1.
Istanbul
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Istanbul, historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium, is the most populous city in Turkey and the countrys economic, cultural, and historic center. Istanbul is a city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosphorus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side, the city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, both hosting a population of around 14.7 million residents. Istanbul is one of the worlds most populous cities and ranks as the worlds 7th-largest city proper, founded under the name of Byzantion on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE, the city developed to become one of the most significant in history. After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as a capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine, the Latin. Overlooked for the new capital Ankara during the period, the city has since regained much of its prominence. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in, arts, music, film, and cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today. Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network, considered a global city, Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world. It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the gross domestic product. Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul has bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years, the first known name of the city is Byzantium, the name given to it at its foundation by Megarean colonists around 660 BCE. The name is thought to be derived from a personal name, ancient Greek tradition refers to a legendary king of that name as the leader of the Greek colonists. Modern scholars have hypothesized that the name of Byzas was of local Thracian or Illyrian origin. He also attempted to promote the name Nova Roma and its Greek version Νέα Ῥώμη Nea Romē, the use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks. By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by foreigners or Turks. Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, pera was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu. The name İstanbul is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase εἰς τὴν Πόλιν and this reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was reflected by its Ottoman name Der Saadet meaning the gate to Prosperity in Ottoman. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first, a Turkish folk etymology traces the name to Islam bol plenty of Islam because the city was called Islambol or Islambul as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire
2.
Airbus A320 family
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The Airbus A320 family consists of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The family includes the A318, A319, A320 and A321, the A320s are also named A320ceo after the introduction of the A320neo. Final assembly of the takes place in Toulouse, France. A plant in Tianjin, China, has also been producing aircraft for Chinese airlines since 2009, while a final facility in Mobile, Alabama, United States. The aircraft family can accommodate up to 220 passengers and has a range of 3,100 to 12,000 km, the first member of the A320 family—the A320—was launched in March 1984, first flew on 22 February 1987, and was first delivered in March 1988. The family was extended to include the A321, the A319, the A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side-stick controls, in commercial aircraft. There has been a continuous improvement process since introduction, as of 28 February 2017, a total of 7,481 Airbus A320-family aircraft have been delivered, of which 7,157 are in service. In addition, another 5,580 airliners are on firm order and it ranked as the worlds fastest-selling jet airliner family according to records from 2005 to 2007, and as the best-selling single-generation aircraft programme. The A320 family has proved popular with airlines including low-cost carriers such as EasyJet, as of 28 February 2017, American Airlines was the largest operator of the Airbus A320 family aircraft, operating 384 aircraft. The aircraft family competes directly with the 737 and has competed with the 717,757, in December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo. The A320neo offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements, the aircraft will deliver fuel savings of up to 15%. As of February 2017, a total of 5,063 A320neo family aircraft had been ordered by more than 70 airlines, the first A320neo was delivered to Lufthansa on 20 January 2016 and it entered service on 25 January 2016. From the moment of formation, Airbus had begun studies into derivatives of the Airbus A300B in support of this long-term goal, prior to the service introduction of the first Airbus airliners, engineers within Airbus had identified nine possible variations of the A300 known as A300B1 to B9. A 10th variation, conceived in 1973, later the first to be constructed, was designated the A300B10 and it was a smaller aircraft which would be developed into the long-range Airbus A310. Airbus then focused its efforts on the market, which was dominated by the 737. Plans from a number of European aircraft manufacturers called for a successor to the relatively successful BAC One-Eleven, germanys MBB, British Aircraft Corporation, Swedens Saab and Spains CASA worked on the EUROPLANE, a 180- to 200-seat aircraft. It was abandoned after intruding on A310 specifications, vFW-Fokker, Dornier and Hawker Siddeley worked on a number of 150-seat designs. Alongside BAe were MBB, Fokker-VFW and Aérospatiale, the design within the JET study that was carried forward was the JET2, which then became the Airbus S. A1/2/3 series, before settling on the A320 name for its launch in 1984
3.
