1.
Opera
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Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text and musical score, usually in a theatrical setting. In traditional opera, singers do two types of singing, recitative, a style and arias, a more melodic style. Opera incorporates many of the elements of theatre, such as acting, scenery. The performance is given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble. Opera is a key part of the Western classical music tradition, in the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, attracting foreign composers such as George Frideric Handel. Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until Christoph Willibald Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his operas in the 1760s. The first third of the 19th century saw the point of the bel canto style, with Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti. It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer, the mid-to-late 19th century was a golden age of opera, led and dominated by Richard Wagner in Germany and Giuseppe Verdi in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Giacomo Puccini. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, the 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as atonality and serialism, Neoclassicism, and Minimalism. With the rise of recording technology, singers such as Enrico Caruso, since the invention of radio and television, operas were also performed on these mediums. Beginning in 2006, a number of opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas all over the world. In 2009, an opera company offered a download of a complete performance. The words of an opera are known as the libretto, some composers, notably Wagner, have written their own libretti, others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e. g. Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte. Vocal duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action, in some forms of opera, such as singspiel, opéra comique, operetta, and semi-opera, the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, the terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below. Over the 18th century, arias were accompanied by the orchestra. Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagners example, though some, the changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below
Opera
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The performers from the Atlanta Opera sing the finale of
Lucia di Lammermoor. The
opera orchestra is visible in the lowered area in front of the stage.
Opera
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The
Palais Garnier of the
Paris Opéra, one of the world's most famous
opera houses.
Opera
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Claudio Monteverdi
Opera
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George Frideric Handel, 1733
2.
Giacomo Puccini
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Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini was an Italian opera composer who has been called the greatest composer of Italian opera after Verdi. Puccinis early work was rooted in traditional late-19th-century romantic Italian opera, later, he successfully developed his work in the realistic verismo style, of which he became one of the leading exponents. Puccinis most renowned works are La bohème, Tosca, and Madama Butterfly, Puccini was born Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini in Lucca in Tuscany, in 1858. He was one of nine children of Michele Puccini and Albina Magi, the Puccini family was established in Lucca as a local musical dynasty by Puccinis great-great grandfather – also named Giacomo. This first Giacomo Puccini was maestro di cappella of the Cattedrale di San Martino in Lucca and he was succeeded in this position by his son, Antonio Puccini, and then by Antonios son Domenico, and Domenicos son Michele. Each of these men studied music at Bologna, and some additional musical studies elsewhere. Domenico Puccini studied for a time under Giovanni Paisiello, each composed music for the church. In addition, Domenico composed several operas, and Michele composed one opera, Puccinis father Michele enjoyed a reputation throughout northern Italy, and his funeral was an occasion of public mourning, at which the then-famed composer Giovanni Pacini conducted a Requiem. However, when Michele Puccini died in 1864, his son Giacomo was only six years old, as a child, he nevertheless participated in the musical life of the Cattedrale di San Martino, as a member of the boys choir and later as a substitute organist. Puccini was given an education at the seminary of San Michele in Lucca. One of Puccinis uncles, Fortunato Magi, supervised his musical education, Puccini got a diploma from the Pacini School of Music in Lucca in 1880, having studied there with his uncle Fortunato, and later with Carlo Angeloni, who had also instructed Alfredo Catalani. Puccini studied at the conservatory for three years, sharing a room with Pietro Mascagni, in 1880, at the age of 21, Puccini composed his Mass, which marks the culmination of his familys long association with church music in his native Lucca. Puccini wrote a piece called the Capriccio sinfonica as a thesis composition for the Milan Conservatory. Puccinis teachers Ponchielli and Bazzini were impressed by the work, and it was performed at a student concert at the conservatory on 14 July 1883, conducted by Franco Faccio. Puccinis work was reviewed in the Milanese publication Perseveranza. After the premiere of the Capriccio sinfonica, Ponchielli and Puccini discussed the possibility that Puccinis next work might be an opera, Ponchielli invited Puccini to stay at his villa, where Puccini was introduced to another young man named Fernando Fontana. Puccini and Fontana agreed to collaborate on an opera, for which Fontana would provide the libretto, the work, Le Villi, was entered into a competition sponsored by the Sozogno music publishing company in 1883. Although it did not win, Le Villi was later staged at the Teatro Dal Verme, G. Ricordi & Co. music publishers assisted with the premier by printing the libretto without charge
Giacomo Puccini
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Giacomo Puccini
Giacomo Puccini
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Puccini's birthplace, seen in 1984
Giacomo Puccini
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Original poster for Puccini's
Tosca
Giacomo Puccini
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Puccini photographed in 1908
3.
Giuseppe Adami
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Giuseppe Adami was an Italian librettist, known for his collaboration with Giacomo Puccini on the operas La rondine, Il tabarro and Turandot. Adami also wrote plays, such as I fioi di Goldoni, Una capanna e il tuo cuore, Capelli bianchi, Felicità Colombo. The latter was adapted into a film in 1938 by director Mario Mattoli and he graduated at the University of Padua in Law but dedicated his career as a writer, theatre playwright, and then music critic. After the death of Puccini, Adami published a collection of the letters in Epistolario. He also published his recollections, Giacomo Puccini, which was one of the earliest biographies of the composer. He wrote a second biography Il romanzo della vita di Giacomo Puccini in 1942, Adami also wrote librettos for other composers including Riccardo Zandonais La via della finestra, and Franco Vittadinis Anima allegra and Nazareth. He was a critic for La sera and for the review La comedia from 1931 to 1934. Adami acted as publicist with the house of Ricordi to the end of his life and he died in Milan aged 67. Giuseppe Adami biography Giuseppe Adami at the Internet Movie Database La via della finestra Vocal score from Sibley Music Library Digital Scores Collection
Giuseppe Adami
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1943 autograph
4.
Renato Simoni
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Renato Simoni was an Italian journalist, playwright, writer and theatrical critic noted for his collaboration work with Giuseppe Adami for Giacomo Puccinis Turandot. Simonis career was devoted to theater. His first job was as an editor and a critic at LAdige, in 1902, he wrote one of his best comedies, La Vedova, followed by Carlo Gozzi, Tramondo, Congedo and Il matrimonio di Casanova. In 1914, he succeeded John Pozza as an author and critic at Corriere della Sera newspaper and he worked for the company until the end of his life. He also held a position as a director for a weekly magazine, all his writings and critics were collected in volumes by Lucio Ridenti in 1951 under the title Trentanni di cronaca drammatica and was published in 1960. In 1952, Simoni donated 40,000 volumes of his writings and reviews to the Museum of La Scala and dedicated them to his mother, the museum library was named Biblioteca Livia Simoni after his mother. Simoni died in Milan in 1952 and is buried at the citys Monumental Cemetery, Simoni short biography Livia Simoni Library One of Simoni’s collaboration work
Renato Simoni
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Simoni's grave at the
Monumental Cemetery of Milan, Italy
5.
