1.
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Title page of
Systema Naturae, Leiden, 1735
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Evolution of the
vertebrates at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for
Evolutionary taxonomy
Taxonomy (biology)
–
The same relationship, expressed as a
cladogram typical for
cladistics
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Type specimen for
Nepenthes smilesii, a tropical
pitcher plant.
2.
Plantae
–
Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
Plantae
–
Green algae from
Ernst Haeckel 's
Kunstformen der Natur, 1904.
Plantae
–
Had'n
Plantae
–
Dicksonia antarctica, a species of
tree fern
Plantae
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A petrified log in
Petrified Forest National Park.
3.
Angiosperms
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The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants, with 416 families, approx. 13,164 known genera and a total of c.295,383 known species, etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure, in other words, a fruiting plant. The term angiosperm comes from the Greek composite word meaning enclosed seeds, the ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms in the Triassic Period, during the range 245 to 202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants are known from 160 mya. They diversified extensively during the Lower Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 mya, angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants, the amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings, in the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium, the soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases, the characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species, the function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf, occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. There are two kinds of cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells and are borne in the stamens. The female cells called megaspores, which divide to become the egg cell, are contained in the ovule. The flower may consist only of parts, as in willow. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls, the individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals. The outer series is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, the inner series is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators, attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower
Angiosperms
Angiosperms
–
Bud of a pink
rose
Angiosperms
–
Flowers of
Malus sylvestris (crab apple)
Angiosperms
–
Flowers and leaves of
Oxalis pes-caprae (Bermuda buttercup)
4.
Eudicots
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The eudicots, Eudicotidae or eudicotyledons are a monophyletic clade of flowering plants that had been called tricolpates or non-magnoliid dicots by previous authors. The close relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains was initially seen in studies of shared derived characters. These plants have a trait in their pollen grains of exhibiting three colpi or grooves paralleling the polar axis. Later molecular evidence confirmed the basis for the evolutionary relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains. The term means true dicotyledons, as it contains the majority of plants that have been considered dicots and have characteristics of the dicots, the term eudicots has subsequently been widely adopted in botany to refer to one of the two largest clades of angiosperms, monocots being the other. The remaining angiosperms are sometimes referred to as basal angiosperms or paleodicots, the other name for the eudicots is tricolpates, a name which refers to the grooved structure of the pollen. Members of the group have tricolpate pollen, or forms derived from it and these pollens have three or more pores set in furrows called colpi. In contrast, most of the seed plants produce monosulcate pollen. The name tricolpates is preferred by some botanists to avoid confusion with the dicots, numerous familiar plants are eudicots, including many common food plants, trees, and ornamentals. Most leafy trees of midlatitudes also belong to eudicots, with exceptions being magnolias and tulip trees which belong to magnoliids, and Ginkgo biloba. The name eudicots is used in the APG system, of 1998 and it is applied to a clade, a monophyletic group, which includes most of the dicots. The eudicots can be divided into two groups, the basal eudicots and the core eudicots, basal eudicot is an informal name for a paraphyletic group. The core eudicots are a monophyletic group, a 2010 study suggested the core eudicots can be divided into two clades, Gunnerales and a clade called Pentapetalae, comprising all the remaining core eudicots
Eudicots
–
Eudicots Temporal range:
Early Cretaceous - recent
Eudicots
–
Arabis pollen has three colpi.
5.
Brassicales
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The Brassicales are an order of flowering plants, belonging to the eurosids II group of dicotyledons under the APG II system. One character common to members of the order is the production of glucosinolate compounds. Most systems of classification have included this order, although sometimes under the name Capparales, the only families included were the Brassicaceae and Capparaceae, the Tovariaceae, Resedaceae, and Moringaceae. Other taxa now included here were placed in other orders. The families Capparaceae and Brassicaceae are closely related, one group, consisting of Cleome and related genera, was traditionally included in the Capparaceae but doing so results in a paraphyletic Capparaceae. Therefore, this group is now either included in the Brassicaceae or as its own family. Media related to Brassicales at Wikimedia Commons
Brassicales
–
Brassicales
Brassicales
–
Cleome hassleriana
6.
Brassicaceae
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Brassicaceae or Cruciferae is a medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. The name Brassicaceae is derived from the included genus Brassica, the alternative older name, Cruciferae, meaning cross-bearing, describes the four petals of mustard flowers, which resemble a cross. Cruciferae is one of eight plant family names without the suffix -aceae that are authorized alternative names, the family contains 372 genera and 4060 accepted species. The largest genera are Draba, Erysimum, Lepidium, Cardamine, pieris rapae and other butterflies of the family Pieridae are some of the best-known pests of Brassicaceae species planted as commercial crops. The family is included in the Brassicales according to the APG system, older systems placed them into the Capparales, a now-defunct order that had a similar definition. This family comprises about 375 genera and 2500 species all over the world,94 species of 38 genera are found in Nepal, a close relationship has long been acknowledged between the Brassicaceae and the caper family, Capparaceae, in part because members of both groups produce glucosinolate compounds. The APG II system, therefore, has merged the two families under the name Brassicaceae, the APG III system has recently adopted this last solution, but this may change as a consensus arises on this point. This article deals with Brassicaceae sensu stricto, i. e. treating the Cleomaceae and Capparaceae as segregated families, the family consists mostly of herbaceous plants with annual, biennial, or perennial lifespans. The leaves are alternate, sometimes organized in basal rosettes, in rare shrubby crucifers of Mediterranean their leaves are mostly in terminal rosettes and they are very often pinnately incised and do not have stipules. The structure of the flowers is extremely uniform throughout the family and they have four free saccate sepals and four clawed free petals, staggered. They can be disymmetric or slightly zygomorphic, with a typical cross-like arrangement and they have six stamens, four of which are longer and are arranged in a cross like the petals and the other two are shorter. The pistil is made up of two fused carpels and the style is short, with two lobes. The flowers form ebracteate racemose inflorescences, often apically corymb-like, pollination occurs by entomogamy, nectar is produced at the base of the stamens and stored on the sepals. The fruit is a kind of capsule named siliqua. It opens by two valves, which are the modified carpels, leaving the attached to a framework made up of the placenta. Often, an indehiscent beak occurs at the top of the style, where a siliqua is less than three times as long as it is broad, it is usually termed a silicula. The siliqua may break apart at constrictions occurring between the segments of the seeds, thus forming a sort of loment, it may eject the seeds explosively or may be evolved in a sort of samara. The fruit is often the most important diagnostic character for plants in this family, most members share a suite of glucosinolate compounds that have a typical pungent odour usually associated with cole crops
Brassicaceae
–
Brassicaceae
Brassicaceae
–
Aubrieta deltoidea (commonly known as purple rock cress) is a perennial wild flower that is used in gardening for its ornamental large inflorescence.
Brassicaceae
–
Siliquae of
Cardamine impatiens
Brassicaceae
–
Lunaria annua with ripe seed pods
7.
Brassica
–
Brassica is a genus of plants in the mustard family, the. The members of the genus are known as cruciferous vegetables, cabbages. Crops from this genus are sometimes called cole crops—derived from the Latin caulis, the genus Brassica is known for its important agricultural and horticultural crops and includes a number of weeds, both of wild taxa and escapees from cultivation. Brassica species and varieties used for food include broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, choy sum, rutabaga, turnip and some seeds used in the production of canola oil. Over 30 wild species and hybrids are in cultivation, plus numerous cultivars, most are seasonal plants, but some are small shrubs. Brassica plants have been the subject of scientific interest for their agricultural importance. Six particular species evolved by the combining of chromosomes from three species, as described by the Triangle of U theory. The genus is native to Western Europe, the Mediterranean and temperate regions of Asia, many wild species grow as weeds, especially in North America, South America, and Australia. Almost all parts of species or other have been developed for food, including the root, stems, leaves, flowers, buds. Some forms with white or purple foliage or flowerheads are also grown for ornament. Brassica species are used as food plants by the larvae of a number of Lepidoptera species—see List of Lepidoptera that feed on Brassica. Brassica vegetables are highly regarded for their nutritional value and they provide high amounts of vitamin C and soluble fiber and contain nutrients with anticancer properties,3, 3-diindolylmethane, sulforaphane and selenium. Boiling reduces the level of anticancer compounds, but steaming, microwaving, steaming these vegetable for three to four minutes is recommended to maximize sulforaphane. Brassica vegetables are rich in indole-3-carbinol, a chemical which boosts DNA repair in cells in vitro and they are also a good source of carotenoids, with broccoli having especially high levels. However, it also is an antiandrogen but is known to be only in hormone-sensitive prostate cancer cells. These vegetables also contain goitrogens, some of which suppress thyroid function, goitrogens can induce hypothyroidism and goiter in the absence of normal iodine intake. There is some disagreement among botanists on the classification and status of Brassica species and subspecies, the following is an abbreviated list, with an emphasis on economically important species. The B. rapa genome was sequenced by the Multinational Brassica Genome Project in 2011 and this also represents the A genome component of the amphidiploid crop species B. napus and B. juncea
Brassica
–
Brassica
8.
Brassica rapa
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Brassica rapa L. is a plant consisting of various widely cultivated subspecies including the turnip, napa cabbage, bomdong, bok choy, and cime di rapa, and. The oil made from the seed is also called canola, which is one reason why it is sometimes confused with rapeseed oil. The oilseeds known as canola are sometimes particular varieties of Brassica rapa but usually the related species Brassica napus, in the 18th century the turnip and the oilseed-producing variants were seen as being different species by Carl Linnaeus who named them B. rapa and B. campestris. 20th-century taxonomists found that the plants were cross fertile and thus belonged to the same species, since the turnip had been named first by Linnaeus, the name Brassica rapa was adopted. Many butterflies, including the small white pollinate the B. rapa flowers, media related to Brassica rapa at Wikimedia Commons Multilingual taxonomic information. PROTA database record on Brassica rapa L. Brassica rapa, Brassica rapa L. Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture
Brassica rapa
–
Brassica rapa
9.
Carl Linnaeus
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Carl Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who formalised the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature. He is known by the father of modern taxonomy. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus, Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his education at Uppsala University. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands and he then returned to Sweden, where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, at the time of his death, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message, Tell him I know no man on earth. The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote, With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, Swedish author August Strindberg wrote, Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist. Among other compliments, Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum, The Pliny of the North and he is also considered as one of the founders of modern ecology. In botany, the abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species names is L. In older publications, sometimes the abbreviation Linn. is found, Linnæus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus Ingemarsson and Christina Brodersonia and his siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus, and Emerentia Linnæa. One of a line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius, a year after Linnæus birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curates house, even in his early years, Linnæus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus, soon Linnæus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants
Carl Linnaeus
–
Carl von Linné,
Alexander Roslin, 1775. Oil painting in the portrait collection at
Gripsholm Castle
Carl Linnaeus
–
The
coat of arms of Carl von Linné.
Carl Linnaeus
–
Birthplace of Linnæus at
Råshult
Carl Linnaeus
–
Statue of Linnaeus as a University student in
Lund
10.
