1.
Corps
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A corps is a military unit usually consisting of several divisions. Some military service branches are also called corps, such as the Military Police Corps, Royal Logistic Corps, Quartermaster Corps, a few civilian organizations use the name corps to imply a similar service level, such as the Peace Corps. In many armies, a corps is a formation composed of two or more divisions, and typically commanded by a lieutenant general. During World War I and World War II, due to the scale of combat. In Western armies with numbered corps, the number is indicated in Roman numerals. II Corps was also formed, with Militia units, to defend south-eastern Australia, sub-corps formations controlled Allied land forces in the remainder of Australia. I Corps headquarters was assigned control of the New Guinea campaign. In early 1945, when I Corps was assigned the task of re-taking Borneo, the Canadian Corps consisted of four Canadian divisions. After the Armistice, the peacetime Canadian militia was organized into corps and divisions. Early in the Second World War, Canadas contribution to the British-French forces fighting the Germans was limited to a single division, after the fall of France in June 1940, a second division moved to England, coming under command of a Canadian corps headquarters. This corps was renamed I Canadian Corps as a corps headquarters was established in the UK. I Canadian Corps eventually fought in Italy, II Canadian Corps in NW Europe, after the formations were disbanded after VE Day, Canada has never subsequently organized a Corps headquarters. The Chinese Republic had 133 Corps during the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Corps became the basic tactical unit of the NRA having strength nearly equivalent to an allied Division. The French Army under Napoleon used corps-sized formations as the first formal combined-arms groupings of divisions with reasonably stable manning, Napoleon first used the Corps dArmée in 1805. The use of the Corps dArmée was an innovation that provided Napoleon with a significant battlefield advantage in the early phases of the Napoleonic Wars. The Corps was designed to be an independent military group containing cavalry, artillery and infantry and this allowed Napoleon to mass the bulk of his forces to effect a penetration into a weak section of enemy lines without risking his own communications or flank. This innovation stimulated other European powers to adopt similar military structures, the Corps has remained an echelon of French Army organization to the modern day. As fixed military formation already in peace-time it was used almost in all European armies after Battle of Ulm in 1805, in Prussia it was introduced by Order of His Majesty from November 5,1816, in order to strengthen the readiness to war
2.
Army
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An army or ground force is a fighting force that fights primarily on land. In the broadest sense, it is the military branch. It may also include other branches of the such as the air force via means of aviation corps. Within a national force, the word army may also mean a field army. They differ from army reserves who are activated only during such times as war or natural disasters, in several countries, the army is officially called the Land Army to differentiate it from an air force called the Air Army, notably France. In such countries, the army on its own retains its connotation of a land force in common usage. By convention, irregular military is understood in contrast to regular armies which grew slowly from personal bodyguards or elite militia, regular in this case refers to standardized doctrines, uniforms, organizations, etc. Regular military can also refer to full-time status, versus reserve or part-time personnel, other distinctions may separate statutory forces, from de facto non-statutory forces such as some guerrilla and revolutionary armies. Armies may also be expeditionary or fencible, india has had some of the earliest armies in the world. During the Indus Valley Civilization however, there was just a small force as they didnt fear invasion at the time. After the Aryan invasion, kingdoms and city-states started forming armies to protect their cities, one of the first known recorded battles, the Battle of the Ten Kings, happened when a Hindu king defeated an alliance of ten kings. During the Iron Age, the Maurya and Nanda Empires had large armies, in the Gupta age, large armies of longbowmen were recruited to fight off invading horse archer armies. Elephants, pikemen and cavalry were other featured troops, in Rajput times, the main piece of equipment was iron or chain-mail armour, a round shield, either a curved blade or a straight-sword, a chakra disc and a katar dagger. China has existed as a culture for thousands of years, the states of China raised armies for at least 1000 years before the Spring and Autumn Annals. By the Warring States period, the crossbow had been perfected enough to become a military secret, thus any political power of a state rested on the armies and their organization. China underwent political consolidation of the states of Han, Wei, Chu, Yan, Zhao and Qi, until by 221 BCE, Qin Shi Huang, sun Tzus The Art of War remains one of Chinas Seven Military Classics, even though it is two thousand years old. Since no political figure could exist without an army, measures were taken to only the most capable leaders could control the armies. Civil bureaucracies arose to control the power of the states
3.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
4.
Air force
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An air force, also known in some countries as an air army, is in the broadest sense, the national military organization that primarily conducts aerial warfare. More specifically, it is the branch of a nations armed services that is responsible for aerial warfare as distinct from an army, navy, or a marine corps. Typically, air forces are responsible for gaining control of the air, carrying out strategic and tactical bombing missions, Air forces typically consist of a combination of fighters, bombers, helicopters, transport planes and other aircraft. Many air forces are responsible for operations of the military space, intercontinental ballistic missiles. Some air forces may command and control other air defence assets such as artillery, surface-to-air missiles, or anti-ballistic missile warning networks. In addition to pilots, air forces have ground support staff who support the aircrew, however, some supporting personnel such as airfield defence troops, weapons engineers and air intelligence staff do not have equivalent roles in civilian organizations. Balloon or flying corps are not generally regarded as examples of an air force, however, with the invention of heavier-than-air craft in the early 20th century, armies and navies began to take interest in this new form of aviation as a means to wage war. The first aviation force in the world was the Aviation Militaire of the French Army formed in 1910, in 1911, during the Italo-Turkish War, Italy employed aircraft for the first time ever in the world for reconnaissance and bombing missions against Turkish positions on Libyan Territory. The Italian–Turkish war of 1911–1912 was the first in history that featured air attacks by airplanes, during World War I France, Germany, Italy, the British Empire and the Ottoman Empire all possessed significant forces of bombers and fighters. World War I also saw the appearance of senior commanders who directed aerial warfare, the British Royal Air Force was the first independent air force in the world. The RAF was founded on 1 April 1918 by amalgamation the British Armys Royal Flying Corps, on establishment the RAF comprised over 20,000 aircraft, was commanded by a Chief of the Air Staff who held the rank of major-general and was governed by its own government ministry. Over the following decades most countries with any military capability established their own independent air forces. The Canadian Air Force was formed at the end of World War I and it became the permanent Royal Canadian Air Force when it received the Royal title by royal proclamation on 1 April 1924. It did not however become independent of the Canadian Army until 1938 when its head was designated as Chief of the Air Staff. Similarly, the Royal New Zealand Air Force was established in 1923 as the New Zealand Permanent Air Force, other British-influenced countries also established their own independent air forces. For example, the Royal Egyptian Air Force was created in 1937 when Egyptian military aviation was separated from Army command, outside of the British Empire, the Finnish Air Force was established as a separate service on 4 May 1928 and the Brazilian Air Force was created in 1941. Both the United States Air Force and the Philippine Air Force were formed as a separate branches of their armed forces in 1947. The Israeli Air Force came into being with the State of Israel on 18 May 1948, the Japan Air Self-Defense Force was not established until 1954, in World War II Japanese military aviation had been carried out by the Army and Navy
5.
Turkish Armed Forces
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The Turkish Armed Forces are the military forces of the Republic of Turkey. They consist of the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, in wartime, they are subordinate to the Army and Navy. The President of Turkey is the overall head. The current Chief of the General staff is General Hulusi Akar, the Chief of the General Staff is the Commander of the Armed Forces. In wartime, he acts as the Commander in Chief on behalf of the President of Turkey, furthermore, the General Staff coordinates the military relations of the TAF with NATO member states and other friendly nations. The modern history of the army began with its formation after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Turkish military perceived itself as the guardian of Kemalist ideology, the official state ideology, especially of the secular aspects of Kemalism. After becoming a member of NATO on 18 February 1952, Turkey initiated a comprehensive program for its armed forces. The Turkish Army sent troops to fight in Korea, where they played pivotal roles at some points, towards the end of the 1980s, a second restructuring process was initiated. The Turkish Armed Forces participate in European Union battlegroups under the control of the European Council, the TAF also contributes operational staff to the Eurocorps multinational army corps initiative of the EU and NATO. The Turkish Armed Forces collectively rank as the second largest standing military force in NATO, Armed Forces, with an estimated strength in 2015 of 639,551 military, civilian and paramilitary personnel. Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany, Italy. After the end of World War I, many Ottoman military personnel escaped from Rumelia to Anatolia in order to part in the national movement. Turkey won the War of Independence in 1922, Turkey remained neutral until the final stages of World War II. In the initial stage of World War II, Turkey signed a treaty of assistance with Great Britain. But after the fall of France, the Turkish government tried to maintain a distance with both the Allies and the Axis. After the German-Soviet War broke out, the Turkish government sent a delegation of observers under Lieutenant General Ali Fuat Erden to the German Eastern Front. Turkey participated in the Korean War as a state of the United Nations and sent the Turkish Brigade to South Korea. On 18 February 1952, Turkey became a member of NATO, the Korean government donated a war memorial for the Turkish soldiers who fought and died in Korea
6.