Carlo Gozzi
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Carlo, Count Gozzi was an Italian playwright and defender of Commedia dellArte. Gozzi was born and died in Venice, he came from an family of minor Venetian aristocracy, at a young age, his parents were no longer able to support him financially, so he joined the army in Dalmatia. Three years later, he had returned to Venice and joined the Granelleschi Society, pietro Chiari and Carlo Goldoni, two Venetian writers, were moving away from the old style of Italian theatre, which threatened the work of the Granelleschi Society. While some have called Gozzi the savior of Commedia dellArte there has been much debate due to the fact that Gozzi wrote out all his scripts and these were hugely popular, but after Sacchis company disbanded, they were unjustly neglected. Gozzis fairy tales drew influence from Commedia dellArte, and the popularity of them caused a revival of Commedia dellArte in Italy, Gozzi was acclaimed throughout most of Europe, but was less esteemed in his own country. In the last years of Gozzis life he had begun to experiment by producing tragedies with largely comical influences and he then began to work in Spanish drama, and found minor success before his death. He was buried in the church of San Cassiano in Venice and his brother, Gasparo Gozzi, was also a well-known writer of the time. His collected works were published under his own superintendence at Venice in 1792, a number of twentieth-century stage works were inspired by Gozzis plays. org This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Works by Carlo Gozzi at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Carlo Gozzi at Internet Archive
Carlo Gozzi
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Portrait of Carlo Gozzi
Carlo Gozzi
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Gozzi's Princess Turandot, 1922 performance by the Russian theater director
Yevgeny Vakhtangov
6.
Turandot (Gozzi)
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Turandot is a commedia dellarte play by Carlo Gozzi after a supposedly Persian story from the collection Les Mille et un jours by François Pétis de la Croix. Gozzis Turandot was first performed at the Teatro San Samuele, Venice, Turandot was deliberately written in the Commedia delarte style by Gozzi, as part of a campaign in his literary war against the bourgeois, realistic works of Pietro Chiari and Carlo Goldoni. Gozzi was intimate with the out-of work theatre troupe of Antonio Sacchi and it was first performed by Sacchis troupe at the Teatro San Samuele in Venice on 22 January 1762, and received seven subsequent performances. The choice of theatre itself was an attack on Goldoni. In the end, Gozzi won his war, according to his Memoirs. Goldoni went to Paris, to seek his fortune there, whereof we shall be informed in his Memoirs. The poet and playwright Friedrich Werthes made a translation of Gozzis complete plays, Schillers Turandot is partly based on Werthes version. In 1801 Friedrich Schiller translated Gozzis Commedia delarte play, at the same time re-interpreting it in the Romantic style and it was first produced in 1802 by at the old Weimar Hoftheater by Johann von Goethe, who had been the theatres director since its inception in 1791. Schiller had begun a friendship with Goethe in 1794 which lasted until Schillers death in 1805, after which Goethe forsook ballads. Comparison of Gozzis and Schillers versions Gozzis play has a light, Gozzi, although he also uses both elements of drama and comedy, puts them side by side as independent parts, Schiller combines them and makes them the result of each other. This interaction of dramatic and comical, their interdependence and the fact of their being equally matched, Gozzis main character, the princess Turandot, seems to act out of a mood and cruelty whereas Schillers Turandot is a person who resolutely follows her moral and ethical attitude. Also prince Calàf, who is a kind of lost soul and philanderer in Gozzis version, becomes a lover who surrenders to his deep. Carl Maria von Weber based his 1805 Chinese Ouverture on a Chinese theme found in Jean-Jacques Rousseaus Dictionnaire de musique, the result was his 1809 Incidental music for Turandot, J.37 which incorporated the Chinese Ouverture. Franz Danzi later wrote his own singspiel Turandot based on Schiller in 1816, the lawyer and composer Johann Vesque von Püttlingen was a friend of Franz Schubert and Felix Mendelssohn. Born in the Lubomirski Palace, near Lublin, West Galicia, he grew up in Vienna and trained as a lawyer, rising to section director in the Austrian Foreign Ministry under Metternich. Under the pseudonym J. Hoven he composed over 300 songs and 8 operas, among which was Turandot, Princess of Shiraz, libretto after Schiller, Schillers play was re-translated into Italian by his friend Andrea Maffei in 1863. Antonio Bazzinis opera Turanda, with a libretto by Antonio Gazzoletti, was first performed at La Scala, bazzini later taught composition to Giacomo Puccini and Pietro Mascagni at the Milan Conservatory. A free English translation from Schiller by Sabilla Novello was published in 1872, after reading Gozzis play, Ferruccio Busoni began sketching out some incidental music to accompany it
Turandot (Gozzi)
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Turandot, 1859
steelpoint engraving by Arthur von Ramberg, from a collection of characters from
Schiller.
Turandot (Gozzi)
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Yevgeny Vakhtangov 's production of Turandot in 1922.
Turandot (Gozzi)
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Painting of the Teatro San Samuele by Gabriel Bella (1730-1799)
Turandot (Gozzi)
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The old Weimar Hoftheater in 1800
7.
La Scala
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La Scala is an opera house in Milan, Italy. The theatre was inaugurated on 3 August 1778 and was known as the Nuovo Regio Ducale Teatro alla Scala. The premiere performance was Antonio Salieris Europa riconosciuta, most of Italys greatest operatic artists, and many of the finest singers from around the world, have appeared at La Scala during the past 200 years. The theatre is regarded as one of the opera and ballet theatres in the world and is home to the La Scala Theatre Chorus, La Scala Theatre Ballet. The theatre also has a school, known as the La Scala Theatre Academy. La Scalas season traditionally opens on 7 December, Saint Ambroses Day, all performances must end before midnight, and long operas start earlier in the evening when necessary. La Scala also hosts the Accademia dArti e Mestieri dello Spettacolo and its goal is to train a new generation of young musicians, technical staff, and dancers. A fire destroyed the theatre, the Teatro Regio Ducale, on 25 February 1776. The neoclassical architect Giuseppe Piermarini produced a design but it was rejected by Count Firmian. A second plan was accepted in 1776 by Empress Maria Theresa, the new theatre was built on the former location of the church of Santa Maria alla Scala, from which the theatre gets its name. The church was deconsecrated and demolished, and over a period of two years the theatre was completed by Pietro Marliani, Pietro Nosetti and Antonio and Giuseppe Fe. The theatre had a total of 3,000 or so seats organized into 678 pit-stalls and its stage is one of the largest in Italy. Building expenses were covered by the sale of palchi, which were decorated by their owners. La Scala soon became the preeminent meeting place for noble and wealthy Milanese people, in the tradition of the times, the platea had no chairs and spectators watched the shows standing up. The orchestra was in sight, as the golfo mistico had not yet been built. Above the boxes, La Scala has a gallery—called the loggione—where the less wealthy can watch the performances, the gallery is typically crowded with the most critical opera aficionados, known as the loggionisti, who can be ecstatic or merciless towards singers perceived successes or failures. As with most of the theatres at that time, La Scala was also a casino, conditions in the auditorium, too, could be frustrating for the opera lover, as Mary Shelley discovered in September 1840, At the Opera they were giving Otto Nicolais Templario. La Scala was originally illuminated with 84 oil lamps mounted on the palcoscenico, to prevent the risks of fire, several rooms were filled with hundreds of water buckets
La Scala
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Exterior of La Scala in 1976
La Scala
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The Teatro alla Scala in Milan, by night
La Scala
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A nineteenth-century depiction of the Teatro alla Scala
La Scala
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Interior of the opera house in 1900
8.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
Milan
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Milan Cathedral,
La Scala opera house and
Porta Nuova business district
Milan
Milan
Milan
9.