Rapini
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Rapini is a green cruciferous vegetable. The edible parts are the leaves, buds, and stems, the buds somewhat resemble broccoli, but do not form a large head. Rapini is known for its bitter taste and is particularly associated with Italian, Galician. Within the Italian tradition, the plant is associated especially with southern Italian cuisines such as those of Ciociaria, Rome, Naples, Campania, and Apulia. In Italy, broccoli rabe is known by different names, in Naples it is known as friarielli, in Rome broccoletti, in Puglia and it is also known as i broccoli friarelli and sometimes broccoli di rape, rapi, or rapini. In Portugal and Spain they are called grelos, the plant is a member of the tribe Brassiceae of the Brassicaceae. The young leaves of plants as used in cooking are either the same as or the South European equivalent of turnip tops or turnip greens. Rapini has many spiked leaves that surround clusters of buds that resemble small heads of broccoli. Small, edible yellow flowers may be blooming among the buds, the flavor of rapini has been described as nutty, bitter, and pungent. The flavour is reminiscent of mustard greens. Rapini is a source of vitamins A, C, and K, as well as potassium, calcium, the cultivated vegetable probably descends from a wild herb related to the turnip that grew either in China or the Mediterranean region. Rapini is similar in shape to the Chinese Brassica oleracea cultivar called kai-lan, rapini is now grown throughout the world. Rapini is available all year long, but its peak season is fall to spring, in Europe, it is widely used in southern Italian cuisine, in Roman cuisine and in northern Portuguese cuisine and in that of Galicia in Spain. In southern Lazio, Frosinone, Ciociaria, it is sauteed with garlic and chili pepper. In the Central Italy regions, rapini sautéed with garlic, chili pepper and guanciale can be a dish for porchetta, grilled pork ribs, sausages. In Apulia, its most famous use is in orecchiette e cime di rapa and it is best blanched in salted boiling water before sautéeing in olive oil with garlic and chili pepper. Kai-lan Chinese cabbage Collard greens Mustard greens Rutabaga Turnip Brassica rapa Wang X, Wang H, Wang J, the genome of the mesopolyploid crop species Brassica rapa. Osborn TC, Kole C, Parkin IA, et al, comparison of flowering time genes in Brassica rapa, B. napus and Arabidopsis thaliana
Rapini
–
Rapini
Rapini
–
" Lacón con grelos ", a typical Galician dish: pork shoulder ham with rapini, along with steamed potatoes and a sausage
11.
Root vegetable
–
Root vegetables are plant roots used as vegetables. Although botany distinguishes true roots from non-roots, the term root vegetable is applied to all types in ordinary, agricultural. Root vegetables are generally storage organs, enlarged to store energy in the form of carbohydrates and they differ in the concentration and the balance between sugars, starches, and other types of carbohydrate. Of particular economic importance are those with a high concentration in the form of starch. Many root vegetables keep well in root cellars, lasting several months and this is one way of storing food for use long after harvest, which is especially important in nontropical latitudes, where winter is traditionally a time of little to no harvesting. There are also season extension methods that can extend the harvest throughout the winter, the following list classifies root vegetables according to anatomy. Taproot Arracacia xanthorrhiza Vigna lanceolata Beta vulgaris Brassica spp, bunium persicum Burdock Carrot Celeriac Daikon – the large East Asian white radish Dandelion spp. Lepidium meyenii Microseris lanceolata Pachyrhizus spp, radish Scorzonera hispanica Sium sisarum Tragopogon spp. Colocasia antiquorum Rhizome Curcuma longa Panax ginseng Arthropodium spp, cordyline fruticosa Maranta arundinacea Nelumbo nucifera Typha spp. Zingiber officinale Tuber Apios americana Cyperus esculentus Dioscorea spp, Dioscorea polystachya Helianthus tuberosus Hemerocallis spp. Lathyrus tuberosus Oxalis tuberosa Plectranthus edulis and P. esculentus Solanum tuberosum Stachys affinis Tropaeolum tuberosum Ullucus tuberosus Allium spp, camassia quamash Cyperus bulbosus Caladenia Cryptostylis Cymbidium canaliculatum Diuris Dipodium Erythronium spp. Narskyy vulgare Geodorum Glossodia Lilium spp, lypernathus Microtis Prasophyllum Pterostylis Tacca leontopetaloides Thelymitra Vegetables From Underground from Waynes Word at Palomar College
Root vegetable
–
Carrot roots in various shades from light to dark
Root vegetable
–
Cassava tuberous roots
Root vegetable
–
Taro corms
Root vegetable
–
Ginger rhizomes
12.
Temperate climate
–
In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions. The temperatures in these regions are relatively moderate, rather than extremely hot or cold. The north temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle, the south temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic Circle. In some climate classifications, the zone is often divided into several smaller climate zones. These include Humid subtropical climate, Mediterranean climate, oceanic, subtropical climates are located between 23. 5° and 35. 0° north or south latitude on the eastern or leeward sides of landmasses. This climate has long, generally hot, summers and short, mild winters and these climates may occur in southern Asia, the southeastern United States, parts of eastern Australia, and in eastern coastal South America. Mediterranean climates, occur between 30° and 42° north and south latitude, on the sides of landmasses. This climate has hot summers and short mild winters, however, seasonal rainfall is the opposite of that of the subtropical humid type. These climates occur near the rimlands of the Mediterranean Sea, in western Australia, in California, the oceanic climates occur in the higher middle latitudes, between 45° and 60° north and south latitude. They are created by the flow from the cool high latitude oceans to their west. This causes the climate to have cool summers and cool winters, annual rainfall is spread throughout the entire year. Regions with this climate include Western Europe, northwestern North America, the Continental climates occur in middle latitudes, between 35° or 40° to 55°. These climates are normally inland or on sides of landmasses. They feature warm to hot summers and cold winters, with a large temperature variation. Regions with this climate include northern temperate Asia, the northern United States, southern Canada, the vast majority of the worlds human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the northern hemisphere, due to its greater mass of land. The richest temperate flora in the world is found in southern Africa, geographical zone Habitat Köppen climate classification Middle latitudes Polar circle Subtropics
Temperate climate
–
The different geographical zones
13.
Bulbous
–
In botany, a bulb is structurally a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf bases that function as food storage organs during dormancy. A bulbs leaf bases, also known as scales, generally do not support leaves, at the center of the bulb is a vegetative growing point or an unexpanded flowering shoot. The base is formed by a stem, and plant growth occurs from this basal plate. Roots emerge from the underside of the base, and new stems, tunicate bulbs have dry, membranous outer scales that protect the continuous lamina of fleshy scales. Species in the genera Allium, Hippeastrum, Narcissus, and Tulipa all have tunicate bulbs, non-tunicate bulbs, such as Lilium and Fritillaria species, lack the protective tunic and have looser scales. The technical term geophyte encompasses plants that form underground organs, including bulbs as well as tubers. Some epiphytic orchids form above-ground storage organs called pseudobulbs, that superficially resemble bulbs, nearly all plants that form true bulbs are monocotyledons, and include, Amaryllis, Crinum, Hippeastrum, Narcissus, and several other members of the amaryllis family Amaryllidaceae. This includes onion, garlic, and other alliums, members of the Amaryllid subfamily Allioideae, lily, tulip, and many other members of the lily family Liliaceae. Two groups of Iris species, family Iridaceae, subgenus Xiphium, oxalis, in the family Oxalidaceae, is the only dicotyledon genus that produces true bulbs. Bulbous plant species cycle through vegetative and reproductive stages, the bulb grows to flowering size during the vegetative stage. Certain environmental conditions are needed to trigger the transition from one stage to the next, bulbs dug up before the foliage period is completed will not bloom the following year but then should flower normally in subsequent years. After the foliage period is completed, bulbs may be dug up for replanting elsewhere, any surface moisture should be dried, then the bulbs may be stored up to about 4 months for a fall planting. Storing them much longer than that may cause the bulbs to dry out inside, a bulbil is a small bulb, and may also be called a bulblet, bulbet, or bulbel. Small bulbs can develop or propagate a large bulb, if one or several moderate-sized bulbs form to replace the original bulb, they are called renewal bulbs. Increase bulbs are small bulbs that develop either on each of the leaves inside a bulb, some lilies, such as the tiger lily Lilium lancifolium, form small bulbs, called bulbils, in their leaf axils. Several members of the family, Alliaceae, including Allium sativum, form bulbils in their flower heads, sometimes as the flowers fade. The so-called tree onion forms small onions which are enough for pickling. Some ferns, such as Hen and Chicken Fern produce new plants at the tips of the fronds pinnae, coccoris, Patricia The Curious History of the Bulb Vase
Bulbous
–
Shallot bulbs
Bulbous
–
Hippeastrum (amaryllis) bulb
Bulbous
–
Cross section of onion bulb
Bulbous
–
Bulbils form in the leaf axils of
Lilium lancifolium
14.
Taproot
–
A taproot is a large, central, and dominant root from which other roots sprout laterally. Typically a taproot is somewhat straight and very thick, is tapering in shape, dicots, one of the two divisions of angiosperms, start with a taproot, which is one main root forming from the enlarging radicle of the seed. The tap root can be persistent throughout the life of the plant but is most often replaced later in the development by a fibrous root system. A persistent taproot system forms when the radicle keeps growing and smaller lateral roots form along the taproot. The shape of taproots can vary but the typical shapes include, Conical root, fusiform root, this root is widest in the middle and tapers towards the top and the bottom, e. g. radish. Napiform root, the root has a top-like appearance and it is very broad at the top and tapers suddenly like a tail at the bottom, e. g. turnip. Many taproots are modified into storage organs and it branches off to secondary roots, which in turn branch to form tertiary roots. These may further branch to form rootlets, for most plants species the radicle dies some time after seed germination, causing the development of a fibrous root system, which lacks a main downward-growing root. A typical mature tree 30–50 m tall has a system that extends horizontally in all directions as far as the tree is tall or more. Increases photosynthesis and the evaporation of water, by 40 percent in the dry season. During the wet season, these plants can store as much as 10 percent of the precipitation as deep as 13 meters underground. Tree roots acting like pipes to water to shift around much faster than it could otherwise percolate through the soil
Taproot
–
A
dandelion taproot, shown with the plant
Taproot
–
The edible, orange part of the carrot is its taproot
Taproot
–
Woody taproot of mature
mango can be distinctly seen,
Kolkata,
India
15.
