavy bomber project developed from the Tu-2, cancelled in favor of Tu-4
30.
Tupolev Tu-16
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The Tupolev Tu-16 was a twin-engined jet strategic bomber used by the Soviet Union. It has flown for more than 60 years, and the Chinese licence-built Xian H-6 remains in service with the Peoples Liberation Army Air Force, in the late 1940s, the Soviet Union was strongly committed to matching the United States in strategic bombing capability. The Soviets only long-range bomber at the time was Tupolevs Tu-4 Bull, the development of the extremely powerful Mikulin AM-3 turbojet led to the possibility of a large, jet-powered bomber. The Tupolev design bureau began work on the Tu-88 prototypes in 1950, the Tu-88 first flew on 27 April 1952. After winning a competition against the Ilyushin Il-46, it was approved for production in December 1952, the first production bombers entered service with Frontal Aviation in 1954, receiving the service designation Tu-16. It received the NATO reporting name Badger-A and it had a new, large swept wing and two large Mikulin AM-3 turbojets, one in each wing root. It could carry a single massive FAB-90009, 000-kg conventional bomb or various nuclear weapons for a range of around 4,800 km, although the Tu-16 began as a high-altitude, free-fall bomber, in the mid-1950s it was equipped to carry early Soviet cruise missiles. The Tu-16KS-1 version could carry AS-1 missiles over a radius of 1,800 km. These very large weapons were similar to the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 fighter, fitted with either a nuclear or conventional warhead. They were intended for use primarily against US Navy aircraft carriers, subsequent Tu-16s were converted to carry later, more advanced missiles, while their designations changed several times. A versatile design, the Tu-16 was built in numerous specialized variants for reconnaissance, maritime surveillance, electronic intelligence gathering, a total of 1,507 aircraft were constructed in three plants in the Soviet Union, in 1954–1962. A civilian adaptation, the Tupolev Tu-104, saw service with Aeroflot. The Tu-16 was also exported to Indonesia, Egypt, and Iraq and it continued to be used by the Air Forces and naval aviation of the Soviet Union and subsequently Russia, until 1993. Delivery of the Tu-16 to China began in 1958, and the Xian Aircraft Industrial Corporation was license-produced under the Chinese designation Xian H-6, at least 120 of these aircraft remain in service. On 14 May 1965, one of the PLAAF Tu-16 bombers carried out the first airborne nuclear weapon test inside China, individual aircraft could be modified several times, with designations changed, especially concerning missile-carrying aircraft. Aircraft 97 - Twin-engined long-range bomber development project of Tu-16 with two RD-5 engines, Aircraft 103 - Supersonic bomber development project of Tu-16 with four VD-7 AM-13 engines. Badger A – This is the configuration of the Tu-16 bomber deployed in 1954 to replace the Tu-4. Several modified models of this variant existed, all of which were known as Badger A in the West, tu-16A – Modified Tu-16s designed to carry nuclear bombs, one of main versions, with 453 built
31.