Franco Alfano
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Franco Alfano was an Italian composer and pianist. Best known today for his opera Risurrezione and above all for having completed Puccinis opera Turandot in 1926 and he had considerable success with several of his own works during his lifetime. Alfano was born in Posillipo, Naples and he attended piano lessons given privately by Alessandro Longo, and harmony and composition respectively under Camillo de Nardis and Paolo Serrao at the conservatory San Pietro a Majella in Naples. Later, after graduating, he pursued further studies with Hans Sitt. While working there he met his idol, Edvard Grieg, and wrote numerous piano, from 1918 he was Director of the Conservatory of Bologna, from 1923 Director of the Turin Conservatory, and from 1947 to 1950 Director of the Rossini Conservatory in Pesaro. He completed his first opera, Miranda, still unpublished, for which he wrote the libretto based on a novel by Antonio Fogazzaro in 1896. His work La Fonte Di Enschir was refused by Ricordi but was presented in Wrocław as Die Quelle von Enschir on 8 November 1898, there followed the opera Risurrezione in 1904. It was based on Tolstoy, and was sung by Magda Olivero. This based on the play by Edmond Rostand and composed to the French libretto by Henri Cain. It had its Italian version premiere in Rome in January 1936 and it was recently revived by the Kiel Opera, the Montpellier Radio Festival and the Metropolitan Opera, New York City, starring Plácido Domingo in the title role. Alfano reconstructed it in 1952 as Sakùntala, after Abhijñānaśākuntalam, the Sanskrit play by Kālidāsa, subsequently, the original version was recovered in 2005, with the two versions available for performance today. The second version of Sakùntala was performed in New York City by Teatro Grattacielo in the fall of 2013, in Fanfare s issue of September/October 1998-99, it was asserted that Alfanos reputation suffers because of several things. Firstly, that he should not be judged as a composer on the basis of the task he was given in completing Turandot, secondly, that we almost never hear everything he wrote for Turandot since the standard ending heavily edits Alfanos work. Thirdly, it is not his conclusion that is performed in productions of Turandot, puccini had worked for nine months on the following concluding duet and at his death had left behind a whole ream of sketches. Alfano had to reconstruct. according to his best assessment. and with his imagination, Alfanos reputation has also suffered, understandably, because of his willingness to associate himself closely with Mussolinis Fascist government. See also List of operas by Alfano, other compositions Sonata for Cello and Piano,1925, Samuel Magill, Scott Dunn. CD, Naxos,2009 Concerto for Violin, Cello and Piano,1932, Elmira Darvarova, Samuel Magill, CD, Naxos,2009 Sonata for Violin and Piano,1923, Elmira Darvarova, Scott Dunn. CD, Naxos,2011 Piano Quintet,1945, Elmira Darvarova, Mary Ann Mumm, Craig Mumm, Samuel Magill, CD, Naxos,2011 Notes Dryden, Konrad Franco Alfano, transcending Turandot
Franco Alfano
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Franco Alfano c. 1919
10.
Libretto
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A libretto is the text used in, or intended for, an extended musical work such as an opera, operetta, masque, oratorio, cantata or musical. The term libretto is also used to refer to the text of major liturgical works, such as the Mass, requiem and sacred cantata. Libretto, from Italian, is the diminutive of the word libro, sometimes other language equivalents are used for libretti in that language, livret for French works and Textbuch for German. A libretto is distinct from a synopsis or scenario of the plot, in that the libretto contains all the words and stage directions, while a synopsis summarizes the plot. The relationship of the librettist to the composer in the creation of a work has varied over the centuries, as have the sources. In the context of a modern English language musical theatre piece, Libretti for operas, oratorios and cantatas in the 17th and 18th centuries generally were written by someone other than the composer, often a well-known poet. Metastasio was one of the most highly regarded librettists in Europe and his libretti were set many times by many different composers. Another noted 18th-century librettist was Lorenzo Da Ponte, who wrote the libretti for three of Mozarts greatest operas, as well as for other composers. Eugène Scribe was one of the most prolific librettists of the 19th century, providing the words for works by Meyerbeer, Auber, Bellini, Donizetti, Rossini and Verdi. The French writers duo Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy wrote a number of opera and operetta libretti for the likes of Jacques Offenbach, Jules Massenet. Arrigo Boito, who wrote libretti for, among others, Giuseppe Verdi and Amilcare Ponchielli, the libretto is not always written before the music. Some composers wrote their own libretti, Richard Wagner is perhaps most famous in this regard, with his transformations of Germanic legends and events into epic subjects for his operas and music dramas. Hector Berlioz, too, wrote the libretti for two of his works, La Damnation de Faust and Les Troyens. Alban Berg adapted Georg Büchners play Woyzeck for the libretto of Wozzeck, sometimes the libretto is written in close collaboration with the composer, this can involve adaptation, as was the case with Rimsky-Korsakov and his librettist Belsky, or an entirely original work. In the case of musicals, the music, the lyrics, thus, a musical such as Fiddler on the Roof has a composer, a lyricist and the writer of the book. In rare cases, the composer writes everything except the dance arrangements - music, lyrics and libretto, Other matters in the process of developing a libretto parallel those of spoken dramas for stage or screen. A famous case of the latter is Wagners 1861 revision of the original 1845 Dresden version of his opera Tannhäuser for Paris, since the late 19th century some opera composers have written music to prose or free verse libretti. The libretto of a musical, on the hand, is almost always written in prose
Libretto
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Cover of a 1921 libretto for Giordano's
Andrea Chénier
Libretto
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The composer of
Cavalleria rusticana,
Pietro Mascagni, flanked by his librettists,
Giovanni Targioni-Tozzetti and
Guido Menasci.
Libretto
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Pages from an 1859 libretto for
Ernani, with the original Italian lyrics, English translation and musical notation for one of the arias.
Libretto
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Henry Purcell (1659–1695) whose operas were written to English libretti.
11.