Fodder
–
Fodder, a type of animal feed, is any agricultural foodstuff used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, such as cattle, goats, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. Fodder refers particularly to food given to the animals, rather than that which they forage for themselves, Fodder is also called provender and includes hay, straw, silage, compressed and pelleted feeds, oils and mixed rations, and sprouted grains and legumes. Most animal feed is from plants, but some manufacturers add ingredients to processed feeds that are of animal origin, in many cases the production of grass for cattle fodder is a valuable intercrop between crops for human consumption, because it builds the organic matter in the soil. Some agricultural byproducts fed to animals may be considered unsavory by human consumers, alfalfa Barley Birdsfoot trefoil Brassica spp. This practice is now banned in most countries where it has occurred, the US Dept. of Health and Human Services regulates drugs of the Veterinary Feed Directive type that can be present within commercial livestock feed. Fodder in the form of sprouted grains and legumes can be grown in small, systems have been developed recently that allow for many tons of sprouts to be produced each day, year round. Sprouted grains can increase the nutritional value of the grain compared with feeding the ungerminated grain to stock. In addition, they use less water than traditional forage, making them ideal for drought conditions, sprouted barley and other cereal grains can be grown hydroponically in a carefully controlled environment. Under hydroponic conditions, sprouted fodder at 150 mm tall with a 50 mm root mat is at its peak for animal feed, although products such are barley are grain, when sprouted they are approved by the American Grassfed Association to be used as livestock feed. Cannon fodder Factory farming Feed manufacturing Forage Grain Pasture Karl Heinrich Ritthausen Die Eiweisskörper der Getreidearten, beiträge zur Physiologie der Samen der Kulturgewachese, der Nahrungs- und Futtermitel, Bonn,1872 from Google books. Compar Fresh or Ensiled Fodders on the Production of Greenhouse Gases Following Enteric Fermentation in Beef Cattle, université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue,2011. UK Food Standards Agency, Animal feed legislation and guidance FAO Feed Safety guidelines Fodder Plants at Agriculture Guide An article from Agriculture Guide
Fodder
–
A fodder factory set up by an individual farmer to produce customised cattle feed
Fodder
–
Round
hay bales
Fodder
–
Newton of Cawdor stack of bales, sweet-smelling fodder stored for winter
Fodder
–
Cut green fodder being transported to cattle in
Tanzania
16.
Livestock
–
Livestock are domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber, and labor. The term is used to refer solely to those raised for food. In recent years, some organizations have also raised livestock to promote the survival of rare breeds, animal husbandry practices have varied widely across cultures and time periods. Originally, livestock were not confined by fences or enclosures, but these practices have largely shifted to intensive animal farming and these practices increase yield of the various commercial outputs, but have led to increased concerns about animal welfare and environmental impact. Livestock production continues to play an economic and cultural role in numerous rural communities. Livestock as a word was first used between 1650 and 1660, as a merger between the live and stock. Older English sources, such as the King James Version of the Bible, the word cattle is derived from Old North French catel, which meant all kinds of movable personal property, including livestock, which was differentiated from immovable real estate. In later English, sometimes smaller livestock such as chickens and pigs were referred to as small cattle, today, the modern meaning of cattle, without a modifier, usually refers to domesticated bovines, but sometimes livestock refers only to this subgroup. Legal definition United States federal legislation sometimes more narrowly defines the term to make specified agricultural commodities either eligible or ineligible for a program or activity, for example, the Livestock Mandatory Reporting Act of 1999 defines livestock only as cattle, swine, and sheep. Animal-rearing originated during the transition to settled farming communities from hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animals are domesticated when their breeding and living conditions are controlled by humans, over time, the collective behaviour, lifecycle and physiology of livestock have changed radically. Many modern farm animals are unsuited to life in the wild, dogs were domesticated in East Asia about 15,000 years ago. Goats and sheep were domesticated around 8000 BC in Asia, swine or pigs were domesticated by 7000 BC in the Middle East and China. The earliest evidence of horse domestication dates to around 4000 BC, the term livestock is nebulous and may be defined narrowly or broadly. Broadly, livestock refers to any breed or population of animal kept by humans for a useful and this can mean domestic animals, semidomestic animals, or captive wild animals. Semidomesticated refers to animals which are only lightly domesticated or of disputed status and these populations may also be in the process of domestication. Some people may use the term livestock to refer to only used for red meat. Livestock are used by humans for a variety of purposes, many of which have an economic value, Livestock products include, Meat A useful form of dietary protein and energy, meat is the edible tissue of the animal carcass
Livestock
–
Domestic sheep and a
cow (heifer) pastured together in
South Africa
Livestock
–
Alpaca Mammal,
herbivore
Livestock
–
Banteng Mammal,
herbivore
Livestock
–
Bison Mammal,
herbivore
17.
Newfoundland
–
Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province of Canada. Situated in the countrys Atlantic region, it comprises the island of Newfoundland and mainland Labrador to the northwest, in 2013, the provinces population was estimated at 526,702. About 92% of the population lives on the island of Newfoundland. The province is Canadas most linguistically homogeneous, with 97. 6% of residents reporting English as their mother tongue in the 2006 census, historically, Newfoundland was also home to unique varieties of French and Irish, as well as the extinct Beothuk language. In Labrador, local dialects of Innu-aimun and Inuktitut are also spoken, Newfoundland and Labradors capital and largest city, St. Johns, is Canadas 20th-largest census metropolitan area and is home to almost 40 percent of the provinces population. St. Johns is the seat of government, home to the House of Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador and to the highest court in the jurisdiction and it became the tenth province to enter the Canadian Confederation on March 31,1949, as Newfoundland. On December 6,2001, an amendment was made to the Constitution of Canada to change the official name to Newfoundland. The name Newfoundland is a translation of the Portuguese Terra Nova, the influence of early Portuguese exploration is also reflected in the name of Labrador, which derives from the surname of the Portuguese navigator João Fernandes Lavrador. Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province in Canada, and is located at the corner of North America. The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two divisions, Labrador, which is a large area of mainland Canada, and Newfoundland. The province also includes over 7,000 tiny islands, each side is about 400 km long, and its area is 108,860 km2. Newfoundland and its small islands have a total area of 111,390 km2. Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46°36′N and 51°38′N, Labrador is an irregular shape, the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, most of Labradors southern boundary with Quebec follows the 52nd parallel of latitude. Labradors extreme northern tip, at 60°22′N, shares a border with Nunavut. Together, Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4. 06% of Canadas area, Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield, a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America. Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland, gros Morne National Park has a reputation as an outstanding example of tectonics at work, and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site. The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundlands west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains, the north-south extent of the province, prevalent westerly winds, cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province
Newfoundland
–
Churchill Falls in Labrador
Newfoundland
–
Flag
Newfoundland
–
The Beothuk tribe of Newfoundland is extinct. It is represented in museum, historical and archeological records.
Newfoundland
–
L'Anse aux Meadows on Newfoundland, site of a
Norse colony
18.
Compound (linguistics)
–
In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme that consists of more than one stem. Compounding, composition or nominal composition is the process of formation that creates compound lexemes. That is, in terms, compounding occurs when two or more words are joined to make one longer word. The meaning of the compound may be similar to or different from the meanings of its components in isolation, with very few exceptions, English compound words are stressed on their first component stem. The process occurs readily in other Germanic languages for different reasons, words can be concatenated both to mean the same as the sum of two words or where an adjective and noun are compounded. The addition of affix morphemes to words should not be confused with nominal composition, compound formation rules vary widely across language types. In a synthetic language, the relationship between the elements of a compound may be marked with a case or other morpheme. This latter pattern is common throughout the Semitic languages, though in some it is combined with a genitive case. Agglutinative languages tend to very long words with derivational morphemes. Compounds may or may not require the use of derivational morphemes also, the longest compounds in the world may be found in the Finnic and Germanic languages. German examples include Farbfernsehgerät, Funkfernbedienung, and the jocular word Donaudampfschifffahrtsgesellschaftskapitänsmütze, in Finnish, although there is theoretically no limit to the length of compound words, words consisting of more than three components are rare. Even those with less than three components can look mysterious to non-Finnish such as hätäuloskäytävä, compounds can be rather long when translating technical documents from English to some other language, since the lengths of the words are theoretically unlimited, especially in chemical terminology. For example, the English compound doghouse, where house is the head, endocentric compounds tend to be of the same part of speech as their head, as in the case of doghouse. For example, the English compound white-collar is neither a kind of collar nor a white thing, in an exocentric compound, the word class is determined lexically, disregarding the class of the constituents. For example, a must-have is not a verb but a noun, the meaning of this type of compound can be glossed as whose B is A, where B is the second element of the compound and A the first. A bahuvrihi compound is one whose nature is expressed by neither of the words, copulative compounds are compounds with two semantic heads. Appositional compounds are lexemes that have two attributes that classify the compound, most natural languages have compound nouns. The positioning of the words according to the language
Compound (linguistics)
–
The German language has many compounds
19.
Rutabaga
–
The rutabaga, swede, or neep is a root vegetable that originated as a cross between the cabbage and the turnip, confusingly, the rutabaga can also be called a turnip. The roots are prepared for consumption in a variety of ways. The roots and tops are used as winter feed for livestock. Rutabaga has many national and regional names, Rutabaga is the common North American term for the plant. This comes from the old Swedish dialectal word rotabagge, from rot + bagge, in the U. S. the plant is also known as Swedish turnip or yellow turnip. The term swede is used instead of rutabaga in many Commonwealth Nations, including much of England, Australia, the name turnip is also used in parts of Northern and Midland England, the Westcountry, Ireland, Manitoba, Ontario and Atlantic Canada. In Wales, according to region it is known as maip, rwden, erfin, swedsen or swejen in Welsh. In Scotland, it is known as turnip, and in Scots as tumshie or neep, some areas of south east Scotland, such as Berwickshire and Roxburghshire, still use the term baigie, possibly a derivative of the original Swedish rutabaga. The term turnip is also used for the white turnip, some will also refer to both swede and turnip as just turnip. In North-East England, turnips and swedes are colloquially called snadgers, snaggers or narkies and its common name in Sweden is kålrot. Similarly, in Denmark it is known as kålroe and kålrabi, in Denmark and Norway, kålrabi is sometimes confused with Swedish kålrabbi. Rutabaga is known as Steckrübe in German, the first known printed reference to the rutabaga comes from the Swiss botanist Gaspard Bauhin in 1620, where he notes that it was growing wild in Sweden. It is often considered to have originated in Scandinavia or Russia and it is said to have been widely introduced to Britain around 1800, but it was recorded as being present in the royal gardens in England as early as 1669 and was described in France in 1700. It was asserted by Sir John Sinclair in his Husbandry of Scotland to have introduced to Scotland around 1781–1782. An article on the topic in The Gardeners Chronicle suggests that the rutabaga was then introduced widely to England in 1790. Introduction to North America came in the early 19th century with reports of rutabaga crops in Illinois as early as 1817, Rutabaga has a complex taxonomic history. The earliest account comes from the Swiss botanist Gaspard Bauhin, who wrote about it in his 1620 Prodromus, Brassica napobrassica was first validly published by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum as a variety of B. oleracea, B. oleracea var. napobrassica. It has since moved to other taxa as a variety, subspecies
Rutabaga
–
Rutabaga
Rutabaga
–
Harvested roots
Rutabaga
–
Harvested roots waiting to be prepared
Rutabaga
–
Cut through a root
20.