Continent
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A continent is one of several very large landmasses on Earth. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in size to smallest, they are, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, in geology, areas of continental crust include regions covered with water. Islands are frequently grouped with a continent to divide all the worlds land into geopolitical regions. Under this scheme, most of the countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean are grouped together with the continent of Australia to form a geopolitical region called Oceania. By convention, continents are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, many of the seven most commonly recognized continents identified by convention are not discrete landmasses separated completely by water. Earths major landmasses all have coasts on a single, continuous World Ocean, the most restricted meaning of continent is that of a continuous area of land or mainland, with the coastline and any land boundaries forming the edge of the continent. From this perspective the edge of the shelf is the true edge of the continent. In this sense the islands of Great Britain and Ireland are part of Europe, while Australia, as a cultural construct, the concept of a continent may go beyond the continental shelf to include oceanic islands and continental fragments. In this way, Iceland is considered part of Europe and Madagascar part of Africa, extrapolating the concept to its extreme, some geographers group the Australasian continental plate with other islands in the Pacific into one continent called Oceania. This divides the land surface of Earth into continents or quasi-continents. The ideal criterion that each continent be a discrete landmass is commonly relaxed due to historical conventions, of the seven most globally recognized continents, only Antarctica and Australia are completely separated from other continents by ocean. Several continents are defined not as absolutely distinct bodies but as more or less discrete masses of land, Asia and Africa are joined by the Isthmus of Suez, and North and South America by the Isthmus of Panama. In both cases, there is no separation of these landmasses by water. Both these isthmuses are very narrow compared to the bulk off the landmasses they unite, North America and South America are treated as separate continents in the seven-continent model. However, they may also be viewed as a continent known as America or the Americas. This viewpoint was common in the United States until World War II and this remains the more common vision in Latin American countries, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy and Greece, where they are taught as a single continent. The criterion of a landmass is completely disregarded if the continuous landmass of Eurasia is classified as two separate continents, Europe and Asia
32.
Tupolev Tu-95
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The Tupolev Tu-95 is a large, four-engine turboprop-powered strategic bomber and missile platform. First flown in 1952, the Tu-95 entered service with the Soviet Union in 1956 and is expected to serve the Russian Air Force until at least 2040, a development of the bomber for maritime patrol is designated Tu-142, while a passenger airliner derivative was called Tu-114. The aircraft has four Kuznetsov NK-12 engines with contra-rotating propellers and it is the only propeller-powered strategic bomber still in operational use today. The Tu-95 is one of the loudest military aircraft, particularly because the tips of the blades move faster than the speed of sound. Its distinctive swept-back wings are at a 35° angle, the Tu-95 is one of very few mass-produced propeller-driven aircraft with swept wings. The design bureau, led by Andrei Tupolev, designed the Soviet Unions first intercontinental bomber, the 1949 Tu-85, a version of the Tu-4. Other goals included the ability to carry an 11,000 kg load over the target, turboprops offered more power than piston engines and better range than jets available for the new bombers development at the time, while offering a top speed between these two alternative choices. Tupolevs proposal was selected and Tu-95 development was approved by the government on 11 July 1951. It featured four Kuznetsov coupled turboprops, each fitted with two contra-rotating propellers with four each, producing a nominal 8,948 kW power rating. The then-advanced engine was designed by a German team of ex-Junkers prisoner-engineers under Ferdinand Brandner, retractable tricycle landing gear was fitted, with all three gear strut units retracting rearwards, with the main gear units retracting rearwards into extensions of the inner engine nacelles. The Tu-95/I, with 2TV-2F engines, first flew in November 1952 with test pilot Alexey Perelet at the controls, after six months of test flights this aircraft suffered a propeller gearbox failure and crashed, killing Perelet. The second aircraft, Tu-95/II featured four of the 12,000 ehp Kuznetsov NK-12 turboprops which proved more reliable than the coupled 2TV-2F, after a successful flight testing phase, series production of the Tu-95 started in January 1956. For a long time, the Tu-95 was known to U. S. /NATO intelligence as the Tu-20, since the Tu-20 designation was used on many documents acquired by U. S. intelligence agents, the name continued to be used outside the Soviet Union. Initially the United States Department of Defense evaluated the Tu-95 as having a speed of 644 km/h with a range of 12,500 km. These numbers had to be revised upward numerous times, like its American counterpart, the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, the Tu-95 has continued to operate in the Russian Air Force while several subsequent iterations of bomber design have come and gone. Part of the reason for this longevity was its suitability, like the B-52, an AWACS platform was developed from the Tu-114. An icon of the Cold War, the Tu-95 has served, not only as a weapons platform, russia’s air force has received the first examples of a number of modernised strategic bombers Tu-95MSs following upgrade work. Enhancements have been confined to the bomber’s electronic weapons and targeting systems, Designed as a stopgap in case the Tu-114A was not finished on time, two Tu-95 bombers were fitted with passenger compartments
33.