Friedrich Schiller
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Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller was a German poet, philosopher, physician, historian, and playwright. During the last seventeen years of his life, Schiller struck up a productive, if complicated, friendship with the already famous and they frequently discussed issues concerning aesthetics, and Schiller encouraged Goethe to finish works he left as sketches. This relationship and these led to a period now referred to as Weimar Classicism. They also worked together on Xenien, a collection of satirical poems in which both Schiller and Goethe challenge opponents to their philosophical vision. Friedrich Schiller was born on 10 November 1759, in Marbach, Württemberg as the son of military doctor Johann Kaspar Schiller. Schiller grew up in a religious family and spent much of his youth studying the Bible. His father was away in the Seven Years War when Friedrich was born and he was named after king Frederick the Great, but he was called Fritz by nearly everyone. Kaspar Schiller was rarely home during the war, but he did manage to visit the family once in a while and his wife and children also visited him occasionally wherever he happened to be stationed. When the war ended in 1763, Schillers father became an officer and was stationed in Schwäbisch Gmünd. Due to the high cost of living—especially the rent—the family moved to nearby Lorch, although the family was happy in Lorch, Schillers father found his work unsatisfying. He sometimes took his son with him, in Lorch, Schiller received his primary education. The quality of the lessons was fairly bad, and Friedrich regularly cut class with his older sister, because his parents wanted Schiller to become a pastor, they had the pastor of the village instruct the boy in Latin and Greek. Pastor Moser was a teacher, and later Schiller named the cleric in his first play Die Räuber after him. As a boy, Schiller was excited by the idea of becoming a cleric and often put on black robes, in 1766, the family left Lorch for the Duke of Württembergs principal residence, Ludwigsburg. Schillers father had not been paid for three years, and the family had been living on their savings but could no longer afford to do so, so Kaspar Schiller took an assignment to the garrison in Ludwigsburg. There the Schiller boy came to the attention of Karl Eugen and he entered the Karlsschule Stuttgart, in 1773, where he eventually studied medicine. During most of his life, he suffered from illnesses that he tried to cure himself. While at the Karlsschule, Schiller read Rousseau and Goethe and discussed Classical ideals with his classmates, the plays critique of social corruption and its affirmation of proto-revolutionary republican ideals astounded its original audience
Friedrich Schiller
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Friedrich Schiller
Friedrich Schiller
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Portrait of Friedrich Schiller by
Gerhard von Kügelgen
Friedrich Schiller
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Lithograph portrait from 1905, captioned "Friedrich von Schiller" in recognition of his 1802 ennoblement
Friedrich Schiller
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Germany's oldest Schiller memorial (1839) on Schillerplatz, Stuttgart
12.
The Seven Beauties
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The Seven Beauties also known as Bahramnameh is a famous romantic epic by Azerbaijani poet from city of Ganja Nizami Ganjavi written in 1197. This poem is a part of the Nizamis Khamsa, the original title Haft Peykar can be translated literally as “seven portraits” with the figurative meaning of “seven beauties. ”Both translations are meaningful and the poet doubtless exploited intentionally the ambiguity of the words. The poem was dedicated to the Ahmadili ruler of Maragha, Ala-al-Din Korpe Arslan bin Aq-Sonqor, the poem is a masterpiece of erotic literature, but it is also a profoundly moralistic work. A critical edition of the Seven Beauties was produced by Helmut Ritter and Jan Rypka on the basis of fifteen manuscripts of Khamsa, more recently, the poem was re-edited by the Azerbaijani scholar T. A. Maharramov. There is also uncritical edition by Wahid Dastgerdi and an edition by Barat Zanjani, the poetry German translation of a passage from the poem named Bahram Gur and Russian princess made by orientalist Franz Erdmann was published in 1832 in Kazan. There are three complete translations in western European languages, first, in 1924 Charles Edward Wilson translated the poem to English in 2 volumes with extensive notes). Second, Alessandro Bausani in 1967 translated it to Italian, and finally an English version by Julie Scott Meisami published in 1995. The Russian prose version by Rustam Aliyev, which was published Baku in 1983, the partial translations was also made by Rudolf Gelpke in German prose. It should be noted there is an English metatranslation by E. Mattin. In the early 1940s Azerbaijani composer Uzeyir Hajibeyov to mark the 800th anniversary of Nizami Ganjavi planned to write seven songs on Nizami poems accordingly to seven beauties of the poem, however Hajibeyov wrote only two songs, Sensiz and Sevgili Janan. In 1952 Azerbaijani composer Gara Garayev composed the ballet Seven Beauties based on motifs of Nizami Ganjavi’s Seven beauties, in 1959 in Baku a bronze sculpture Bahram Gur depicting the hero of the poem Bahram Gur killing serpentine dragon at his feet, was erected. In 1979 the Nizami metro station in Baku was decorated by Azerbaijani painter Mikayil Abdullayev with mosaic murals based on the works of Nizami, three of these murals show the heroes of the Seven Beauties poem
The Seven Beauties
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Bahram sees the portraits of the seven beauties.
Behzad School, 1479.
Nizami Museum of Azerbaijani Literature,
Baku
13.
Turan
–
Tūrān literally means the land of the Tur, and is a region in Central Asia. The term is of Iranian origin and may refer to a prehistoric human settlement. The original Turanians were an Iranian tribe of the Avestan age, in ancient Iranian mythology, Tūr or Turaj is the son of the emperor Fereydun. According to the account in the Shahnameh the nomadic tribes who inhabited these lands were ruled by Tūr, in that sense, the Turanians could be members of two Iranian peoples both descending from Fereydun, but with different geographical domains and often at war with each other. Turan, therefore, comprised five areas, the Kopet Dag region, the Atrek valley, a later association of the original Turanians with Turkic peoples is based primarily on the subsequent Turkification of Central Asia, including the above areas. According to C. E. Bosworth, however, there was no relationship between the ancient Turkic cultures and the Turanians of the Shahnameh. The oldest existing mention of Turan is in the Farvardin yashts, according to Prof. Gherardo Gnoli, the Avesta contains the names of various tribes who lived in proximity to each other, the Airyas, Tuiryas, Sairimas, Sainus and Dahis. In the hymns of the Avesta, the adjective Tūrya is attached to various enemies of Zoroastrism like Fraŋrasyan, the word occurs only once in the Gathas, but 20 times in the later parts of the Avesta. The Tuiryas as they were called in Avesta play an important role in the Avesta than the Sairimas, Sainus. Zoroaster himself hailed from the Airya people but he preached his message to other neighboring tribes. Thus in the Avesta, some of the Tuiryas believed in the message of Zoroaster while others rejected the religion, similar to the ancient homeland of Zoroaster, the precise geography and location of Turan is unknown. In post-Avestan traditions they were thought to inhabit the north of the Oxus. Their presence accompanied by incessant wars with the Iranians, helped to define the latter as a nation, proud of their land. The common names of Turanians in Avesta and Shahnameh include Frarasyan, Aghraethra, Biderafsh, the continuation of nomadic invasions on the north-eastern borders in historical times kept the memory of the Turanians alive. After the 6th century the Turks, who had been pushed westward by other tribes, the identification of the Turanians with the Turks was a late development, possibly made in the early 7th century, the Turks first came into contact with the Iranians only in the 6th century. The denizens of Turan were held to include the Turks, in the first four centuries of Islam essentially those nomadizing beyond the Jaxartes, the terms Turk and Turanian became used interchangeably during the Islamic era. The Shahnameh, or the Book of Kings, the compilation of Iranian mythical heritage, other authors, including Tabari, Hakim Iranshah and many other texts follow like. By the 10th century, the myth of Afrasiyab was adopted by the Qarakhanid dynasty, during the Safavid era, following the common geographical convention of the Shahnameh, the term Turan was used to refer to the domain of the Uzbek empire in conflict with the Safavids
Turan
–
Map of
Iran and Turan in
Qajar dynasty drawn by
Adolf Stieler
14.
