1.
Turkmen language
–
Turkmen has vowel harmony, is agglutinative, and has no grammatical gender. Written Turkmen today is based on the Teke dialect, the other dialects are Nohurly, Ýomud, Änewli, Hasarly, Nerezim, Gökleň, Salyr, Saryk, Ärsary and Çowdur. The Teke dialect is referred to as Chagatai, but like all Turkmen dialects it reflects only a limited influence from classical Chagatai. Officially, Turkmen is rendered in the “Täze Elipbiý”, or “New Alphabet”, however, the old Soviet Cyrillic alphabet is still in wide use. Before 1929, Turkmen was written in an Arabic alphabet, in 1929–1938 a Latin alphabet replaced it, and then the Cyrillic alphabet was used from 1938 to 1991. In 1991, the current Latin alphabet was introduced, although the transition to it has been rather slow and it used to use some unusual letters, such as the pound, dollar, yen, and cent signs, but these were replaced by more conventional letter symbols. The following phonemes are present in the Turkmen language, Turkmen contains both short and long vowels, doubling the duration of sound for a short vowel is generally how its long vowel counterpart is pronounced. Turkmen employs vowel harmony, a principle that is common in fellow Turkic languages, vowels and their sounds are as follows, For purposes of vowel harmony the central vowel is considered back. Turkmen consonant phonemes, Note that с and з are actually used for and, not, like other Turkic languages, Turkmen is characterized by vowel harmony. In general, words of native origin consist either entirely of front vowels or entirely of back vowels, prefixes and suffixes reflect this harmony, taking different forms depending on the word to which they are attached. The infinitive form of a verb determines whether it will follow a front vowel harmony or back vowel harmony, words of foreign origin, mainly Russian, Persian, or Arabic, do not follow vowel harmony. Verbs are conjugated for singular and plural number and first, second, There are 11 verb tenses, present comprehensive, present perfect, future certain, future indefinite, conditional, past definite, obligatory, imperative, and intentional. There are two types of verbs in Turkmen, distinguished by their forms, those ending in the suffix -mak. -Mak verbs follow back vowel harmony, whereas -mek verbs follow front vowel harmony, evidentiality is determined by four markers, roughly, -dY -Yp-dYr -dYr-mY-näm -mYş Some independent particles may be said to convey evidentiality, one such word is the particle eken. Aman become sick-EV-COP Aman is sick, compare 1 with 2. a and 2. b,2. a. Maral Ashgabat-ABL come-EV-COP Maral came from Ashgabat, Ben you-GEN cookie-pl-2sPOSS-ACC eat-3spast Ben ate your cookies. The speaker saw Ben eat the cookies, Ben told the speaker that he ate the cookies. Ben you-GEN cookie-pl-2sPOSS-ACC eat-EV-COP Ben ate your cookies, the speaker heard from someone else that Ben ate the cookies
Turkmen language
–
Turkmen
2.
Turkmenistan
–
Turkmenistan has been at the crossroads of civilizations for centuries. In medieval times, Merv was one of the cities of the Islamic world and an important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by the Russian Empire in 1881, Turkmenistan later figured prominently in the movement in Central Asia. In 1924, Turkmenistan became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic, Turkmenistan possesses the worlds fourth largest reserves of natural gas resources. Most of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert, since 1993, citizens have received government-provided electricity, water and natural gas free of charge. Turkmenistan was ruled by President for Life Saparmurat Niyazov until his death in 2006, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow was elected president in 2007. According to Human Rights Watch, Turkmenistan remains one of the world’s most repressive countries, after suspending the death penalty, the use of capital punishment was formally abolished in the 2008 constitution. Historically inhabited by the Indo-Iranians, the history of Turkmenistan begins with its annexation by the Achaemenid Empire of Ancient Iran. In the 8th century AD, Turkic-speaking Oghuz tribes moved from Mongolia into present-day Central Asia, part of a powerful confederation of tribes, these Oghuz formed the ethnic basis of the modern Turkmen population. In the 10th century, the name Turkmen was first applied to Oghuz groups that accepted Islam, There they were under the dominion of the Seljuk Empire, which was composed of Oghuz groups living in present-day Iran and Turkmenistan. Turkmen soldiers in the service of the played a important role in the spreading of Turkic culture when they migrated westward into present-day Azerbaijan. In the 12th century, Turkmen and other tribes overthrew the Seljuk Empire, in the next century, the Mongols took over the more northern lands where the Turkmens had settled, scattering the Turkmens southward and contributing to the formation of new tribal groups. The sixteenth and eighteenth centuries saw a series of splits and confederations among the nomadic Turkmen tribes, by the 16th century, most of those tribes were under the nominal control of two sedentary Uzbek khanates, Khiva and Bukhoro. Turkmen soldiers were an important element of the Uzbek militaries of this period, in the 19th century, raids and rebellions by the Yomud Turkmen group resulted in that groups dispersal by the Uzbek rulers. According to Paul R. Spickard, Prior to the Russian conquest, Russian forces began occupying Turkmen territory late in the 19th century. From their Caspian Sea base at Krasnovodsk, the Russians eventually overcame the Uzbek khanates, in 1916 the Russian Empires participation in World War I resonated in Turkmenistan, as an anticonscription revolt swept most of Russian Central Asia. In 1924 the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic was formed from the tsarist province of Transcaspia, by the late 1930s, Soviet reorganization of agriculture had destroyed what remained of the nomadic lifestyle in Turkmenistan, and Moscow controlled political life. The Ashgabat earthquake of 1948 killed over 110,000 people, during the next half-century, Turkmenistan played its designated economic role within the Soviet Union and remained outside the course of major world events
Turkmenistan
–
Turkmen helmet (15th century).
Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan
–
Russians attack a Turkmen caravan 1873 (during the "
The Great Game ").
Turkmenistan
–
A Turkmen man of Central Asia in traditional clothes. Photo by
Prokudin-Gorsky between 1905 and 1915.
3.
Latin script
–
Latin script is used as the standard method of writing in most Western and Central European languages, as well as in many languages in other parts of the world. Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any writing system and is the most widely adopted writing system in the world, Latin script is also the basis of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The 26 most widespread letters are the contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The script is either called Roman script or Latin script, in reference to its origin in ancient Rome, in the context of transliteration, the term romanization or romanisation is often found. Unicode uses the term Latin as does the International Organization for Standardization, the numeral system is called the Roman numeral system, and the collection of the elements, Roman numerals. The numbers 1,2,3. are Latin/Roman script numbers for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the Latin alphabet spread, along with Latin, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Latin script also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, the speakers of East Slavic languages generally adopted Cyrillic along with Orthodox Christianity. The Serbian language uses both scripts, with Cyrillic predominating in official communication and Latin elsewhere, as determined by the Law on Official Use of the Language and Alphabet. As late as 1500, the Latin script was limited primarily to the languages spoken in Western, Northern, the Orthodox Christian Slavs of Eastern and Southeastern Europe mostly used Cyrillic, and the Greek alphabet was in use by Greek-speakers around the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabic script was widespread within Islam, both among Arabs and non-Arab nations like the Iranians, Indonesians, Malays, and Turkic peoples, most of the rest of Asia used a variety of Brahmic alphabets or the Chinese script. It is used for many Austronesian languages, including the languages of the Philippines, Latin letters served as the basis for the forms of the Cherokee syllabary developed by Sequoyah, however, the sound values are completely different. In the late 19th century, the Romanians returned to the Latin alphabet, under French rule and Portuguese missionary influence, a Latin alphabet was devised for the Vietnamese language, which had previously used Chinese characters. In 1928, as part of Mustafa Kemal Atatürks reforms, the new Republic of Turkey adopted a Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Iranian-speaking Tajikistan, and the breakaway region of Transnistria kept the Cyrillic alphabet, chiefly due to their close ties with Russia. In the 1930s and 1940s, the majority of Kurds replaced the Arabic script with two Latin alphabets, although the only official Kurdish government uses an Arabic alphabet for public documents, the Latin Kurdish alphabet remains widely used throughout the region by the majority of Kurdish-speakers. In 2015, the Kazakh government announced that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the system for the Kazakh language by 2025. In the course of its use, the Latin alphabet was adapted for use in new languages, sometimes representing phonemes not found in languages that were written with the Roman characters. These new forms are given a place in the alphabet by defining an alphabetical order or collation sequence, a digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. Examples are ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨sh⟩ in English, a trigraph is made up of three letters, like the German ⟨sch⟩, the Breton ⟨c’h⟩ or the Milanese ⟨oeu⟩
Latin script
–
Latin Roman
4.
Turkish alphabet
–
This alphabet represents modern Turkish pronunciation with a high degree of accuracy and specificity. It is the current official alphabet and the latest in a series of distinct alphabets used in different eras, the letters of the Turkish alphabet are, Of these 29 letters, eight are vowels, the 21 others are consonants. The letters Q, W, and X of the ISO basic Latin alphabet do not occur in the Turkish alphabet, while dotted and dotless I are distinct letters in Turkish so that i does not become I when capitalized. Turkish also uses a, i and u with the circumflex, in the case of length distinction, these letters are used for old Arabic and Persian borrowings from the Ottoman Turkish period, most of which have been eliminated from the language. Native Turkish words have no vowel length distinction, and for them the circumflex is used solely to indicate palatalization, the names of the vowel letters are the vowels themselves, whereas the names of the consonant letters are the consonant plus e. The following table presents the Turkish letters, the sounds they correspond to in International Phonetic Alphabet, the earliest known Turkish alphabet is the Orkhon script, also known as the Old Turkic alphabet, the first surviving evidence of which dates from the 7th century. In general, Turkic languages have been written in a number of different alphabets including Uyghur, Cyrillic, Arabic, Greek, Latin, Turkish was written using a Turkish form of the Arabic script for over a thousand years. It was well suited to write Ottoman Turkish which incorporated a great deal of Arabic, however, it was poorly suited to the Turkish part of the vocabulary. Whereas Arabic is rich in consonants but poor in vowels, Turkish is exactly the opposite, the script was thus inadequate at representing Turkish phonemes. Some could be expressed using four different Arabic signs, others could not be expressed at all, the introduction of the telegraph and printing press in the 19th century exposed further weaknesses in the Arabic script. The Turkic Kipchak Cuman language was written in Latin alphabet like in the Codex Cumanicus, some Turkish reformists promoted the adoption of the Latin script well before Atatürks reforms. In 1862, during a period of reform, the statesman Münuf Pasha advocated a reform of the alphabet. At the start of the 20th century similar proposals were made by writers associated with the Young Turks movement, including Hüseyin Cahit, Abdullah Cevdet. The issue was raised again in 1923 during the first Economic Congress of the newly founded Turkish Republic, a move away from the Arabic script was strongly opposed by conservative and religious elements. It was argued that Romanization of the script would detach Turkey from the wider Islamic world, others opposed Romanization on practical grounds, at that time there was no suitable adaptation of the Latin script that could be used for Turkish phonemes. Some suggested that a better alternative might be to modify the Arabic script to introduce characters to better represent Turkish vowels. In 1926, however, the Turkic republics of the Soviet Union adopted the Latin script, turkish-speaking Armenians used the Mesrobian script to write Holy Bibles and other books in Turkish for centuries. Many Armenian linguists, including Agop Dilâçar comprised the team which invented the modern Turkish alphabet
Turkish alphabet
–
Participants of the conference on the Turkish alphabet, including Atatürk. August 29, 1929
Turkish alphabet
–
Ottoman Turkish alphabet and 1930s Latin alphabet guide, from Museum of Republic,
Ankara
Turkish alphabet
–
Atatürk introducing the new Turkish alphabet to the people of
Kayseri. September 20, 1928
5.
Dotted and dotless I
–
The Turkish alphabet, which is a variant of the Latin alphabet, includes two distinct versions of the letter I, one dotted and the other dotless. The dotless I, I ı, denotes the close back unrounded vowel sound, neither the upper nor the lower case version has a dot. The dotted İ, İ i, denotes the close front unrounded vowel sound, both the upper and lower case versions have a dot. Diyarbakır /dijaɾˈbakɯɾ/ In contrast, the letter j does not have this distinction, with a dot only on the lower case character, in scholarly writing on Turkic languages, ï is sometimes used for /ɯ/. A similar ligature for ffi is also possible, since the unligatured forms are unattractive and the ligatures make the i dotless, such fonts are not appropriate for use in a Turkish setting. However, the fi ligatures of some fonts do not merge the letters and instead space them next to each other, such fonts are appropriate for Turkish, but the writer must be careful to be consistent in the use of ligatures. Most Unicode software uppercases ı to I and lowercases İ to i, thus uppercasing then lowercasing, or vice versa, changes the letters. In the LaTeX typesetting language the dotless ı can be written with the backslash-i command, the İ can be written using the normal accenting method. The C or US English locales do not have these problems, the. NET Framework has special provisions to handle the Turkish i. Many cellphones available in Turkey lack a proper localization, which leads to replacing ı by i in SMS, in one instance, a miscommunication played a role in the deaths of Emine and Ramazan Çalçoban in 2008. A common substitution is to use the character 1 for dotless ı, the casing of the dotless and dotted ı forms differ from other languages. That implies that a case insensitive matching expected by an English person doesnt match the expectations of a Turkish user, the Turkish I is often used as an example of the problems with case insensitivity in computing. Dotted and dotless i are used in other writing systems for Turkic languages, Azerbaijani. Kazakh, The Kazakh alphabet as used in Kazakhstan is Cyrillic, however, Dotted and dotless I, in addition to I with diaraesis are employed in the Latin script versions of the Kazakh Wikipedia and of several governmental websites. The main website of the government of Kazakhstan and the information agency KazInform-QazAqparat offer Turkish-like Latin script along with official Cyrillic one. Tatar, The Tatar alphabet in Russia is officially Cyrillic due to the requirements of Russian federal law, several Romanization schemes exist, which are used on the Internet and some printed publication. Most of them are modelled in different ways on Turkish and employ dotted and dotless I, while some also use I with acute, the only Latin alphabet that ever had official status in Tatarstan, Yañalif, used the character Ь instead of dotless i. Crimean Tatar, The Latin alphabet is used for the Crimean Tatar language
Dotted and dotless I
–
Dotless and dotted I's in
capital and
lower case.