Ankara
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Ankara, formerly known as Ancyra and Angora, is the capital of the Republic of Turkey. With a population of 4,587,558 in the center and 5,150,072 in its province. Ankara was Atatürks headquarters from 1920 and has been the capital of the Republic since its founding in 1923, the government is a prominent employer, but Ankara is also an important commercial and industrial city, located at the center of Turkeys road and railway networks. The city gave its name to the Angora wool shorn from Angora rabbits, the long-haired Angora goat, the area is also known for its pears, honey, and muscat grapes. Ankara is an old city with various Hittite, Phrygian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine. The historical center of town is a hill rising 150 m over the left bank of the Ankara Çayı, a tributary of the Sakarya River. The hill remains crowned by the ruins of the old citadel, as with many ancient cities, Ankara has gone by several names over the ages. It has been identified with the Hittite cult center Ankuwaš, although remains a matter of debate. In classical antiquity and during the period, the city was known as Ánkyra in Greek and Ancyra in Latin. Following its annexation by the Seljuk Turks in 1073, the city known in many European languages as Angora. The form Angora is preserved in the names of breeds of different kinds of animals. The oldest settlements in and around the city center of Ankara belonged to the Hattic civilization which existed during the Bronze Age and was gradually absorbed c, 2000–1700 BC by the Indo-European Hittites. In Phrygian tradition, King Midas was venerated as the founder of Ancyra, but Pausanias mentions that the city was far older. Persian sovereignty lasted until the Persians defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great who conquered the city in 333 BC, Alexander came from Gordion to Ankara and stayed in the city for a short period. After his death at Babylon in 323 BC and the subsequent division of his empire among his generals, Ankara, by that time the city also took its name Ἄγκυρα which, in slightly modified form, provides the modern name of Ankara. Other centers were Pessinos, todays Balhisar, for the Trocmi tribe, the city was then known as Ancyra. The Celtic element was probably relatively small in numbers, an aristocracy which ruled over Phrygian-speaking peasants. However, the Celtic language continued to be spoken in Galatia for many centuries
7.
Grey
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Grey or gray is an intermediate color between black and white. It is a neutral or achromatic color, meaning literally that it is a color without color and this means that there are equal components of red, green, and blue. The variations in intensity of these colors uniformly produce different shades of grey and it is the color of a cloud-covered sky, of ash and of lead. The first recorded use of grey as a name in the English language was in AD700. Grey is the dominant spelling in European and Commonwealth English, although remained in common usage in the UK until the second half of the 20th century. Gray has been the preferred American spelling since approximately 1825, although grey is an accepted variant, in Europe and the United States, surveys show that grey is the color most commonly associated with neutrality, conformity, boredom, uncertainty, old age, indifference, and modesty. Only one percent of respondents chose it as their favorite color, Grey comes from the Middle English grai or grei, from the Anglo-Saxon graeg, and is related to the Dutch grauw and grijs and German grau. The first recorded use of grey as a name in the English language was in AD700. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, grey was the color of undyed wool, and thus was the color most commonly worn by peasants and the poor. It was also the color worn by monks of the Franciscan order, Cistercian Order, Franciscan monks in England and Scotland were commonly known as the Grey friars, and that name is now attached to many places in Great Britain. During the Renaissance and the Baroque, grey began to play an important role in fashion, Black became the most popular color of the nobility, particularly in Italy, France, and Spain, and grey and white were harmonious with it. Grey was also used for the drawing of oil paintings. The painting would first be composed in grey and white, and then the colors, made with thin transparent glazes, the grisaille beneath would provide the shading, visible through the layers of color. Sometimes the grisaille was simply left uncovered, giving the appearance of carved stone, Grey was a particularly good background color for gold and for skin tones. It became the most common background for the portraits of Rembrandt Van Rijn and for many of the paintings of El Greco, the palette of Rembrandt was composed almost entirely of somber colors. Over this he put a layer of glaze made of mixture of blue smalt, red ochre. Using these ingredients and many others, he made greys which had, according to art historian Philip Ball, the warm, dark and rich greys and browns served to emphasize the golden light on the faces in the paintings. Grey became a fashionable color in the 18th century, both for womens dresses and for mens waistcoats and coats
8.
White
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White is an achromatic color, a color without hue. An incoming light to the eye that stimulates all its three types of color sensitive cone cells in nearly equal amounts results in white. White is one of the most common colors in nature, the color of sunlight, snow, milk, chalk, limestone, in many cultures white represents or signifies purity, innocence, and light, and is the symbolic opposite of black, or darkness. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, white is the color most often associated with perfection, the good, honesty, cleanliness, the beginning, the new, neutrality, and exactitude. In ancient Egypt and ancient Rome, priestesses wore white as a symbol of purity, in the Middle Ages and Renaissance a white unicorn symbolized chastity, and a white lamb sacrifice and purity, the widows of kings dressed in white rather than black as the color of mourning. It was also used in 20th century modern architecture as a symbol of modernity, simplicity. White is an important color for almost all world religions, the Pope, the head of the Roman Catholic Church, has worn white since 1566, as a symbol of purity and sacrifice. In Islam, and in the Shinto religion of Japan, it is worn by pilgrims, in Western cultures and in Japan, white is the most common color for wedding dresses, symbolizing purity and virginity. In many Asian cultures, white is also the color of mourning, the white color on television screens and computer monitors is created with the RGB color model by mixing red, green and blue light at equal intensities. The word white continues Old English hwīt, ultimately from a Common Germanic *χwītaz also reflected in OHG wîz, ON hvítr, the root is ultimately from Proto-Indo-European language *kwid-, surviving also in Sanskrit śveta to be white or bright and Slavonic světŭ light. The Icelandic word for white, hvítur, is derived from the Old Norse form of the word hvítr. Common Germanic also had the word *blankaz, borrowed into Late Latin as *blancus, the antonym of white is black. Some non-European languages have a variety of terms for white. The Inuit language has seven different words for seven different nuances of white, Japanese has six different words, depending upon brilliance or dullness, or if the color is inert or dynamic. White was one of the first colors used in art, the Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. Paleolithic artists used calcite or chalk, they sometimes as a background, sometimes as a highlight, along with charcoal and red, in ancient Egypt, white was connected with the goddess Isis. The priests and priestesses of Isis dressed only in white linen, in Greece and other ancient civilizations, white was often associated with mothers milk. In Greek mythology, the chief god Zeus was nourished at the breast of the nymph Amalthea, in the Talmud, milk was one of four sacred substances, along with wine, honey, and the rose
9.
Blue
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Blue is the colour between violet and green on the optical spectrum of visible light. Human eyes perceive blue when observing light with a wavelength between 450 and 495 nanometres, which is between 4500 and 4950 ångströms. Blues with a frequency and thus a shorter wavelength gradually look more violet, while those with a lower frequency. Pure blue, in the middle, has a wavelength of 470 nanometers, in painting and traditional colour theory, blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments, along with red and yellow, which can be mixed to form a wide gamut of colours. Red and blue mixed together form violet, blue and yellow together form green, Blue is also a primary colour in the RGB colour model, used to create all the colours on the screen of a television or computer monitor. The clear sky and the sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the wavelengths are scattered more widely by the oxygen and nitrogen molecules. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering, similar to Rayleigh scattering, explains blue eyes, distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called atmospheric perspective. Blue has been used for art and decoration since ancient times and it is the most important color in Judaism. In the Middle Ages, cobalt blue was used to colour the stained glass windows of cathedrals, beginning in the 9th century, Chinese artists used cobalt to make fine blue and white porcelain. Blue dyes for clothing were made from woad in Europe and indigo in Asia, in 1828 a synthetic ultramarine pigment was developed, and synthetic blue dyes and pigments gradually replaced mineral pigments and vegetable dyes. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Vincent van Gogh and other late 19th century painters used ultramarine and cobalt blue not just to depict nature, in the late 18th century and 19th century, blue became a popular colour for military uniforms and police uniforms. In the 20th century, because blue was associated with harmony, it was chosen as the colour of the flags of the United Nations. Surveys in the US and Europe show that blue is the colour most commonly associated with harmony, faithfulness, confidence, distance, infinity, the imagination, cold, and sometimes with sadness. In US and European public opinion polls it is the most popular colour, Blue is the colour of light between violet and green on the visible spectrum. Blues also vary in shade or tint, darker shades of blue contain black or grey, darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue, while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. Today most blue pigments and dyes are made by a chemical process, the modern English word blue comes from Middle English bleu or blewe, from the Old French bleu, a word of Germanic origin, related to the Old High German word blao. In heraldry, the azure is used for blue
10.
Turkish War of Independence
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Few of the occupying British, French, and Italian troops had been deployed or engaged in combat. The Turkish National Movement in Anatolia culminated in the formation of a new Grand National Assembly by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, after the end of the Turkish-Armenian, Franco-Turkish, Greco-Turkish fronts, the Treaty of Sèvres was abandoned and the Treaties of Kars and Lausanne were signed. The Allies left Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey decided on the establishment of a Republic in Turkey, on 3 March 1924, the Ottoman Caliphate was officially abolished and the last Caliph was exiled. On October 30,1918, the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I, bringing hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I to a close. However, dismantling the Ottoman government and partitioning the Ottoman Empire among the Allied nations had been an objective of the Entente since the start of the war, a wave of seizures took place in the following months by the Allies. On December 1, British troops based in Syria occupied Kilis, beginning in December, French troops began successive seizures of Ottoman territory, including the towns of Antakya, Mersin, Tarsus, Ceyhan, Adana, Osmaniye and Islahiye. The first bullet was fired by Mehmet Çavuş in Dörtyol against the French on December 19,1918, on January 19,1919, the Paris Peace Conference opened, a meeting of Allied nations that set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers, including the Ottoman Empire. As a special body of the Paris Conference, The Inter-Allied Commission on Mandates in Turkey was established to pursue the secret treaties they had signed between 1915 and 1917, among the objectives was a new Hellenic Empire based on the Megali Idea. This was promised by British Prime Minister David Lloyd George to Greece, Italy sought control over the southern part of Anatolia under the Agreement of St. -Jean-de-Maurienne. France expected to control over Hatay, Lebanon and Syria. France signed the French-Armenian Agreement and promised the realization of an Armenian state in the Mediterranean region in exchange to the French Armenian Legion, meanwhile, Allied countries continued to lay claim to portions of the quickly crumbling Ottoman Empire. On April 30, Italy responded to the idea of Greek incorporation of Western Anatolia by also sending a warship to Smyrna as a show of force against the Greek campaign. A large Italian force also landed in Antalya, the Greek campaign of Western Anatolia began on May 15,1919, as Greek troops began landing in Smyrna. He and his carefully selected staff left Constantinople aboard the old steamer SS Bandirma for Samsun on the evening of May 16,1919, resistance to Allied demands began at the very onset of the Ottoman Empire′s defeat in World War I. Many Ottoman officials organized the secret Sentinel Association in reaction to the policies of the Allies, the objective of the Sentinel Association was to thwart Allied demands through passive and active resistance. Many Ottoman officials participated in efforts to conceal from the occupying authorities details of the independence movement spreading throughout Anatolia. Munitions initially seized by the Allies were secretly smuggled out of Constantinople into Central Anatolia, mirliva Ali Fuad Paşa in the meantime had moved his XX Corps from Ereğli to Ankara and started organizing resistance groups, including Circassian immigrants under Çerkes Ethem. The most prominent idea given for the Sultan’s decision was by assigning these officers out of the capital, Mustafa Kemal Paşa and his colleagues stepped ashore on May 19 and set up their first quarters in the Mintika Palace Hotel
11.