Genus
–
A genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms in biology. In the hierarchy of classification, genus comes above species. In binomial nomenclature, the name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. Felis catus and Felis silvestris are two species within the genus Felis, Felis is a genus within the family Felidae. The composition of a genus is determined by a taxonomist, the standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. Moreover, genera should be composed of units of the same kind as other genera. The term comes from the Latin genus, a noun form cognate with gignere, linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum, but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort is considered the founder of the modern concept of genera. The scientific name of a genus may be called the name or generic epithet. It plays a role in binomial nomenclature, the system of naming organisms. The rules for the names of organisms are laid down in the Nomenclature Codes. The standard way of scientifically describing species and other lower-ranked taxa is by binomial nomenclature, the generic name forms its first half. For example, the gray wolfs binomial name is Canis lupus, with Canis being the name shared by the wolfs close relatives. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany. Especially with these names, when the generic name is known from context. Because animals are typically only grouped within subspecies, it is written as a trinomen with a third name. Dog breeds, meanwhile, are not scientifically distinguished, there are several divisions of plant species and therefore their infraspecific names generally include contractions explaining the relation. For example, the genus Hibiscus includes hundreds of other species apart from the Rose of Sharon or common garden hibiscus, Rose of Sharon doesnt have subspecies but has cultivars that carry desired traits, such as the bright white H. syriaca Diana. Hawaiian hibiscus, meanwhile, includes several separate species, since not all botanists agree on the divisions or names between species, it is common to specify the source of the name using author abbreviations
Genus
–
Number of reptile genera with a given number of species. Most genera have only one or a few species but a few may have hundreds. Based on data from the
Reptile Database (as of May 2015).
21.
Brassica juncea
–
Brassica juncea, mustard greens, leaf mustard, Indian mustard, Chinese mustard, jie cai or kai choi is a species of mustard plant. One subvariety is southern giant curled mustard, which resembles a headless cabbage such as kale and it is also known as green mustard cabbage. The leaves, seeds, and stems of this variety are edible. The plant appears in form in African, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Italian, Indian, Chinese, Japanese, Korean. Cultivars of B. juncea are grown for their greens, the mustard condiment made from the seeds of the B. juncea is called brown mustard and is considered to be spicier than yellow mustard. Because it may contain erucic acid, a toxin, mustard oil is restricted from import as a vegetable oil into the United States. Essential oil of mustard, however, is accepted as GRAS, but in Russia, this is the main species grown for the production of mustard oil. It is widely used in canning, baking and margarine production in Russia, tatsai, which has a particularly thick stem, is used to make the Indian pickle called achar, and the Chinese pickle zha cai. The Gorkhas of Darjeeling and Sikkim prepare pork with mustard greens and it is usually eaten with relish and steamed rice, but can also be eaten with chapati. Brassica juncea is more pungent than greens from the closely related Brassica oleracea, Chinese and Japanese cuisines also make use of mustard greens. In Japanese cuisine, it is known as takana and often pickled for use as filling in onigiri or as a condiment, many varieties of B. juncea cultivars are used, including zha cai, mizuna, takana, juk gai choy, and xuelihong. Asian mustard greens are most often stir-fried or pickled, a Southeast Asian dish called asam gai choy or kiam chai boey is often made with leftovers from a large meal. It involves stewing mustard greens with tamarind, dried chillies and leftover meat on the bone, Brassica juncea is also known as gai choi, siu gai choi, xaio jie cai, baby mustard, Chinese leaf mustard or mostaza. In 100 grams, cooked mustard greens provide 26 calories and are a source of vitamins A, C and K which is especially high as a multiple of its Daily Value. Mustard greens are a source of vitamin E and calcium. Greens are 92% water,4. 5% carbohydrates,2. 6% protein and 0. 5% fat, vegetable growers sometimes grow mustard as a green manure. Its main purpose is to act as a mulch, covering the soil to suppress weeds between crops, in the UK, mustard sown in summer and autumn is cut down starting in October. April sowings can be cut down in June, keeping the ground clear for summer-sown crops, one of the disadvantages of using mustard as a green manure is its propensity to harbor club root
Brassica juncea
–
Brassica juncea
Brassica juncea
–
Fried mustard green dish from Assam, India
Brassica juncea
–
Cantonese-style braised mustard greens, with
wolfberries
Brassica juncea
–
A bunch of fresh mustard greens from the United States
22.
Bok choy
–
Bok choy or pak choi is a type of Chinese cabbage. Chinensis varieties do not form heads and have smooth, dark green leaf blades instead, chinensis varieties are popular in southern China and Southeast Asia. Being winter-hardy, they are grown in Northern Europe. This group was classified as its own species under the name Brassica chinensis by Linnaeus. Other than the ambiguous term Chinese cabbage, the most widely used name in North America for the variety is bok choy. In the UK, Australia, South Africa, and other Commonwealth Nations, less commonly, the descriptive English names Chinese chard, Chinese mustard, celery mustard, and spoon cabbage are also employed. In Australia, the New South Wales Department of Primary Industries has redefined many transcribed names to refer to specific cultivars, in addition, they have introduced the word buk choy to refer to a specific kind of cabbage distinct from pak choy. In China, the majority of Chinese speak Mandarin, and for them, in the Philippines, it is called pechay or petsay. Raw Chinese cabbage is 95% water, 2% carbohydrates, 1% protein, in a 100 gram amount, raw Chinese cabbage supplies 13 calories and is a rich source of vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin K, while providing folate, vitamin B6 and calcium in moderate amounts. Chinese cabbage was ranked #2 for nutrient density out of 41 nutrient-rich plant foods and these compounds have been reported to prevent cancer in small doses, but, like many substances, can be toxic to humans in large doses, particularly to people who are already seriously ill
Bok choy
–
Brassica rapa chinensis, called "bok choy" in the United States
Bok choy
–
Green bok choy
Bok choy
–
Baby bok choy
Bok choy
–
B. rapa chinesis
23.
Chinese cabbage
–
Chinese cabbage can refer to two groups of Chinese leaf vegetables often used in Chinese cuisine, the Pekinensis Group and the Chinensis Group. These vegetables are both variant cultivars or subspecies of the turnip and belong to the genus as such Western staples as cabbage, broccoli. Both have many variations in name, spelling, and scientific classification, the Chinese cabbage was principally grown in the Yangtze River Delta region, but the Ming Dynasty naturalist Li Shizhen popularized it by bringing attention to its medicinal qualities. The variant cultivated in Zhejiang around the 14th century was brought north and these were then exported back south along the Grand Canal to Hangzhou and traded by sea as far south as Guangdong. Napa cabbage became a staple in Northeastern Chinese cuisine for making suan cai, in Korea, this developed into kimchi. Chinese cabbage is now found in markets throughout the world. There are two different groups of Brassica rapa used as leaf vegetables in China, and a wide range of varieties within these two groups. The binomial name B. campestris is also used, Pekinensis cabbages have broad green leaves with white petioles, tightly wrapped in a cylindrical formation and usually forming a compact head. As the group name indicates, this is popular in northern China around Beijing. Chinensis varieties do not form heads, instead, they have smooth, Chinensis varieties are popular in southern China and Southeast Asia. Being winter-hardy, they are grown in Northern Europe. This group was classified as its own species under the name B. chinensis by Linnaeus
Chinese cabbage
–
Brassica rapa Chinensis Group, called "bok choy" in the United States
24.
Cabbage
–
Cabbage or headed cabbage is a leafy green or purple biennial plant, grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the cabbage, B. oleracea var. oleracea. Cabbage heads generally range from 0.5 to 4 kilograms, smooth-leafed firm-headed green cabbages are the most common, with smooth-leafed red and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colors seen more rarely. Under conditions of long sunlit days such as are found at high latitudes in summer. Some records are discussed at the end of the history section and it is difficult to trace the exact history of cabbage, but it was most likely domesticated somewhere in Europe before 1000 BC, although savoys were not developed until the 16th century. By the Middle Ages, it had become a prominent part of European cuisine, cabbage is prone to several nutrient deficiencies, as well as to multiple pests, and bacterial and fungal diseases. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations reports that production of cabbage. Almost half of these crops were grown in China, where Chinese cabbage is the most popular Brassica vegetable, cabbages are prepared in many different ways for eating. They can be pickled, fermented for dishes such as sauerkraut, steamed, stewed, sautéed, braised, cabbage is a good source of vitamin K, vitamin C and dietary fiber. Contaminated cabbage has been linked to cases of illness in humans. Cabbage is a member of the genus Brassica and the mustard family, several other cruciferous vegetables are considered cultivars of B. oleracea, including broccoli, collard greens, brussels sprouts, kohlrabi and sprouting broccoli. All of these developed from the wild cabbage B. oleracea var. oleracea, the varietal epithet capitata is derived from the Latin word for having a head. B. oleracea and its derivatives have hundreds of names throughout the world. Cabbage was originally used to refer to forms of B. oleracea. A related species, Brassica rapa, is commonly named Chinese, napa or celery cabbage and it is also a part of common names for several unrelated species. These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree and cabbage palms, which include several genera of palms such as Mauritia, Roystonea oleracea, Acrocomia, the original family name of brassicas was Cruciferae, which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble a crucifix. The word brassica derives from bresic, a Celtic word for cabbage, many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the Celto-Slavic root cap or kap, meaning head. The late Middle English word cabbage derives from the word caboche and this in turn is a variant of the Old French caboce
Cabbage
–
A white cabbage and its cross section
Cabbage
–
The cabbage
inflorescence, which appears in the plant's second year of growth, features white or yellow flowers, each with four perpendicularly arranged petals.
Cabbage
–
Harvesting cabbage,
Tacuinum Sanitatis, 15th century.
Cabbage
–
A cabbage field
25.
Radish
–
The radish is an edible root vegetable of the Brassicaceae family that was domesticated in Europe in pre-Roman times. Radishes are grown and consumed throughout the world, being eaten raw as a crunchy salad vegetable. They have numerous varieties, varying in size, flavor, color, Radishes owe their sharp flavor to the various chemical compounds produced by the plants, including glucosinolate, myrosinase, and isothiocyanate. They are sometimes grown as companion plants and suffer from few pests and they germinate quickly and grow rapidly, smaller varieties being ready for consumption within a month, while larger daikon varieties take several months. Another use of radish is as cover or catch crop in winter or as a forage crop, some radishes are grown for their seeds, daikon, for instance, may be grown for oil production. Others are used for sprouting and both roots and leaves are served cooked or cold. Varieties of radish are now distributed around the world, but almost no archeological records are available to help determine their early history. However, scientists tentatively locate the origin of Raphanus sativus in southeast Asia, india, central China, and central Asia appear to have been secondary centers where differing forms were developed. Radishes enter the record in third century BC. Greek and Roman agriculturalists of the first century AD gave details of small, large, round, long, mild, the radish seems to have been one of the first European crops introduced to the Americas. A German botanist reported radishes of 100 lb and roughly 3 ft in length in 1544, although the only variety of that size today is the Japanese Sakurajima radish. The large, mild, and white East Asian form was developed in China, Radishes are annual or biennial brassicaceous crops grown for their swollen tap roots which can be globular, tapering, or cylindrical. The root skin colour ranges from white through pink, red, purple, yellow, and green to black, but the flesh is usually white. Smaller types have a few leaves about 13 cm long with round roots up to 2.5 cm in diameter or more slender, both of these are normally eaten raw in salads. A longer root form, including radishes, daikon or mooli. The flesh of radishes harvested timely is crisp and sweet, but becomes bitter, leaves are arranged in a rosette. They have a shape, meaning they are divided pinnately with an enlarged terminal lobe. The white flowers are borne on a racemose inflorescence, the fruits are small pods which can be eaten when young
Radish
–
Radish
Radish
–
Section through radishes
Radish
–
Newly germinated radishes at 10 days old
Radish
–
Growing radish plants
26.