6.
Arabic script
–
The Arabic script is a writing system used for writing several languages of Asia and Africa, such as Arabic, dialects of Mandinka, Central Kurdish, Luri, Persian, Urdu, Pashto, and others. Until the 16th century, it was used to write some texts in Spanish. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by the number of countries using it, the Arabic script is written from right to left in a cursive style. In most cases the letters transcribe consonants, or consonants and a few vowels, the script was first used to write texts in Arabic, most notably the Qurʼān, the holy book of Islam. It is also the basis for the tradition of Arabic calligraphy, the Arabic script has been adopted for use in a wide variety of languages besides Arabic, including Persian, Malay and Urdu which are not Semitic. Such adaptations may feature altered or new characters to represent phonemes that do not appear in Arabic phonology, the modified version of the Arabic script originally devised for use with Persian is known as the Perso-Arabic script by scholars. In the cases of Bosnian, Kurdish, Kashmiri, and Uyghur writing systems, the Arabic script can therefore be used in both abugida and abjad, although it is often strongly, erroneously connected to the latter. Use of the Arabic script in West African languages, especially in the Sahel, to a certain degree the style and usage tends to follow those of the Maghreb. Additional diacritics have come into use to facilitate writing of sounds not represented in the Arabic language, the term ʻAjamī, which comes from the Arabic root for foreign, has been applied to Arabic-based orthographies of African languages. There is evidence that writing Arabic in this set of letters influenced the style of modern Arabic script. After this initial period, Garshuni writing has continued to the present day among some Syriac Christian communities in the Arabic-speaking regions of the Levant, Kazakh in China Kurdish in Northern Iraq and Northwest Iran. It is mainly used in Sri Lanka and the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu for religious purposes, arwi language is the language of Tamil Nadu Muslims. Malayalam language represented by Arabic script variant is known as Arabi Malayalam, the script has particular letters to represent the peculiar sounds of Malayalam. This script is used in madrasas of the South Indian state of Kerala. It is similar to Chittagonian language in neighboring Bangladesh and sometimes using the Roman script. Malay in the Arabic script known as Jawi, in some cases it can be seen in the signboards of shops or market stalls. In addition, some television programming uses Jawi, such as announcements, advertisements, news, social programs, Berber languages have often been written in an adaptation of the Arabic alphabet. The use of the Arabic alphabet, as well as the competing Latin, West Africa Zarma language of the Songhay family
Arabic script
–
Basic Arabic alphabet
Arabic script
–
Calligraphy
7.
Russian language
–
Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
Russian language
–
Russian language street sign in
Russia.
Russian language
–
Russian minimarket in
Limassol, Cyprus; translation: "Teremok market. Russian goods. Phone number: 96 74 19 63"
Russian language
–
This page from an "ABC" book printed in Moscow in 1694 shows the letter
П.
Russian language
–
The
Ostromir Gospels of 1056 is the second oldest
East Slavic book known, one of many medieval
illuminated manuscripts preserved in the
Russian National Library.
8.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
–
Flag
Soviet Union
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
9.
Cyrillic alphabets
–
Numerous Cyrillic alphabets are based on the Cyrillic script. The early Cyrillic alphabet was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School by the disciples of the Byzantine theologians Cyril, as of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the official alphabet for their national languages. About half of them are in Russia, Cyrillic is one of the most-used writing systems in the world. Some of these are illustrated below, for others, and for more detail, sounds are transcribed in the IPA. Spellings of names transliterated into the Roman alphabet may vary, especially й, non-Slavic alphabets are generally modelled after Russian, but often bear striking differences, particularly when adapted for Caucasian languages. The first few of these alphabets were developed by Orthodox missionaries for the Finnic and Turkic peoples of Idel-Ural in the 1870s, later, such alphabets were created for some of the Siberian and Caucasus peoples who had recently converted to Christianity. In the 1930s, some of those languages were switched to the Uniform Turkic Alphabet, the Abkhazian and Ossetian languages were switched to Georgian script, but after the death of Joseph Stalin, both also adopted Cyrillic. The last language to adopt Cyrillic was the Gagauz language, which had used Greek script before, some of Russias peoples such as the Tatars have also tried to drop Cyrillic, but the move was halted under Russian law. A number of languages have switched from Cyrillic to other orthographies—either Roman‐based or returning to a former script, while English mainly uses the Latin alphabet, there is a small minority who use the Cyrillic, mainly Russian and other Slavic immigrants to English speaking countries. This system of Cyrillic English is commonly called Renglish, in some alphabets invented in the 19th century, such as Mari, Udmurt and Chuvash, umlauts and breves also were used. Bulgarian and Bosnian Sephardim lacking Hebrew typefaces occasionally printed Judeo-Spanish in Cyrillic, the following table lists the Cyrillic letters which are used in the alphabets of most of the national languages which use a Cyrillic alphabet. Exceptions and additions for particular languages are noted below, historically, the hard sign takes the place of a now-absent vowel, which is still preserved as a distinct vowel in Bulgarian and Slovene, but only in some places in the word. When an iotated vowel follows a consonant, the consonant is palatalized, the Hard Sign indicates that this does not happen, and the sound will appear only in front of the vowel. The Soft Sign indicates that the consonant should be palatalized in addition to a preceding the vowel, the Soft Sign also indicates that a consonant before another consonant or at the end of a word is palatalized. Examples, та, тя, тья, тъя, т, before 1918, there were four extra letters in use, Іі, Ѳѳ, Ѣѣ, and Ѵѵ, these were eliminated by reforms of Russian orthography. The Belarusian alphabet displays the following features, Ge represents a glottal fricative /ɦ/. Yo /jo/ I, also known as the dotted I or decimal I, unlike Russian and Ukrainian, И is not used. Short I, however, uses the base И glyph, Short U is the letter У with a breve and represents /w/, or like the u part of the diphthong in loud
Cyrillic alphabets
–
The keyboard layout for Polish Cyrillic, developed by Michał Szewczuk.
Cyrillic alphabets
–
Distribution of the Cyrillic script worldwide. The dark green shows the countries that use Cyrillic as the one main script; the lighter green those that use Cyrillic alongside another official script.
Cyrillic alphabets
Cyrillic alphabets
–
The first lines of the Book of Matthew in Karelian using the Cyrillic script, 1820
10.
Saparmurat Niyazov
–
Saparmurat Atayevich Niyazov was a Turkmen politician who served as the leader of Turkmenistan from 1985 until his death in 2006. He was First Secretary of the Turkmen Communist Party from 1985 until 1991, Turkmen media referred to him using the title His Excellency Saparmurat Türkmenbaşy, President of Turkmenistan and Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers. His self-given title Türkmenbaşy, meaning Head of the Turkmen, referred to his position as the founder, Niyazov was born on 19 February 1940 in Gypjak, just outside Ashgabat in the Turkmen SSR. He was a member of the influential Tekke tribe, the other members of his family were killed in the 1948 Ashgabat earthquake that caused extreme damage and a high number of casualties the city. His mother Gurbansoltan Eje was part of the Cult of personality later and he grew up in a Soviet orphanage before the state put him in the custody of a distant relative. After finishing school in 1959, he worked as an instructor in the Turkmen trade-union exploratory committee and he then studied at the Leningrad Polytechnic Institute, where in 1967 he received a diploma as an electrical engineer. After graduating, he went to study in Russia, but was expelled a few years later for academic failure, in 1962 Niyazov started his political career, becoming a member of the Communist Party. He quickly rose through the ranks, becoming First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Turkmen SSR in 1985 and he gained this post after Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev had removed his predecessor, Muhammetnazar Gapurov, following a cotton-related scandal. Under Niyazov, the Turkmen Communist Party had a reputation as one of the most hardline, on January 13,1990, Niyazov became Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Turkmen SSR, the supreme legislative body in the republic. The post was equivalent to that of president, Niyazov supported the Soviet coup attempt of 1991. However, after the coup collapsed, he set about separating Turkmenistan from the dying Soviet Union, the Turkmen Supreme Soviet declared Turkmenistan independent and appointed Niyazov as the countrys first president on October 27,1991. On June 21,1992 the Turkmenistani presidential election of 1992 saw Niyazov - the sole candidate - chosen as the countrys first popularly elected president, a year later he declared himself Türkmenbaşy - Leader of all Turkmen. In 1994 a plebiscite extended Niyazovs term to 2002 so he could oversee a 10-year development plan, the official results showed that 99. 9% of voters approved this proposal. On December 28,1999, Parliament declared Niyazov President for Life, Niyazov and his Russian-Jewish wife, Muza, had a son and a daughter. Niyazov became president at the transition of Turkmenistan from a Soviet republic to an independent state, there was outside concern about press freedom and to a lesser extent religious rights of minority religious groups. He also took part in creating new holidays with a specific Turkmen nature and introduced a new Latin-based Turkmen alphabet to replace Russian Cyrillic. The Latin Turkmen alphabet consists of, Aa, Bb, Çç, Dd, Ee, Ää, Ff, Gg, Hh, Ii, Jj, Žž, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Ňň, Oo, Öö, Pp, Rr, Ss, Şş, Tt, Uu, Üü, Ww, Yy, Ýý, Zz. Niyazov became a substitute for the left by the downfall of the communist system, with his image replacing those of Marx
Saparmurat Niyazov
–
Saparmyrat Nyýazow
Saparmurat Niyazov
–
Saparmurat Niyazov is depicted on the 10,000
Manat Banknote
Saparmurat Niyazov
–
Niyazov with
Russian President Vladimir Putin in the
Moscow Kremlin, June 2000
Saparmurat Niyazov
–
Niyazov mausoleum at the Türkmenbaşy Ruhy Mosque, just outside Ashgabat, Turkmenistan.
11.
Iran
–
Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
Iran
–
Cave painting in Doushe cave,
Lorestan, Iran,
8th millennium BC
Iran
–
Flag
Iran
–
A depiction of the united
Medes and
Persians in
Apadana,
Persepolis
Iran
–
Ruins of the
Gate of All Nations,
Persepolis
12.
Afghanistan
–
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
Afghanistan
–
History of Afghanistan
Afghanistan
–
Flag
Afghanistan
–
Bilingual (
Greek and
Aramaic)
edict by Emperor
Ashoka from the 3rd century BCE discovered in the southern city of
Kandahar
Afghanistan
–
One of the
Buddhas of Bamiyan.
Buddhism was widespread in the region before the
Islamic conquest of Afghanistan.
13.
Code page 437
–
Code page 437 is the character set of the original IBM PC, or DOS. It is also known as CP437, OEM-US, OEM437, PC-8, the set includes ASCII codes 32–126, extended codes for accented letters, some Greek letters, icons, and line-drawing symbols. It is sometimes referred to as the OEM font or high ASCII and this character set remains the primary font in the core of any EGA and VGA-compatible graphics card. Text shown when a PC reboots, before any other font can be loaded from a storage medium, many file formats developed at the time of the IBM PC are based on code page 437 as well. The IBM Enhanced Graphics Adapter contained an 8×14 pixels-per-character version, all these display adapters have text modes in which each character cell contains an 8-bit character code point, giving 256 possible values for graphic characters. All 256 codes were assigned a character in ROM, including the codes from 0 to 31 that were reserved in ASCII for non-graphical control characters. Various Eastern European PCs used different character sets, sometimes user-selectable via jumpers or CMOS setup. These sets were designed to match 437 as much as possible, for sharing the code points for many of the line-drawing characters. A legacy of code page 437 and other DOS codepages is the set of number combinations used in Windows Alt keycodes introduced in the first versions of DOS, the user could enter a character by holding down the Alt key and entering the three-digit decimal Alt keycode on the numpad. The following tables show code page 437, each character is shown with its equivalent Unicode code point and its decimal code point. See also the notes below as there are multiple equivalent Unicode characters for some code points, the decimal codes are also known as Alt codes. Although the ROM provides a graphic for all 256 different possible 8-bit codes, some APIs will not print some code points, in particular the range 1-31, instead they will interpret them as control characters. For instance many methods of outputting text on the original IBM PC would interpret the codes for BEL, BS, CR, many printers were also unable to print these characters. Legend, When translating to Unicode it should be noted that some codes do not have a unique, single Unicode equivalent and we were also fascinated by dedicated word processors from Wang, because we believed that general-purpose machines could do that just as well. Thats why, when it time to design the keyboard for the IBM PC, we put the funny Wang character set into the machine—you know, smiley faces and boxes and triangles. We were thinking wed like to do a clone of Wang word-processing software someday, according to an interview with David J. Bradley the characters were decided upon during a four-hour meeting on a plane trip from Seattle to Atlanta by Andy Saenz, Lew Eggebrecht and himself. The selection of characters has some internal logic, Table rows 0 and 1. The isolated character 127 also belongs to this group, Table rows 2 to 7, codes 32 to 126, are the standard ASCII printable characters
Code page 437
–
Code page 437, as rendered by an
IBM PC using a
VGA adapter.