Ararat rebellion
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The leader of the Kurdish guerrilla forces during this rebellion was Ihsan Nuri from the Kurdish Jibran tribe. In 1926 Ibrahim Heski commanded the Hesenan, Jalali and Haydaran tribes, on 16 May, Kurdish forces fought against the 28th Infantry Regiment of the 9th Infantry Division of the Turkish army and a Gendarmie regiment in Demirkapı region. Turkish troops were defeated and the scattered 28th Regiment had to retreat towards Doğubeyazıt, on June 16/17, Ibrahim and his forces were surrounded by 28th and 34th regiments, but they could escape by Yukarı Demirkapı to Iran. On June 11,1930, armed responses to the rebellion were initiated by the Turkish military against the Ağrı insurgents, according to Wadie Jwaideh, Xoybûn, the Kurmanci Kurdish nationalist organization co-ordinating the rebellion, urgently appealed for help from Kurds. It was a Kurdish rebellion by mostly Kurmancî Kurds, which outnumbered the Kizilbash of Dersim. The rebels were crushed by the superior numbers of the Turkish military. The commander of the documented the role of the Turkish air force in defeating the Ağrı revolt in his book entitled La Révolte de LAgridagh. By the end of summer 1930 the Turkish Air Force was bombing Kurdish positions around Mount Ararat from all directions, according to Gen. Ihsan Nuri, the military superiority of the Turkish Air Force demoralized Kurds and led to their capitulation. During the insurrection, the Turkish Air Force also bombed several Kurdish tribes, for instance, Halikanli and Herki tribes were bombed on July 18 and August 2, respectively. Rebel villages were bombed from August 2-29. From June 10-12 Kurdish positions were extensively bombed, and this forced the Kurds to retreat to positions around Mount Ararat. On July 9 the newspaper Cumhuriyet reported that the Turkish air force was raining down Mount Ararat with bombs, Kurds, who escaped the bombings, were captured alive. On July 13, the rebellion in Zilan was suppressed, squadrons of 10-15 aircraft were used in crushing the revolt. On July 16, two Turkish planes were downed, aerial bombardment continued for several days and forced Kurds to withdraw to the height of 5,000 m. By July 21, bombardment had destroyed many Kurdish forts, during these operations, Turkish military mobilized 66,000 soldiers and 100 aircraft. The campaign against the Kurds was over by September 17,1930, the insurrection was defeated in 1931, and Turkey resumed control over the territory. Because the border between Turkey and Persia ran up the side of Lesser Ararat to its peak, Turkey was unable to stop Kurdish fighters from crossing the border at that location, to solve this problem Turkey demanded that it be ceded the entire mountain. On January 23,1932, Persia and Turkey signed the Agreement related to the fixing of the frontier between Persia and Turkey in Tehran, Turkey received total control over the Lesser Ararat and Ağrı Mountains and territory between the Armenian village of Guirberan and Kuch Dagh
12.
Dersim rebellion
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The Dersim rebellion was a Zaza uprising against the Turkish government in the Dersim region of eastern Turkey, which includes parts of Tunceli Province, Elazığ Province, and Bingöl Province. The rebellion was led by Seyid Riza, an Alevi chieftain of the Yukarı Abbas Uşağı tribe, as a result of the Turkish military campaign against the rebellion, thousands of Alevi Zazas died and many others were internally displaced due to the conflict. On 23 November 2011, Turkish prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan gave an apology for the Dersim operation, during the Ottoman period, before the Tanzimat, most of the empires eastern regions were administrated by the Ottoman feudal system. Authority in these regions was in the hands of feudal lords, tribal chieftains, the situation of Dersim in the Ottoman Empire continued in the early years of the Republic of Turkey. Tribes from Dersim objected to losing authority and refused to pay taxes, complaints kept coming from the governors. In an Interior Ministry report in 1926, it was considered necessary to use force against the residents of Dersim, the Turkification process in Turkey began with the Turkish National Assembly passing the 1934 Law on Resettlement. Its measures included the relocation of people within the country. In 1935, the Tunceli Law was passed to apply the Resettlement Law to the newly named region of Tunceli, previously known as Dersim and this area had a reputation for being rebellious, having been the scene of eleven separate periods of armed conflict over the previous 40 years. The Dersim region included the Tunceli Province whose name was changed from Dersim to Tunceli with the Law on Administration of the Tunceli Province, no.2884 of 25 December 1935 on January 4,1936. In order to consolidate its authority in the process of Turkification of religious and ethnic minorities, on 1 November 1936, during a speech in the parliament Atatürk acknowledged the situation in Dersim as Turkeys most important internal problem. Firstly, military stations were built in the strategical zones, after the Tunceli Law, the Turkish government built military observation posts in the centers of districts such as Kahmut, Sin, Karaoğlan, Amutka, Danzik, and Haydaran. Following public meetings in January 1937, a letter of protest against the law was written to be sent to the local governor, according to Kurdish sources, the emissaries of the letter were arrested and executed. In May, a group of people ambushed a police convoy in response. Seyid Riza, the chieftain of Yukarı Abbas Uşağı, sent his followers to the Haydaran, Demenan, Yusufan, and Kureyşan tribes to make an alliance. According to Turkish authorities, on March 20–21,1937, at 23,00 hrs, around 25,000 troops were deployed to quell the rebellion. This task was completed by the summer and the leaders of the rebellion. However, remnants of the rebel forces continued to resist and the number of troops in the region was doubled, the area was also bombed from the air. The rebels continued to resist until the region was pacified in October 1938, according to Osman Pamukoğlu, a general in Turkish Army in the 1990s, Atatürk had given the operational order himself
13.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
14.
Battle of Tillyria
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The Battle of Tillyria or Battle of Kokkina also known as Erenköy Resistance was a battle between the Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot forces at Kokkina area, in the Eastern Mediterranean. The island of Cyprus is located in the eastern Mediterranean, south of Turkey, in 1964, at the time of the battle, the island was governed by two Sovereign state entities—the Republic of Cyprus and the British Sovereign Base Areas. The Tillyria region of Cyprus was largely enclosed within the Morphou Administrative District in the north-west of the island, located on this coastline at Kokkina was a heavily fortified Turkish enclave with between 750 and 1000 inhabitants. In November 1963, President of the Republic of Cyprus, Archbishop Makarios III, the Greek Cypriots, likewise, refused to modify the amendments. A series of atrocities and intercommunal terrorist acts struck the island from late December 1963 and this violence perpetuated quickly, and was reinforced by pre-existing nationalist sentiments on both sides, including a Turkish desire for Taksim, and a Greek desire for Enosis. The Greek Cypriot reaction was a scramble for arms, as an additional measure, two heavy Greek Cypriot patrol gunboats were stationed near Morphou in order to launch a naval strike, should the need arise. The Commander of the Greek Cypriot National Guard, Col. Georgios Grivas, returned to Cyprus from Athens in late July 1964, shortly thereafter, the Greek Cypriots began to mobilise for an armed intervention at Kokkina, despite Turkish threats to counter-intervene by force should exactly that happen. In the days leading up to the invasion, the Cypriot National Guard began to mobilise infantry, artillery, on 6 August 1964, the Cypriot National Guard commenced its attack. The battle quickly degraded into a low-intensity exchange of sniping and support fire, on the morning of 8 August, the Cypriot patrol boats Phaethon and Arion were attacked by Turkish Air Force jets as they sailed close to Xeros Harbour, Morphou Bay. The boats commenced evasive manoeuvers and put up anti-aircraft fire, the Phaethon was quickly strafed with 75mm rockets and burst into flames, killing seven crew members and wounding several others. Its engine still running, the crew managed to guide it aground. As the Arion continued to evade the attack, a formation of Turkish F-100 Super Sabre jets came in low to attack it. A Turkish jet piloted by Captain Cengiz Topel was shot down by a Cypriot pre-WW2 vintage Bofors 40mm L60 anti-aircraft gun emplacement which was situated close to the harbour. Topel ejected almost immediately, and parachuted inland, but was captured, the Arion was hit by strafing fire several times, but managed to escape to Paphos. It did not play any part in the conflict. Between the 8–9 August 1964, the Turkish Air Force was given free rein to attack multiple targets within the Tillyria coastal warzone, Cypriot civilian casualties were reported as a result of heavy air attacks against several populated locations, including Kato Pyrgos. Turkish planes also attacked sites occupied by the Cypriot National Guard, killing a number of military personnel, the immediate geographical result of the conflict in the Tillyria region was that the Kokkina enclave was effectively reduced to approximately 50-60% of its original size. However, the Greek Cypriot National Guard had failed to storm the defenses of the enclave
15.