Turkish Airlines
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Turkish Airlines is the national flag carrier airline of Turkey, headquartered at the Turkish Airlines General Management Building on the grounds of Atatürk Airport in Yeşilköy, Bakırköy, Istanbul. As of July 2015, it operates scheduled services to 290 destinations in Europe, Asia, Africa, and it serves more destinations non-stop from a single airport than any other airline in Europe. Turkish Airlines flies to 119 countries, more than any other airline, with an operational fleet of ten cargo aircraft, the airlines cargo division serves 52 destinations. Istanbul Atatürk Airport is its base, and there are secondary hubs at Esenboğa International Airport, Sabiha Gökçen International Airport. Turkish Airlines has been a member of the Star Alliance network since 1 April 2008, Turkish Airlines was established on 20 May 1933 as State Airlines Administration as a department of the Ministry of National Defence. The initial fleet consisted of two five-seat Curtiss Kingbirds, two four-seat Junkers F. 13s and one ten-seat Tupolev ANT-9, in 1935, the airline was turned over to the Ministry of Public Works and was subsequently renamed General Directorate of State Airlines. Three years later, in 1938, it part of the Ministry of Transportation. Several Douglas DC-3s and Douglas C-47s were phased in during 1945, nicosia, Beirut and Cairo were soon added to the airlines international flight destinations. However, domestic services remained the Turkish carriers main focus until the early 1960s, in 1956, the Turkish government reorganized the airline under the name Türk Hava Yollari A. O. It was capitalized at TRL60 million, the airline joined the International Air Transport Association shortly thereafter. In 1957, British Overseas Airways Corporation began supplying technical support after acquiring a 6.5 percent shareholding, New aircraft including Vickers Viscounts, Fokker F27s and Douglas DC-3s were added to the fleet in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Turkish Airlines began operating their first jet, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and this was followed by the addition of three Boeing 707 jets in 1971. Other aircraft operated in the early 1970s included the McDonnell Douglas DC-10, the airline was plagued by several difficult issues. It developed a reputation for customer service and delays. It also endured hijackings and suffered seven accidents between 1974 and 1983, the most notorious was the 1974 crash of Turkish Airlines Flight 981 when a faulty cargo door broke off in flight near Ermenonville, France, resulting in the deaths of 346 people. A new government came to power in 1983 which recognized THYs importance as Turkeys ambassador to the world and it would maintain one of the youngest fleets in the world. Security was intensified, causing one shipper to compare it to Israels El Al, THY built a new, state-of-the-art technical center at Yeşilköy Airport in 1984. The airline was capable of light and heavy maintenance on a number of different aircraft types
4.
Aircraft registration
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In accordance with the Convention on International Civil Aviation, all civil aircraft must be registered with a national aviation authority using procedures set by each country. Every country, even those not party to the Chicago Convention, has a NAA whose functions include the registration of civil aircraft, an aircraft can only be registered once, in the one jurisdiction. The registration identifier must be displayed prominently on the aircraft, most countries also require the registration identifier to be imprinted on a permanent fireproof plate mounted on the fuselage in case of a post-fire/post-crash aircraft accident investigation. Military aircraft typically use tail codes and serial numbers, although each aircraft registration identifier is unique, some countries allow it to be re-used when the aircraft has been sold, destroyed or retired. For example, N3794N is assigned to a Mooney M20F and it had been previously assigned to a Beechcraft Bonanza. Also note that an aircraft may be assigned different registrations during its existence. This can be because the aircraft ownership, jurisdiction of registration. The first use of aircraft registrations was based on the radio callsigns allocated at the London International Radiotelegraphic Conference in 1913, the format was a single letter prefix followed by four other letters. The major nations operating aircraft were allocated a letter prefix. Smaller countries had to share a single letter prefix, but were allocated exclusive use of the first letter of the suffix and this was modified by agreement by the International Bureau at Berne and published on April 23,1913. The agreement stipulated that the nationality marks were to be followed by a then a group of four letters that must include a vowel. This system operated until the adoption of the system in 1928. The International Radiotelegraph Convention at Washington in 1927 revised the list of markings and these were adopted from 1928 and are the basis of the currently used registrations. The markings have been amended and added to over the years, upon registration, the aircraft receives its unique registration, which must be displayed prominently on the aircraft. Annex 7 to the Chicago Convention describes the definitions, location, the aircraft registration is made up of a prefix selected from the countrys callsign prefix allocated by the International Telecommunication Union and the registration suffix. Depending on the country of registration, this suffix is a numeric or alphanumeric code, a supplement to Annex 7 provides an updated list of approved nationality and common marks used by various countries. When painted on the fuselage, the prefix and suffix are usually separated by a dash, when entered in a flight plan, the dash is omitted. In some countries use a number suffix rather than letters, like the United States, South Korea, and Japan
5.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
6.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
7.