14.
IBM PC compatible
–
IBM PC compatible computers are those similar to the original IBM PC, XT, and AT, able to run the same software and support the same expansion cards as those. Such computers used to be referred to as PC clones, or IBM clones, Columbia Data Products built the first clone of the IBM personal computer by a clean room implementation of its BIOS. Early IBM PC compatibles used the computer bus as the original PC. The IBM AT compatible bus was named the Industry Standard Architecture bus by manufacturers of compatible computers. The term IBM PC compatible is now a historical description only, only the Apple Macintosh classic Mac OS and macOS kept significant market share without compatibility with the IBM personal computer, so consumers are typically identified as being a PC or Mac user. IBM decided in 1980 to market a low-cost single-user computer as quickly as possible in response to Apple Computers success in the microcomputer market. On 12 August 1981, the first IBM PC went on sale, there were three operating systems available for it. The least expensive and most popular was PC DOS made by Microsoft, in a crucial concession, IBMs agreement allowed Microsoft to sell its own version, MS-DOS, for non-IBM computers. The only component of the original PC architecture exclusive to IBM was the BIOS and this software would run on any machine using MS-DOS or PC-DOS. Software that directly addressed the hardware instead of making standard calls was faster, however, software addressing IBM PC hardware in this way would not run on MS-DOS machines with different hardware. The 808x computer marketplace rapidly excluded all machines which were not hardware-, the 640 KB barrier on conventional system memory available to MS-DOS is a legacy of that period, other non-clone machines, while subject to a limit, could exceed 640 kB. Rumors of lookalike, compatible computers, created without IBMs approval, by June 1983 PC Magazine defined PC clone as a computer accommodate the user who takes a disk home from an IBM PC, walks across the room, and plugs it into the foreign machine. Because of a shortage of IBM PCs that year, many customers purchased clones instead, Columbia Data Products produced the first computer more or less compatible to the IBM PC standard during June 1982, soon followed by Eagle Computer. Compaq announced its first IBM PC compatible in November 1982, the Compaq Portable, the Compaq was the first sewing machine-sized portable computer that was essentially 100% PC-compatible. The company could not copy the BIOS directly as a result of the decision in Apple v. Franklin. Each computer would have its own Original Equipment Manufacturer version of MS-DOS, any software written for MS-DOS would operate on any MS-DOS computer, despite variations in hardware design. This expectation seemed reasonable in the marketplace of the time. Until then Microsoft was based primarily on computer languages such as BASIC, the established small system operating software was CP/M from Digital Research which was in use both at the hobbyist level and by the more professional of those using microcomputers
IBM PC compatible
–
The original
IBM PC (Model 5150) motivated the production of clones during the early 1980s.
IBM PC compatible
–
The Compaq Portable was the first 100% IBM-compatible PC, and the first portable one.
IBM PC compatible
–
MS-DOS version 1.12 for Compaq Personal Computers
IBM PC compatible
–
PC compatibility was an important concern. Even the
Commodore Amiga 1000 had a PC compatible add-on module, the
Sidecar.
15.
A
–
A is the first letter and the first vowel in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is similar to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives, the upper-case version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lower-case version can be written in two forms, the double-storey a and single-storey ɑ, the latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type. The earliest certain ancestor of A is aleph, the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet, in turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended. The Phoenician alphabet letter had a form that served as the base for some later forms. Its name is thought to have corresponded closely to the Hebrew or Arabic aleph, the Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged. During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter A, first was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other permanent mediums. There was also a style used for everyday or utilitarian writing. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles, the known variants include the early semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later semi-uncial. At the end of the Roman Empire, several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. By the 9th century, the Caroline script, which was similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms, 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the Italic and Roman forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version, the Italic form, also called script a, is used in most current handwriting and consists of a circle and vertical stroke. This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers, the Roman form is used in most printed material, it consists of a small loop with an arc over it. Both derive from the majuscule form, in Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical, in some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. Italic type is used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest. There are some other cases aside from italic type where script a, the double ⟨aa⟩ sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as Aaron and aardvark
A
–
ISO basic
Latin alphabet
A
–
Writing cursive forms of A
16.
N
–
N is the 14th letter in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. One of the most common hieroglyphs, snake, was used in Egyptian writing to stand for a sound like the English ⟨J⟩, because the Egyptian word for snake was djet. However, the name for the letter in the Phoenician, Hebrew, Aramaic and Arabic alphabets is nun, the sound value of the letter was /n/—as in Greek, Etruscan, Latin and modern languages. ⟨n⟩ represents a dental or alveolar nasal in all languages that use the Latin alphabet. A common digraph with ⟨n⟩ is ⟨ng⟩, which represents a nasal in a variety of languages. Often, before a plosive, ⟨n⟩ alone represents a velar nasal. In Italian and French, ⟨gn⟩ represents a palatal nasal /ɲ/, the Portuguese and Vietnamese spelling for this sound is ⟨nh⟩, while Spanish and a few other languages use the letter ⟨ñ⟩. In English, ⟨n⟩ is generally silent when it is preceded by an ⟨m⟩ at the end of words, as in hymn, however, it is pronounced in this combination when occurring word medially, as in hymnal. ⟨n⟩ is the sixth most common letter and the second-most commonly used consonant in the English language, in mathematics, the italic form n is a particularly common symbol for a variable quantity which represents an integer. The dictionary definition of n at Wiktionary
N
–
ISO basic
Latin alphabet
N
–
Writing cursive forms of N
17.
O
–
O is the 15th letter and the second-to-last vowel in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. Its graphic form has remained constant from Phoenician times until today. The name of the Phoenician letter was ʿeyn, meaning eye and its original sound value was that of a consonant, probably, the sound represented by the cognate Arabic letter ع ʿayn. The use of this Phoenician letter for a sound is due to the early Greek alphabets. The letter was adopted with this value in the Old Italic alphabets, in Greek, a variation of the form later came to distinguish this long sound from the short o. Greek omicron gave rise to the corresponding Cyrillic letter O and the early Italic letter to runic ᛟ, the letter ⟨o⟩ is the fourth most common letter in the English alphabet. Like the other English vowel letters, it has associated long, the long ⟨o⟩ as in boat is actually most often a diphthong /oʊ/. In English there is also a short ⟨o⟩ as in fox, /ɒ/, which sounds slightly different in different dialects. In most dialects of British English, it is either an open-mid back rounded vowel or a back rounded vowel, in American English. In other contexts, especially before a letter with a minim, ⟨o⟩ may represent the sound /ʌ/, in English, the letter ⟨o⟩ in isolation before a noun, usually capitalized, marks the vocative case, as in the titles to O Canada or O Captain. Or certain verses of the Bible, ⟨o⟩ is commonly associated with the open-mid back rounded vowel, mid back rounded vowel or close-mid back rounded vowel in many languages. Other languages use ⟨o⟩ for various values, usually back vowels which are at least partly open, derived letters such as ⟨ö⟩ and ⟨ø⟩ have been created for the alphabets of some languages to distinguish values that were not present in Latin and Greek, particularly rounded front vowels. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, ⟨o⟩ represents the close-mid back rounded vowel, oxygen = O O mark Media related to O at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of O at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of o at Wiktionary
O
–
ISO basic
Latin alphabet
18.
D
–
D is the fourth letter of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The Semitic letter Dāleth may have developed from the logogram for a fish or a door, there are many different Egyptian hieroglyphs that might have inspired this. In Semitic, Ancient Greek and Latin, the letter represented /d/, in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was superfluous, the equivalent Greek letter is Delta, Δ. The minuscule form of d consists of a loop and a vertical stroke. It developed by gradual variations on the majuscule form, in handwriting, it was common to start the arc to the left of the vertical stroke, resulting in a serif at the top of the arc. This serif was extended while the rest of the letter was reduced, resulting in an angled stroke, the angled stroke slowly developed into a vertical stroke. In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, and in the International Phonetic Alphabet, however, in the Vietnamese alphabet, it represents the sound /z/ in northern dialects or /j/ in southern dialects. In Fijian it represents a prenasalized stop /nd/, in some languages where voiceless unaspirated stops contrast with voiceless aspirated stops, ⟨d⟩ represents an unaspirated /t/, while ⟨t⟩ represents an aspirated /tʰ/. Examples of such languages include Icelandic, Scottish Gaelic, Navajo, the Roman numeral Ⅾ represents the number 500. D is the grade below C but above E in the grading system. The dictionary definition of D at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of d at Wiktionary
D
–
The letter D, standing for "Deutschland", i.e. Germany in German, on a
boundary stone at the border between Austria and Germany.
D
–
Writing cursive forms of D
19.
E
–
E is the fifth letter and the second vowel in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is the most commonly used letter in many languages, including Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Hungarian, Latin, Latvian, Norwegian, Spanish, the Latin letter E differs little from its source, the Greek letter epsilon, Ε. In Semitic, the letter represented /h/, in Greek, hê became the letter epsilon, the various forms of the Old Italic script and the Latin alphabet followed this usage. Although Middle English spelling used ⟨e⟩ to represent long and short /e/, in other cases, the letter is silent, generally at the end of words. In the orthography of languages it represents either these or /ɛ/, or some variation of these sounds. Less commonly, as in French, German, or Saanich, ⟨e⟩ represents a mid-central vowel /ə/. Digraphs with ⟨e⟩ are common to indicate either diphthongs or monophthongs, such as ⟨ea⟩ or ⟨ee⟩ for /iː/ or /eɪ/ in English, ⟨ei⟩ for /aɪ/ in German, the International Phonetic Alphabet uses ⟨e⟩ for the close-mid front unrounded vowel or the mid front unrounded vowel. E is the most common letter in the English alphabet and several other European languages, in the story The Gold Bug by Edgar Allan Poe, a character figures out a random character code by remembering that the most used letter in English is E. This makes it a hard and popular letter to use when writing lipograms, ernest Vincent Wrights Gadsby is considered a dreadful novel, and supposedly at least part of Wrights narrative issues were caused by language limitations imposed by the lack of E. Both Georges Perecs novel A Void and its English translation by Gilbert Adair omit e and are considered better works, ∃, existential quantifier in predicate logic. ∈, the symbol for set membership in set theory, ℯ, the base of the natural logarithm. 1 Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings. In British Sign Language, the e is signed by extending the index finger of the right hand touching the tip of index on the left hand. Media related to E at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of E at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of e at Wiktionary
E
–
ISO basic
Latin alphabet
20.
F
–
F is the sixth letter in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The origin of F is the Semitic letter vâv that represented a sound like /v/ or /w/, graphically it originally probably depicted either a hook or a club. Latin F, despite being pronounced differently, is descended from digamma. After sound changes eliminated /w/ from spoken Greek, digamma was used only as a numeral, however, the Greek alphabet also gave rise to other alphabets, and some of these retained letters descended from digamma. In the Etruscan alphabet, F probably represented /w/, as in Greek, when the Romans adopted the alphabet, they used V not only for the vowel /u/, but also for the corresponding semivowel /w/, leaving F available for /f/. And so out of the various vav variants in the Mediterranean world, the Roman alphabet forms the basis of the alphabet used today for English and many other languages. The lowercase f is not related to the visually similar long s, ſ, the use of the long s largely died out by the beginning of the 19th century, mostly to prevent confusion with f when using a short mid-bar. In the English writing system ⟨f⟩ is used to represent the sound /f/ and it is commonly doubled at the end of words. Exceptionally, it represents the voiced labiodental fricative /v/ in the word of. In the writing systems of languages, ⟨f⟩ commonly represents /f/. In French orthography, ⟨f⟩ is used to represent /f/ and it may also be silent at the end of words. In Spanish orthography, ⟨f⟩ is used to represent /f/, in the Hepburn romanization of Japanese, ⟨f⟩ is used to represent. This sound is considered to be an allophone of /h/. In Welsh orthography, ⟨f⟩ represents /v/ while ⟨ff⟩ represents /f/, in Slavic languages, ⟨f⟩ is used primarily in words of foreign origin. The International Phonetic Alphabet uses ⟨f⟩ to represent the labiodental fricative. Media related to F at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of F at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of f at Wiktionary
F
–
ISO basic
Latin alphabet
F
–
Writing cursive forms of F
21.