Turkish invasion of Cyprus
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The Turkish invasion of Cyprus was a Turkish military invasion of the island country of Cyprus. It was launched on 20 July 1974, following the Cypriot coup détat on 15 July 1974, the coup had been ordered by the military Junta in Greece and staged by the Cypriot National Guard in conjunction with EOKA-B. It deposed the Cypriot president Archbishop Makarios III and installed the pro-Enosis Nikos Sampson, the aim of the coup was the annexation of the island by Greece, and the Hellenic Republic of Cyprus was declared. In July 1974, Turkish forces invaded and captured 3% of the island before a ceasefire was declared, the Greek military junta collapsed and was replaced by a democratic government. In August 1974 another Turkish invasion resulted in the capture of approximately 40% of the island, the ceasefire line from August 1974 became the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus and is commonly referred to as the Green Line. Around 150,000 people were expelled from the northern part of the island. A little over a year later in 1975, roughly 60,000 Turkish Cypriots, in 1983 the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus declared independence, although Turkey is the only country that recognizes it. The international community considers the TRNCs territory as Turkish-occupied territory of the Republic of Cyprus, the occupation is viewed as illegal under international law, amounting to illegal occupation of European Union territory since Cyprus became its member. The invasions Turkish Armed Forces code name was Operation Atilla, among Turkish speakers the operation is also referred as Cyprus Peace Operation or Operation Peace or Cyprus Operation, as Turkey took military action on the pretext of a peacekeeping operation. In 1571 the mostly Greek-populated island of Cyprus was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, the island and its population was later leased to Britain by the Cyprus Convention, an agreement reached during the Congress of Berlin in 1878 between the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire. Article 20 of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 marked the end of the Turkish claim to the island. Article 21 of the treaty gave the minority Muslims on the island the choice of leaving the island to live as Turkish subjects in Turkey, or to stay on the island and become British subjects. At this time the population of Cyprus was composed of both Greeks and Turks, who identified themselves with their mother countries. However, the elites of both shared the belief that they were socially more progressive and therefore distinct from the mainlanders. Greek and Turkish Cypriots lived quietly side by side for many years, formal education was perhaps the most important as it affected Cypriots during childhood and youth, education has been a main vehicle of transferring inter-communal hostility. British colonial policies also promoted ethnic polarization, the British applied the principle of divide and rule, setting the two groups against each other to prevent combined action against colonial rule. This and similar practices contributed to inter-communal animosity, Turkish nationalism was at the core of the revolutionary program promoted by the father of modern Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and affected Turkish Cypriots who followed his principles. President of the Republic of Turkey from 1923 to 1938, Atatürk attempted to build a new nation on the ruins of the Ottoman Empire and these principles of secularism and nationalism reduced Islams role in the everyday life of individuals and emphasized Turkish identity as the main source of nationalism
16.
Operation Provide Comfort
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Operation Haven by the British name – was a British initiative, made at a time when the U. S. was fundamentally uninterested in any further taking of action in the Gulf. The British Prime Minister’s lobbying of European colleagues achieved NATO support, then as Saddam’s retribution activities escalated, U. S. ground and logistic support was also achieved. It was deemed successful, even though it appeared to be risky given the climate of those times. The Coalitions main task was to enter Northern Iraq, clear the area of the Iraqi threat. The ground mission within Iraq took 58 days to complete, Operation Provide Comfort/Haven officially ended shortly after and the enforcement of the No Fly Zone continued to ensure security in the region. The 1991 uprising in northern Iraq resulted in an Iraqi military response towards the rebels in northern and southern Iraq. Fearing a massacre like what had happened during the 1988 Anfal campaign, on 3 March, General Norman Schwarzkopf warned the Iraqis that Coalition aircraft would shoot down Iraqi military aircraft flying over the country. On 20 March, an American F-15C Eagle fighter aircraft shot down an Iraqi Air Force Su-22 Fitter fighter-bomber over northern Iraq, on 22 March, another F-15 destroyed a second Su-22 and the pilot of an Iraqi PC-9 trainer bailed out after being approached by American fighters. On 5 April, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 688, on 6 April, Operation Provide Comfort began to bring humanitarian relief to the Kurds. A no-fly zone was established by the U. S. the UK and this was enforced by American, British, and French aircraft. Included in this effort was the delivery of relief and military protection of the Kurds by a small Allied ground force based in Turkey. Also participating was the 3/325 Airborne Battalion Combat Team, based in Vicenza, Italy, and commanded by then-Lt. With the 3/325, was a Task Force of 6 UH-60 Blackhawks and highly trained crews led by Cpt Morrow of the 5th Quarter Master Detachment in Kaiserslautern, and SSG Bluman from Giebelstadt, Germany. Fifteen UH-60 Blackhawks and five OH-58D helicopters, crews, and support personnel from the 11th ACR in Fulda, the 11th ACR contingent remained there until mid October. The Brigade was the last unit to leave the area at the conclusion of operations, several members received the Soldiers medal after calling in and assisting in the MEDEVAC of a wounded Iraqi National from a minefield near the river not far from the MP Headquarters camp. While Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm were run by the U. S, central Command, Operation Provide Comfort came under the authority of the U. S. European Command, headquartered in Vaihingen, Germany and these units were relocated to Turkey and Northern Iraq after completing missions in Kuwait. The base camps that were established for Kurdish refugees were nicknamed Camp Jayhawk and he led a team of fifteen that is now known as the first Air Force unit to enter Iraq
17.
Operation Deliberate Force
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The operation was carried out between 30 August and 20 September 1995, involving 400 aircraft and 5,000 personnel from 15 nations. Commanded by Admiral Leighton W. Smith, the campaign struck 338 Bosnian Serb targets, overall,1,026 bombs were dropped during the operation,708 of which were precision-guided. The Bosnian War was an armed conflict that took place in Bosnia. After popular pressure, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was asked by the United Nations to intervene in the Bosnian War after allegations of war crimes against civilians were made. In response to the refugee and humanitarian crisis in Bosnia, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 743 on 21 February 1992, the UNPROFOR mandate was to keep the population alive and deliver humanitarian aid to refugees in Bosnia until the war ended. On 9 October 1992, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 781 and this resolution led to Operation Sky Monitor, where NATO monitored violations of the no-fly zone, but it did not take action against violators of the resolution. In response, on 12 April, NATO initiated Operation Deny Flight which was tasked with enforcing the no-fly zone and allowed to engage the violators of the no-fly zone. However, Serb forces on the continued to attack UN safe areas in Bosnia. On 4 June, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 836 authorizing the use of force by UNPROFOR in the protection of specially designated safe zones. On 15 June, Operation Sharp Guard, a blockade in the Adriatic Sea by NATO and the Western European Union, began after being approved at a joint session of NATO. Only Greece failed to support the use of airstrikes, but it did not veto the proposal, on 12 February 1994, Sarajevo enjoyed its first casualty-free day in 22 months. On 28 February, the scope of NATO involvement in Bosnia increased dramatically, in an incident near Banja Luka, NATO fighters operating under Deny Flight shot down four Bosnian Serb fighters for violating a no-fly zone. This was the first combat operation in the history of NATO and opened the door for a steadily growing NATO role in Bosnia. On 10 and 11 April 1994, UNPROFOR called in air strikes to protect the Goražde safe area and this was the first time in NATOs history it had ever done so. Subsequently, the Bosnian-Serbs took 150 UN personnel hostage on 14 April, on 16 April, a British Sea Harrier was shot down over Goražde by Bosnian Serb forces. On 5 August, at the request of UNPROFOR, two U. S. Afterwards, the Serbs agreed to return the remaining heavy weapons, on 22 September 1994, NATO aircraft carried out an air strike against a Bosnian Serb tank at the request of UNPROFOR. On 25–26 May 1995, after violations of the exclusion zones, some 370 UN peacekeepers in Bosnia were taken hostage and subsequently used as human shields at potential targets in a successful bid to prevent further air strikes. On 2 June, two U. S. Air Force F-16 jets were sent on patrol over Bosnia in support of Operation Deny Flight, while on patrol, an F-16 piloted by Captain Scott OGrady was shot down by a Bosnian Serb SA-6 surface-to-air missile
18.