Kuznetsov NK-12
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The Kuznetsov NK-12 is a Soviet turboprop engine of the 1950s, designed by the Kuznetsov design bureau. It drives two large four-bladed contra-rotating propellers,5.6 m in diameter, and 6.2 m in the NK-12MA and it is the most powerful turboprop engine ever built. Thus, the NK-12 design evolved from late-war German turboprop studies and this started with the postwar development of the wartime Jumo 022 turboprop design that developed 6000 eshp in a 3000 kg engine. The effort continued with a 5000 ehp engine that weighed in at 1700 kg, the evolution to the TV-1212000 Ehp engine required extensive use of new Soviet-developed alloys and was completed in 1951. The NK-12M developed 8,948 kW, uprated in the NK-12MV to 11,033 kW, the NK-12 remains the most powerful turboprop engine ever built. The Progress D-27 and Europrop TP400 came close to only recently. It powered the Tupolev Tu-95 bomber and its descendants such as the Tu-142 maritime patrol aircraft and the Tupolev Tu-114 airliner, which is still the worlds fastest propeller-driven aircraft. It also powered the Antonov An-22 Antei, the worlds largest aircraft at the time, and several types of assault craft, such as the A-90 Orlyonok Ekranoplan. The engine has a 14-stage axial-flow compressor, producing compression ratios between 9,1 to 13,1 depending on altitude, also controlled by variable inlet guide vanes and blowoff valves. The combustion system used is a cannular-type, each tube is centrally mounted on a downstream injector that ends in an annular secondary region. The contra-rotating propellers and compressor are driven by the five-stage axial turbine, mass flow is 65 kg per second
34.
Turboprop
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A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller. In contrast to a turbojet, the engines exhaust gases do not contain enough energy to create significant thrust, in its simplest form a turboprop consists of an intake, compressor, combustor, turbine, and a propelling nozzle. Air is drawn into the intake and compressed by the compressor, fuel is then added to the compressed air in the combustor, where the fuel-air mixture then combusts. The hot combustion gases expand through the turbine, some of the power generated by the turbine is used to drive the compressor. The rest is transmitted through the reduction gearing to the propeller, further expansion of the gases occurs in the propelling nozzle, where the gases exhaust to atmospheric pressure. The propelling nozzle provides a small proportion of the thrust generated by a turboprop. Exhaust thrust in a turboprop is sacrificed in favor of shaft power, owing to the additional expansion in the turbine system, the residual energy in the exhaust jet is low. Consequently, the exhaust jet typically produces around or less than 10% of the total thrust, turboprops can have bypass ratios up to 50-100 although the propulsion airflow is less clearly defined for propellers than for fans. The propeller is coupled to the turbine through a gear that converts the high RPM, low torque output to low RPM. The propeller itself is normally a constant speed type similar to that used with larger reciprocating aircraft engines, unlike the small diameter fans used in turbofan jet engines, the propeller has a large diameter that lets it accelerate a large volume of air. This permits a lower velocity for a given amount of thrust. Propellers lose efficiency as speed increases, so turboprops are normally not used on high-speed aircraft above Mach 0. 6-0.7. However, propfan engines, which are similar to turboprop engines. To increase propeller efficiency, a mechanism can be used to alter their pitch relative to the airspeed, a variable-pitch propeller, also called a controllable-pitch propeller, can also be used to generate negative thrust while decelerating on the runway. Additionally, in the event of an outage, the pitch can be adjusted to a vaning pitch. While most modern turbojet and turbofan engines use axial-flow compressors, turboprop engines usually contain at least one stage of centrifugal compression, centrifugal compressors have the advantage of being simple and lightweight, at the expense of a streamlined shape. While the power turbine may be integral with the gas generator section and this enables the propeller to rotate freely, independent of compressor speed. Residual thrust on a turboshaft is avoided by further expansion in the turbine system and/or truncating and turning the exhaust 180 degrees, apart from the above, there is very little difference between a turboprop and a turboshaft
35.