S
–
S is the 19th letter in the Modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. Northwest Semitic šîn represented a voiceless postalveolar fricative /ʃ/ and it originated most likely as a pictogram of a tooth and represented the phoneme /ʃ/ via the acrophonic principle. Greek did not have a /ʃ/ phoneme, so the derived Greek letter Sigma came to represent the alveolar sibilant /s/. Within Greek, the name of sigma was influenced by its association with the Greek word σίζω to hiss. The original name of the letter sigma may have been san, herodotus reports that San was the name given by the Dorians to the same letter called Sigma by the Ionians. In Etruscan, the value /s/ of Greek sigma was maintained, while san represented a separate phoneme, the early Latin alphabet adopted sigma, but not san, as Old Latin did not have a /ʃ/ phoneme. The shape of Latin S arises from Greek Σ by dropping one out of the four strokes of that letter, in other Italic alphabets, the letter could be represented as a zig-zagging line of any number between three and six strokes. The familiar S-shape with three strokes is present in the earliest Latin inscriptions of the 6th century BC, the familiar rounded S-shape is present regularly in the Old Latin inscriptions of the 2nd century BC. It remained standard in writing throughout the medieval period and was adopted in early printing with movable types. It existed alongside minuscule round or short s, which was at the only used at the end of words. In most western orthographies, the ſ gradually fell out of use during the half of the 18th century. In Spain, the change was accomplished between the years 1760 and 1766. In France, the change occurred between 1782 and 1793, printers in the United States stopped using the long s between 1795 and 1810. In English orthography, the London printer John Bell pioneered the change. His edition of Shakespeare, in 1785, was advertised with the claim that he ventured to depart from the mode by rejecting the long ſ in favor of the round one. The Times of London made the switch from the long to the s with its issue of 10 September 1803. Encyclopaedia Britannicas 5th edition, completed in 1817, was the last edition to use the long s, in German orthography, long s was retained in Fraktur type as well as in standard cursive well into the 20th century, and was officially abolished in 1941. The ligature of ſs was retained, however, giving rise to the Eszett, the letter ⟨s⟩ is the seventh most common letter in English and the third-most common consonant
S
–
ISO basic
Latin alphabet
22.
G
–
G is the 7th letter in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The letter G was introduced in the Old Latin period as a variant of C to distinguish voiced /ɡ/ from voiceless /k/, the recorded originator of G is freedman Spurius Carvilius Ruga, the first Roman to open a fee-paying school, who taught around 230 BC. At this time, K had fallen out of favor, and C, rugas positioning of G shows that alphabetic order related to the letters values as Greek numerals was a concern even in the 3rd century BC. Hempl proposes that there never was such a space in the alphabet, zeta took shapes like ⊏ in some of the Old Italic scripts, the development of the monumental form G from this shape would be exactly parallel to the development of C from gamma. He suggests that the pronunciation /k/ > /ɡ/ was due to contamination from the also similar-looking K, because of French influence, English orthography shares this feature. The modern lowercase g has two variants, the single-story and the double-story. The double-story form had developed similarly, except that some ornate forms then extended the tail back to the right, the initial extension to the left was absorbed into the upper closed bowl. The double-story version became popular when printing switched to Roman type because the tail was effectively shorter, in the double-story version, a small top stroke in the upper-right, often terminating in an orb shape, is called an ear. Generally, the two forms are complementary, but occasionally the difference has been exploited to provide contrast. Most, if not all, in English, the letter appears either alone or in some digraphs. In words of Romance origin, ⟨g⟩ is mainly soft before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, or ⟨y⟩, and hard otherwise. There are many English words of non-Romance origin where ⟨g⟩ is hard though followed by ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, the double consonant ⟨gg⟩ has the value /ɡ/ as in nugget, with very few exceptions, /gd͡ʒ/ in suggest and /d͡ʒ/ in exaggerate and veggies. The digraph ⟨dg⟩ has the value /d͡ʒ/, as in badger, non-digraph ⟨dg⟩ can also occur, in compounds like floodgate and headgear. Non-trigraph ⟨ngh⟩ also occurs, in compounds like stronghold and dunghill, Most Romance languages and some Nordic languages also have two main pronunciations for ⟨g⟩, hard and soft. While the soft value of ⟨g⟩ varies in different Romance languages, in all except Romanian and Italian, in Italian and Romanian, ⟨gh⟩ is used to represent /ɡ/ before front vowels where ⟨g⟩ would otherwise represent a soft value. In Italian and French, ⟨gn⟩ is used to represent the palatal nasal /ɲ/, in Italian, the trigraph ⟨gli⟩, when appearing before a vowel or as the article and pronoun gli, represents the palatal lateral approximant /ʎ/. Other languages typically use ⟨g⟩ to represent /ɡ/ regardless of position, amongst European languages Czech, Dutch and Finnish are an exception as they do not have /ɡ/ in their native words. Nevertheless, word-finally it is always voiceless in all dialects, including the standard Dutch of Belgium, on the other hand, some dialects, may have a phonemic /ɡ/. Faroese uses ⟨g⟩ to represent /dʒ/, in addition to /ɡ/, in Maori, ⟨g⟩ is used in the digraph ⟨ng⟩ which represents the velar nasal /ŋ/ and is pronounced like the ⟨ng⟩ in singer
G
–
ISO basic
Latin alphabet
G
–
Writing cursive forms of G
23.
H
–
H is the eighth letter in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The original Semitic letter Heth most likely represented the voiceless pharyngeal fricative, the form of the letter probably stood for a fence or posts. The Greek eta Η in Archaic Greek alphabets still represented /h/, in this context, the letter eta is also known as heta to underline this fact. Thus, in the Old Italic alphabets, the letter heta of the Euboean alphabet was adopted with its sound value /h/. For most English speakers, the name for the letter is pronounced as /ˈeɪtʃ/, the pronunciation /ˈheɪtʃ/ and the associated spelling haitch is often considered to be h-adding and is considered nonstandard in England. It is, however, a feature of Hiberno-English and other varieties of English, such as those of Malaysia, India, Newfoundland, in Northern Ireland, it is a shibboleth as Protestant schools teach aitch and Catholics haitch. In the Republic of Ireland, the h is generally pronounced as haitch. The perceived name of the letter affects the choice of indefinite article before initialisms beginning with H, the pronunciation /ˈheɪtʃ/ may be a hypercorrection formed by analogy with the names of the other letters of the alphabet, most of which include the sound they represent. Despite this increasing number, pronunciation without the /h/ sound is considered to be standard in England. Authorities disagree about the history of the letters name, the Oxford English Dictionary says the original name of the letter was in Latin, this became in Vulgar Latin, passed into English via Old French, and by Middle English was pronounced. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language derives it from French hache from Latin haca or hic, anatoly Liberman suggests a conflation of two obsolete orderings of the alphabet, one with H immediately followed by K and the other without any K, reciting the formers. H, K, L. as when reinterpreted for the latter, H, L. would imply a pronunciation for H. In English, ⟨h⟩ occurs as a single-letter grapheme and in digraphs, such as ⟨ch⟩ /tʃ/, /ʃ/, /k/, or /x/). The letter is silent in a syllable rime, as in ah, ohm, dahlia, cheetah, pooh-poohed, as well as in other words such as hour, honest, herb. Initial /h/ is often not pronounced in the form of some function words including had, has, have, he, her, him, his. It was formerly common for an rather than a to be used as the article before a word beginning with /h/ in an unstressed syllable, as in an historian. In the German language, the name of the letter is pronounced /haː/, following a vowel, it often silently indicates that the vowel is long, In the word erhöhen, only the first ⟨h⟩ represents /h/. In 1901, a spelling reform eliminated the silent ⟨h⟩ in nearly all instances of ⟨th⟩ in native German words such as thun or Thür
H
–
ISO basic
Latin alphabet
H
–
Writing cursive forms of H
24.
T
–
T is the 20th letter in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is the most commonly used consonant and the second most common letter in English language texts, taw was the last letter of the Western Semitic and Hebrew alphabets. In English, ⟨t⟩ usually denotes the voiceless alveolar plosive, as in tart, tee, or ties, the digraph ⟨ti⟩ often corresponds to the sound /ʃ/ word-medially when followed by a vowel, as in nation, ratio, negotiation, and Croatia. The letter ⟨t⟩ corresponds to the affricate /t͡ʃ/ in some words as a result of yod-coalescence, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, ⟨t⟩ denotes the voiceless alveolar plosive. Media related to T at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of T at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of t at Wiktionary
T
–
ISO basic
Latin alphabet
25.
W
–
W is the 23rd letter in the modern English and ISO basic Latin alphabets. The sounds /w/ and /b/ of Classical Latin developed into a bilabial fricative /β/ between vowels in Early Medieval Latin, therefore, ⟨V⟩ no longer adequately represented the labial-velar approximant sound /w/ of Germanic phonology. The Germanic /w/ phoneme was therefore written as ⟨VV⟩ or ⟨uu⟩ by the 7th or 8th century by the earliest writers of Old English, Gothic, by contrast, simply used a letter based on the Greek Υ for the same sound. The digraph ⟨VV⟩/⟨uu⟩ was also used in Medieval Latin to represent Germanic names and it is from this ⟨uu⟩ digraph that the modern name double U derives. The digraph was commonly used in the spelling of Old High German, but only sporadically in Old English, in early Middle English, following the 11th-century Norman Conquest, ⟨uu⟩ gained popularity and by 1300 it had taken Wynns place in common use. Scribal realization of the digraph could look like a pair of Vs whose branches crossed in the middle, an obsolete, cursive form found in the nineteenth century in both English and German was in the form of an ⟨n⟩ whose rightmost branch curved around as in a cursive ⟨v⟩. The shift from the digraph ⟨VV⟩ to the distinct ligature ⟨W⟩ is thus gradual, there is no phonological distinction between and in contemporary German. English uses ⟨w⟩ to represent /w/, certain dialects of Scottish English still distinguish this digraph. In Europe, there are only a few languages that use ⟨w⟩ in native words, English, German, Low German, Dutch, Frisian, Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Walloon, Polish, Kashubian, Sorbian, Resian and Scandinavian dialects use ⟨w⟩ in native words. German, Polish and Kashubian use it for the labiodental fricative /v/. Unlike its use in languages, the letter is used in Welsh and Cornish to represent the vowel /u/ as well as the related approximant consonant /w/. Modern German dialects generally have only or for West Germanic /w/, but or is still heard allophonically for ⟨w⟩, especially in the clusters ⟨schw⟩, ⟨zw⟩, some Bavarian dialects preserve a light initial, such as in wuoz. The Classical Latin is heard in the Southern German greeting Servus, in Dutch, ⟨w⟩ became a labiodental approximant /ʋ/. In many Dutch speaking areas, such as Flanders and Suriname, in Finnish, ⟨w⟩ is seen as a variant of ⟨v⟩ and not a separate letter. It is, however, recognised and maintained in the spelling of some old names, reflecting an earlier German spelling standard, in all cases, it is pronounced /ʋ/. In Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, ⟨w⟩ is named double-v, in these languages, the letter only exists in old names, loanwords and foreign words. It is usually pronounced /v/, but in words of English origin it may be pronounced /w/. The letter was introduced in the Danish and Swedish alphabets as late as 1980 and 2006, respectively
W
–
A 1693 book printing that uses the "double u" alongside the modern letter
W
–
Writing cursive forms of W
26.
K
–
K is the eleventh letter of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. In English, the letter K usually represents the voiceless velar plosive, the letter K comes from the Greek letter Κ, which was taken from the Semitic kap, the symbol for an open hand. This, in turn, was adapted by Semites who had lived in Egypt from the hieroglyph for hand representing D in the Egyptian word for hand. The Semites evidently assigned it the sound value /k/ instead, because their word for hand started with that sound, in the earliest Latin inscriptions, the letters C, K and Q were all used to represent the sounds /k/ and /g/. Of these, Q was used to represent /k/ or /g/ before a vowel, K before /a/. Later, the use of C and its variant G replaced most usages of K and Q, K survived only in a few fossilized forms such as Kalendae, the calends. After Greek words were taken into Latin, the Kappa was transliterated as a C, loanwords from other alphabets with the sound /k/ were also transliterated with C. Hence, the Romance languages generally use C and have K only in loanwords from other language groups. The Celtic languages also tended to use C instead of K, today, English is the only Germanic language to productively use hard ⟨c⟩ rather than ⟨k⟩. The letter ⟨k⟩ is usually silent at the start of an English word when it comes before the letter ⟨n⟩, as in the knight, knife, knot, know. The SI prefix for a thousand is kilo-, officially abbreviated as k—for instance, prefixed to metre or its abbreviation m, kilometre or km signifies a thousand metres. As such, people occasionally represent the number in a notation by replacing the last three zeros of the general numeral with K, for instance, 30K for 30,000. In most languages where it is employed, this represents the sound /k/ or some similar sound. The International Phonetic Alphabet uses ⟨k⟩ for the voiceless velar plosive, K replacing C in Satiric misspelling K is the unit symbol for the Kelvin temperature scale. K is the symbol for the element potassium. Triangle K Unit prefix K is the name of the character in Kafkas novel The Trial In chess notation. In baseball scoring, the letter K is used to represent a strikeout, a forwards oriented K represents a strikeout swinging, a backwards oriented K represents a strikeout looking. As abbreviation for OK, often used in emails and short text messages, K is used as a slang term for Ketamine among recreational drug users
K
–
ISO basic
Latin alphabet
K
–
Writing cursive forms of K
27.