Arturo Toscanini
–
Arturo Toscanini was an Italian conductor. He was one of the most acclaimed musicians of the late 19th and of the 20th century, renowned for his intensity, his perfectionism, his ear for detail and sonority. He was at times the music director of La Scala in Milan, the Metropolitan Opera in New York. Toscanini was born in Parma, Emilia-Romagna, and won a scholarship to the music conservatory. Living conditions at the conservatory were harsh, for example, his diet consisted almost completely of fish. When he became successful, he never ate anything that came from the sea and he joined the orchestra of an opera company, with which he toured South America in 1886. Carlo Superti and Aristide Venturi tried unsuccessfully to finish the work, in desperation, the singers suggested the name of their assistant Chorus Master, who knew the whole opera from memory. The public was taken by surprise, at first by the youth and sheer aplomb of this unknown conductor, for the rest of that season, Toscanini conducted eighteen operas, all with absolute success. Thus began his career as a conductor, at age 19, upon returning to Italy, Toscanini set out on a dual path for some time. He continued to conduct, his first appearance in Italy being at the Teatro Carignano in Turin, on November 4,1886, in the world premiere of the revised version of Alfredo Catalanis Edmea. This was the beginning of Toscaninis lifelong friendship and championing of Catalani, however, he also returned to his chair in the cello section, and participated as cellist in the world premiere of Verdis Otello under the composers supervision. The composer was impressed when Toscanini consulted him personally about Verdis Te Deum. Verdi said that he had left it out for fear that certain interpreters would have exaggerated the marking, gradually, Toscaninis reputation as an operatic conductor of unusual authority and skill supplanted his cello career. In the following decade, he consolidated his career in Italy, entrusted with the premieres of Puccinis La bohème. In 1896, Toscanini conducted his first symphonic concert and he exhibited a considerable capacity for hard work, conducting 43 concerts in Turin in 1898. By 1898, Toscanini was Principal Conductor at La Scala, where he remained until 1908, returning as Music Director and he brought the La Scala Orchestra to the United States on a concert tour in 1920/21, during which he made his first recordings. Outside Europe, Toscanini conducted at the Metropolitan Opera in New York as well as the New York Philharmonic Orchestra and he toured Europe with the New York Philharmonic in 1930. At each performance, he and the orchestra were acclaimed by critics, Toscanini was the first non-German conductor to appear at Bayreuth, and the New York Philharmonic was the first non-German orchestra to play there
Arturo Toscanini
–
Toscanini's family tomb at the
Monumental Cemetery of Milan in 2015
Arturo Toscanini
–
Toscanini in 1908.
Arturo Toscanini
–
Arturo Toscanini poses on a ship's deck.
Arturo Toscanini
–
Toscanini lifts his hat for the camera on a ship's deck.
15.
Ettore Panizza
–
Ettore Panizza was an Argentinian conductor and composer, one of the leading conductors of the early 20th century. Panizza possessed technical mastery and was popular and influential during his time, widely admired by Richard Strauss and Giacomo Puccini, Panizza was born in Buenos Aires, of Italian parents. His birth name was Héctor Panizza but throughout his career he was known as Ettore, Panizza studied first with his father, who was a cellist at the old Teatro Colón, and later in Milan. He made his debut as assistant conductor at the Rome Opera in 1897. He worked at the Teatro Colón in 1908,1909,1921,1927,1929,1930,1934,1935,1936,1939,1942,1943,1944,1945,1946,1947,1948,1949,1951,1952,1954 and 1955. He also worked with such as Alessandro Bonci, Nellie Melba. He also made guest appearances in Paris, Madrid, Chicago, Vienna, Berlin and he heard British soprano Eva Turner in 1924 as Madama Butterfly and recommended her to Toscanini, launching her impressive international career. Among the many premieres he conducted were Francesca da Rimini and Conchita by Riccardo Zandonai, Sly by Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari and he also conducted many local premieres in London, New York, and Milan such as Mussorgskys Khovanshchina and Respighis La campana sommersa. Panizza composed four operas, Il fidanzato del mare, Medio Evo Latino, Aurora, his most successful work and he published his autobiography Medio Siglo de Vida Musical in 1952. Panizza died in Milan in 1967, verdi - Otello - Giovanni Martinelli, Elisabeth Rethberg -1938, Naxos Historical 8. 4 Felipe Boero - excerpts from opera El Matrero Mozart - The Marriage of Figaro, Ezio Pinza, John Brownlee, Licia Albanese, Jarmila Novotná, Elisabeth Rethberg - Metropolitan 1940 R. Mancini and J-J. Enzo Valenti Ferro, Los Directores, Teatro Colón 1908-1984, 23-6, the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music
Ettore Panizza
–
Argentine composer and conductor Ettore Panizza.
16.
Persian language
–
Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
Persian language
–
Old Persian
Persian language
–
Ferdowsi 's
Shahnameh
Persian language
–
Kalilah va Dimna, an influential work in Persian literature.
17.
Central Asia
–
Central Asia stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to China in the east and from Afghanistan in the south to Russia in the north. It is also referred to as the -stans as the five countries generally considered to be within the region all have names ending with the Persian suffix -stan. Central Asias five former Soviet republics are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Central Asia has historically been closely tied to its nomadic peoples and the Silk Road. It has acted as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, the Silk Road connected Muslim lands with the people of Europe, India, and China. This crossroads position has intensified the conflict between tribalism and traditionalism and modernization, in pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, Central Asia was predominantly Iranian, peopled by Eastern Iranian-speaking Bactrians, Sogdians and Chorasmians and the semi-nomadic Scythians and Parthians. Central Asia is sometimes referred to as Turkestan, the idea of Central Asia as a distinct region of the world was introduced in 1843 by the geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions, historically built political geography and geoculture are two significant parameters widely used in the scholarly literature about the definitions of the Central Asia. The most limited definition was the one of the Soviet Union. This definition was also used outside the USSR during this period. However, the Russian culture has two terms, Средняя Азия and Центральная Азия. Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia, the UNESCO general history of Central Asia, written just before the collapse of the USSR, defines the region based on climate and uses far larger borders. An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity and these areas include Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Turkic regions of southern Siberia, the five republics, and Afghan Turkestan. Afghanistan as a whole, the northern and western areas of Pakistan, the Tibetans and Ladakhi are also included. Insofar, most of the peoples are considered the indigenous peoples of the vast region. Central Asia is a large region of varied geography, including high passes and mountains, vast deserts. The vast steppe areas of Central Asia are considered together with the steppes of Eastern Europe as a geographical zone known as the Eurasian Steppe. Much of the land of Central Asia is too dry or too rugged for farming, the Gobi desert extends from the foot of the Pamirs, 77° E, to the Great Khingan Mountains, 116°–118° E. Central Asia has the following geographic extremes, The worlds northernmost desert, at Buurug Deliin Els, Mongolia, the Northern Hemispheres southernmost permafrost, at Erdenetsogt sum, Mongolia, 46°17′ N
Central Asia
–
On the southern shore of Issyk Kul lake,
Issyk Kul Region.