Boeing B-52 Stratofortress
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The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress is an American long-range, subsonic, jet-powered strategic bomber. The B-52 was designed and built by Boeing, which has continued to provide support and it has been operated by the United States Air Force since the 1950s. The bomber is capable of carrying up to 70,000 pounds of weapons, the B-52 took its maiden flight in April 1952. Built to carry weapons for Cold War-era deterrence missions, the B-52 Stratofortress replaced the Convair B-36. A veteran of wars, the B-52 has dropped only conventional munitions in combat. The B-52s official name Stratofortress is rarely used, informally, the aircraft has become referred to as the BUFF. The B-52 has been in service with the USAF since 1955. As of December 2015,58 were in service with 18 in reserve. The B-52 completed sixty years of service with its original operator in 2015. After being upgraded between 2013 and 2015, it is expected to serve into the 2040s, the aircraft was to have a crew of five or more turret gunners, and a six-man relief crew. It was required to cruise at 300 mph at 34,000 feet with a radius of 5,000 miles. The armament was to consist of a number of 20 mm cannon and 10,000 pounds of bombs. On 13 February 1946, the Air Force issued bid invitations for these specifications, with Boeing, Consolidated Aircraft, and Glenn L. Martin Company submitting proposals. On 5 June 1946, Boeings Model 462, an aircraft powered by six Wright T35 turboprops with a gross weight of 360,000 pounds. On 28 June 1946, Boeing was issued a letter of contract for US$1.7 million to build a full-scale mock-up of the new XB-52 and do preliminary engineering and testing. However, by October 1946, the air began to express concern about the sheer size of the new aircraft. In response, Boeing produced Model 464, a smaller version with a 230,000 pound gross weight. Boeing responded with two powered by the T-35 turboprops
36.
Strategic bomber
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In addition to strategic bombing, strategic bombers can be used for tactical missions. There are three countries including United States, Russia, and China are operating strategic bombers, the modern strategic bomber role appeared after strategic bombing was widely employed, and atomic bombs were first used in combat during World War II. An example is Frances Mirage IV, a strategic bomber replaced in service by the ASMP-equipped Mirage 2000N fighter-bomber. Study of strategic bombing continued in the interwar years and it was widely believed by the late 1930s that strategic terror bombing of cities in any war would quickly result in devastating losses and might decide a conflict in a matter of days or weeks. But theory far exceeded what most air forces could actually put into the air, Germany focused on short-range tactical bombers. Britains Royal Air Force began developing four-engine long-range bombers only in the late 1930s, the U. S. Army Air Corps was severely limited by small budgets in the late 1930s, and only barely saved the B-17 bomber that would soon be vital. The equally important B-24 first flew in 1939, both aircraft would constitute the bulk of the American bomber force that made the Allied daylight bombing of Nazi Germany possible in 1943–45. Both Britain and the U. S. were developing larger two- and four-engined designs, after American entry into the war, late, in 1941, the U. S. 8th Air Force began to develop a daylight bombing capacity using improved B-17 and B-24 four-engine aircraft. The RAF concentrated its efforts on night bombing, but neither force was able to develop adequate bombsights or tactics to allow for often-bragged pinpoint accuracy. The post-war U. S. Strategic Bombing Survey studies supported the notion of strategic bombing. Attempts to create pioneering examples of smart bombs resulted in the Azon ordnance, deployed in the European Theater, most strategic bombers of the two superpowers were designed to deliver nuclear weapons. For a time, some squadrons of Boeing B-52 Stratofortress bombers were kept in the air around the clock, the Royal Air Forces British-produced V bombers were designed and designated to be able to deliver British-made nuclear bombs to targets in European Russia. These bombers could have been able to reach and destroy cities like Kiev or Moscow before