M
–
M is the thirteenth letter of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The letter M is derived from the Phoenician Mem, via the Greek Mu, semitic Mem is most likely derived from a Proto-Sinaitic adoption of the water ideogram in Egyptian writing. The letter ⟨m⟩ represents the bilabial nasal consonant sound in the orthography of Latin as well as in that of modern languages. In English, the Oxford English Dictionary says that ⟨m⟩ is sometimes a vowel in words like spasm, in modern terminology, this is described as a syllabic consonant. The Roman numeral Ⅿ represents the number 1000, though it was not used in Roman times, media related to M at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of M at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of m at Wiktionary
M
–
ISO basic
Latin alphabet
M
–
Writing cursive forms of M
28.
Z
–
Z is the 26th and final letter of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. and deriving from a late 17th century English dialectal form. Another English dialectal form is izzard /ˈɪzərd/ and this dates from the mid-18th century and probably derives from Occitan izèda or the French ézed, whose reconstructed Latin form would be *idzēta, perhaps a popular form with a prosthetic vowel. Several languages render it as /ts/ or /dz/, e. g. zeta /tsetɑ/ or /tset/ in Finnish, in Standard Chinese pinyin, the name of the letter Z is pronounced, although the English zed and zee have become very common. The Semitic symbol was the letter, named zayin, which meant weapon or sword. It represented either the sound /z/ as in English and French, the Greek form of Z was a close copy of the Phoenician Zayin, and the Greek inscriptional form remained in this shape throughout ancient times. The Greeks called it zeta, a new name made in imitation of eta and theta, in other dialects, such as Elean and Cretan, the symbol seems to have been used for sounds resembling the English voiced and voiceless th. In the common dialect that succeeded the older dialects, ζ became /z/, the Etruscan letter Z was derived from the Phoenician alphabet, most probably through the Greek alphabet used on the island of Ischia. In Etruscan, this letter may have represented /ts/, the letter z was part of the earliest form of the Latin alphabet, adopted from Etruscan. Because the sound /z/ in Latin changed to /r/ by rhotacism in the fifth century BC, z was dropped and its place given to the new letter g. Before the reintroduction of z, the sound of zeta was written s at the beginning of words and ss in the middle of words, as in sōna for ζώνη belt, likewise, /di/ sometimes replaced /z/ in words like baptidiare for baptizare to baptize. In modern Italian, z represents /ts/ or /dz/, whereas the reflexes of ianuarius and hodie are written with the g, gennaio. In other languages, such as Spanish, further evolution of the sound occurred, Early English used S alone for both the unvoiced and the voiced sibilant. The Latin sound imported through French was new and was not written with Z, the successive changes can be well seen in the double forms from the same original, jealous and zealous. Both of these come from a late Latin zelosus, derived from the imported Greek ζῆλος zêlos, the earlier form is jealous, its initial sound is the, which developed to Modern French. John Wycliffe wrote the word as gelows or ielous, Z at the end of a word was pronounced ts, as in English assets, from Old French asez enough, from Vulgar Latin ad satis. In earlier times, the English alphabets used by children terminated not with Z, some Latin based alphabets have extra letters on the end of the alphabet. The last letter for the Icelandic, Finnish and Swedish alphabets is Ö, while it is Å for Danish, the German alphabet ends with z. A glyph variant of Z originating in the medieval Gothic minuscules, in some Antiqua typefaces, this letter is present as a standalone letter or in ligatures
Z
–
ISO basic
Latin alphabet
Z
–
Writing cursive forms of Z
29.
Turkmen Braille
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Russian Braille is the braille alphabet of the Russian language. With suitable extensions, it is used for languages of neighboring countries that are written in Cyrillic in print and it is based on the Latin transliteration of Cyrillic, with additional letters assigned idiosyncratically. In Russian, it is known as Шрифт Брайля Shrift Braylya Braille Script, the Russian Braille alphabet is as follows, The adaptation of ⠟ q to ч and ⠭ x to щ is reminiscent of the adaptation in Chinese pinyin of q to and x to. The pre-Revolutionary alphabet, reproduced at right from an old encyclopedia, in addition, the letter э is shown with a slightly different form. Although obsolete in Russian Braille, these continue in several derivative alphabets. Single punctuation, Paired punctuation, Columns marked with ⠿ are shown in the image in the box. Numbers are the letters a–j introduced with ⠼, as in other alphabets and their braille alphabets are similarly derived from Russian Braille. The braille assignments for the found in Russian print are the same as in Russian Braille. Generally not all of the Russian letters are used, except perhaps in Russian loans, punctuation and formatting, as far as they are attested, agree with Russian Braille, though Kazakh Braille is reported to use the Russian arithmetical parentheses ⠣⠀⠜. Ukrainian has the additional letters і, ї, є, ґ, the є is the mirror image of old Russian э, while і is the old Russian і, and ї is old Russian ѣ. Unesco was unable to verify these values, Belarusian has the additional letters і and ў. They are the images of й and у. Unesco was unable to verify these values, Kazakh has the additional letters ә, ғ, қ, ң, һ, ө, ү, ұ, і. See Kazakh alphabets#Correspondence chart for the braille alphabet aligned with the Cyrillic. Mongolian has ө, ү, but with different braille assignments again, see Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet for the whole alphabet aligned with Cyrillic. Unesco reported additional braille adaptations of Cyrillic in 1990, for Tajik, Turkmen, and Uzbek, the additional letters in the report are shown here, but like those of Ukrainian and Belarusian, they are unverified and should be treated with caution. Tajik ⠻ ғ, ⠌ ӣ, ⠽ қ, ⠬ ӯ, ⠹ ҳ, ⠧ ҷ Turkmen ⠣ ә, ⠹ җ, ⠜ ң, ⠧ ө, ⠽ ү Uzbek ⠻ ғ, қ, ⠧ ў, ⠹ ҳ
Turkmen Braille
–
Russian Braille
Turkmen Braille
–
The Russian braille alphabet, ca 1900.
30.
Integral symbol
–
The integral symbol, ∫, ∫ is used to denote integrals and antiderivatives in mathematics. The notation was introduced by the German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz towards the end of the 17th century, the symbol was based on the ſ character, and was chosen because Leibniz thought of the integral as an infinite sum of infinitesimal summands. The integral symbol is U+222B ∫ INTEGRAL in Unicode and \int in LaTeX, in HTML, it is written as ∫, ∫, and &int. The original IBM PC code page 437 character set included a couple of characters ⌠ and ⌡ to build the integral symbol and these were deprecated in subsequent MS-DOS code pages, but they still remain in Unicode for compatibility. The ∫ symbol is similar to, but not to be confused with. Related symbols include, In other languages, the shape of the integral symbol differs slightly from the commonly seen in English-language textbooks. While the English integral symbol leans to the right, the German symbol is upright, another difference is in the placement of limits for definite integrals. Generally, in English-language books, limits go to the right of the integral symbol, ∫0 T f d t. By contrast, in German and Russian texts, limits for definite integrals are placed above and below the symbol, and, as a result. Capital sigma notation Capital pi notation Stewart, James, zaitcev, V. Janishewsky, A. Berdnikov, A. Russian Typographical Traditions in Mathematical Literature, Russian Typographical Traditions in Mathematical Literature, EuroTeX99 Proceedings Fileformat. info
Integral symbol
–
Regional variations (English, German, Russian) of the integral symbol.
31.
Aljamiado
–
Aljamiado or Aljamía texts are manuscripts that use the Arabic script for transcribing European languages, especially Romance languages such as Mozarabic, Portuguese, Spanish or Ladino. A key aljamiado text was the mufti of Segovias compilation Suma de los principales mandamientos y devediamentos de nuestra santa ley y sunna, in later times, Moriscos were banned from using Arabic as a religious language, and wrote in Spanish on Islamic subjects. Examples are the Coplas del alhichante de Puey Monzón, narrating a Hajj, Aljamiado played a very important role in preserving Islam and the Arabic language in the life of the Moriscos. After the fall of the last Muslim kingdom on the Iberian peninsula and they were forced to adopt Christian customs and traditions and to attend church services on Sundays. Nevertheless, some of the Moriscos kept their Islamic belief and traditions secretly through the usage of Aljamiado, in 1567, Philip II of Spain issued a royal decree in Spain, which forced Moriscos to abandon using Arabic on all occasions, formal and informal, speaking and writing. Using Arabic in any sense of the word would be regarded as a crime and they were given three years to learn the language of the Christian Spanish, after which they would have to get rid of all Arabic written material. Moriscos translated all prayers and the sayings of their prophet Mohammed into Aljamiado transcriptions of the Spanish language, Aljamiado scrolls were circulated amongst the Moriscos. Historians came to know about Aljamiado literature only in the nineteenth century. Some of the Aljamiado scrolls are kept in the Spanish National Library in Madrid, the word aljamiado is sometimes used for other non-Semitic language written in Arabic letters. For example, Bosnian and Albanian texts written in Arabic script during the Ottoman period have been referred to as aljamiado, however, many linguists prefer to limit the term to Romance languages, instead using arebica to refer to the use of Arabic script for Slavic languages. The word Aljamiado is also used to refer to Greek written in the Arabic/Ottoman alphabet
Aljamiado
–
Poema de Yuçuf.
Aljamiado
–
Aljamiado text by Mancebo de Arévalo. c. 16th century
Aljamiado
–
Aljamiado letters
32.
Belarusian Arabic alphabet
–
The Belarusian Arabic alphabet was based on the Arabic script and was developed in the 16th century. It consisted of twenty-eight graphemes, including additions to represent Belarusian sounds not found in Arabic. The Belarusian Arabic alphabet was used by the Lipka Tatars, who had invited to settle in Belarusian territory. During the 14th–16th centuries they gradually stopped using their own language, books of that literary tradition are known as Kitab, which is the Arabic word for book. Some Polish texts were written in the Arabic script, dated not earlier than 17th century. The sounds /w/ and /v/ were both represented by the symbol, Vowels are not listed as they were marked with diacritical marks. Source, be-x-old, Беларускі арабскі альфабэт Д-р Я, Беларускія мусульмане і беларуская літаратура арабскім пісьмом. Левіна,1933, Менск, Беларускае коопэрацыйна-выдавецкае таварыства ″Адраджэньне″,1991, kitabs, the unique highlight of the Belarusian language at pravapis. org Belarusian Latin alphabet Arebica – modified Arabic script used for the Bosnian language
Belarusian Arabic alphabet
–
Belarusian Arabic alphabet-Zh
33.
Kazakh alphabets
–
The Kazakh alphabets are the alphabets used to write the Kazakh language. The Kazakh language uses the following alphabets, The Cyrillic script is used in the Republic of Kazakhstan. It is also used by native Kazakh populations belonging to the areas of Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan and it was introduced by the Soviet Union in 1940. The Arabic script is used in Peoples Republic of China in the Altay Prefecture. It is also used in Iran and Afghanistan and this is a modified script based on the alphabet used for Kazakh before 1927. A Latin alphabet based on the Turkish alphabet is used by the Kazakh diaspora in Turkey. The Kazakh diaspora also uses a surrogate Latin alphabet in Germany, as with other Central Asian Turkic languages, a Latin alphabet was introduced by the Soviets and used from 1927 to 1940 when it was replaced with Cyrillic. Kazakh Braille The Kazakh Cyrillic alphabet is used in Kazakhstan and Mongolia, in the nineteenth century, Ibrahim Altynsarin, a prominent Kazakh educator, first introduced a Cyrillic alphabet for transcribing Kazakh. Russian missionary activity, as well as Russian-sponsored schools, further encouraged the use of Cyrillic in the nineteenth, the alphabet was reworked by Sarsen Amanzholov and accepted in its current form in 1940. It contains 42 letters,33 from the Russian alphabet with 9 additional letters for sounds of the Kazakh language, initially, Kazakh letters came after letters from the Russian alphabet, but now they are placed after Russian letters similar in sound or shape. The letters В, Ё, Ф, Х, Һ, Ц, Ч, Щ, Ъ, Ь and Э are not used in native Kazakh words. Of these, Ё, Ц, Ч, Щ, Ъ, Ь, Э, are used only in words borrowed from Russian or through the Russian language which are according to Russian orthographic rules. The letter Х in conversational speech is pronounced similar to Қ, the letter Һ is used only in Arabic-Persian borrowings and is often pronounced like an unvoiced Х. The letter И represents the tense vowel obtained from the combinations ЫЙ /əj/, the letter У represents /w/ and the tense vowel obtained from the combinations ҰУ /ʊw/, ҮУ /ʉw/, ЫУ /əw/ and ІУ /ɪw/. Additionally, И and У are retained in words borrowed from Russian, some Internet resources in part used the government information agency QazAqparat before the encoding of this standard. Today the encoding UTF-8 is being accepted, the Arabic script is still the official alphabet for Kazakhs in the Peoples Republic of China. It was first introduced to the territory of Kazakhstan in the eleventh century, in 1924, Kazakh intellectual Akhmet Baitursynov attempted to reform the Arabic script to better suit Kazakh. The letters ۆ, گ, ڭ, پ and چ are used to represent sounds not found in the Arabic language, the Kazakh Arabic alphabet contains 29 letters and one digit, the upper hamza used at the beginnings of words to create front vowels throughout the word
Kazakh alphabets
–
Kazakh Arabic and Latin script in 1924
Kazakh alphabets
Kazakh alphabets
–
A Kazakh newspaper in Latin script from 1937.