Central Asia
–
Central Asia
Central Asia
–
Uzbek men from
Khiva, ca. 1861–1880
Central Asia
–
Kazakh man on a horse with golden eagle
18.
History of Iran
–
Iran is home to one of the worlds oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 7000 BC. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel names the Persians as the first Historical People, the Medes unified Iran as a nation and empire in 625 BC. It was the largest empire yet seen and the first world empire and they were succeeded by the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Empires, who successively governed Iran for almost 1000 years and made Iran once again as a leading power in the world. Persias arch-rival was the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire, the Persian Empire proper begins in the Iron Age, following the influx of Iranian peoples. Iranian people gave rise to the Medes, the Achaemenid, Parthian, once a major empire of superpower proportions, having conquered far and wide, Iran has endured invasions too, by the Greeks, Arabs, Turks, and the Mongols. Iran has continually reasserted its national identity throughout the centuries and has developed as a political and cultural entity. The Muslim conquest of Persia ended the Sasanian Empire and was a point in Iranian history. Islamization of Iran took place during the eighth to tenth centuries, however, the achievements of the previous Persian civilizations were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the new Islamic polity and civilization. Iran, with its history of early cultures and empires, had suffered particularly hard during the late Middle Ages. Many invasions of nomadic tribes, whose leaders became rulers in this country, the earliest archaeological artifacts in Iran were found in the Kashafrud and Ganj Par sites that are thought to date back to 100,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic. Mousterian stone tools made by Neandertals have also been found, in 1949, a Neanderthal radius was discovered by Carleton S. Coon in Bisitun Cave. Early agricultural communities such as Chogha Golan in 10,000 BC along with such as Chogha Bonut in 8000 BC, began to flourish in. Around about the time, the earliest-known clay vessels and modeled human and animal terracotta figurines were produced at Ganj Dareh. There are also 10, 000-year-old human and animal figurines from Tepe Sarab in Kermanshah Province among many ancient artifacts. The two main Neolithic Iranian settlements were the Zayandeh River Culture and Ganj Dareh, parts of what is modern-day northwestern Iran was part of the Kura–Araxes culture, that stretched up into the neighboring regions of the Caucasus and Anatolia. Susa is one of the settlements of Iran and the world. Based on C14 dating, the time of foundation of the city is as early as 4395 BC, the general perception among archeologists is that Susa was an extension of the Sumerian city state of Uruk. In its later history, Susa became the capital of Elam and it is one of the most artifact-rich archaeological sites in the Middle East
History of Iran
–
A gold cup at the
National Museum of Iran, dating from the first half of 1st millennium BC.
History of Iran
–
Arg-e Bam Before the 2003 earthquake.
History of Iran
–
Chogha Zanbil is one of the few extant
ziggurats outside of Mesopotamia and is considered to be the best preserved example in the world.
19.
Silent letter
–
In an alphabetic writing system, a silent letter is a letter that, in a particular word, does not correspond to any sound in the words pronunciation. Phonetic transcriptions that better depict pronunciation and which note changes due to grammar and proximity of other words require a symbol to show that the letter is mute. Handwritten notes use a circle with a line through it and the sound is called zero, It resembles the symbol for the empty set, in printed or computers graphic presentation, using the IPA system, the symbol ∅ is used. For all languages listed, one of the speaking dictionaries offered on the Internet can be used, one of the noted difficulties of English spelling is a high number of silent letters. Edward Carney distinguishes different kinds of silent letters, which present differing degrees of difficulty to readers, auxiliary letters which, with another letter, constitute digraphs, i. e. two letters combined which represent a single phoneme. These may further be categorized as, Exocentric digraphs, where the sound of the digraph is different from that of either of its constituent letters and these are the default spellings for the relevant sounds and present no special difficulty for readers or writers. Where standard single-letter representation uses another letter, as with ⟨gh⟩ in enough or ⟨ph⟩ in physical instead of ⟨f⟩ and these may be considered irregular for writers, but less difficult for readers. Endocentric digraphs, where the sound of the digraph is the same as that of one of its constituent letters and these include, Most double consonants, as ⟨bb⟩ in clubbed, though not geminate consonants, as ⟨ss⟩ in misspell. Doubling due to suffixation or inflection is regular, otherwise, it may present difficulty to writers, the discontiguous digraphs, whose second element is magic e, e. g. ⟨a_e⟩ in rate, ⟨i_e⟩ in fine. This is the way to represent long vowels in the last syllable of a morpheme. Others, such as ⟨ck⟩, ⟨gu⟩ as in guard, vogue, ⟨ea⟩ as in bread, heavy and these may be difficult for writers and sometimes also for readers. If the cognate is obvious, it may aid writers in spelling, the rest are empty letters, which never have a sound, e. g. ⟨w⟩ in answer, ⟨h⟩ in Sarah, ⟨s⟩ in island, ⟨b⟩ in subtle, the ⟨t⟩ in ballet. These may present the greatest difficulty to writers and often to readers, the distinction between endocentric digraphs and empty letters is somewhat arbitrary. For example, in words as little and bottle, one might view ⟨le⟩ as an endocentric digraph for /əl/, or view ⟨e⟩ as an empty letter, Similarly, with ⟨bu⟩ or ⟨u⟩ in buy. Not all silent letters are completely redundant, Silent letters can distinguish between homophones, e. g. in/inn, be/bee, lent/leant and this is an aid to readers, already familiar with both words. Silent letters may give an insight into the meaning or origin of a word, Silent letters may help to put weight on a certain syllable, telling the reader to put more stress on the syllable. The final ⟨fe⟩ in giraffe gives a clue to the second-syllable stress, Silent letters arise in several ways, Sound changes occurring without a spelling change. The digraph ⟨gh⟩ was pronounced in Middle English in such words as light, Similarly, with ⟨f⟩ / ⟨ph⟩, The latter from Greek phi
Silent letter
–
The silent Arabic alif is marked with a
wasla sign above it
20.