Operation Northern Watch
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Operation Northern Watch, the successor to Operation Provide Comfort, was a Combined Task Force charged with enforcing its own no-fly zone above the 36th parallel in Iraq. Its mission began on 1 January 1997, the coalition partners of the United States, United Kingdom, and Turkey provided approximately 45 aircraft and more than 1,400 personnel to support Operation Northern Watch. The joint U. S. forces of some 1,100 U. S. personnel, included airmen, sailors, soldiers, the original mandate from the Turkish government allowed the operation to continue for six months. Turkey subsequently approved two 6-month extensions, but indicated that it would not become a permanent mission, for the first year of the mission, northern Iraq was quiet, with no combat between Coalition aircraft and Iraqi forces. Operation Northern Watch forces did not take part in Operation Desert Fox in December 1998, after Desert Fox, Iraq announced they would no longer recognize the no-fly zones and urged their troops to attack Coalition aircraft. On December 28,1998 Iraq fired SA-3 surface to air missiles against coalition aircraft patrolling the northern no-fly zone, from December 1998 to March 1999, U. S. aircraft over northern Iraq came under almost daily fire from Iraqi surface-to-air missile sites and anti-aircraft guns. U. S. aircraft responded by bombing Iraqi air-defense sites, using laser-guided bombs as well as AGM-88 HARM missiles, the first combat use of the AGM-130 was conducted during ONW. Coalition aircraft flew patrols on an average of 18 days per month, the most common threat was from anti-aircraft guns. Despite Saddam Hussein offering a $14,000 reward for downing a Coalition aircraft, low level conflict continued up until the invasion of Iraq in 2003, although the number of response incidents declined dramatically after 1999. The final combat air patrol occurred on 17 March 2003, six weeks later the operation concluded with an official stand down on 1 May 2003. A grand total of 36,000 sorties were flown during Operation Northern Watch, Operation Northern Watch was the longest combat operation in the history of the European Command. Operation Southern Watch Global Security brief on Operation Northern Watch
19.
NATO bombing of Yugoslavia
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The NATO bombing of Yugoslavia was the North Atlantic Treaty Organisations military operation against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War. The air strikes lasted from March 24,1999 to June 10,1999, NATO claimed that the Albanian population in Kosovo were being persecuted by FRY forces, Serbian police, and Serb paramilitary forces, and that military action was needed to force the FRY to stop. NATO countries attempted to gain authorization from the United Nations Security Council for military action, NATO launched a campaign without UN authorization, which it described as a humanitarian intervention. The FRY described the NATO campaign as a war of aggression against a sovereign country that was in violation of international law because it did not have UN Security Council support. The bombing killed between 489 and 528 civilians, and destroyed bridges, industrial plants, public buildings, private businesses, as well as barracks, the NATO bombing marked the second major combat operation in its history, following the 1995 NATO bombing campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was the first time that NATO had used military force without the approval of the UN Security Council, after its autonomy was quashed, Kosovo was faced with state organized oppression, from the early 1990s, Albanian language radio and television were restricted and newspapers shut down. Kosovar Albanians were fired in large numbers from public enterprises and institutions, including banks, hospitals, in June 1991 the University of Priština assembly and several faculty councils were dissolved and replaced by Serbs. Kosovar Albanian teachers were prevented from entering school premises for the new year beginning in September 1991. Later, Kosovar Albanians started an insurgency against Belgrade when the Kosovo Liberation Army was founded in 1996, armed clashes between two sides broke out in early 1998. A NATO-facilitated ceasefire was signed on 15 October, but both sides broke it two months later and fighting resumed, after the Rambouillet Accords broke down on 23 March with Yugoslav rejection of an external peacekeeping force, NATO prepared to install the peacekeepers by force. Operation Allied Force predominantly used an air campaign to destroy Yugoslav military infrastructure from high altitudes. After the third day of bombing, NATO had destroyed almost all of its strategic military targets in Yugoslavia. Despite this, the Yugoslav Army continued to function and to attack Kosovo Liberation Army insurgents inside Kosovo, mostly in the regions of Northern and Southwest Kosovo. The NATO air forces also targeted infrastructure, such as plants, water-processing plants. Commentators have debated whether the capitulation of Yugoslavia in the Kosovo War of 1999 resulted solely from the use of air power, the Rand Corporation examined the issue in a study. According to John Keegan, the capitulation of Yugoslavia in the Kosovo War marked a point in the history of warfare. It proved that a war can be won by air power alone, by comparison, diplomacy had failed before the war, and the deployment of a large NATO ground force was still weeks away when Slobodan Milošević agreed to a peace deal. As for why air power should have been capable of acting alone and these normally come together only rarely, but all occurred during the Kosovo War, Bombardment needs to be capable of causing destruction while minimising casualties
20.
Operation Enduring Freedom
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Operation Enduring Freedom comprises several subordinate operations, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, lasted from October 2001 to 31 December 2014. Government used the term Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan to officially describe the War in Afghanistan, continued operations in Afghanistan by the United States military forces, both non-combat and combat, now occur under the name Operation Freedoms Sentinel. In September 2001, U. S. President George W, the term OEF-A typically refers to the phase of the War in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014. Other operations, such as the Georgia Train and Equip Program, are loosely or nominally connected. All the operations, however, have a focus on counterterrorism activities, Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, which was a joint U. S. U. K. and Afghan operation, was separate from the International Security Assistance Force, which was an operation of North Atlantic Treaty Organization nations including the U. S. and the U. K. The two operations ran in parallel, although it had suggested that they merge. S. and British ships. The initial military objectives of OEF-A, as articulated by President George W, of those groups included are Abu Sayyaf Group, al-Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah. The operation consisted of training the AFP in counter-terrorist operations as well as supporting the people with humanitarian aid in Operation Smiles. In October 2002, the Combined Task Force 150 and United States military Special Forces established themselves in Djibouti at Camp Lemonnier, the stated goals of the operation were to provide humanitarian aid and patrol the Horn of Africa to reduce the abilities of terrorist organizations in the region. The military aspect involves coalition forces searching and boarding ships entering the region for illegal cargo as well as providing training, the humanitarian aspect involves building schools, clinics and water wells to enforce the confidence of the local people. Since 2001, the expenditure by the U. S. government on Operation Enduring Freedom has exceeded $150 billion. The operation continues, with military direction mostly coming from United States Central Command, seizing upon a power vacuum after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan after their invasion, the Taliban assumed the role of government from 1996–2001. Their extreme interpretation of Islamic law prompted them to ban music, television, sports, and dancing, amputation was an accepted form of punishment for stealing, and public executions could often be seen at the Kabul football stadium. Womens rights groups around the world were frequently critical as the Taliban banned women from appearing in public or holding many jobs outside the home and they drew further criticism when they destroyed the Buddhas of Bamyan, historical statues nearly 1500 years old, because the Buddhas were considered idols. In 1996, Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan upon the invitation of the Northern Alliance leader Abdur Rabb ur Rasool Sayyaf, when the Taliban came to power, bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and his al-Qaeda organization. It is understood that al-Qaeda-trained fighters known as the 055 Brigade were integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and 2001 and it has been suggested that the Taliban and bin Laden had very close connections. On 20 September 2001, the U. S. stated that Osama bin Laden was behind the 11 September attacks in 2001, the US made a five-point ultimatum to the Taliban, Deliver to the U. S
21.
Kurdish rebellions in Turkey
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In 1925, an uprising for an independent Kurdistan, led by Shaikh Said Piran, was put down quickly, and Said and 36 of his followers were executed soon thereafter. Several other large scale Kurdish revolts occurred in Ararat and Dersim in 1930 and 1937, the British consul at Trebizond, the diplomatic post closest to Dersim, spoke of brutal and indiscriminate violence and made an explicit comparison with the Armenian massacres of 1915. It is now stated that the Kurdish question no longer exists in Turkey, Kurds accuse successive Turkish governments of suppressing their identity through such means as the banning of Kurdish language in print and media. Atatürk believed the unity and stability of a country lay in a political identity, relegating cultural. However, many Kurds did not relinquish their identities and language, large-scale armed conflict between the Turkish armed forces and the Kurdistan Workers Party occurred throughout the 1980s and 1990s, leaving over 35,000 dead. Recent moves by the Turkish government have provided Kurds with limited rights and freedoms, particularly in regards to the Kurdish language, education, Kurdish politicians and activists still face pressure. This particular rebellion failed for reasons, most of which have something to do with its Kizilbash character. To most Kurmancî Kurds at the time, the uprising appeared to be merely an Alevi uprising —, all this disappeared in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, however. Bitterly disappointed, the Kurds turned again to armed struggle in 1925 — this time led by the Zaza cleric Sheikh Said, but organized by another, newer, Kurdish nationalist organization, Azadî. The main rebellion which dominates the history of the Kurds in Turkey is that of the 1925 rebellion in Kurdistan region of Turkey which was led by Sheikh Said. The repression and aggression of Kemalist secularism followed and all manifestations of Kurdish identity was outlawed which, in turn. The revolt of Sheikh Said began in February 1925, of almost 15,000 fighters who participated in the rebellion against the 52,000 Turkish Gendarmerie, the main Kurdish tribes participating in the rebellion came from Zaza. The rebellion covered most of the part of Amed and Mardin provinces, the Sheikh Said rebellion was the first large scale rebellion of the Kurdish race movement in Turkey. The main organizer of this rebellion was the Kurdish Independent Society, azadi’s intention was to liberate Kurds from Turkish oppression and thus deliver freedom and further, develop their country. By March 1925 the revolt was pretty much over, Sheikh Said and all the other rebel leaders were hanged by June 29. In Fall of 1927 Sheikh Abdurrahman began a series of attacks on Turkish garrisons in Palu, districts of Lice, Bingöl were captured by the rebels. They also occupied the south of Erzurum. Turkish military used air force against the rebels using five airplanes in Mardin, in October 1927, Kurdish rebels attacked and occupied Bayazid
22.