Kazakh alphabets
–
Selected works of
Mao Zedong in Latin-script Kazakh, published in
Beijing in 1977
34.
Ottoman Turkish alphabet
–
The Ottoman Turkish alphabet is a version of the Perso-Arabic alphabet used to write Ottoman Turkish until 1928, when it was replaced by the Latin-based modern Turkish alphabet. Though Ottoman Turkish was primarily written in script, non-Muslim Ottoman subjects sometimes wrote it in other scripts, including the Armenian, Greek, Latin. The earliest known Turkic alphabet is the Orkhon script, the various Turkic languages have been written in a number of different alphabets, including Cyrillic, Arabic, Greek, Latin, and some other Asiatic writing systems. The Ottoman Turkish alphabet is a Turkish form of the Perso-Arabic script, well suited to writing Arabic and Persian borrowings, it was poorly suited to native Turkish words. The Arabic script had been designed to write Arabic, and while it was serviceable for Persian, it is quite inadequate at representing Turkish phonemes, still, Turkic languages such as Azerbaijani and Uzbek continue to be written using Arabic script in Iran, Afghanistan, and Iraq. The introduction of the telegraph and the press in the 19th century exposed further weaknesses in the Arabic script. Some Turkish reformers promoted the Latin script well before Atatürks reforms, in 1862, during an earlier period of reform, the statesman Münuf Pasha advocated a reform of the alphabet. At the start of the 20th century, similar proposals were made by writers associated with the Young Turk movement, including Hüseyin Cahit, Abdullah Cevdet. The issue was raised again in 1923 during the İzmir Economic Congress of the new Turkish Republic, a move away from the Arabic script was strongly opposed by conservative and religious elements. It was argued that Romanization of the script would detach Turkey from the wider Islamic world, others opposed Romanization on practical grounds, as was no suitable adaptation of the Latin script that could be used for Turkish phonemes. Some suggested that a better alternative might be to modify the Arabic script to introduce characters for better representing Turkish vowels. In 1926, the Turkic republics of the Soviet Union adopted the Latin script, Ottoman Turkish script was replaced by the Latin-based new Turkish alphabet. Its use became compulsory in all communications in 1929. The change was formalized by the Law on the Adoption and Implementation of the Turkish Alphabet, passed on November 1,1928, as with Arabic and Persian, texts in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet are written right to left. The appearance of a letter changes depending on its position in a word, isolated, final, medial, some letters cannot be joined to the left and so do not possess separate medial and initial forms. In medial position, the form is used. In initial position, the form is used. In most texts, kef, gef, and sağır kef are written identically although one Ottoman variant of gef has a mini-kaf of ﻙ as well as the doubled upper stroke of گ
Ottoman Turkish alphabet
–
A calendar page for November 1, 1895 (October 20
O.S.) in cosmopolitan
Thessaloniki. The first 3 lines in Ottoman Turkish Arabic script give the date in the
Rumi – 20 Teşrin-i Evvel 1311 – and
Islamic – 14 Jumādā al-Ūlā 1313 – calendars; the Julian and Gregorian (in French) dates appear below.
Ottoman Turkish alphabet
–
Atatürk introducing the new Turkish alphabet to the people of
Kayseri, September 20, 1928
35.
Arabic alphabet
–
The Arabic alphabet or Arabic abjadiyah is the Arabic script as it is codified for writing the Arabic language. It is written right to left, in a cursive style. Originally, the alphabet was an abjad consisting only of consonants, as with other abjads, such as the Hebrew alphabet, scribes later devised means of indicating vowel sounds by separate vowel points. The basic Arabic alphabet contains 28 letters, there are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms. Many letters look similar but are distinguished from one another by dots above or below their central part and these dots are an integral part of a letter, since they distinguish between letters that represent different sounds. For example, the Arabic letters transliterated as b and t have the basic shape, but b has one dot below, ب. Both printed and written Arabic are cursive, with most of the letters within a word connected to the adjacent letters. There are two main collating sequences for the Arabic alphabet, abjad and hija, in this order, letters are also used as numbers, Abjad numerals, and possess the same alphanumeric code/cipher as Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy. The hijā’ī or alifbā’ī order, used where lists of names and words are sorted, as in phonebooks, classroom lists, and dictionaries, groups letters by similarity of shape. Loss of sameḵ was compensated for by the split of shin ש into two independent Arabic letters, ش and ﺱ which moved up to take the place of sameḵ, the six other letters that do not correspond to any north Semitic letter are placed at the end. This is commonly vocalized as follows, abjad hawwaz ḥuṭṭī kalaman sa‘faṣ qarashat thakhadh ḍaẓagh, the hijā’ī order is never used as numerals. Another kind of order was used widely in the Maghreb until recently when it was replaced by the Mashriqi order. The Arabic alphabet is always cursive and letters vary in shape depending on their position within a word, letters can exhibit up to four distinct forms corresponding to an initial, medial, final, or isolated position. While some letters show considerable variations, others remain almost identical across all four positions, generally, letters in the same word are linked together on both sides by short horizontal lines, but six letters can only be linked to their preceding letter. For example, أرارات has only isolated forms because each letter cannot be connected to its following one, in addition, some letter combinations are written as ligatures, notably lām-alif. Notes See the article Romanization of Arabic for details on various schemes, however. Also names are transcribed as pronounced locally, not as pronounced in Literary Arabic. Regarding pronunciation, the values given are those of Modern Standard Arabic
Arabic alphabet
–
Calligraphy
Arabic alphabet
–
as the sole official script
36.
Arabi Malayalam
–
Arabi Malayalam is a writing system for writing Mappila Malayalam. It uses a variant form of the Arabic script, Mappila Malayalam uses the grammar and syntax of Malayalam, vocabulary from Malayalam, Arabic, Tamil, Urdu and Persian, and the Arabic script with special orthographic features. Though this originated in the South Indian region of the Malabar, today the script is used in Malaysia. It is also used to teach Malayalam in Madrassas of Kerala, until the 20th century, the script was widely taught to all Muslims in Kerala, including women. Most of the Mappila Songs are written in Arabi-Malayalam script, the earliest known such work is the Muhyidheen Mala, written in 1607. Over the centuries, almost 3000 Arabic words used in Mappila Malayalam came to be assimilated to the Malayalam language, many of them relate to law, administration and commerce, indicating the areas where the Muslim influence, especially in the lands under the Zamorin. There were many problems to write Malayalam using letters covering Arabic, only 28 letters were available from Arabic orthography to render over 53 phonemes of Malayalam. It was overcome by following the pattern of creating additional letters established for Persian, the letters like pa, gha, kha, ṅa, ña, ḻa, ga, ca were not available in the Arabic alphabets. The characters which stand for ḻa, ca, pa, ga are ژ, چ, پ, گ respectively in Arabi Malayalam. A huge volume of works written in Arabi-Malayalam have not been translated to the Malayalam script of today. These works contain the greatest literary achievements by Mappilas over the centuries, romantic ballads, folk tales and battle songs have found a place in Arabi-Malayalam literature. While Arabi-Malayalam literally denotes Arabic influence in Malayalam, the used in Arabi-Malayalam works often included Sanskrit, Persian. The first Arabi-Malayalam novel, Chahar Dervesh, a translation of a Persian work, was published in 1883, moyinkutty Vaidyar and others translated important works of Sanskrit into Arabi-Malayalam. Major works translated thus were Astangahridaya, Amarakosha, Panchatantra and even stories about King Vikramaditya, Sanskrit medical texts were also translated into Arabi-Malayalam by authors like Abdurahiman Musaliar of Ponnani Puthiyakath. These included the Upakarasara, Yogarambha and Mahasara, Arabi-Malayalam periodicals played an important role in social reform movements of the Mappilas in the early 20th century. Al-Irshad, published in 1923 by the Muslim Aikya Sanghom played an important role in explaining the tenets of Islam to the common man, Arabi-Malayalam still used as a medium of Madrassa education by Samastha Kerala Islam Matha Vidhyabhyasa Board in the Malabar region of Kerala. Arwi Judeo-Malayalam Suriyani Malayalam Beary bashe
Arabi Malayalam
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Al Bayan newspaper Dated March 1930 printed in Arabi Malayalam script
Arabi Malayalam
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Quran in Arabi
Malayalam
37.
Arwi
–
Arwi is a written register of the Tamil language that uses an Arabic alphabet. It typically has extensive lexical influences from the Arabic language, Arwi was used extensively by the Muslim minority of Tamil Nadu state of India and Sri Lanka. The majority of Madrasas still teach the basics of Arwi as part of their curricula, Arwi was an outcome of the cultural synthesis between seafaring Arabs and Tamil-speaking Muslims of Tamil Nadu. It had a body of work in jurisprudence, sufism, law, medicine. It was used as a language for Tamil Muslims to learn Arabic. Many hadith manuscripts have been found, most of the fiqh books, particularly those of Imaam Shaafi and Imaam Abu Hanifa, have been found in Arwi. There was also a translation of the Bible into Arwi in 1926, Arwi contributed immensely to the education and progression of Muslim women in South India and Sri Lanka. Arwi-educated women were active participants in the fabric of society playing vital roles in education, medicine. Large portions of Arwi works were lost in two periods of time, in the 16th century with the arrival of the Portuguese and in the 20th century with the arrival of the printing press. Using the Arabic script meant that Arwi could not jump to print easily, presently, manuscripts are being eaten away by termites in homes and in private, public and institutional libraries. Efforts are underway to halt the decline and revive the language, Arwi still has a place among the more traditional Indian Tamil Muslim and Sri Lankan Moor families. The Arwi alphabet is the Arabic alphabet with thirteen letters, used to represent the Tamil vowels e and o. Arusi branch of the Qadiri path Arwi, Comments, Questions and Answers Islamic Cultural Values of Arwi Southeastern university of Sri Lanka
Arwi
–
Letters unique to Arwi.
Arwi
–
Arwi Arabic script in a tombstone at
Kilakarai in one of the oldest mosques of India,
the Old Jumma Masjid of Kilakarai.
38.
Jawi alphabet
–
Jawi is an Arabic alphabet for writing the Malay language, Acehnese, Banjarese, Minangkabau, Tausūg and several other languages in Southeast Asia. Jawi is one of the two scripts in Brunei, used as an alternative script in Malaysia and Malay dominated areas in Indonesia. It can be typed with the Jawi keyboard, day-to-day usage of Jawi is maintained in more conservative Malay-populated areas such as Kelantan in Malaysia and Pattani. Jawi is still used on road and building signs, and taught in primary and religious schools in Brunei. The word Jawi is an adjective for the Arabic noun Jawah, both terms may have originated from the term Javadwipa, the ancient name for Java. Prior to the onset of the Islamisation, when Hindu-Buddhist influences were still firmly established in the region and this is evidenced from the discovery of several stone inscriptions in Old Malay, notably the Kedukan Bukit Inscription and Talang Tuwo inscription. The spread of Islam in Southeast Asia and the subsequent introduction of Arabic writing system began with the arrival of Muslim merchants in the region since the seventh century. The conversion of King Phra Ong Mahawangsa of Kedah in 1136, at the early stage of Islamisation, the Arabic script was taught to the people who had newly embraced Islam in the form of religious practices, such as the recitation of Quran as well as salat. Many Arabic characters are never used as they are not pronounced in Malay language and this was the same for the acceptance of Arabic writing in Turkey, Persia and India which had taken place earlier and thus, the Jawi script was then deemed as the writing of the Muslims. The inscription on the stone contains a proclamation issued by the Sri Paduka Tuan of Terengganu, urging his subjects to extend and uphold Islam and this has attested the strong observance of the Muslim faith in the early 14th century Terengganu specifically and the Malay world as a whole. The development of Jawi script was different from that of Pallava writing which was restricted to the nobility. The Jawi script was embraced by the entire Muslim community regardless of class, with the increased intensity in the appreciation of Islam, scriptures originally written in Arabic were translated in Malay and written in the Jawi script. Additionally local religious scholars later began to elucidate the Islamic teachings in the forms of original writings, moreover, there were also individuals of the community who used Jawi for the writing of literature which previously existed and spread orally. With this inclusion of literature, Malay literature took on a more sophisticated form. This was believed to have taken place from the 15th century, other forms of Arabic-based scripts existed in the region, notably the Pegon alphabet of Javanese language in Java and the Serang alphabet of Bugis language in South Sulawesi. Both writing systems applied extensively the Arabic diacritics and added several alphabets other than Jawi alphabets to suit the languages, due to their fairly limited usage, the spelling system of both scripts did not undergo similar advance developments and modifications as experienced by Jawi script. The script became prominent with the spread of Islam, as the Malays found that the earlier Pallava script was totally unsuited as a vehicle to relay religious concepts. The Malays held the script in high esteem as it is the gateway to understanding Islam and its Holy Book, the use of jawi script was a key factor driving the emergence of Malay as the lingua franca of the region, alongside the spread of Islam
Jawi alphabet
–
A copy of
Undang-Undang Melaka ('Laws of Malacca'). The Malacca system of justice as enshrined in the text was the legal source for other major regional sultanates like
Johor,
Perak,
Brunei,
Pattani and
Aceh.