Salad
–
A salad is a dish consisting of a mixture of small pieces of food, which may be mixed with a sauce or salad dressing. They are typically served cold, although some, such as south German potato salad, are served warm, salads may contain vegetables, fruits, cheese, cooked meat, eggs, grains and nuts. Garden salads use a base of leafy greens like lettuce, arugula, kale or spinach, other types include bean salad, tuna salad, fattoush, Greek salad, and Japanese sōmen salad. The sauce used to flavor a salad is commonly called a salad dressing, well-known types include ranch, Thousand Island, vinaigrette comes in many varieties, one version is a mixture of olive oil, balsamic vinegar, herbs, and seasonings. Salads may be served at any point during a meal, such as, Appetizer salads, light, side salads, to accompany the main course as a side dish. Main course salads, usually containing a portion of heartier fare, such as chicken breast, dessert salads, sweet versions containing fruit, gelatin, sweeteners or whipped cream, or just fruit, which is called a fruit salad. The word salad comes from the French salade of the meaning, from the Latin salata. In English, the word first appears as salad or sallet in the 14th century, salt is associated with salad because vegetables were seasoned with brine or salty oil-and-vinegar dressings during Roman times. The Romans and ancient Greeks ate mixed greens with dressing, in his 1699 book, Acetaria, A Discourse on Sallets, John Evelyn attempted with little success to encourage his fellow Britons to eat fresh salad greens. Mary, Queen of Scots, ate boiled celery root over greens covered with creamy mustard dressing, truffles, chervil, oil used on salads can be found in the 17th century colony of New Netherland. Curaçao Papers page 234 In a 1653 inventory in New Netherland dressing can be found, council Minutes Volume V, page 78 The United States popularized mixed greens salads in the late 19th century. Salads including layered and dressed salads were popular in Europe since Greek imperial, several other regions of the world adopted salads throughout the second half of the 20th century. From Europe and the Americas to China, Japan, and Australia, salads are sold in supermarkets, at restaurants, in the US market, restaurants will often have a Salad Bar laid out with salad-making ingredients, which the customers will use to put together their salad. Salad restaurants were earning more than $300 million in 2014, a green salad or garden salad is most often composed of leafy vegetables such as lettuce varieties, spinach, or rocket. The salad leaves may be cut or torn into bite-sized fragments and tossed together and they are often adorned with garnishes such as nuts or croutons. A wedge salad is made from a head of lettuce halved or quartered, vegetables other than greens may be used in a salad. Common raw vegetables used in a salad include cucumbers, peppers, tomatoes, onions, spring onions, red onions, carrots, celery, a bound salad can be composed or tossed. They are assembled with thick sauces such as mayonnaise, one portion of a true bound salad will hold its shape when placed on a plate with an ice-cream scoop
Salad
–
A garden salad consisting of
lettuce,
cucumber,
scallions,
cherry tomatoes,
olives,
sun-dried tomatoes, and
cheese
Salad
–
A
spinach salad with various ingredients
Salad
–
A wedge salad
Salad
–
Green leaf salad with salmon and bread
27.
Food energy
–
Food energy is chemical energy that animals derive from food and molecular oxygen through the process of cellular respiration. Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of energy to sustain their metabolism. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, water, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as organic acids, polyols. Some diet components that provide little or no energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down, fiber, a type of carbohydrate, cannot be completely digested by the human body. Ruminants can extract energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens. Using the International System of Units, researchers measure energy in joules or in its multiples, the kilojoule is most often used for food-related quantities. An older metric system unit of energy, still used in food-related contexts, is the calorie, more precisely. Within the European Union, both the kilocalorie and kilojoule appear on nutrition labels, in many countries, only one of the units is displayed, in the US and Canada labels spell out the unit as calorie or as Calorie. Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of energy per gram,37 and 29 kJ/g. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ/g, carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fiber, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g and 13 kJ/g respectively, the amount of water, fat, and fiber in foods determines those foods energy density. Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using the Gibbs free energy of combustion, however, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction producing liquid water. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century, based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids. The system was improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA. Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, in the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In Australia and New Zealand, the energy must be stated in kilojoules
Food energy
–
The nutritional information label on a pack of
Basmati rice in the United Kingdom
28.
Carbohydrate
–
A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2,1, in other words, with the empirical formula Cmn. This formula holds true for monosaccharides, some exceptions exist, for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula C5H10O4. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon, structurally it is accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide, a group that includes sugars, starch, the saccharides are divided into four chemical groups, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest carbohydrates, are referred to as sugars. The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον, meaning sugar, while the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, grape sugar is the glucose, cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose. Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms, polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy and as structural components. The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA, the related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting. In food science and in informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch or simple carbohydrates. Often in lists of information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term carbohydrate is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash. This will include chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, carbohydrates are found in wide variety of foods. The important sources are cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, fruits, table sugar, bread, milk, starch and sugar are the important carbohydrates in our diet. Starch is abundant in potatoes, maize, rice and other cereals, sugar appears in our diet mainly as sucrose which is added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Glucose and fructose are found naturally in fruits and some vegetables. Glycogen is carbohydrate found in the liver and muscles, cellulose in the cell wall of all plant tissue is a carbohydrate. It is important in our diet as fibre which helps to maintain a healthy digestive system, formerly the name carbohydrate was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula Cm n
Carbohydrate
–
Grain products: rich sources of carbohydrates
Carbohydrate
29.
Sugar
–
Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
Sugar
–
Closeup of raw (unrefined, unbleached) sugar
Sugar
–
Ant feeding on sugar crystals.
Sugar
–
Sugar cane plantation
Sugar
–
Still-Life with Bread and Confectionary, by
George Flegel, first half of 17th century
30.
Dietary fiber
–
Dietary fiber or roughage is the indigestible portion of food derived from plants. It has two components, Soluble fiber, which dissolves in water, is readily fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active byproducts. It delays gastric emptying which in turn can cause a feeling of fullness. Insoluble fiber, which does not dissolve in water, is inert and provides bulking, or it can be prebiotic. Bulking fibers absorb water as they move through the digestive system, Dietary fibers can act by changing the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and by changing how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Some types of soluble fiber absorb water to become a gelatinous, viscous substance which is fermented by bacteria in the digestive tract, some types of insoluble fiber have bulking action and are not fermented. Lignin, a major dietary insoluble fiber source, may alter the rate, other types of insoluble fiber, notably resistant starch, are fully fermented. A novel position has been adopted by the US Department of Agriculture to include functional fibers as isolated fiber sources that may be included in the diet, the term fiber is something of a misnomer, since many types of so-called dietary fiber are not actually fibrous. Food sources of fiber are often divided according to whether they provide soluble or insoluble fiber. Plant foods contain both types of fiber in varying degrees, according to the plants characteristics, a disadvantage of a diet high in fiber is the potential for significant intestinal gas production and bloating. Originally, fiber was defined to be the components of plants that resist human digestive enzymes, the definition was later changed to also include resistant starch, along with inulin and other oligosaccharides. Official definition of dietary fiber differs a little among different institutions, Dietary fibers are found in fruits, vegetables, the exact amount of fiber contained in the food can be seen in the following table of expected fiber in USDA food groups/subgroups Dietary fiber is found in plants. While all plants contain some fiber, plants with high concentrations are generally the most practical source. Fiber-rich plants can be eaten directly, or, alternatively, they can be used to make supplements and fiber-rich processed foods. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, formerly the American Dietetic Association, some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. For example, plums and prunes have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp, the skin is a source of insoluble fiber, whereas soluble fiber is in the pulp. Grapes also contain an amount of fiber. The root of the plant, or glucomannan, produces results similar to fiber
Dietary fiber
–
Legumes contain healthy dietary fibers.
31.
Fat
–
Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
Fat
–
The
obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.
Fat
–
A fat, or
triglyceride, molecule. Note the three fatty acid chains attached to the central glycerol portion of the molecule.
32.
Protein (nutrient)
–
Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body. They are one of the blocks of body tissue. As a fuel, proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates,4 kcal per gram, in contrast, the most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition. Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds, during human digestion, proteins are broken down in the stomach to smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the synthesis of the amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body. There are nine amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order to prevent protein-energy malnutrition. They are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, there are five dispensable amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and these six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline and tyrosine. Humans need the essential amino acids in certain ratios, some protein sources contain amino acids in a more or less complete sense. This has given rise to various ranking systems for protein sources, Dietary sources of protein include both animals and plants, meats, dairy products, fish and eggs as well as grains, legumes and nuts. Vegetarians and vegans can get enough essential amino acids by eating a variety of plant proteins and it is commonly believed that athletes should consume a higher-than-normal protein intake to maintain optimal physical performance. Protein is a nutrient needed by the body for growth. Aside from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body, Protein can be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and skin, proteins are also used in membranes, such as glycoproteins. When broken down into amino acids, they are used as precursors to acid, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, cellular repair. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells, proteins are believed to increase performance in terms of athletics. Amino acids, the blocks of proteins, are used for building muscle tissue. Protein is only used as fuel when carbohydrates are low
Protein (nutrient)
–
Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a common
bodybuilding supplement.
Protein (nutrient)
–
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein.
Protein (nutrient)
–
An education campaign launched by the United States Department of Agriculture about 100 years ago, on cottage cheese as a lower-cost protein substitute for meat.
Protein (nutrient)
–
A child in Nigeria during the
Biafra War suffering from
kwashiorkor – one of the
three protein energy malnutrition ailments afflicting over 10 million children in developing countries.
33.
Vitamin
–
A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts. For example, ascorbic acid is a vitamin for humans, supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems, but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people. Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present, Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each vitamin refers to a number of compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin generic descriptor title, such as vitamin A, which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the form of the vitamin in the body. Some, such as vitamin D, have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation. The largest number of vitamins, the B complex vitamins, function as cofactors or the precursors for them. In this role, vitamins may be bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups, For example. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, for example, folic acid may carry methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins best-known function, study of structural activity, function and their role in maintaining health is called vitaminology. Each vitamin is typically used in reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions. Vitamins are essential for the growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop from the nutrients it absorbs and it requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin, bone, if there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage, for the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume, examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin, from the amino acid tryptophan. In those who are healthy, there is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to cancer or heart disease
Vitamin
–
A bottle of high potency B-complex vitamin supplement pills.
Vitamin
–
500 mg calcium supplement tablets, with vitamin D, made from
calcium carbonate,
maltodextrin,
mineral oil,
hypromellose,
glycerin,
cholecalciferol,
polyethylene glycol, and
carnauba wax.
Vitamin
–
The
Ancient Egyptians knew that feeding a person
liver would help cure
night blindness.
34.