American strategic bombers, the Soviet Union produced hundreds of unlicensed, reverse-engineered copies of the American Boeing B-29 Superfortress, which the Soviet Air Forces called the Tupolev Tu-4. The Soviets later developed the jet-powered Tupolev Tu-16 Badger, the Peoples Republic of China produced a version of Tupolev Tu-16 on license from the Soviet Union in the 1960s which they named the Xian H-6, it remains in service today. Mirage IVs served until mid-1996 in the role, and to 2005 as a reconnaissance aircraft. Today the French Republic has limited its strategic armaments to a squadron of four nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines, france also maintains an active force of supersonic fighter-bombers carrying stand-off nuclear missiles such as the ASMP, with Mach 3 speed and a range of 500 kilometers. These missiles can be delivered by the Dassault Mirage 2000N and Rafale fighter-bombers and it is likely that this bomber would also serve as a replacement for both the B-52 and B-1. The Russian Air Forces new Tu-160 strategic bombers are expected to be delivered on a regular basis over the course of 10 to 20 years, in addition, the current Tu-95 and Tu-160 bombers will be periodically updated, as was done during the 1990s with the Tu-22M bombers
37.
Reconnaissance
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In military operations, reconnaissance is the exploration outside an area occupied by friendly forces to gain information about natural features and enemy presence. Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops, ships or submarines, manned/unmanned reconnaissance aircraft, satellites, espionage normally is not reconnaissance, because reconnaissance is a militarys special forces operating ahead of its main forces, spies are non-combatants operating behind enemy lines. Often called recce or recon, the verb is reconnaître. Traditionally, reconnaissance was a role that was adopted by the cavalry, speed was key in these maneuvers, thus infantry was ill suited to the task. From horses to vehicles, for warriors throughout history, commanders procured their ability to have speed and mobility, to mount and dismount, skirmishing is a traditional skill of reconnaissance, as well as harassment of the enemy. Reconnaissance conducted by ground forces includes special reconnaissance, armored reconnaissance, amphibious reconnaissance, aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance carried out by aircraft. The purpose is to weather conditions, map terrain, and may include military purposes such as observing tangible structures, particular areas. Naval forces use aerial and satellite reconnaissance to observe enemy forces, navies also undertake hydrographic surveys and intelligence gathering. Reconnaissance satellites provide military commanders with photographs of enemy forces and other intelligence, military forces also use geographical and meteorological information from Earth observation satellites. A tracker needs to pay attention to both the environment and the psychology of his enemy. Knowledge of human psychology, sociology, and cultural backgrounds is necessary to know the actions of the enemy and this is almost as necessary as to know the physical character of the country, its climate and products. Certain people will do certain things almost without fail, certain other things, perfectly feasible, they will not do. There is no danger of knowing too much of the habits of an enemy. One should neither underestimate the enemy nor credit him with superhuman powers, fear and courage are latent in every human being, though roused into activity by very diverse means. Types of reconnaissance, Terrain-oriented reconnaissance is a survey of the terrain, force-oriented reconnaissance focuses on the enemy forces and may include target acquisition. Civil-oriented reconnaissance focuses on the dimension of the battlespace. The techniques and objectives are not mutually exclusive, it is up to the commander whether they are carried out separately or by the same unit, some military elements tasked with reconnaissance are armed only for self-defense, and rely on stealth to gather information. Others are well-enough armed to also deny information to the enemy by destroying their reconnaissance elements, reconnaissance-in-force is a type of military operation or military tactics used specifically to probe an enemys disposition
38.