Jawi alphabet
–
Pages from
Hikayat Abdullah in the Jawi script.
Jawi alphabet
–
The
Terengganu Inscription Stone, written in year 1303. It is the oldest written artefact with Jawi script on it. The Jawi inscriptions are of local laws influenced by the
Shariah and thus one of the earliest proof of
Islamic influence in Malaysia.
39.
Khowar alphabet
–
The Khowar alphabet is the right-to-left alphabet used for the Khowar language. It is a modification of the Urdu alphabet, which is itself a derivative of the Persian alphabet, according to the Khowar Academy with 60 letters, the Khowar alphabet is typically written in the calligraphic Nastaliq script, whereas Arabic is more commonly in the Naskh style. Usually, bare transliterations of Khowar into Roman letters omit many phonemic elements that have no equivalent in English or other languages written in the Latin script. Prior to that, the language was carried on through oral tradition, today Urdu and English are the official languages and the only major literary usage of Khowar is in both poetry and prose composition. Khowar has also occasionally written in a version of the Roman script called Roman Khowar since the 1960s. The Montly Zhang is the first newsletter was the first Khowar newspaper to use Nasta’liq computer-based composition, there are efforts under way to develop more sophisticated and user-friendly Khowar support on computers and the internet. Nowadays, nearly all Khowar newspapers, magazines, journals, the Nastaliq calligraphic writing style began as a Persian mixture of scripts Naskh and Taliq. Nastaliq is more cursive and flowing than its Naskh counterpart, a list of the letters of the Khowar alphabet and their pronunciation is given below. Khowar contains many historical spellings from Arabic and Persian, and therefore has many irregularities, the retroflex consonants needed to be added as well, this was accomplished by placing a superscript ط above the corresponding dental consonants. Several letters which represent distinct consonants in Arabic are conflated in Persian, some of the original Arabic letters are not used in Khowar. This is the list of the Khowar letters created by Rehmat Aziz Chitrali, many of these letters also represent vowel sounds. Vowels in Khowar are represented by letters that are also considered consonants, many vowel sounds can be represented by one letter. Confusion can arise, but context is usually enough to figure out the correct sound and this is a list of Khowar vowels found in the initial, medial, and final positions. Short vowels are represented by marks above and below a consonant, alif is the first letter of the Khowar alphabet, and it is used exclusively as a vowel. At the beginning of a word, alif can be used to represent any of the vowels, e. g. ابدار abdar, اسم ism. Also at the beginning, a followed by either wāo or ye represents a long vowel sound. However, wāo or ye alone at the beginning represents a consonant, alif also has a variant, call alif madd. It is used to represent a long ā at the beginning of a word, e. g. آپک āpak, at the middle or end of a word, long ā is represented simply by alif, e. g. باغ bāgh, آرام ārām
Khowar alphabet
–
File:Allam Iqbal’s poetry’s versified khowar translation by Rahmat Aziz Chitrali
Khowar alphabet
–
Khowar-Alphabets created by Rehmat Aziz Chitrali
40.
Kurdish alphabet
–
The Kurdistan Regional Government has agreed upon a standard for Soriani, implemented in Unicode for computation purposes. The Hawar is used in Turkey, Syria and Armenia, the Soriani in Iraq, two additional alphabets, based on the Armenian alphabet and the Cyrillic script, were once used in Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic. When presenting the alphabet in his magazine Hawar, Jeladet Ali Bedirkhan proposed using ⟨ḧ ẍ ⟩ for غ, ح and these three glyphs do not have the official status of letters, but serve to represent these sounds when they are indispensable to comprehension. Turkey does not recognize this alphabet, use of the letters Q, W, and X, which did not exist in the Turkish alphabet until 2013, led to persecution in 2000 and 2003. Since September 2003, many Kurds applied to the courts seeking to change their names to Kurdish ones written with these letters, the Turkish government finally legalized the letters Q, W, and X as part of the Turkish alphabet in 2013. Some scholars have suggested to add minor additions to Bedirxans Hawar alphabet to make it more user-friendly, the additions correspond to sounds that are represented in the Soriani Arabic Alphabet, but not in the Hawar alphabet. These scholars suggest this extended alphabet be called the Universal Kurdish Latin Alphabet, the suggested additional characters are Ł, Ň, Ř and Ü. The velar Ł/ł is for non-initial positions only, in Kurdish velar Ł never comes in initial position, the initial position in any Kurdish word beginning with r is pronounced and written as a trill Ř/ř. The letter Ü/ü is a new letter, which is sometimes written ۊ in the Soriani alphabet, the velar nasal consonant is also a Kurdish phoneme which never comes in initial position, and it is written as Ň/ň. The Universal Kurdish Latin Alphabet consists of 35 letters in total, Universal Kurdish Latin Alphabet In this alphabet the short vowels are E, I and U, the long vowels are A, Ê, Î, O, Û and Ü. Non-Kurdish Phonemes These three glyphs do not have the status of letter. Central Kurdish is mainly using a modified Persian alphabet with 33 letters introduced by Said Kaban Sedqi. Unlike the Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad, Sorani is almost a true alphabet in which vowels are mandatory, making the script easier to read. Reformed Sorani does have glyphs for the Kurdish short i and it is able to differentiate between the consonant w from the short vowel u by representing w with a. It is also able to differentiate between the consonant y from the long vowel î by representing î with a. For pronunciations see comparison table below, the alphabet is represented by 34 letters including وو, which is arguably incorrect, which is given its own position. Kurds in Iraq and Iran mainly use this alphabet, though the Kurdish Latin alphabet is also in use, the standardization by KRG uses ک instead of ك for letter Kaf, as listed in the Unicode table on the official home page for the standard. However, the glyph is still in use by various individuals
Kurdish alphabet
–
Kurdish restaurant sign written in Arabic script
41.
Pashto alphabet
–
The seventeenth century saw the rise of a polemic debate that was also polarized along lines of script. The heterodox Roshani movement wrote their literature mostly in the Persianate style called Nastaʿlīq script, even lithographically reproduced Pashto has been calligraphied in Naskh as a general rule, since it was adopted as standard. The Pashto alphabet has several letters which do not appear in any other Arabic script, the letters ښ and ږ look like sīn and re respectively with a dot above and beneath. Pashto has ی, ې, ۀ, and ۍ for additional vowels, Pashto uses all 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet, and shares 3 letters with Persian and Urdu in the additional letters. Pashto has 45 letters and 4 diacritic marks, the Southern, Central and Northern dialects of Pashto are included. ^1 In the beginning of a word, آ represents the long vowel /ɑ/, in the middle or end of a word, ا represents the long vowel /ɑ/ which is following a consonant. ^2 Ten letters, ق ف ع ظ ط ض ص ح ﺫ ث, eight of these, ع ظ ط ض ص ح ﺫ ث, represent no additional phonemes of Pashto, and their pronunciation merges with other phonemes. ^3 ح /h/ tends to be omitted in pronunciation when at the end of a word, e. g. اصلاح is always pronounced as. ^4 The letter ړ represents /ɺ̢/ if it is not at the position of a syllable, if it is final. It tends to merge with /p/ پ, ^6 The phoneme /q/ ق occurs only in loanwords. It tends to merge with /k/ ک, ^7 It is also common to write the letter ک as ك. ^8 It is also common to write the letter ګ as گ, ^9 In informal texts, ی as well as ې, ۍ and ئ are sometimes replaced by the letter ے, especially in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. ^10 ی represents /ai/ when it is following a consonant, ^11 The letter ئ represents /j/ after a vowel, e. g. جدائي - judāyī, separation. ^12 It is also common to write ﺉ with the hamza over the side of the letter - ٸ. The superscribed element of the letter ځ in earlier varieties was not hamza-shaped, such shape of the upper element of the letter is hard to find in modern fonts. څ is now used for only /t͡s/. The four diacritic marks are, The diacritic marks are not considered separate letters and their use is optional and are usually not written, they are only occasionally used to distinguish between two words which would otherwise appear similar. In Arabic loanwords, the tanwin fatha can be used, e. g. مَثَلاً - masalan, ^1 If ى follows a consonant in a word, it indicates the word is masculine singular and in the direct case. ^2 ۍ always indicates the word it occurs in is feminine, ^3 If ئ occurs at the end of a verb, it indicates the verb is in second person plural form
Pashto alphabet
Pashto alphabet
–
Excerpt from Khayr ul-Bayān, the oldest known document written in Pashto, written in
Nastaliq in 1651
42.
Pegon alphabet
–
Pegon is an Arabic alphabet used to write the Javanese and Sundanese languages, as an alternative to the Roman alphabet or the Javanese script and the old Sundanese script. In particular, it was used for writing and poetry from the fifteenth century. The word Pegon originated from a Javanese word pégo, which means deviate, due to the practice of writing Javanese language with Arabic script, the main difference between Jawi and Pegon is that the latter is almost always written with vocal signs. This is because the Javanese language contains more variations of aksara swara than their Malay counterpart resulting in vocal signs needing to be written to avoid phonetic confusion, if written without vocal signs, as in Jawi, the script is called Gundhul. Pegon includes symbols for sounds that are not present in standard Arabic, one of the earliest dated examples of the usage of Pegon may be Masail al-talim, a work on Islamic law written in Arabic with interlinear translation and marginal commentary in Javanese. The manuscript is dated 1623 and written on dluwang, a made from the bark of the mulberry tree
Pegon alphabet
–
Pegon consonants. Letters not present in the Arabic alphabet are marked with a yellow circle.
Pegon alphabet
–
Pegon vowels
43.
Persian alphabet
–
The Persian alphabet or Perso-Arabic alphabet is a writing system based on the Arabic script and used for the Persian language. It has four more than the Arabic alphabet, پ, چ, ژ. The Persian script is an abjad and is exclusively written cursively and that is, the majority of the letters in a word connect to each other. This is also implemented on computers, whenever the Persian alphabet is typed, the computer automatically connects the letters to each other. Words are written right to left. Also, vowels are underrepresented in writing, see below for details, the replacement of the Pahlavi scripts with the Persian alphabet in order to write the Persian language was done by the Tahirid dynasty in ninth century Greater Khorasan. Below are the 32 letters of the modern Persian alphabet, since the script is cursive, the appearance of a letter changes depending on its position, isolated, initial, medial, and final of a word. The names of the letter are mostly the ones used in Arabic, the only ambiguous name is he, which is used for both ﺡ and ه. For clarification, these are often called ḥe-ye jimi and he-ye do-češm, respectively. Letters which do not link to a following letter Seven letters – و, ژ, ﺯ, ﺭ, ﺫ, ﺩ, ﺍ – do not connect to a letter as the rest of the letters of the alphabet do. These seven letters have the form in isolated and initial position. For example, when the letter ا alef is at the beginning of a such as اینجا injā. Persian script has adopted a subset of Arabic diacritics which consists of zabar /æ/, zir /e/, other Arabic diacritics may be seen in Arabic loan-words. The following are not actual letters but different orthographical shapes for letters, and in the case of the lām alef, as to ﺀ hamze, it has only a single graphic, since it is never tied to a preceding or following letter. However, it is seated on a vāv, ye or alef. Technically, hamze is not a letter but a diacritic, although at first glance they may seem similar, there are many differences in the way the different languages use the alphabets. For example, similar words are written differently in Persian and Arabic, vowel notation is simple but its history is complicated. Classical Arabic has a length distinction, in writing, long vowels are normally written ambiguously by letters known as matres lectionis while short ones are normally omitted entirely
Persian alphabet
–
Example showing the
Nastaʿlīq calligraphic style's proportion rules.
44.