2008 Turkish incursion into northern Iraq
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The ground offensive was preceded by Turkish Air Force aerial bombardments against PKK camps in northern Iraq, which began on December 16,2007. This constituted the first confirmed ground incursion of Iraq since the 2003 U. S. -led invasion, initial reports indicated that up to 10,000 troops had taken part in the operation, while later reports indicated just several hundred. In October 2007, Turkish jets and ground forces clashed with PKK forces in Turkey, Turkey launched its first cross-border raid on December 16,2007, involving 50 fighter jets. A Turkish military statement said that up to 175 militants were killed on that day alone, while Iraqi officials reported that the strikes had targeted 10 villages and killed one civilian. On January 10,2008, Turkish warplanes bombed PKK hideouts in northern Iraq, the military announced, the Turkish military said in a statement on February 4 that Turkish fighter jets struck nearly 70 PKK targets in northern Iraq in a series of strikes. According to the Turkish General Staffs estimates, there were 300 PKK militants in the prior to the incursion. On February 21, Turkey began targeted artillery and aerial bombardment of PKK positions in northern Iraq in order to destroy the infrastructure in the region. This lasted from 10,00 to 18,00 local time and he also invited Talabani to come to Turkey. Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan said he called Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki on the night the ground operation began, the incursion itself began at 17,00 UTC February 21,2008. Reports from NTV Turkey indicated that 10,000 troops were involved in the operation, another report from CNN-Turk said that 3000 special forces were involved. The incursion was announced on the Turkish General Staffs website the following day, according to the Iraqi Foreign Minister, Turkish troops had advanced only 5 km into Iraqi territory. 60 tanks were said to have initially entered Iraq. Kurdish-Iraqi peshmerga forces were put on alert and prevented Turkish military monitors in northern Iraq from leaving their camps, Iraq claimed that Turkey had destroyed five bridges in the area. On February 24, PKK sources claimed that PKK fighters had shot down a Turkish Cobra helicopter, Turkey confirmed this later in the day, saying that the incident happened due to an unknown reason. Advancing Turkish troops were attacking the PKKs shelters, logistic centers, according to Turkey, the retreating PKK militants set booby traps under the corpses of dead comrades and planted mines on escape routes in order to gain time. By February 25, the military had advanced more than 12 miles into Iraq, fighting was concentrated on a strategic hill controlling the entrance to the valley. At least 21 militants were killed in the battle for the hill according to the Turkish army, the PKK used long-range guns to hold off the military, killing two Turkish soldiers, until silenced with light and heavy weapons fire. PKK losses could not be determined because of bad weather, on February 27 Turkey sent additional troops to Iraq in the face of ongoing pressure from the international community for a speedy withdrawal
23.
President of Turkey
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The President of the Republic of Turkey is the head of state of the Republic of Turkey. The Presidency is largely a ceremonial office but has important functions. The articles from 101 to 106 of the Constitution establish all the requirements, election, duties, the office of the President of Turkey was established with the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey on October 29,1923. The President of Turkey is often referred to as the Cumhurbaşkanı. The current office-holder is the 12th President, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan since August 28,2014, in order to become the President of Turkey, the candidate must have completed higher education, and be at least forty years of age. The president-elect has to sever his relations, if any, with his political party, candidates must be declared to the bureau of the parliament within the first 10 days of this period, and elections must be completed within the remaining 20 days. Formerly, the President was elected by the members of the Turkish Parliament, according to an amendment that was drafted in 2007, the future Presidents shall be elected by the citizens through a public vote. The candidates must be over forty years old and must have completed their higher education and they can either be members of the Turkish Parliament, or common Turkish citizens who fulfill these requirements and who are eligible to become members of parliament. The President is selected for a term of office of five years, the term of office of the incumbent president continues until the President-elect takes office. The president performs also the duties of selection and appointment, and other duties conferred by the constitution, thus the prime minister and the concerned ministers are accountable for these decrees. The decisions and orders signed by the president on his own initiatives may not be appealed against to any judicial authority, including the Constitutional Court
24.
Nurettin Canikli
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Nurettin Canikli is a Deputy Prime Minister of Turkey, in office since 24 May 2016. He formerly served as the Minister of Customs and Trade of Turkey from 2014 to 2015 and he is a Member of Parliament for Giresun of the ruling Justice and Development Party. After finishing the İmam Hatip school in Giresun, he studied Economics at Ankara University graduating with a Bachelorss degree, Canikli obtained a Masters degree in Finance from University of Sheffield in the United Kingdom. He worked in positions in the Ministry of Finance. He was a columnist at the daily Yeni Şafak, Canikli became one of the co-founders of the Justice and Development Party. In the 2002 general election, he was elected Deputy of Giresun, in the 2007 and 2011 elections, he secured his seat in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. On August 29,2014, he was appointed Minister of Customs, Canikli is married and father of four children
25.
General Staff of the Republic of Turkey
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The General Staff of the Republic of Turkey presides over the Armed Forces of the Republic of Turkey, comprising the Army, Navy, Air Force and Special Forces. The Chief of the General Staff is the Commander of the Armed Forces, the current Chief of the General Staff is Hulusi Akar. According to the Constitution of Turkey, the Chief of the General Staff reports to the Prime Minister during peacetime, in times of war, the Chief of the General Staff assumes the authority of Commander in Chief on behalf of the Parliament, which is represented by the President. Furthermore, the General Staff coordinates the relations of the Turkish Armed Forces with its counterparts in the member states of NATO. It is customary for the Chief of the General Staff to have held the posts of Commander of the First Army of Turkey, the hierarchy, representation and employment of the Turkish Armed Forces within the state organization is regulated by the constitution of Turkey. According to the constitution, the office of the Commander in Chief is represented in the entity of the Grand National Assembly. The Chief of the General Staff is appointed by the President as the Commander of the Armed Forces, the Council of Ministers is responsible to the Grand National Assembly for national security and the preparation of the Turkish Armed Forces to defend the country. The Chief of the General Staff is responsible to the Prime Minister of Turkey and is charged with the overall command and he is also responsible for conducting the military operations effectively, and the operational readiness of the Armed Forces. The commanders of the three services directly to the Chief of the General Staff. The General Staff and the Ministry of National Defense work in coordination and cooperation to fulfill their respective responsibilities. Special Forces Command is not aligned to any command in TSK. Its forerunner was the Special Warfare Department, the Berets also work along with Underwater Defence Teams and Underwater Strike Teams
26.
General officer
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A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
27.
Hulusi Akar
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Hulusi Akar is a four-star Turkish Armed Forces general. He is currently serving as the 29th Chief of the General Staff, Akar is the highest-ranking military officer in the Turkish Armed Forces. After the President and the Ministry of National Defence, he has the highest command on all branches of the Turkish Armed Forces including the Land Forces, Air Force. Akar has experience as a commander in various NATO engagements including ISAF, Operation Deliberate Force during the Bosnian War. Akar was born in 1952 in Kayseri, Turkey and he graduated from the Turkish Military Academy in 1972 and the Turkish Infantry School in 1973. In 1975 he attended Queens University Belfast for postgraduate studies in International Diplomacy, Akar served as a company commander, section chief and branch chief at various units and headquarters including the Turkish General Staff. He also served as an instructor at the Army Command and Staff College and was posted abroad as a officer in the intelligence division in HQ AFSOUTH / Naples. From 1993 until 1994, he was the Military Assistant to the Land Forces Commander, later on, he continued this assignment for the Commander of the Turkish Armed Forces between the years of 1994-1997. He was subsequently posted as the Commander of the Turkish Brigade - Zenica/Bosnia from 1997 until 1998, after his promotion to lieutenant general, he was the commander of Land Forces Logistics and then the Commander of NRDC-T and the 3rd Corps between 2009 and 2011. On 2 August 2015, General Akar was appointed as the 29th Chief of the General Staff, Akar was taken hostage on 15 July 2016 during the Turkish Armed Forces 2016 attempted coup détat against the Turkish government, by those responsible for leading the attempted coup. According to The Economist, Akar was told by his aides to sign a declaration of martial law, when he refused, they tightened a belt around his neck, but he would not yield. He was held hostage at Akıncı Air Base in Ankara before pro-government forces retook control of the air base, the rescue was announced at 02,45 EEST on 16 July 2016 by Anadolu Agency, although CNN Türk placed the time of rescue attempt around 07,45 EEST. First Army commander General Ümit Dündar served as Acting Chief of General Staff during Akars capture, after his release he testified that one of his captors offered to put him on the phone with alleged coup figurehead Fethullah Gülen. Akar has led the Turkish military intervention in Syria since 2016, General Hulusi Akar is married to Şule Akar, with whom he has two children. List of Chiefs of the Turkish General Staff
28.
Lieutenant
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A lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer in many nations armed forces, fire service or police. The meaning of lieutenant differs in different military formations, but is often subdivided into senior and junior ranks, in navies it is often equivalent to the army rank of captain, it may also indicate a particular post rather than a rank. The rank is used in fire services, emergency medical services, security services. Lieutenant may also appear as part of a used in various other organisations with a codified command structure. It often designates someone who is second-in-command, and as such, for example, a lieutenant master is likely to be second-in-command to the master in an organisation using both ranks. Political uses include lieutenant governor in various governments, and Quebec lieutenant in Canadian politics, in the United Kingdom, a lord lieutenant is the sovereigns representative in a county or lieutenancy area, while a deputy lieutenant is one of the lord lieutenants deputies. However, their efforts failed, and the French word is used, along with its many variations. The early history of the pronunciation is unclear, Middle English spellings suggest that the /luː-/ and /lɛf-/ pronunciations may have existed even then. The rare Old French variant spelling luef for Modern French lieu supports the suggestion that a final of the Old French word was in certain environments perceived as an, in Royal Naval tradition—and other English-speaking navies outside the United States—a reduced pronunciation /ləˈtɛnənt/ is used. This is not recognised as current by recent editions of the OED, conventionally, armies and other services or branches which use army-style rank titles have two grades of lieutenant, but a few also use a third, more junior, rank. Where more junior officers were employed as deputies to the lieutenant, they went by names, including second lieutenant, sub-lieutenant, ensign. The senior grade of lieutenant is known as first lieutenant in the United States, and as lieutenant in the United Kingdom, in countries which do not speak English, the rank title usually translates as lieutenant, but may also translate as first lieutenant or senior lieutenant. The Israel Defense Forces rank segen literally translates as deputy, which is equivalent to a lieutenant, there is great variation in the insignia used worldwide. In most English-speaking and Arabic-speaking countries, as well as a number of European and South American nations, an example of an exception is the United States, whose armed forces distinguish their lieutenant ranks with one silver bar for first lieutenant and one gold bar for second lieutenant. Second lieutenant is usually the most junior grade of commissioned officer, in non-English-speaking countries, the equivalent rank title may translate as second lieutenant, lieutenant, sub-lieutenant or junior lieutenant. Non-English terms include alferes, alférez, fänrik, ensign, Leutnant, letnan, poručík, a few non-English-speaking militaries maintain a lower rank, frequently translated as third lieutenant OF1c. The rank title may translate as second lieutenant, junior lieutenant, sub-lieutenant or ensign. Warsaw Pact countries standardised their ranking systems on the Soviet system, some of the former Soviet and Warsaw Pact nations have now discarded the third rank while many retain it like Bulgaria
29.