Vitamin A
–
Vitamin A is a group of unsaturated nutritional organic compounds that includes retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and several provitamin A carotenoids. Vitamin A has multiple functions, it is important for growth and development, for the maintenance of the immune system and good vision. Vitamin A is needed by the retina of the eye in the form of retinal, which combines with protein opsin to form rhodopsin, Vitamin A also functions in a very different role as retinoic acid, which is an important hormone-like growth factor for epithelial and other cells. In foods of animal origin, the form of vitamin A is an ester, primarily retinyl palmitate. The retinol form functions as a form of the vitamin. All forms of vitamin A have a ring to which an isoprenoid chain is attached, called a retinyl group. Both structural features are essential for vitamin activity, the orange pigment of carrots can be represented as two connected retinyl groups, which are used in the body to contribute to vitamin A levels. Alpha-carotene and gamma-carotene also have a single group, which give them some vitamin activity. None of the other carotenes have vitamin activity, the carotenoid beta-cryptoxanthin possesses an ionone group and has vitamin activity in humans. Vitamin A can be found in two forms in foods, Retinol, the form of vitamin A absorbed when eating animal food sources, is a yellow. Since the pure form is unstable, the vitamin is found in tissues in a form of retinyl ester. It is also produced and administered as esters such as retinyl acetate or palmitate. Vitamin A deficiency is estimated to approximately one third of children under the age of five around the world. It is estimated to claim the lives of 670,000 children under five annually, approximately 250, 000–500,000 children in developing countries become blind each year owing to vitamin A deficiency, with the highest prevalence in Southeast Asia and Africa. Vitamin A deficiency is the cause of preventable childhood blindness. It also increases the risk of death from common childhood conditions such as diarrhea, UNICEF regards addressing vitamin A deficiency as critical to reducing child mortality, the fourth of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Vitamin A deficiency can occur as either a primary or a secondary deficiency, early weaning from breastmilk can also increase the risk of vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A is a vitamin and depends on micellar solubilization for dispersion into the small intestine
Vitamin A
–
carrots
35.
Beta-carotene
–
β-Carotene is an organic, strongly colored red-orange pigment abundant in plants and fruits. It is a member of the carotenes, which are terpenoids, synthesized biochemically from eight isoprene units, among the carotenes, β-carotene is distinguished by having beta-rings at both ends of the molecule. β-Carotene is biosynthesized from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, β-Carotene is the most common form of carotene in plants. When used as a coloring, it has the E number E160a. The structure was deduced by Karrer et al. in 1930, in nature, β-carotene is a precursor to vitamin A via the action of beta-carotene 15, 15-monooxygenase. Isolation of β-carotene from fruits abundant in carotenoids is commonly done using column chromatography and it can also be extracted from the beta-carotene rich algae, Dunaliella salina. The separation of β-carotene from the mixture of other carotenoids is based on the polarity of a compound, β-Carotene is a non-polar compound, so it is separated with a non-polar solvent such as hexane. Being highly conjugated, it is colored, and as a hydrocarbon lacking functional groups. Plant carotenoids are the primary source of provitamin A worldwide. Carotenoid absorption is restricted to the duodenum of the intestine and dependent on class B scavenger receptor membrane protein. One molecule of β-carotene can be cleaved by the intestinal enzyme β, β-carotene 15, absorption efficiency is estimated to be between 9 and 22%. The absorption and conversion of carotenoids may depend on the form of β-carotene, the intake of fats and oils at the time. Symmetric cleavage with the enzyme β, β-carotene-15, 15-dioxygenase requires the antioxidant α-tocopherol and this symmetric cleavage gives two equivalent retinal molecules and each retinal molecule further reacts to give retinol and retinoic acid. β-Carotene is also cleaved into two products, the product is β-apocarotenal. Asymmetric cleavage reduces the level of retinoic acid significantly, RE was developed 1967 by the United Nations/World Health Organization Food and Agriculture Organization. Another older unit of vitamin A activity is the international unit, β-Carotene contributes to the orange color of many different fruits and vegetables. The color of β-carotene is masked by chlorophyll in green vegetables such as spinach, kale, sweet potato leaves. Vietnamese gac and crude oil have the highest content of β-carotene of any known plant sources,10 times higher than carrots
Beta-carotene
–
β-Carotene
36.
Lutein
–
Lutein is a xanthophyll and one of 600 known naturally occurring carotenoids. Lutein is synthesized only by plants and like other xanthophylls is found in quantities in green leafy vegetables such as spinach, kale. See xanthophyll cycle for this topic, Lutein is obtained by animals directly or indirectly, from plants. Lutein is apparently employed by animals as an antioxidant and for light absorption. Lutein is found in egg yolks and animal fats, in addition to coloring yolks, lutein causes the yellow color of chicken skin and fat, and is used in chicken feed for this purpose. The human retina accumulates lutein and zeaxanthin, the latter predominates at the macula lutea while lutein predominates elsewhere in the retina. There, it may serve as a photoprotectant for the retina from the effects of free radicals produced by blue light. Lutein is isomeric with zeaxanthin, differing only in the placement of one double bond, the principal natural stereoisomer of lutein is -beta, epsilon-carotene-3, 3′-diol. Lutein is a molecule and is generally insoluble in water. The presence of the chromophore of conjugated double bonds provides the distinctive light-absorbing properties. The polyene chain is susceptible to degradation by light or heat and is chemically unstable in acids. Lutein is present in plants as fatty-acid esters, with one or two fatty acids bound to the two hydroxyl-groups. For this reason, saponification of lutein esters to yield free lutein may yield lutein in any ratio from 1,1 to 1,2 molar ratio with the fatty acid. This xanthophyll, like its sister compound zeaxanthin, has primarily used as a natural colorant due to its orange-red color. Lutein absorbs blue light and therefore appears yellow at low concentrations and it inhibits vascular endothelial growth factor. Lutein was traditionally used in chicken feed to improve the color of chicken skin. Polled consumers viewed yellow chicken skin more favorably than white chicken skin, such lutein fortification also results in a darker yellow egg yolk. Today the coloring of the egg yolk has become the reason for feed fortification
Lutein
37.
Zeaxanthin
–
Zeaxanthin is one of the most common carotenoid alcohols found in nature. It is important in the xanthophyll cycle, synthesized in plants and some micro-organisms, it is the pigment that gives paprika, corn, saffron, wolfberries, and many other plants and microbes their characteristic color. The name is derived from Zea mays, plus xanthos, the Greek word for yellow, animals derive zeaxanthin from a plant diet. Zeaxanthin is one of the two primary xanthophyll carotenoids contained within the retina of the eye, within the central macula, zeaxanthin is the dominant component, whereas in the peripheral retina, lutein predominates. Zeaxanthin supplements are typically taken on the supposition of supporting eye health, as a food additive, zeaxanthin is a food dye with E number E161h. Lutein and zeaxanthin have identical chemical formulas and are isomers, the only difference between them is in the location of the double bond in one of the end rings. This difference gives lutein three chiral centers whereas zeaxanthin has two, because of symmetry, the and stereoisomers of zeaxanthin are identical. Therefore, zeaxanthin has only three stereoisomeric forms, the principal natural form of zeaxanthin is -zeaxanthin. The macula mainly contains the - and meso-zeaxanthin forms, but it contains much smaller amounts of the third form. Evidence exists that a specific zeaxanthin-binding protein recruits circulating zeaxanthin and lutein for uptake within the macula, zeaxanthin biosynthesis therefore proceeds from beta-carotene to zeaxanthin via beta-cryptoxanthin. Although functionally identical, several distinct beta-carotene hydroxylase proteins are known, due to the nature of zeaxanthin, relative to astaxanthin beta-carotene hydroxylase proteins have been studied extensively. Because foods high in one of these tend to be high in the other. Three subsequent meta-analyses of dietary lutein and zeaxanthin all conclude that these lower the risk of progression from early stage AMD to late stage AMD. The reports did not separate zeaxanthin effect from lutein effect, there is only one published clinical intervention trial testing for an effect of lutein and zeaxanthin supplementation on cataracts. The AREDS2 trial enrolled subjects at risk for progression to advanced age-related macular degeneration, overall, the group getting lutein and zeaxanthin were NOT less likely to progress to needed cataract surgery. The authors speculated that there may be a cataract prevention benefit for people with low dietary intake of lutein and zeaxanthin, although more convincing evidence has accrued, no company had reapplied for a label health claim. In Europe, as recently as 2014, the European Food Safety Authority reviewed and rejected claims that lutein or lutein plus zeaxanthin improved vision, zeaxanthin is the pigment that gives paprika, corn, saffron, wolfberries, and many other plants their characteristic color. Spirulina is also a source and can serve as a dietary supplement
Zeaxanthin
38.
Folic acid
–
Folic acid, another form of which is known as folate, is one of the B vitamins. The recommended daily level of folate is 400 micrograms from foods or dietary supplements. Folic acid is used to treat anemia caused by folic acid deficiency and it is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to prevent neural tube defects in the baby. Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with neural tube defects, more than 50 countries use fortification of certain foods with folic acid as a measure to decrease the rate of NTDs in the population. Long term supplementation is also associated with reductions in the risk of stroke. It may be taken by mouth or by injection, there are no common side effects. It is not known whether high doses over a period of time are of concern. There are concerns that large amounts of folic acid might hide vitamin B12 deficiency, folic acid is essential for the body to make DNA, RNA, and metabolise amino acids which are required for cell division. As humans cannot make folic acid, it is required from the diet, not consuming enough folate can lead to folate deficiency. This may result in a type of anemia in which low numbers of red blood cells occur. Symptoms may include feeling tired, heart palpitations, shortness of breath, open sores on the tongue, deficiency in children may develop within a month of poor dietary intake. In adults normal total body folate is between 10, 000–30,000 micrograms with blood levels of greater than 7 nmol/L, folic acid was discovered between 1931 and 1943. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the wholesale cost of supplements in the developing world is between 0.001 and 0.005 USD per dose as of 2014. The term folic is from the Latin word folium, which means leaf, folates occur naturally in many foods especially dark green leafy vegetables and liver. Other names include vitamin B9, vitamin Bc, vitamin M, folacin, folic acid intake during pregnancy has been linked to a lessened risk of neural tube defects. Likewise, a meta-analysis of folic acid supplementation during pregnancy reported a 28% lower risk of congenital heart defects. The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends folic acid supplementation for all able to become pregnant. Prenatal supplementation did not appear to reduce the risk of pre-term births, and there does not appear to be a correlation between maternal folic acid supplementation and an increased risk for asthma in the child
Folic acid
Folic acid
Folic acid
–
Vitamins C and M as featured on a monument in front of
University of Warsaw 's Centre of New Technologies
Folic acid
–
In the USA many grain products are fortified with folic acid.
39.