Sindhi language
–
Sindhi /ˈsɪndi/ is an Indo-Aryan language of the historical Sindh region, spoken by the Sindhi people. It is the language of the Pakistani province of Sindh. In India, Sindhi is one of the scheduled languages officially recognized by the federal government, most Sindhi speakers are concentrated in Pakistan in the Sindh province, and in India, the Kutch region of the state of Gujarat and in the Ulhasnagar region of the state of Maharashtra. The Sindhi language and other languages of Pakistan are struggling to be officially given the status of national language in Pakistan. Before the inception of Pakistan, Sindhi was the language of Sindh. There are many Sindhi language television channels broadcasting in Pakistan such as KTN, Sindh TV, Awaz Television Network, besides this, Indian television Doordarshan have been asked by the Indian court to start a news channel for Hindu Sindhis of India. Sindhi Computing is the used for the Software developed for the Sindhi language. Sindhi language software such as Sindhi language keyboards have been developed for the Windows OS, various other online websites provide Sindhi keyboard such as, M. B Sindhi keyboard by Majid Bhurgri. The name Sindhi is derived from Sindhu, the name of the Indus River. When Sindh was occupied by British army and was annexed with Bombay, Sir Bartle Frere, the then commissioner of Sindh, issued orders on August 29,1857 advising civil servants in Sindh to qualify examination in Sindhi. He also ordered Sindhi to be used in all official communication, seven-grade education system commonly known as Sindhi-Final was introduced in Sindh. Sindhi Final was made a prerequisite for employment in revenue, police, like other languages of this family, Sindhi has passed through Old Indo-Aryan and Middle Indo-Aryan stages of growth, and it entered the New Indo-Aryan stage around the 10th century CE. In the year 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned Narayan Jagannath Vaidya to replace the Abjad used in Sindhi, the script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which Twelve Martial Laws were imposed by the British authorities, according to Islamic Sindhi tradition, the first translation of the Quran into Sindhi was completed in the year 883 CE /270 AH in Mansura, Sindh. The first extensive Sindhi translation was done by Akhund Azaz Allah Muttalawi, the first to appear in print was by Muhammad Siddiq. Sindhi has a large inventory of both consonants and vowels compared to other languages. Sindhi has 46 consonant phonemes and 16 vowels, the consonant to vowel ratio is around average for worlds languages at 2.8. All plosives, affricates, nasals, the flap and the lateral approximant /l/ have aspirated or breathy voiced counterparts
Sindhi language
Sindhi language
–
Sindhi
45.
Tajik alphabet
–
The Bukhori dialect spoken by Bukharan Jews traditionally used the Hebrew alphabet but more often today is written using the Cyrillic variant. As with many states, the change in writing system. The Persian alphabet is supported by the religious, Islamists. As the de facto standard, the Cyrillic alphabet is supported by those who wish to maintain the status quo. As a result of the influence of Islam in the region, until this time, the language was not thought of as separate and simply considered a dialect of the Persian language. The Soviets began by simplifying the Persian alphabet in 1923, before moving to a Latin-based system in 1927. The Latin script was introduced by the Soviet Union as part of an effort to increase literacy and distance the, at time, largely illiterate population. The regular Persian alphabet, being an abjad, does not provide sufficient letters for representing the system of Tajik. In addition, the abjad is more difficult to learn, each letter having different forms depending on the position in the word, the Decree on Romanisation made this law in April,1928. The Latin variant for Tajik was based on the work by Turcophone scholars who aimed to produce a unified Turkic alphabet, the literacy campaign was successful, with near-universal literacy being achieved by the 1950s. As part of the russification of Central Asia, the Cyrillic script was introduced in the late 1930s, the alphabet remained Cyrillic until the end of the 1980s with the disintegration of the Soviet Union. In 1989, with the growth in Tajik nationalism, a law was enacted declaring Tajik the state language, in addition, the law officially equated Tajik with Persian, placing the word Fârsi after Tajik. The law also called for a reintroduction of the Persian alphabet. The Persian alphabet was introduced into education and public life, although the banning of the Islamic Renaissance Party in 1993 slowed down the adoption, in 1999, the word Fârsi was removed from the state-language law. As of 2004 the de facto standard in use is a Cyrillic alphabet, the letters of the major variants of the Tajik alphabet are presented below, along with their phonetic values. There is also a table below. A variant of the Persian alphabet is used to write Tajik, in the Tajik version, as with all other versions of the Arabic script, with the exception of ا, vowels are not given unique letters, but rather optionally indicated with diacritic marks. The Latin script was introduced after the Russian Revolution of 1917 in order to facilitate an increase in literacy, only lowercase letters were found in the first versions of the Latin variant, between 1926-9
Tajik alphabet
–
The
coat of arms of the
Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic circa 1929. "Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic" is written (from top to bottom) in Tajik Latin, Tajik Arabic, and Russian Cyrillic.
Tajik alphabet
–
An illustrated manuscript written circa 1492 by
Jami, a
Tajik (
Persian)
poet. The writing is in the Persian alphabet.
Tajik alphabet
–
The front page of Kommunisti Isfara from 15 May 1936.
Tajik alphabet
–
Advertisement in Cyrillic for the admission of the graduate students by the research institutes of the
Tajik Academy of Sciences.
46.
Urdu alphabet
–
The Urdu alphabet is the right-to-left alphabet used for the Urdu language. It is a modification of the Persian alphabet known as Perso-Arabic, the Urdu alphabet has up to 58 letters. With 39 basic letters and no distinct letter cases, the Urdu alphabet is written in the calligraphic Nastaʿlīq script. Usually, bare transliterations of Urdu into Roman letters omit many phonemic elements that have no equivalent in English or other languages written in the Latin script. The Urdu language emerged as a register of Hindustani well before the Partition of India. It is distinguished most by its extensive Persian influences, the standard Urdu script is a modified version of the Perso-Arabic script and has its origins in 13th century Iran. It is closely related to the development of the Nastaliq style of Perso-Arabic script, Urdu script in its extended form is known as Shahmukhi script and is used for writing other Indo-Aryan languages of North Indian subcontinent like Punjabi and Saraiki as well. Despite the invention of the Urdu typewriter in 1911, Urdu newspapers continued to publish prints of handwritten scripts by calligraphers known as katibs or khush-navees until the late 1980s, the Pakistani national newspaper Daily Jang was the first Urdu newspaper to use Nastaʿlīq computer-based composition. There are efforts under way to more sophisticated and user-friendly Urdu support on computers. Nowadays, nearly all Urdu newspapers, magazines, journals, usage of script generally signifies the users faith, Muslims generally use the Urdu script, while Hindus use the Devanagari script. The Nastaʿlīq calligraphic writing style began as a Persian mixture of scripts Naskh, after the Mughal conquest, Nastaliq became the preferred writing style for Urdu. It is the dominant style in Pakistan, and many Urdu writers elsewhere in the use it. Nastaʿlīq is more cursive and flowing than its Naskh counterpart, the Urdu script is an abjad script derived from Perso-Arabic script, which is itself a derivative of the Arabic script. The Urdu alphabet was standardized in 2004 by the National Language Authority, tāʼ marbūṭah is also sometimes considered a letter though it is rarely used except for in certain loan words from Arabic. As an abjad, the Urdu script only shows consonants and long vowels, the letters added include, ٹ to represent /ʈ/, ڈ to represent /ɖ/, ڑ to represent /ɽ/, ں to represent /◌̃/, and ے to represent /ɛ, / or /e, /. Furthermore, a separate letter, ھ, exists to denote a /ʰ/ or a /ʱ/. This letter is used as part of the multitude of digraphs. The digraphs of aspirated consonants are as follows, the Urdu language has 10 vowels and 10 nasalized vowels
Urdu alphabet
–
Example of writing in the Urdu alphabet: Urdu
47.
Uyghur Arabic alphabet
–
The Uyghur Perso-Arabic alphabet is an Arabic alphabet used for writing the Uyghur language, primarily by Uyghurs living in China. It is one of several Uyghur alphabets, and it is the alphabet of Uyghur language since 1982. The first Perso-Arabic derived alphabet for Uyghur was developed in the 10th century, the version used for writing the Chagatai language. It became the literary language, now known as the Chagatay alphabet. It was used nearly exclusively up to the early 1920s, between 1937 and 1954 the Perso-Arabic alphabet used to write Uyghur was modified by removing redundant letters and adding markings for vowels. A Cyrillic alphabet was adopted in the 1950s and a Latin alphabet in 1958, the modern Uyghur Perso-Arabic alphabet was made official in 1978 and reinstituted by the Chinese government in 1983, with modifications for representing Uyghur vowels. The pre-modification alphabet used Arabic diacritics to mark short vowels, several of these alternatives were influenced by security-policy considerations of the Soviet Union or the Peoples Republic of China. A Pinyin-derived Latin-based alphabet, then called “New script” or Uyghur Yëngi Yëziq or UYY, was for a time the only officially approved alphabet used for Uyghur in Xinjiang
Uyghur Arabic alphabet
48.
Uzbek alphabet
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The Uzbek language has been written in various scripts, Arabic, Cyrillic and Latin. In Uzbekistan, it is now written in the Latin script officially, in the Xinjiang region of China, some Uzbek speakers write using Cyrillic, while others apply the Uyghur Arabic script for Uzbek. Uzbeks of Afghanistan also write Uzbek using the Arabic script, the Uzbek Arabic script is being taught at schools in Afghanistan. Like all Turkic languages in Central Asia, Uzbek was written in forms of the Arabic script by the literate population. The Latinization of Uzbek was carried out in the context of Latinization of all Turkic languages, in 1940, Uzbek was switched to the Cyrillic script under Joseph Stalin. The deadline in Uzbekistan for making this transition has been repeatedly changed, the latest deadline was 2005, but was shifted once again to provide a few more years. Already education in areas of Uzbekistan is in the Latin script. Since 2004 some official websites have switched over to using the Latin script when writing in Uzbek, most street signs are also in the new Latin script. The main national TV channel of Uzbekistan, Oʻzbekiston telekanali, has switched to the Latin script when writing in Uzbek. The modern Uzbek Latin alphabet has 29 letters, The symbol ⟨ʼ⟩ does not constitute a separate letter, below is a table of Uzbek Cyrillic and Latin alphabets with represented sounds. Notes When the Uzbek language is written using the Latin script, the modifier letter apostrophe is used to mark the phonetic glottal stop when it is put immediately before a vowel in borrowed words, as in sanʼat. The modifier letter apostrophe is used to mark a long vowel when placed immediately after a vowel. Since this character is absent from most keyboard layouts, many Uzbek websites use U+2019 ’ RIGHT SINGLE QUOTATION MARK instead. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Uzbek alphabet
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A page from an Uzbek book printed in Arabic script.
Tashkent, 1911.
Uzbek alphabet
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A
Nowruz sign in front of the State Art Museum of Uzbekistan written using an
ʻokina -like symbol
49.
Arabic Afrikaans
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Arabic Afrikaans was a form of Afrikaans that was written in Arabic script. It began in the 1830s in the madrasa in Cape Town, seventy-four Arabic Afrikaans texts are extant. The earliest, the Hidyat al-Islam, is dated 1845, though its source manuscript no longer exists, the oldest surviving manuscript, which describes the basic Islamic learning, was written by the imam Abdul-Kahhar ibn Abdul-Malik in 1868. The most professional version was written in 1869 by Abu Bakr Effendi, one of the best examples of this literature was Uiteensetting van die Godsdiens, a book laying out Islamic traditions according to the Hanafi religious law. Written by Abu Bakr Effendi, it was printed using Arabic script throughout and this is a paragraph of the book Uiteensetting van die godsdiens, Transcription of the Arabic-alphabet text. The italics mark Arabic-language words, Iek bagent diesie kitab met Allah sain naam, Allah es rizq giefar ien dunya fer al wat liefandag ies. Allah es beriengar ien die gannat ien dag ahirat fer al die miesie an djinns wat oewhap iman gadoet het, al die dank an parais es rieg fer Allah alien. Allah het gagief fer oewhans Islam sain agama, Islam sain agama oek waas gawies fantefoewhar Ibrahim sain agama. An Allah het gamaak die Quran rasulullah sain hadit fer seker dalil fer oewhans, an Allah het galaat oewhans wiet die riegtie wieg fan die ilms an gahelp fer oewhans oewham ta lier ander miesie oewhap die riegtie manierie. Translation into modern standard Afrikaans, Ek begin hierdie boek met Allah se naam, Allah is onderhouer in die wêreld vir al wat lewendig is. Allah is bringer in die paradys in die laaste dag vir al die mense en djinns wat oop iman gedoen het, al die dank en prys is reg vir Allah alleen. Allah het gegee vir ons Islam se godsdiens, the Arabic-alphabet version uses an Arabic word in several places where modern Afrikaans uses a Germanic word, e. g. dunya دنيا for wêreld, meaning world. The Arabic words are unknown in Afrikaans. Without the above Translation into modern standard Afrikaans, it is impossible for an Afrikaans-speaking person to understand the above Transcription of the Arabic-alphabet text. Some words do however appear to resemble phonetic transliterations between Arabic script and the version of Afrikaans spoken by Cape Coloured people, mixed with Dutch, an example that used Arabic vowels was a handwritten Arabic–Afrikaans bilingual Koran. The letter of prolongation in ī and ū has sukūn, the Afrikaans preposition by is written as part of the next word, likely by copying Arabic language usage with some prepositions. The Afrikaans word al = all is written as part of the next word, the apartheid regime was reluctant to openly acknowledge the influence of other languages spoken in South Africa on Afrikaans. Until around 1900, Afrikaans was considered a dialect of Dutch, even today, Afrikaans and Dutch are considered mutually intelligible
Arabic Afrikaans
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Arabisch-Afrikaans 1872
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Berber Arabic alphabet
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The Berber Arabic alphabet is an Arabic-based alphabet that was used to write various Berber languages in the Middle Ages. Nowadays users have largely reverted to either the Tifinagh alphabet in Morocco, writing Berber Languages, a quick summary. Archived from the original on 2005-07-30
Berber Arabic alphabet
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Berber language poetry in Arabic script with its translation in French