Anti-submarine warfare
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Anti-submarine warfare is a branch of underwater warfare that uses surface warships, aircraft, or other submarines to find, track and deter, damage or destroy enemy submarines. Successful anti-submarine warfare depends on a mix of sensor and weapon technology, training, sophisticated sonar equipment for first detecting, then classifying, locating and tracking the target submarine is a key element of ASW. To destroy submarines both the torpedo and mine are used, launched from air, surface and underwater platforms, other means of destruction have been used in the past but are now obsolete. ASW also involves protecting friendly ships, the first self-propelled torpedo was invented in 1863 and launched from surface craft. The first submarine with a torpedo was Nordenfelt I built in 1884-1885, in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, the submarine was a significant threat. By the start of the First World War nearly 300 submarines were in service, some warships were fitted with an armoured belt as protection against torpedoes. There were, however, no means to detect submerged U-boats, the Royal Navy torpedo establishment, HMS Vernon, studied explosive grapnel sweeps, these sank four or five U-boats in the First World War. A similar approach featured a string of 70 lb charges on a cable, fired electrically. Also tried were dropping 18.5 lb hand-thrown guncotton bombs, the Lance Bomb was developed, also, this featured a 35–40 lb cone-shaped steel drum on a 5 ft shaft, intended to be thrown at a submarine. Firing Lyddite shells, or using trench mortars, was tried, use of nets to ensnare U-boats was also examined, as was a destroyer, HMS Starfish, fitted with a spar torpedo. Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger as the Type B and these were effective at a distance of around 20 ft. The best concept arose in a 1913 RN Torpedo School report, describing a device intended for countermining, at Admiral John Jellicoes request, the standard Mark II mine was fitted with a hydrostatic pistol preset for 45 ft firing, to be launched from a stern platform. Weighing 1,150 lb, and effective at 100 ft, the mine was a potential hazard to the dropping ship. During the First World War, submarines were a major menace and they operated in the Baltic, North Sea, Black Sea and Mediterranean as well as the North Atlantic. Previously they had limited to relatively calm and protected waters. The vessels used to them were a range of small, fast surface ships using guns. They mainly relied on the fact a submarine of the day was often on the surface for a range of reasons, the first approach to protect warships was chainlink nets strung from the sides of battleships, as defense against torpedoes. Nets were also deployed across the mouth of a harbour or naval base to stop submarines entering or to stop torpedoes of the Whitehead type fired against ships, British warships were fitted with a ram with which to sink submarines, and U-15 was thus sunk in August 1914
39.
Tupolev Tu-104
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The Tupolev Tu-104 was a twin-engined medium-range narrow-body turbojet-powered Soviet airliner and the worlds first successful jet airliner. Although it was the jet airliner to fly, the Tu-104 was the second to enter regular service. The Tu-104 was the sole jetliner operating in the world between 1956 and 1958, in 1957, Czechoslovak Airlines – ČSA, became the first airline in the world to fly a route exclusively with jet airliners, using the Tu-104A variant between Prague and Moscow. In civil service, the Tu-104 carried over 90 million passengers with Aeroflot, and its successors included the Tu-124, the Tu-134 and the Tu-154. At the beginning of the 1950s, the Soviet Unions Aeroflot airline needed a modern airliner with better capacity, the design request was filled by the Tupolev OKB, which based their new airliner on its Tu-16 Badger strategic bomber. The wings, engines, and tail surfaces of the Tu-16 were retained with the airliner, the prototype build in MMZ Opit first flew on June 17,1955 with Yu. L. It was fitted with a parachute to shorten the landing distance by up to 400 metres. In either case, Western observers at the thought the Soviets lacked the advanced technology required to build an airliner suitable for commercial performance. By the time production ceased in 1960, about 200 had been built, the Tu-104 was powered by two Mikulin AM-3 turbojets placed at the wing roots. The crew consisted of five people, two pilots, a navigator, an engineer and a radio operator. The airplane raised great curiosity by its lavish Victorian interior – called so by some Western-hemisphere observers – due to the used, mahogany, copper. Tu-104 pilots were trained on the Il-28 bomber, followed by flights on an unarmed Tu-16 bomber painted in Aeroflot colors. Pilots with previous Tu-16 experience transitioned into the Tu-104 with relative ease, the flight time was reduced from 13 hours and 50 minutes to 7 hours and 40 minutes, and the new jet dramatically increased the level of passenger comfort. By 1957, Aeroflot had placed the Tu-104 in service on routes from Vnukovo Airport in Moscow to London, Budapest, Copenhagen, Beijing, Brussels, Ottawa, Delhi, and Prague. In 1957, ČSA Czechoslovak Airlines became the only customer for the Tu-104, placing the aircraft on routes to Moscow, Paris. ČSA bought six Tu-104As configured for 81 passengers, three of these aircraft were subsequently written off. In 1959, the plane was leased to Sir Henry Lunn Ltd. of London which used the plane for 12 holidays to Russia, the Tu-104 continued to be used by Aeroflot throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Some 16 aircraft were lost in crashes, the safety record was comparable to other early jet airliners of its day, but was poor compared to more modern airliners
40.