Vitamin C
–
Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and L-ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to treat and prevent scurvy, evidence does not support use in the general population for the prevention of the common cold. It may be taken by mouth or by injection, large doses may cause gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, trouble sleeping, and flushing of the skin. Normal doses are safe during pregnancy, Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue. Foods that contain vitamin C include citrus fruit, tomatoes, Vitamin C was discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928, and first made in 1933. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Vitamin C is available as a generic medication and over the counter. In 2015, the wholesale cost in the world was about 0.003 to 0.007 USD per tablet. In some countries, ascorbic acid may be added to such as breakfast cereal. A2012 Cochrane review found no effect of vitamin C supplementation on overall mortality, although rare in modern times, scurvy and its associated destabilization of collagen, connective tissue, and bone can be prevented by adequate vitamin C intake. A2014 review found that, Currently, the use of high-dose IV vitamin C cannot be recommended outside of a clinical trial, a 2013 Cochrane review found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of lung cancer in healthy or high risk people. A2014 meta-analysis found that vitamin C intake might protect against lung cancer risk, a second meta-analysis found no effect on the risk of prostate cancer. Two meta-analyses evaluated the effect of vitamin C supplementation on the risk of colorectal cancer, one found a weak association between vitamin C consumption and reduced risk, and the other found no effect of supplementation. A2013 meta-analysis found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, cardiovascular mortality, however, a second analysis found an inverse relationship between circulating vitamin C levels or dietary vitamin C and the risk of stroke. A meta-analysis of 44 clinical trials has shown a significant positive effect of vitamin C on endothelial function when taken at doses greater than 500 mg per day. The researchers noted that the effect of vitamin C supplementation appeared to be dependent on health status, a 2010 review found no role for vitamin C supplementation in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Studies examining the effects of vitamin C intake on the risk of Alzheimers disease have reached conflicting conclusions, maintaining a healthy dietary intake is probably more important than supplementation for achieving any potential benefit. Vitamin C supplementation above the RDA has been used in trials to study a potential effect on preventing and slowing the progression of age-related cataract, however, no significant effects were found from the research. Vitamin Cs effect on the cold has been extensively researched
Vitamin C
–
Rose hips are a particularly rich source of vitamin C
Vitamin C
–
Vitamin C
Vitamin C
–
Goats, like almost all animals, make their own vitamin C. An adult goat, weighing approx. 70 kg, will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health, and levels manyfold higher when faced with stress.
Vitamin C
–
James Lind, a British Royal Navy surgeon who, in 1747, identified that a quality in fruit prevented the disease of scurvy in what was the first
recorded controlled experiment.
40.
Dietary element
–
In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. Minerals originate in the earth and cannot be made by living organisms, most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water. As a group, minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, the five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. All of the elements in a human body are called trace elements. The trace elements that have a specific function in the human body are iron, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine. Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds, plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, one element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called biomineralization, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusc shells. At least twenty chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes, however, as many as twenty-nine elements in total are suggested to be used by mammals, as inferred by biochemical and uptake studies. Phosphorus makes up about 1% of a body weight. The last four major minerals make up only about 0. 85% of the weight of the body, together these eleven chemical elements make up 99. 85% of the body. Minerals are present in a human beings blood at certain mass. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the elements discussed in this article. Depending on the concentrations, some are in part of the picture. The figure includes the values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, minerals are color highlighted in purple, dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element of interest. The elements may be present in the food or added to the food. The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the elemental components
Dietary element
–
Reference ranges for blood tests, sorted logarithmically by
mass above the scale and by
molarity below.
41.
Calcium
–
Calcium is a chemical element with symbol Ca and atomic number 20. Calcium is a soft grayish-yellow alkaline earth metal, fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earths crust, the ion Ca2+ is also the fifth-most-abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, magnesium, and sulfate. Free calcium metal is too reactive to occur in nature, Calcium is produced in supernova nucleosynthesis. Calcium is a trace element in living organisms. It is the most abundant metal by mass in animals, and it is an important constituent of bone, teeth. In cell biology, the movement of the calcium ion into, Calcium carbonate and calcium citrate are often taken as dietary supplements. Calcium is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Calcium has a wide variety of applications, almost all of which are associated with calcium compounds and salts. Calcium metal is used as a deoxidizer, desulfurizer, and decarbonizer for production of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. In steelmaking and production of iron, Ca reacts with oxygen, Calcium carbonate is used in manufacturing cement and mortar, lime, limestone and aids in production in the glass industry. It also has chemical and optical uses as mineral specimens in toothpastes, Calcium hydroxide solution is used to detect the presence of carbon dioxide in a gas sample bubbled through a solution. The solution turns cloudy where CO2 is present, Calcium arsenate is used in insecticides. Calcium carbide is used to make acetylene gas and various plastics, Calcium chloride is used in ice removal and dust control on dirt roads, as a conditioner for concrete, as an additive in canned tomatoes, and to provide body for automobile tires. Calcium citrate is used as a food preservative, Calcium cyclamate is used as a sweetening agent in several countries. In the United States, it has been outlawed as a suspected carcinogen, Calcium gluconate is used as a food additive and in vitamin pills. Calcium hypochlorite is used as a swimming pool disinfectant, as an agent, as an ingredient in deodorant. Calcium permanganate is used in rocket propellant, textile production, as a water sterilizing agent. Calcium phosphate is used as a supplement for animal feed, fertilizer, in production for dough and yeast products, in the manufacture of glass. Calcium phosphide is used in fireworks, rodenticide, torpedoes, Calcium sulfate is used as common blackboard chalk, as well as, in its hemihydrate form, Plaster of Paris
Calcium
–
Calcium, 20 Ca
Calcium
–
Travertine terraces
Pamukkale, Turkey
Calcium
–
'Ain Ghazal figure
Calcium
–
500 milligram calcium supplements made from
calcium carbonate
42.
Iron
–
Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series and it is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earths outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earths crust, like the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +6, although +2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments, but is reactive to oxygen, fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray, but oxidize in normal air to give hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. Unlike the metals that form passivating oxide layers, iron oxides occupy more volume than the metal and thus flake off, Iron metal has been used since ancient times, although copper alloys, which have lower melting temperatures, were used even earlier in human history. Pure iron is soft, but is unobtainable by smelting because it is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities, in particular carbon. A certain proportion of carbon steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron, further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and iron alloys formed with metals are by far the most common industrial metals because they have a great range of desirable properties. Iron chemical compounds have many uses, Iron oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding and purifying ores. Iron forms binary compounds with the halogens and the chalcogens, among its organometallic compounds is ferrocene, the first sandwich compound discovered. Iron plays an important role in biology, forming complexes with oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Iron is also the metal at the site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants. A human male of average height has about 4 grams of iron in his body and this iron is distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin, tissues, muscles, bone marrow, blood proteins, enzymes, ferritin, hemosiderin, and transport in plasma. The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests, including the Brinell test, Rockwell test, the data on iron is so consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. An increase in the content will cause a significant increase in the hardness. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0. 6% carbon content, because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium. Because of its significance for planetary cores, the properties of iron at high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively
Iron
–
Iron, 26 Fe
Iron
–
Spectral lines of iron
Iron
–
Iron meteorites, similar in composition to the Earth's inner- and outer core
Iron
–
Hydrated
iron(III) chloride, also known as ferric chloride
43.
Magnesium in biology
–
Magnesium is an essential element in biological systems. Magnesium occurs typically as the Mg2+ ion and it is an essential mineral nutrient for life and is present in every cell type in every organism. For example, ATP, the source of energy in cells. What is called ATP is often actually Mg-ATP, as such, magnesium plays a role in the stability of all polyphosphate compounds in the cells, including those associated with the synthesis of DNA and RNA. Over 300 enzymes require the presence of ions for their catalytic action, including all enzymes utilizing or synthesizing ATP. In plants, magnesium is necessary for synthesis of chlorophyll and photosynthesis, a balance of magnesium is vital to the well-being of all organisms. Magnesium is a relatively abundant ion in Earths crust and mantle and is highly bioavailable in the hydrosphere and this availability, in combination with a useful and very unusual chemistry, may have led to its utilization in evolution as an ion for signaling, enzyme activation, and catalysis. However, the nature of ionic magnesium has also led to a major challenge in the use of the ion in biological systems. Biological membranes are impermeable to magnesium, so transport proteins must facilitate the flow of magnesium, chlorophyll in plants converts water to oxygen as O2. Hemoglobin in vertebrate animals transports oxygen as O2 in the blood, chlorophyll is very similar to hemoglobin, except magnesium is at the center of the chlorophyll molecule and iron is at the center of the hemoglobin molecule, with other variations. This process keeps living cells on earth alive and produces levels of CO2 and O2 in our atmosphere that has changed with industrialization. Acute deficiency is rare, and is common as a drug side-effect than from low food intake per se. The most common symptom of excess oral magnesium intake is diarrhea, since the kidneys of adult humans excrete excess magnesium efficiently, oral magnesium poisoning in adults with normal renal function is very rare. Infants, which have less ability to excrete excess magnesium even when healthy, should not be given magnesium supplements, pharmaceutical preparations with magnesium are used to treat conditions including magnesium deficiency and hypomagnesemia, as well as eclampsia. Such preparations are usually in the form of sulfate or chloride when given parenterally. Magnesium is absorbed with reasonable efficiency by the body from any soluble magnesium salt, Magnesium is similarly absorbed from Epsom salts, although the sulfate in these salts adds to their laxative effect at higher doses. The Food and Nutrition Board of the U. S, institute of Medicine updated Estimated Average Requirements and Recommended Dietary Allowances for magnesium in 1997. The current EARs for magnesium for women and men ages 31 and up are 265 mg/day and 350 mg/day, the RDAs are 320 and 420 mg/day
Magnesium in biology
–
Some good sources of magnesium.
Magnesium in biology
–
Space-filling model of the chlorophyll a molecule, with the Magnesium ion (bright-green) visible at the center of the
porphyrin group
44.
Manganese
–
Manganese is a chemical element with symbol Mn and atomic number 25. It is not found as an element in nature, it is often found in minerals in combination with iron. Manganese is a metal with important industrial metal alloy uses, particularly in stainless steels, by the mid-18th century, Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele had used pyrolusite to produce chlorine. Scheele and others were aware that pyrolusite contained a new element, johan Gottlieb Gahn was the first to isolate an impure sample of manganese metal in 1774, which he did by reducing the dioxide with carbon. Manganese phosphating is used for rust and corrosion prevention on steel, ionized manganese is used industrially as pigments of various colors, which depend on the oxidation state of the ions. The permanganates of alkali and alkaline earth metals are powerful oxidizers, Manganese dioxide is used as the cathode material in zinc-carbon and alkaline batteries. In biology, manganese ions function as cofactors for a variety of enzymes with many functions. Manganese enzymes are essential in detoxification of superoxide free radicals in organisms that must deal with elemental oxygen. Manganese also functions in the complex of photosynthetic plants. The element is a trace mineral for all known living organisms but is a neurotoxin. In larger amounts, and apparently with far greater effectiveness through inhalation, Manganese is a silvery-gray metal that resembles iron. It is hard and very brittle, difficult to fuse, Manganese metal and its common ions are paramagnetic. Manganese tarnishes slowly in air and oxidizes like iron in water containing dissolved oxygen, naturally occurring manganese is composed of one stable isotope, 55Mn. Eighteen radioisotopes have been isolated and described, the most stable being 53Mn with a half-life of 3.7 million years, 54Mn with a half-life of 312.3 days, and 52Mn with a half-life of 5.591 days. All of the radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than three hours, and the majority of less than one minute. Manganese also has three meta states, Manganese is part of the iron group of elements, which are thought to be synthesized in large stars shortly before the supernova explosion. 53Mn decays to 53Cr with a half-life of 3.7 million years, because of its relatively short half-life, 53Mn is relatively rare, produced by cosmic rays impact on iron. Manganese isotopic contents are combined with chromium isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology
Manganese
–
Manganese, 25 Mn
Manganese
–
Electrolytically refined manganese chips and 1 cm 3 cube
Manganese
–
Manganese(II) chloride crystals – the pale pink color of Mn(II) salts is due to a spin-forbidden 3d transition.