Venetian dialect
–
It is sometimes spoken and often well understood outside Veneto, in Trentino, Friuli, Venezia Giulia, Istria, and some towns of Dalmatia, Croatia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Brazil, Mexico, and Romania. Although referred to as an Italian dialect even by its speakers and its precise place within the Romance language family is controversial, see below. Like all Italian dialects in the Romance language family, Venetian is descended from Vulgar Latin, Venetian is attested as a written language in the 13th century. There are also influences and parallelisms with Greek and Albanian in words such as pirón, inpiràr, caréga, the language enjoyed substantial prestige in the days of the Venetian Republic, when it attained the status of a lingua franca in the Mediterranean. Notable Venetian-language authors include the playwrights Ruzante, Carlo Goldoni and Carlo Gozzi, following the old Italian theatre tradition, they used Venetian in their comedies as the speech of the common folk. They are ranked among the foremost Italian theatrical authors of all time, other notable works in Venetian are the translations of the Iliad by Casanova and Francesco Boaretti, and the poems of Biagio Marin. However, as a literary language Venetian was overshadowed by Dantes Tuscan dialect and languages of France like Occitan, virtually all modern Venetian speakers are diglossic with Italian. The present situation raises questions about the medium term survival. Despite recent steps to recognize it, Venetian remains far below the threshold of inter-generational transfer with younger generations preferring standard Italian in many situations, the dilemma is further complicated by the ongoing large-scale arrival of immigrants, who only speak or learn standard Italian. In the past, however, Venetian spread to other continents as a result of migration from the Veneto region between 1870 and 1905 and 1945 and 1960. Tens of thousands of peasants and craftsmen were thrown off their lands or out of their workshops, Venetian migrants created large Venetian-speaking communities in Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico, where the language is still spoken today. Internal migrations under the Fascist regime also sent many Venetian speakers to other regions of Italy, currently, some firms have chosen to use the Venetian language in advertising as a famous beer did some years ago. Venetian is spoken mainly in the Italian regions of Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia, smaller communities are found in Lombardy, Trentino, Emilia-Romagna, Sardinia, Lazio, and formerly in Romania. It is also spoken in North and South America by the descendants of Italian immigrants, in Mexico, the Chipilo Venetian dialect is spoken in the state of Puebla and the town of Chipilo. The town was settled by immigrants from the Veneto region, people from Chipilo have gone on to make satellite colonies in Mexico, especially in the states of Guanajuato, Querétaro, and State of Mexico. Venetian has also survived in the state of Veracruz, where other Italian migrants have settled from the late 1800s, the people of Chipilo preserve their dialect and call it chipileño and it has been preserved as a variant since the 19th century. The variant of the Venetan language spoken by the Cipiłàn is northern Trevisàn-Feltrìn-Belumàt, in 2009, the Brazilian city of Serafina Corrêa, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, gave Talian a joint official status alongside Portuguese. Until the middle of the 20th century, Venetian was also spoken on the Greek Island of Corfu, which had long been under the rule of the Republic of Venice
Venetian dialect
–
A sign in Venetian reading "Here we also speak Venetian".
Venetian dialect
–
Venetian
Venetian dialect
–
A street sign in Venice using the Venetian calle, as opposed to the Italian via.
Venetian dialect
–
"Lasa pur dir" (Let them speak), an inscription on the Venetian House in
Piran, southwestern Slovenia
21.
Khutulun
–
Khutulun, also known as Aigiarne, Aiyurug, Khotol Tsagaan or Ay Yaruq was the most famous daughter of Kaidu, a cousin of Kublai Khan. Her father was most pleased by her abilities, and she accompanied him on military campaigns, Marco Polo and Rashid al-Din both wrote of her. By 1280, her father Kaidu became the most powerful ruler of Central Asia, reigning in the realms from western Mongolia to Oxus, and from the Central Siberian Plateau to India. Marco Polo described Khutulun as a warrior, one who could ride into enemy ranks. She assisted her father in battles, particularly against the Yuan Dynasty of her cousin the Great Khan - Kublai. Khutulun insisted that any man who wished to marry her must defeat her in wrestling, winning horses from competitions and the wagers of would-be suitors, it is said that she gathered a herd numbering the ten thousand. Sources vary about her husbands identity, some chronicles say her husband was a handsome man who failed to assassinate her father and was taken prisoner, others refer to him as Kaidus companion from the Choros clan. Rashid al-Din wrote that Khutulun fell in love with Ghazan, Mongol ruler in Persia, of all Kaidus children, Khutulun was the favorite, and the one from whom he most sought advice and political support. According to some accounts, he tried to name her as his successor to the khanate before he died in 1301, however, his choice was declined due to her male relatives. When Kaidu died, Khutulun guarded his tomb with the assistance of her brother Orus and she was challenged by her other brothers including Chapar and relative Duwa because she resisted their succession. Khutulun is thought to be the basis for the character of Turandot, while in Mongol culture she is remembered as a famous athlete and warrior, in Western artistic adaptations she is depicted as a proud woman who finally succumbs to love. In Pétis de La Croixs story, however, she does not wrestle her suitors, and they do not wager horses, rather, she has them answer three riddles, and they are executed if they cannot solve them. Carlo Gozzi wrote his own version 50 years later, a play in which she was a “tigerish woman” of “unrelenting pride. ”Friedrich Schiller translated and adapted the play into German as Turandot. The most famous version of Turandot is Giacomo Puccinis operatic version, Khutulun is portrayed by Claudia Kim in the Netflix series Marco Polo. The Book of Sir Marco Polo, The Venetian, Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East
Khutulun
–
Tamgha of
Kaidu,
House of Ögedei.
22.
Kaidu
–
Kaidu was the leader of the House of Ögedei and the de facto khan of the Chagatai Khanate, a division of the Mongol Empire. He ruled part of modern-day Xinjiang and Central Asia during the 13th century, and actively opposed his cousin, Kublai Khan, medieval chroniclers often mistranslated Kadan as Kaidu, mistakenly placing Kaidu at the Battle of Legnica. Kadan was the brother of Güyük, and Kaidus uncle, Kaidu was the son of Kashin a grandson of Ögedei Khan and a great-grandson of Genghis Khan and Börte. His mothers name was Shabkana Khatun from the Bekrin tribe of mountaineers that were neither Mongols, meanwhile, the Chagatayid Khan Alghu, who supported Kublai as Khagan, ravaged the lands of Kaidu. This forced Kaidu to make an alliance with Berke, the khan of the Golden Horde. After the defeat of Ariq Böke in 1264, Kublai summoned Kaidu to his court, possibly to discuss the future of the empire, but Kaidu avoided appearing at his court and said that his horses were too thin to bear long distance travel. Because Genghis Khan had made a law that all branches of the family had to approve the granting of the title of Great Khan, in 1266 Baraq was dispatched to Central Asia to take the throne of Chagatai. Kublai instigated Baraq to attack him in 1268, at first Baraq defeated Kaidu, however, the former was defeated by the latter with the assistance of Möngke-Temür, successor of Berke. When Baraq advanced towards Kaidu, the set a trap for the invaders troops on the bank of the Jaxartes. Transoxiana was then ravaged by Kaidu, Baraq fled to Samarkand, then Bukhara, plundering the cities along the way in an attempt to rebuild his army. These actions alarmed Kaidu, who did not want the region to be further devastated, Kaidu also needed to free up his army for a potential conflict with Kublai. Peace was therefore proposed, and Baraq was pressured by the governors of the areas of the khanate, Masud Beg and Daifu. He did, and peace was declared, although sources conflict on the time, rashid al-Din claims that the meeting took place in the spring of 1269 in Talas, while Wassaf writes that it took place around 1267 to the south of Samarkand. Either way, two-thirds of Transoxiana were granted to Baraq, while the third went to Kaidu. Kaidu also gained control of the region around Bukhara, neither side gained control of the cities, the administration of these instead devolved to Masud Beg, while Baraq and Kaidu agreed to reside only in the deserts and mountains. Kaidu convinced Baraq to attack Persia under the Ilkhanids, Baraq suffered a large defeat at Herat on July 22,1270 against Abagha. Baraq died en route to meet Kaidu who had been waiting for his weakness, the Chagatayid princes including Mubarak Shah submitted to Kaidu and proclaimed him as their overlord. Sons of Baraq rebelled against Kaidu but they were defeated, many of the Chagatayid princes fled to the Ilkhanate
Kaidu
–
Kaidu River in the city center of
Yanqi
Kaidu
–
Tamgha of Kaidu,
House of Ögedei.