Tupolev Tu-114
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The Tupolev Tu-114 Rossiya was a turboprop-powered long-range airliner designed by the Tupolev design bureau and built in the USSR from May 1955. The aircraft was the largest and fastest passenger plane at that time and it has held the official title of fastest propeller-driven aircraft since 1960. Due to its wing and powerplant design, the Tu-114 was able to travel at speeds typical of modern jetliners. Although it was able to accommodate 224 passengers, when operated by Aeroflot, it was common to provide 170 sleeping berths. In 14 years of service, the Tu-114 was reported to have a high level of safety and reliability. The Tu-114 carried over six million passengers before being replaced by the jet-powered Ilyushin Il-62,32 aircraft were built at the Kuibyshev aviation plant in the early 1960s. In response to a directive No. 1561-868 from the Council of Ministers, the Tu-114 used the basic wing, empennage, landing gear, and powerplants of the Tu-95 bomber, mated to a totally new pressurized fuselage of much larger diameter. To cope with the weight, increased landing flap surface area was required. The wing was mounted low on the fuselage, giving the Tu-114 a much higher stance on its landing gear than the bomber, as a result, a new nose landing gear strut was required, although the main landing gear remained unchanged. A lift for meal transport connected the galley to the upper deck, long landing gear due to its large propeller diameter. Many destination airports did not have steps tall enough to reach the Tu-114s cabin door because of this, early Tu-114s were also unique within Aeroflot for their three-class layout, differing in comfort, economy, first and deluxe. Later, these compartments were dismantled and replaced with the passenger seats. The design was not without shortcomings, passengers on the Tu-114 endured high noise levels and vibrations from the engines. The first Tu-114, registration CCCP-Л5611, was first shown to the West in 1958 at the Brussels World Exhibition and it later carried Nikita Khrushchev on his first trip to the US, the first such visit by any Soviet leader. When it arrived at Andrews Air Force Base, the crew found that the aircraft was so large. Khrushchev and his party were obliged to use the aircrafts own emergency escape ladder, the last flight of this particular plane was in 1968, and it is now on display at the Central Air Force Museum at Monino, outside of Moscow. Similar issues were experienced when the plane first landed at London and Paris airports, the Tu-114 entered regular Aeroflot service on flights from Vnukovo Airport in Moscow to Khabarovsk on 24 April 1961. It was subsequently used for Aeroflot flights to destinations including Copenhagen, Havana, Montreal, New Delhi, Paris, Belgrade
41.