Manganese
–
Aqueous solution of KMnO 4 illustrating the deep purple of Mn(VII) as it occurs in permanganate
45.
Phosphorus
–
Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. As an element, phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus—but because it is reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. At 0. 099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earths crust, with few exceptions, minerals containing phosphorus are in the maximally oxidised state as inorganic phosphate rocks. The glow of phosphorus itself originates from oxidation of the white phosphorus — a process now termed chemiluminescence, together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen. Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids, demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is present in the deposits of animal remains. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in aquatic systems. The vast majority of compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents. Phosphorus exists as several forms that exhibit different properties. The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus, from the perspective of applications and chemical literature, the most important form of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, often abbreviated as WP. It is a soft and waxy solid consists of tetrahedral P4 molecules. This P4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C when it starts decomposing to P2 molecules, White phosphorus exists in two crystalline forms, α and β. At room temperature, the α-form is stable, which is common and it has cubic crystal structure and at 195.2 K, it transforms into β-form. These forms differ in terms of the orientations of the constituent P4 tetrahedra. White phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, the most volatile, the least dense, White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat, and samples of white phosphorus almost always some red phosphorus. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure is also called yellow phosphorus, when exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint tinge of green and blue
Phosphorus
–
waxy white (yellow cut), red (granules centre left, chunk centre right), and violet phosphorus
Phosphorus
–
P 4 molecule
Phosphorus
–
White phosphorus
Phosphorus
–
Crystal structure of red phosphorus
46.
Potassium
–
Potassium is a chemical element with symbol K and atomic number 19. It was first isolated from potash, the ashes of plants, in the periodic table, potassium is one of the alkali metals. Potassium in nature only in ionic salts. It is found dissolved in sea water, and is part of many minerals, naturally occurring potassium is composed of three isotopes, of which 40K is radioactive. Traces of 40K are found in all potassium, and it is the most common radioisotope in the human body, Potassium is chemically very similar to sodium, the previous element in Group 1 of the periodic table. They have a similar energy, which allows for each atom to give up its sole outer electron. That they are different elements combine with the same anions to make similar salts was suspected in 1702. Most industrial applications of potassium exploit the high solubility in water of potassium compounds, heavy crop production rapidly depletes the soil of potassium, and this can be remedied with agricultural fertilizers containing potassium, accounting for 95% of global potassium chemical production. Potassium ions are necessary for the function of all living cells, fresh fruits and vegetables are good dietary sources of potassium. Potassium is the second least dense metal after lithium and it is a soft solid with a low melting point, and can be easily cut with a knife. Freshly cut potassium is silvery in appearance, but it begins to tarnish toward gray immediately on exposure to air, in a flame test, potassium and its compounds emit a lilac color with a peak emission wavelength of 766.5 nanometers. Neutral potassium atoms have 19 electrons, one more than the stable configuration of the noble gas argon. This process requires so little energy that potassium is readily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen, in contrast, the second ionization energy is very high, because removal of two electrons breaks the stable noble gas electronic configuration. Potassium therefore does not readily form compounds with the state of +2 or higher. Potassium is an active metal that reacts violently with oxygen in water. With oxygen it forms potassium peroxide, and with water potassium forms potassium hydroxide, the reaction of potassium with water is dangerous because of its violent exothermic character and the production of hydrogen gas. Hydrogen reacts again with atmospheric oxygen, producing water, which reacts with the remaining potassium and this reaction requires only traces of water, because of this, potassium and the liquid sodium-potassium — NaK — are potent desiccants that can be used to dry solvents prior to distillation. Because of the sensitivity of potassium to water and air, reactions with other elements are only in an inert atmosphere such as argon gas using air-free techniques
Potassium
–
Potassium pearls under paraffin oil. The large pearl measures 0.5 cm.
Potassium
–
Spectral lines of potassium
Potassium
–
Potassium in
feldspar
Potassium
–
Humphry Davy
47.
Sodium
–
Sodium is a chemical element with symbol Na and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal, Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic table, because it has a single electron in its outer shell that it readily donates, creating a positively charged atom—the Na+ cation. Its only stable isotope is 23Na, the free metal does not occur in nature, but must be prepared from compounds. Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in the Earths crust, Sodium was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. Among many other useful compounds, sodium hydroxide is used in soap manufacture, and sodium chloride is a de-icing agent. Sodium is an element for all animals and some plants. Sodium ions are the major cation in the fluid and as such are the major contributor to the ECF osmotic pressure. Loss of water from the ECF compartment increases the sodium concentration, isotonic loss of water and sodium from the ECF compartment decreases the size of that compartment in a condition called ECF hypovolemia. In nerve cells, the charge across the cell membrane enables transmission of the nerve impulse—an action potential—when the charge is dissipated. The melting and boiling points of sodium are lower than those of lithium but higher than those of the alkali metals potassium, rubidium. All of these high-pressure allotropes are insulators and electrides.3 nm, spin-orbit interactions involving the electron in the 3p orbital split the D line into two, at 589.0 and 589.6 nm, hyperfine structures involving both orbitals cause many more lines. Twenty isotopes of sodium are known, but only 23Na is stable, 23Na is created in the carbon-burning process in stars by fusing two carbon atoms together, this requires temperatures above 600 megakelvins and a star of at least three solar masses. Two nuclear isomers have been discovered, the one being 24mNa with a half-life of around 20.2 milliseconds. Sodium atoms have 11 electrons, one more than the stable configuration of the noble gas neon. This process requires so little energy that sodium is oxidized by giving up its 11th electron. In contrast, the ionization energy is very high, because the 10th electron is closer to the nucleus than the 11th electron. As a result, sodium usually forms ionic compounds involving the Na+ cation, the most common oxidation state for sodium is +1. It is generally less reactive than potassium and more reactive than lithium, Sodium metal is highly reducing, with the reduction of sodium ions requiring −2.71 volts, though potassium and lithium have even more negative potentials
Sodium
–
Sodium, 11 Na
Sodium
–
Spectral lines of sodium
Sodium
–
Emission spectrum for sodium, showing the
D line.
Sodium
–
A positive
flame test for sodium has a bright yellow color.
48.
Milligram
–
The kilogram or kilogramme is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units and is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram. The avoirdupois pound, used in both the imperial and US customary systems, is defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg, making one kilogram approximately equal to 2.2046 avoirdupois pounds. Other traditional units of weight and mass around the world are also defined in terms of the kilogram, the gram, 1/1000 of a kilogram, was provisionally defined in 1795 as the mass of one cubic centimetre of water at the melting point of ice. The final kilogram, manufactured as a prototype in 1799 and from which the IPK was derived in 1875, had an equal to the mass of 1 dm3 of water at its maximum density. The kilogram is the only SI base unit with an SI prefix as part of its name and it is also the only SI unit that is still directly defined by an artifact rather than a fundamental physical property that can be reproduced in different laboratories. Three other base units and 17 derived units in the SI system are defined relative to the kilogram, only 8 other units do not require the kilogram in their definition, temperature, time and frequency, length, and angle. At its 2011 meeting, the CGPM agreed in principle that the kilogram should be redefined in terms of the Planck constant, the decision was originally deferred until 2014, in 2014 it was deferred again until the next meeting. There are currently several different proposals for the redefinition, these are described in the Proposed Future Definitions section below, the International Prototype Kilogram is rarely used or handled. In the decree of 1795, the term gramme thus replaced gravet, the French spelling was adopted in the United Kingdom when the word was used for the first time in English in 1797, with the spelling kilogram being adopted in the United States. In the United Kingdom both spellings are used, with kilogram having become by far the more common, UK law regulating the units to be used when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the use of either spelling. In the 19th century the French word kilo, a shortening of kilogramme, was imported into the English language where it has used to mean both kilogram and kilometre. In 1935 this was adopted by the IEC as the Giorgi system, now known as MKS system. In 1948 the CGPM commissioned the CIPM to make recommendations for a practical system of units of measurement. This led to the launch of SI in 1960 and the subsequent publication of the SI Brochure, the kilogram is a unit of mass, a property which corresponds to the common perception of how heavy an object is. Mass is a property, that is, it is related to the tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest, or if in motion to remain in motion at a constant velocity. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor, they are weightless. However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, the ratio of the force of gravity on the two objects, measured by the scale, is equal to the ratio of their masses. On April 7,1795, the gram was decreed in France to be the weight of a volume of pure water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of the metre
Milligram
–
A domestic-quality one-kilogram weight made of
cast iron (the
credit card is for scale). The shape follows
OIML recommendation R52 for cast-iron hexagonal weights
Milligram
–
Measurement of weight – gravitational attraction of the measurand causes a distortion of the spring
Milligram
–
Measurement of mass – the gravitational force on the measurand is balanced against the gravitational force on the weights.
Milligram
–
The Arago kilogram, an exact copy of the "Kilogramme des Archives" commissioned in 1821 by the US under supervision of French physicist
François Arago that served as the US's first kilogram standard of mass until 1889, when the US converted to primary metric standards and received its current kilogram prototypes, K4 and K20.
49.
Zinc
–
Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table, in some respects zinc is chemically similar to magnesium, both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state, and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of similar size. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earths crust and has five stable isotopes, the most common zinc ore is sphalerite, a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest workable lodes are in Australia, Asia, and the United States, Zinc is refined by froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity. Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India and was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century, the mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th century BC. To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in Rajasthan, alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called philosophers wool or white snow. The element was named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke. German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746, work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion-resistant zinc plating of iron is the application for zinc. Other applications are in batteries, small non-structural castings. A variety of compounds are commonly used, such as zinc carbonate and zinc gluconate, zinc chloride, zinc pyrithione, zinc sulfide. Zinc is an essential mineral perceived by the public today as being of exceptional biologic and public health importance, Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases. In children, deficiency causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection susceptibility, enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans. Consumption of excess zinc can cause ataxia, lethargy and copper deficiency, Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal, though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish.6 pm. The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 °C, above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating. Zinc is a conductor of electricity. For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting and boiling points, the melting point is the lowest of all the transition metals aside from mercury and cadmium. Many alloys contain zinc, including brass, Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium, and sodium
Zinc
–
Zinc, 30 Zn
Zinc
–
Sphalerite (ZnS)
Zinc
–
Zinc acetate
Zinc
–
Zinc chloride