Roundel
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A roundel is a circular disc used as a symbol. Other symbols also often use round shapes, in heraldry, a roundel is a circular charge. Roundels are among the oldest charges used in coats of arms, roundels in British heraldry have different names depending on their tincture. One special example of a roundel is the fountain, depicted as a roundel barry wavy argent and azure. The French Air Service originated the use of roundels on military aircraft during the First World War, the chosen design was the French national cockade, whose colours are the blue-white-red of the Flag of France. After the First World War, many air forces adopted roundel insignia. Military aircraft insignia, such as that of the Philippine Air Force, among flags which display a roundel are the flag of Bangladesh and the flag of Japan. Flags for British overseas dependencies are often a British Blue Ensign defaced with a white roundel displaying the arms or badge of the dependency, the same pattern is used for some of the states of Australia. The roundel, especially used by the Royal Air Force, has been associated with pop art of the 1960s. It became part of the pop consciousness when British rock group The Who wore RAF roundels as part of their stage apparel at the start of their career, subsequently it came to symbolise Mods and the Mod revival. Some of Paul Wellers material involves the use of a roundel in psychedelic colours, ben Harpers album Fight For Your Mind uses roundels from several air forces as graphics in the liner notes. In the British television series Doctor Who, the decorations on the interior walls of the TARDIS control room are known as roundels. Some corporations and organizations use of roundels in their branding. Flags, Through the Ages and Around the World, the pocket guide to Military Aircraft and the Worlds Air Forces
30.
Aviator badge
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An aviator badge is an insignia used in most of the worlds militaries to designate those who have received training and qualification in military aviation. A United States Aviator Badge refers to three types of badges issued by the United States military, those being for Army, Air Force. In the modern military, Army and Air Force Aviator Badges are issued in three ratings, Basic, Senior, and Command/Master/Chief, the higher degrees are denoted by a star or star with wreath above the badge. Air Force regulations state that the basic rating denotes completion of specified training, the Naval Aviator Badge is issued in a single rating for the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard. The first United States Aviator Badges were issued to members of the Air Service during World War I, the badges were issued in three degrees, Observer, Junior Aviator or Reserve Aviation Officer, and Senior Aviator. The Army Air Corps also issued a badge for balloon pilots, Enlisted Aviators wore their regular rank insignia and the Observers badge. There were 29 enlisted pilots before the American entry into World War I, the second enlisted aviator, William A. Lamkey, got a discharge and flew for Pancho Villa. The remaining enlisted pilots received commissions in 1917, there were 60 enlisted mechanics who were trained as pilots in France during the war, but they were used for ferrying duties and did not fly in combat. The recruiting and training of enlisted Aviators ended in 1933, during World War II, with the rise of the Army Air Forces, a second series of aviator badges were issued to include a design that has survived to the modern day. The Army Air Corps Pilot Badge was issued in three degrees, including Pilot, Senior Pilot, and Command Pilot, a polished silver colored version of these badges is currently used as the United States Air Force Pilot Badges. From August 1941 to November 1942, the Enlisted Aviator program was restarted, candidates had to be at least 18, possess a high school diploma, and have graduated at the top of their High School class. Graduates were rated as Flight Staff Sergeants or Flight Technical Sergeants and they were usually assigned to pilots of transport and auxiliary aircraft to free officer pilots to pilot the more prestigious fighters and bombers. Auxiliary pilots received their own wings to indicate their status. In November 1942 all enlisted pilots were promoted to Flight Officer rank, after the creation of the U. S. Air Force as a separate service in 1947, Army Aviation continued to a degree that warranted a new badge for Army Aviators. The result was the creation of the Army Aviator Badge, which is a version of the U. S. Air Force Pilot Badge. It comes in three grades, Basic, Senior, and Master, the Aviator and Senior Aviator Badges were approved on 27 July 1950 and the Master Aviator Badge was approved on 12 February 1957. In 1947, the U. S. Army Air Corps-cum-U. S, Army Air Forces became its own separate service as the U. S. Air Force. The U. S. Air Force currently issues several aviation badges including pilot, combat officer, air battle manager, flight surgeon, flight nurse, non-rated officer aircrew
31.
Bomber
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A bomber is a combat aircraft designed to attack ground and sea targets by dropping air-to-ground weaponry, firing torpedoes or deploying air-launched cruise missiles. In 1912, during the First Balkan War, Bulgarian Air Force pilot Christo Toprakchiev suggested the use of aircraft to drop bombs on Turkish positions, captain Simeon Petrov developed the idea and created several prototypes by adapting different types of grenades and increasing their payload. This is deemed to be the first use of an aircraft as a bomber, the first heavier-than-air aircraft purposely designed for bombing were the Italian Caproni Ca 30 and British Bristol T. B.8, both of 1913. The Bristol T. B.8 was an early British single engined biplane built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company, under the command of Charles Rumney Samson, a bombing attack on German gun batteries at Middelkerke, Belgium was executed on 25 November 1914. The dirigible, or airship, was developed in the early 20th century, early airships were prone to disaster, but slowly the airship became more dependable, with a more rigid structure and stronger skin. Prior to the outbreak of war, Zeppelins, a larger and these were the first long range, strategic bombers. Although the German air arm was strong, with a total of 123 airships by the end of the war, they were vulnerable to attack and engine failure, German airships inflicted little damage on all 51 raids, with 557 Britons killed and 1,358 injured. The German Navy lost 53 of its 73 airships, and the German Army lost 26 of its 50 ships, the Caproni Ca 30 was built by Gianni Caproni in Italy. It was a biplane with three 67 kW Gnome rotary engines and first flew in October 1914. Test flights revealed power to be insufficient and the engine layout unworkable, the improved design was bought by the Italian Army and it was delivered in quantity from August 1915. Bombing raids and interdiction operations were carried out by French. Sustained attacks with a view to interrupting the enemys railway communications, in conjunction with the main operations of the Allied Armies. The most important bombers used in World War I were the French Breguet 14, British de Havilland DH-4, German Albatros C. III, the Russian Sikorsky Ilya Muromets, was the first four-engine bomber to equip a dedicated strategic bombing unit during World War I. This heavy bomber was unrivaled in the stages of the war. With engine power as a limitation, combined with the desire for accuracy and other operational factors. By the start of the war included, dive bomber — specially strengthened for vertical diving attacks for greater accuracy. Light bomber, medium bomber and heavy bomber — subjective definitions based on size, torpedo bomber — specialized aircraft armed with torpedoes. Ground attack aircraft — aircraft used against targets on a such as troop or tank concentrations
32.
Electronic warfare
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Electronic warfare is any action involving the use of the electromagnetic spectrum or directed energy to control the spectrum, attack of an enemy, or impede enemy assaults via the spectrum. The purpose of warfare is to deny the opponent the advantage of, and ensure friendly unimpeded access to. EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by manned and unmanned systems, Military operations are executed in an information environment increasingly complicated by the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum portion of the environment is referred to as the electromagnetic environment. Within the information operations construct, EW is an element of warfare, more specifically. NATO has a different and arguably more encompassing and comprehensive approach to EW, a Military Committee conceptual document from 2007 recognised the EME as an operational manoeuvre space and warfighting environment/domain. In NATO, EW is considered to be warfare in the EME, NATO has adopted simplified language which parallel those used in the other warfighting environments like maritime, land and air/space. For example, Electronic Attack is offensive use of EM energy, ED is electronic defence and ES electronic surveillance. The use of the traditional NATO EW measures has been retained as they contribute to and support EA, ED, besides EW, other EM operations include ISTAR and SIGINT. Subsequently NATO has issued EW Policy and Doctrine and is addressing the other NATO defence lines of development, Electronic warfare is any military action involving the use of the EM spectrum to include directed energy to control the EM spectrum or to attack an enemy. This is not limited to radio or radar frequencies but includes IR, visible, ultraviolet and this includes self-protection, standoff, and escort jamming, and antiradiation attacks. EW is a tool that enhances many air and space functions at multiple levels of conflict. The purpose of EW is to deny the opponent an advantage in the EM spectrum, EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by manned and unmanned systems. EW is employed to support operations involving various levels of detection, denial, deception, disruption, degradation, protection. Expanding reliance on the EM spectrum increases both the potential and the challenges of EW in information operations, all of the core, supporting, and related information operations capabilities either directly use EW or indirectly benefit from EW. The principal EW activities have developed over time to exploit the opportunities and vulnerabilities that are inherent in the physics of EM energy. Electronic warfare includes three major subdivisions, electronic attack, electronic protection, and electronic warfare support, in the case of EM energy, this action is referred to as jamming and can be performed on communications systems or radar systems. Jamming is not part of EP, it is an EA measure, the use of flare rejection logic on an Infrared homing missile to counter an adversary’s use of flares is EP
33.