Landing gear
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Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and may be used for either takeoff or landing. For aircraft it is generally both, for aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying, allowing it to take off, land, and taxi without damage. Faster aircraft usually have retractable undercarriages, which folds away during flight to reduce air resistance or drag, for launch vehicles and spacecraft landers, the landing gear is typically designed to support the vehicle only post-flight, and are typically not used for takeoff or surface movement. Aircraft landing gear usually includes wheels equipped with shock absorbers, or more advanced air/oil oleo struts, for runway. Some aircraft are equipped with skis for snow or floats for water, the undercarriage is a relatively heavy part of the vehicle, it can be as much as 7% of the takeoff weight, but more typically is 4–5%. The taildragger arrangement was common during the early era, as it allows more room for propeller clearance. Most modern aircraft have tricycle undercarriages, taildraggers are considered harder to land and take off, and usually require special pilot training. Sometimes a small wheel or skid is added to aircraft with tricycle undercarriage. Concorde, for instance, had a tail bumper wheel. Both Boeinga largest WW II bomber, the B-29 Superfortress and the 1960s-introduction Boeing 727 trijet airliner each have a tail bumper. Some aircraft with conventional landing gear have a fixed tailwheel. Another arrangement sometimes used is central main and nose gear with outriggers on the wings and this may be done where there is no convenient location on either side to attach the main undercarriage or to store it when retracted. Examples include the Lockheed U-2 spy plane and the Harrier Jump Jet, to decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the wings and/or fuselage with wheels flush against the surface or concealed behind doors, this is called retractable gear. If the wheels rest protruding and partially exposed to the airstream after being retracted, most retraction systems are hydraulically operated, though some are electrically operated or even manually operated. This adds weight and complexity to the design, in retractable gear systems, the compartment where the wheels are stowed are called wheel wells, which may also diminish valuable cargo or fuel space. Pilots confirming that their landing gear is down and locked refer to three green or three in the green, a reference to the electrical indicator lights from the nosewheel/tailwheel and the two main gears. Red lights indicate the gear is in the position, amber lights indicate that the landing gear is in transit. Multiple redundancies are usually provided to prevent a failure from failing the entire landing gear extension process
42.
Tire
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A tire or tyre is a ring-shaped vehicle component that covers the wheels rim to protect it and enable better vehicle performance. Most tires, such as those for automobiles and bicycles, provide traction between the vehicle and the road providing a flexible cushion that absorbs shock. The materials of modern tires are synthetic rubber, natural rubber, fabric and wire, along with carbon black. They consist of a tread and a body, the tread provides traction while the body provides containment for a quantity of compressed air. Before rubber was developed, the first versions of tires were bands of metal fitted around wooden wheels to prevent wear and tear. Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles, including cars, bicycles, motorcycles, buses, trucks, heavy equipment, and aircraft. Metal tires are used on locomotives and railcars, and solid rubber tires are still used in various non-automotive applications, such as some casters, carts, lawnmowers. The etymology of tire is that the word is a form of attire. The spelling tyre does not appear until the 1840s when the English began shrink fitting railway car wheels with malleable iron, nevertheless, traditional publishers continued using tire. The Times newspaper in Britain was still using tire as late as 1905, the spelling tyre began to be commonly used in the 19th century for pneumatic tires in the UK. However, over the course of the 20th century, tyre became established as the standard British spelling, the earliest tires were bands of leather, then iron, placed on wooden wheels, used on carts and wagons. The tire would be heated in a fire, placed over the wheel and quenched, causing the metal to contract. A skilled worker, known as a wheelwright, carried out this work, the outer ring served to tie the wheel segments together for use, providing also a wear-resistant surface to the perimeter of the wheel. The word tire thus emerged as a variant spelling to refer to the bands used to tie wheels. The first patent for what appears to be a standard pneumatic tire appeared in 1847 lodged by the Scottish inventor Robert William Thomson, however, this never went into production. The first practical pneumatic tire was made in 1888 on May Street, Belfast, by Scots-born John Boyd Dunlop and it was an effort to prevent the headaches of his 10-year-old son Johnnie, while riding his tricycle on rough pavements. His doctor, John, later Sir John Fagan, had prescribed cycling as an exercise for the boy, Fagan participated in designing the first pneumatic tires. In Dunlops tire patent specification dated 31 October 1888, his interest is only in its use in cycles, in September 1890, he was made aware of an earlier development but the company kept the information to itself