23.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer and statesman. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters and he was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. He also contributed to the planning of Weimars botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace and his first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. During this period, Goethe published his novel, Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808. Goethes comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, Goethes father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house in Frankfurt, then an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar married Goethes mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17. All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister, Cornelia Friederica Christiana and his father and private tutors gave Goethe lessons in all the common subjects of their time, especially languages. Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing, Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not. Although Goethes great passion was drawing, he became interested in literature, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. He also took pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period, Goethe became also acquainted with Frankfurt actors, among early literary attempts, he was infatuated with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit. He adored Caritas Meixner, a wealthy Worms traders daughter and friend of his sister, Goethe studied law at Leipzig University from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the lessons of Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with Anna Katharina Schönkopf, in 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, already at this time, Goethe wrote a good deal, but he threw away nearly all of these works, except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Fausts 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768, Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, during convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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Goethe in 1828
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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Goethe's birthplace in
Frankfurt, Germany (Großer Hirschgraben)
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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Goethe, age 38, painted by
Angelica Kauffman 1787
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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A Goethe watercolor depicting a
liberty pole at the border to the short-lived
Republic of Mainz, created under influence of the French Revolution and destroyed in the
Siege of Mainz in which Goethe participated
24.
Jack Weatherford
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Jack McIver Weatherford is the former DeWitt Wallace Professor of anthropology at Macalester College in Minnesota. He is best known for his 2004 book, Genghis Khan, in 2006, he was awarded the Order of the Polar Star, Mongolia’s highest national honor for foreigners. His books in the late 20th century on the influence of Native American cultures have been translated into numerous languages and he has become a frequent commentator on TV and radio. Weatherford was born in Columbia, South Carolina, to Anna Ruth Grooms and Alfred Greg Weatherford and their father was a sergeant in the United States Army, which caused the family to move often. Now, Weatherford lives in Mongolia and Charleston, South Carolina, one of the professor Weatherfords distant ancestors is William Weatherford, a Creek leader of mixed race in the nineteenth century. He graduated from the University of South Carolina in 1967, with a B. A in Political Science, in 1972, he received an M. A. in Sociology from the University of South Carolina, and an M. A in Anthropology in 1973. In 1977, he received his Ph. D in Anthropology from the University of California and he earned a post-doctoral degree in Policy Studies from Duke University, Institute of Policy Sciences. He became a professor of anthropology at Macalester College in Minnesota and he has written extensively on indigenous cultures in North American and in other countries. On the contemporary clash of world cultures, Weatherfords early books on Native Americans won the Minnesota Book Award in 1989 and in 1992. He also received the 1992 Anthropology in the Media Award from the American Anthropological Association, and he became more widely known for his book, The History of Money, which was chosen as a selection of the Conservative Book of the Month Club. He has appeared in programs from Bolivia to Mongolia. Since the late century, Weatherford has studied and published on the cultures. His work has been recognized by the government, in 2006, he was awarded the Order of the Polar Star, in addition, Weatherford was awarded the honorary order by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Mongolia and the medal of the President of Mongolia in 2010. Weatherford has worked with groups in places such as Bolivia. He has also worked with historical analysis such as the impact of the American Indians on world history, in recent years, he has concentrated on the Mongols by looking at their impact since the time that Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes in 1206. 2016 Genghis Khan and the Quest for God, How the Worlds Greatest Conqueror Gave Us Religious Freedom, ISBN 978-07352211542010 The Secret History of the Mongol Queens, How the Daughters of Genghis Khan Rescued His Empire, Crown<,2010. ISBN 978-03074071532004 Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World New York and it has been translated into German, Spanish, Swedish, Chinese and Portuguese. 1994 Savages and Civilization, Who Will Survive,1991 Native Roots, How the Indians Enriched America
Jack Weatherford
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Jack Weatherford
25.
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights
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One Thousand and One Nights is a collection of Middle Eastern and South Asian stories and folk tales compiled in Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age. It is often known in English as the Arabian Nights, from the first English-language edition, the work was collected over many centuries by various authors, translators, and scholars across West, Central, and South Asia and North Africa. The tales themselves trace their roots back to ancient and medieval Arabic, Persian, Mesopotamian, Indian, Jewish, the stories proceed from this original tale, some are framed within other tales, while others begin and end of their own accord. Some editions contain only a few hundred nights, while others include 1,001 or more, the bulk of the text is in prose, although verse is occasionally used for songs and riddles and to express heightened emotion. Most of the poems are single couplets or quatrains, although some are longer, the main frame story concerns Shahryār, whom the narrator calls a Sasanian king ruling in India and China. Shahryār begins to marry a succession of only to execute each one the next morning. Eventually the vizier, whose duty it is to provide them, Scheherazade, the viziers daughter, offers herself as the next bride and her father reluctantly agrees. On the night of their marriage, Scheherazade begins to tell the king a tale, the king, curious about how the story ends, is thus forced to postpone her execution in order to hear the conclusion. The next night, as soon as she finishes the tale, she begins a new one, so it goes on for 1,001 nights. The tales vary widely, they include historical tales, love stories, tragedies, comedies, poems, burlesques, numerous stories depict jinns, ghouls, apes, sorcerers, magicians, and legendary places, which are often intermingled with real people and geography, not always rationally. The different versions have different individually detailed endings but they all end with the giving his wife a pardon. The narrators standards for what constitutes a cliffhanger seem broader than in modern literature, the history of the Nights is extremely complex and modern scholars have made many attempts to untangle the story of how the collection as it currently exists came about. Most scholars agreed that the Nights was a work and that the earliest tales in it came from India and Persia. At some time, probably in the early 8th century, these tales were translated into Arabic under the title Alf Layla and this collection then formed the basis of The Thousand and One Nights. The original core of stories was quite small, then, in Iraq in the 9th or 10th century, this original core had Arab stories added to it – among them some tales about the Caliph Harun al-Rashid. Devices found in Sanskrit literature such as stories and animal fables are seen by some scholars as lying at the root of the conception of the Nights. Indian folklore is represented in the Nights by certain animal stories, the influence of the Panchatantra and Baital Pachisi is particularly notable. The Jataka Tales are a collection of 547 Buddhist stories, which are for the most part moral stories with an ethical purpose
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights
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Scheherazade and Shahryār by
Ferdinand Keller, 1880
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights
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A
manuscript of the One Thousand and One Nights
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights
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A page from Kelileh va Demneh dated 1429, from
Herat, a Persian translation of the
Panchatantra – depicts the manipulative jackal-vizier, Dimna, trying to lead his lion-king into war.
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights
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The story of Princess Parizade and the Magic Tree by
Maxfield Parrish.