Boeing 737 AEW&C
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The Boeing 737 AEW&C is a twin-engine airborne early warning and control aircraft. It is lighter than the 707-based Boeing E-3 Sentry, and mounts a fixed and it was designed for the Royal Australian Air Force under Project Wedgetail and designated E-7A Wedgetail. The 737 AEW&C has also selected by the Turkish Air Force and the Republic of Korea Air Force, and has been proposed to Italy. In the 1990s, Australia began forming a need for an early warning. In 1996, Australia issued a request for proposal for the aircraft for the RAAF under Project Wedgetail, in 2000, Australia awarded Boeing Integrated Defense Systems a contract to supply four AEW&C aircraft with options for three additional aircraft. The 737 AEW&C is based on the Boeing 737 Next Generation design, the aircraft uses the Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems Multi-role Electronically Scanned Array radar. The L-band electronically scanned AEW and surveillance radar is located on a fin on top of the fuselage, dubbed the top hat. The radar is capable of air and sea search, fighter control and area search. When operating in look-down mode against fighter-sized target, the range is in excess of 370 km. When used against maritime targets, the range is over 240 km for frigate-sized targets. MESA is capable of simultaneously tracking 180 targets and conducting 24 intercepts, in addition, the radar antenna array is also doubled as an ELINT array, with a maximum range of over 850 km at 9,000 meter altitude. The 10.8 m long by 3.4 m high antenna assembly incorporates 7.3 m long by 2, the radars beam can be set for a 2° to 8° width, while scan duration can be set from 3 s to 40 s. Radar signal processing equipment and central computer are installed directly below the antenna array, other modifications include ventral fins to counterbalance the radar and countermeasures mounted on the nose, wingtips and tail. In-flight refueling is via a receptacle on top of the forward fuselage, the cabin features eight operator consoles with sufficient space for four more, the Australian fleet will operate ten consoles with space for two more. Northrop Grummans MESA radar also formed the basis for the same companys Multi-Platform Radar Technology Insertion Program which was developed for the United States Air Forces E-10 MC2A aircraft, Australia ordered four AEW&C aircraft with options for three additional aircraft. Australia has since taken up two of those options, aircraft deliveries were to begin in 2006, but significant program delays due to integration problems have occurred. The first two Wedgetail aircraft were assembled and underwent testing in Seattle, Washington, the remaining aircraft are to be assembled by Boeing Australia. For the Australian aircraft, Boeing and Northrop are teamed with Boeing Australia, Boeing Australia will provide training, maintenance and support, BAE provides EWSP systems, Electronic Support Measures systems and ground support systems
34.
CASA/IPTN CN-235
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Its primary military roles include maritime patrol, surveillance, and air transport. Its largest user is Turkey which has 59 aircraft, the project was a joint venture between Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA and Indonesian Aerospace, formerly known as IPTN, which formed Airtech International to manage the programme. The partnership applied only to the Series 10 and Series 100/110, over 230 of all versions of CN-235 are in service and have accumulated more than 500,000 flight hours. Design began in January 1980 with first flight on 11 November 1983, Spanish and Indonesian certification was on 20 June 1986, the first flight of the production aircraft was on 19 August 1986 and CASAs FAA type approval was granted on 3 December 1986. In 1995, CASA launched development of a stretched CN-235 as the C-295, in December 2002, the Colombian Navy ordered two CN-235 for patrol and anti-drug trafficking missions. In January 2006, Thailand placed an order with Indonesian Aerospace for ten aircraft, six for the Ministry of Defence, in December 2007, Spain ordered two CN-235 maritime patrol aircraft for the Guardia Civil, for delivery 2008–2009. One CN-235 MPA aircraft was delivered by Indonesian Aerospace to the Indonesian defence ministry in June 2008, in August 2006, three CASA CN-235-10 aircraft remained in airline service, in Africa, with Safair and Tiko Air. Asian Spirit operated a lone CN-235-220 in the Philippines, correct as of June/July 2007, there are at least two CN-235s flying with the United States Air Force for an undisclosed role with the 427th Special Operations Squadron, located at the former Pope AFB, North Carolina. In early July 2008, the Mexican Navy announced that it would purchase six CASA CN-235s from Spain, in April 2010, Hervé Morin, French Minister of Defence, announced the order of eight CN-235-300s from Spain. In 2011, Indonesian Aerospace was still working on 4 CN-235-110 MPAs for South Korea Coast Guard with amount of $96 million, the Senegalese Air Force acquired two CN-235s in 2010 and August 2012 under a $13 million contract. They plan to buy two more aircraft for VIP and cargo duties, the Air Force is also interested in the maritime patrol version of the aircraft. Previously also known as CN-235NG, this variant planned to be launched after Indonesian Aerospace N-219 project is done. Further planned development is N-270, a version of N-245 that able to carry up to 70-90 passengers. Although the CN-235 was designed for purposes in the 1980s, it began to be used as a commercial plane. Possibly its lack of success was due to its 50-passenger capacity, CN-235-10 Initial production version, with GE CT7-7A engines. CN-235-100/110 Generally as series 10, but with GE CT7-9C engines in new composites nacelles, Series 100 is Spanish-built, series 110 Indonesian-built, with improved electrical, warning and environmental systems. Series 200 is Spanish-built, Series 220 Indonesian-built, cN-235-300 CASA Modification of 200/220 series, with the Honeywell International Corp. avionics suite. Other features include improved pressurisation and provision for optional twin-nosewheel installation, CN-235 MPA Maritime patrol version with 6 hardpoints to carry AM-39 Exocet-Missiles or Mk. 46-Torpedoes
35.
Fighter aircraft
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A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed, maneuverability, many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are designed as dual-purpose fighter-bombers, often aircraft that do not fulfill the standard definition are called fighters. This may be for political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, a fighters main purpose is to establish air superiority over a battlefield. Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare, the word fighter did not become the official English-language term for such aircraft until after World War I. In the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force these aircraft were referred to as scouts into the early 1920s, the U. S. Army called their fighters pursuit aircraft from 1916 until the late 1940s. In most languages a fighter aircraft is known as a hunter, exceptions include Russian, where a fighter is an истребитель, meaning exterminator, and Hebrew where it is matose krav. As a part of nomenclature, a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use. In Russia I was used, while the French continue to use C and this has always been the case, for instance the Sopwith Camel and other fighting scouts of World War I performed a great deal of ground-attack work. Several aircraft, such as the F-111 and F-117, have received fighter designations but had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons, the F-111B variant was originally intended for a fighter role with the U. S. Navy, but it was cancelled. This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for attack or strike operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs, versatile multirole fighter-bombers such as the F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having a range of specialized aircraft types. An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate, fighters were developed in World War I to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles the ability to gather information by reconnaissance. Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were built with a wooden frame, covered with fabric. As control of the airspace over armies became increasingly important all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations, between the wars, wood was largely replaced by steel tubing, then aluminium tubing, and finally aluminium stressed skin structures began to predominate. By World War II, most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of guns or cannons. By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed. Since the weight of the engine was so less than on piston engined fighters. This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape, in the 1950s, radar was fitted to day fighters, since pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for any opposition. Since then, radar capabilities have grown enormously and are now the method of target acquisition
36.
General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
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The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a single-engine supersonic multirole fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force. Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it evolved into a successful all-weather multirole aircraft, over 4,500 aircraft have been built since production was approved in 1976. Although no longer being purchased by the U. S. Air Force, in 1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation, which in turn became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger with Martin Marietta. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon and 11 locations for mounting weapons, the F-16 has also been procured to serve in the air forces of 25 other nations. As of 2015, it is the second most common operational military aircraft in the world. Experiences in the Vietnam War revealed the need for air superiority fighters, boyds work called for a small, lightweight aircraft that could maneuver with the minimum possible energy loss, and which also incorporated an increased thrust-to-weight ratio. Air Force F-X proponents remained hostile to the concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program, however, the Air Forces leadership understood that its budget would not allow it to purchase enough F-15 aircraft to satisfy all of its missions. The Advanced Day Fighter concept, renamed F-XX, gained political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard. As a result, in May 1971, the Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with Boyd a key member and this was the region where USAF studies predicted most future air combat would occur. The anticipated average flyaway cost of a version was $3 million. This production plan, though, was only notional as the USAF had no plans to procure the winner. Five companies responded and in 1972, the Air Staff selected General Dynamics Model 401 and Northrops P-600 for the prototype development. GD and Northrop were awarded contracts worth $37.9 million and $39.8 million to produce the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively, with first flights of both prototypes planned for early 1974. To overcome resistance in the Air Force hierarchy, the Fighter Mafia, the high/low mix would allow the USAF to be able to afford sufficient fighters for its overall fighter force structure requirements. The mix gained broad acceptance by the time of the flyoff, defining the relationship of the LWF. The YF-16 was developed by a team of General Dynamics engineers led by Robert H. Widmer. The first YF-16 was rolled out on 13 December 1973, and its 90-minute maiden flight was made at the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB, California and its actual first flight occurred accidentally during a high-speed taxi test on 20 January 1974. The test pilot, Phil Oestricher, decided to lift off to avoid a potential crash, the slight damage was quickly repaired and the official first flight occurred on time
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This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document "2004 edition".
This article incorporates 