Star Alliance
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Star Alliance is one of the worlds largest global airline alliances. Founded on 14 May 1997, its current CEO is Mark Schwab and its headquarters is in Frankfurt am Main, as of 7 August 2016, Star Alliance is the second largest global alliance by passenger count with 641.1 million, after SkyTeam and ahead of Oneworld. Its slogan is The Way The Earth Connects, the alliance has a two-tier rewards program, Silver and Gold, with incentives including priority boarding and upgrades. Like other airline alliances, Star Alliance airlines share airport terminals, on 14 May 1997, an agreement was announced forming Star Alliance from five airlines on three continents, Scandinavian Airlines, Thai Airways International, Air Canada, Lufthansa, and United Airlines. The alliance chose Young & Rubicam for advertising, with a budget of $25 million, the airlines shared the star logo from the beginning, with its five points representing the founding airlines. The alliance adopted its first slogan, The Airline Network for Earth, with its goal an alliance that will take passengers to major city on earth. The now defunct Brazilian airline VARIG joined the Star Alliance network on 22 October 1997, also joining were Ansett Australia and Air New Zealand, expanding Star Alliance to Australia and the Pacific. With the addition of the two carriers, the alliance served 720 destinations in 110 countries with a combined fleet of 1,650 aircraft. The next airline to join was All Nippon Airways, the groups second Asian airline, during the early 2000s, a number of airlines joined Star Alliance, the Austrian Airlines Group joined on 26 March 2000 and Singapore Airlines on 1 April. BMI and Mexicana Airlines joined on 1 July, bringing the membership to 13. The addition of BMI made London Heathrow the only European hub with two alliances, during the year, Emirates considered joining Star Alliance, but decided against it. That year the now-defunct BWIA West Indies Airways, which had entered an alliance with United Airlines, considered becoming a member, in 2000, the alliance also opened its first three business centers and announced the formation of an Alliance Management Team, the partnerships executive body. In September 2001, Ansett Australia left Star Alliance due to bankruptcy and that year, Star Alliance announced the appointment of a new CEO, Jaan Albrecht. Asiana Airlines joined the alliance on 1 March 2003, Spanair on 1 May, around this time, Mexicana Airlines left the alliance after deciding not to renew a codeshare agreement with United Airlines, later joining Oneworld. US Airways joined the alliance in May 2004, becoming its second US-based airline, in November Adria Airways, Blue1 and Croatia Airlines joined the alliance as its first three regional members. Although Star Alliance invited Lineas Aereas Azteca in 2005 to join in mid-2007, TAP Portugal joined on 14 March 2005, adding African destinations to the network. In April 2006 Swiss International Air Lines, the alliances sixth European airline, by May 2007, Star Alliances 10th anniversary, its members had a combined 16,000 daily departures to 855 destinations in 155 countries and served 406 million passengers annually. VARIG left the alliance on 31 January 2007, and the two Chinese airlines Air China and Shanghai Airlines joined on 12 December
8.
Evacuation slide
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An evacuation slide is an inflatable slide used to evacuate an aircraft quickly. An escape slide is required on all aircraft where the door sill height is such that, in the event of an evacuation. Escape slides are packed and held within the structure inside the slide bustle. In many modern planes, to reduce time, evacuation slides deploy automatically when a door is opened in an armed condition. Modern planes often indicate a condition with an indicator light. Many slides are designed to double as life rafts in case of a water landing. Some of these aircraft are the Embraer 190, Boeing 707,717,727 and 737, however, other aircraft require the use of overwing slides for the window exits to ensure that passengers can reach the ground quickly and safely. These include the Boeing 767, Boeing 757, and Airbus A320-series aircraft, window exits usually come in two configurations, An unhinged hatch type exit, where the hatch is unlocked from the inside and pulled into the cabin, whereupon it can be disposed. A manual inflation handle for the slide, if equipped. Most aircraft overwing exits are of this type, a hinged self-disposing exit hatch, that opens automatically outward using a spring when the exit handle is pulled. This design is found only on Boeing 737 NG aircraft. Window exits are equipped with ditching or life lines. These may be attached to the frame of the window exit. One end has a buckle to connect to attachments on the aircrafts wings, the first aircraft evacuation slide was developed and produced by Air Cruisers, founded by James F. Boyle, inventor of the World War II life vest, the Mae West. The patent for the escape chute assembly was submitted by Boyle in 1954. Today Air Cruisers provides slides for over 65% of the aircraft slide market, prior to inflatables, some passenger aircraft utilized canvas type slides which required the crew to undertake an extensive rigging procedure. Canvas type slides are found on some Russian aircraft. There are two types of aircraft evacuation slides, slides and slide/rafts
9.
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
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The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is an American long-haul, mid-size widebody, twin-engine jet airliner made by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Its variants seat 242 to 335 passengers in typical three-class seating configurations and it is Boeings most fuel-efficient airliner and is a pioneering airliner with the use of composite materials as the primary material in the construction of its airframe. The 787 was designed to be 20% more fuel efficient than the Boeing 767, the 787 Dreamliners distinguishing features include mostly electrical flight systems, raked wingtips, and noise-reducing chevrons on its engine nacelles. It shares a type rating with the larger Boeing 777 to allow qualified pilots to operate both models. The aircrafts initial designation was the 7E7, prior to its renaming in January 2005, the first 787 was unveiled in a roll-out ceremony on July 8,2007 at Boeings Everett factory. Development and production of the 787 has involved a collaboration with numerous suppliers worldwide. Final assembly takes place at the Boeing Everett Factory in Everett, Washington, originally planned to enter service in May 2008, the project experienced multiple delays. The airliners maiden flight took place on December 15,2009, Boeing has reportedly spent $32 billion on the 787 program. Final US Federal Aviation Administration and European Aviation Safety Agency type certification was received in August 2011 and it entered commercial service on October 26,2011 with launch customer All Nippon Airways. The stretched 787-9 variant, which is 20 feet longer and can fly 450 nautical miles farther than the -8, first flew in September 2013. Deliveries of the 787-9 began in July 2014, it entered service on August 7,2014 with All Nippon Airways. As of February 2017, the 787 had orders for 1,207 aircraft from 64 customers, the aircraft has suffered from several in-service problems, including fires on board related to its lithium-ion batteries. These systems were reviewed by both the FAA and the Japan Civil Aviation Bureau, the FAA issued a directive in January 2013 that grounded all 787s in the US and other civil aviation authorities followed suit. After Boeing completed tests on a revised design, the FAA approved the revised design and lifted the grounding in April 2013. During the late 1990s, Boeing considered replacement aircraft programs as sales of the 767, the global airline market was disrupted by the September 11,2001 attacks and increased petroleum prices, making airlines more interested in efficiency than speed. The worst-affected airlines, those in the United States, had considered the most likely customers of the Sonic Cruiser. On January 29,2003 Boeing announced a product, the 7E7. The replacement for the Sonic Cruiser project was named 7E7, Technology from the Sonic Cruiser and 7E7 was to be used as part of Boeings project to replace its entire airliner product line, an endeavor called the Yellowstone Project
10.
Aviation accidents and incidents
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If the aircraft is destroyed or severely damaged so that it must be written off, it is further defined as a hull loss accident. Annex 13 further defines an aviation incident as an occurrence, other than an accident,583, The Tenerife airport disaster, which occurred on March 27,1977, remains the accident with the highest number of airliner passenger fatalities. 583 people died when a KLM Boeing 747 attempted to take off without clearance, there were no survivors from the KLM aircraft,61 of the 396 passengers and crew on the Pan Am aircraft survived. Pilot error was the cause, as the KLM captain began his takeoff run without obtaining air traffic control clearance. A contributing factor was the dense fog, the KLM flight crew could not see the Pan Am aircraft on the runway until immediately before the collision. The accident had a influence on the industry, particularly in the area of communication. An increased emphasis was placed on using standardized phraseology in air traffic control communication by controllers and pilots alike. Furthermore, all members of the crew are now able to question the captains judgment concerning the safety of the airliner. 520, The crash of Japan Airlines Flight 123 on August 12,1985, is the disaster with the highest number of fatalities,520 people died on board a Boeing 747. Pilots were able to keep the plane flying for 32 minutes after the mechanical failure before crashing into a mountain, all 15 crew members and 505 of the 509 passengers on board died. The death toll was exacerbated by delays in the rescue operation, although a number of people survived the impact, by the time the Japanese rescue teams arrived at the crash site all but four had succumbed to their injuries. 349, On November 12,1996, the worlds deadliest mid-air collision was the Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision involving Saudia Flight 763 and Kazakhstan Airlines Flight 1907 over Charkhi Dadri, the collision was mainly the result of the Kazakh pilot flying lower than the assigned clearance altitude. All 349 passengers and crew on both aircraft died. The Ramesh Chandra Lahoti Commission, empowered to study the causes, recommended the creation of the semi-circular rule,346, On March 3,1974, Turkish Airlines Flight 981, a McDonnell Douglas DC-10, crashed in a forest northeast of Paris, France. The London-bound plane crashed shortly after taking off from Orly airport and it was later determined that the cargo door detached, which caused an explosive decompression, this caused the floor just above to collapse. The collapsed floor severed the control cables, which left the pilots without control of the elevators, the plane entered a steep dive and crashed. It was the deadliest plane crash of all time until the Tenerife disaster in 1977,329, On June 23,1985, Air India Flight 182, a Boeing 747-237B crashed off the southwest coast of Ireland when a bomb exploded in the cargo hold. All 307 passengers and 22 crew members died, one passenger had checked in as M. Singh
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