1.
Turret deck ship
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A turret deck ship is a type of merchant ship with an unusual hull, designed and built in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The hulls of turret deck vessels were rounded and stepped inward above their waterlines and this gave some advantages in strength and allowed them to pay lower canal tolls under tonnage measurement rules then in effect. The type ceased to be built after those rules changed, Turret deck ships were inspired by the visit of the US whaleback vessel Charles W. Wetmore to Liverpool in 1891. Like others of the type, Wetmore had a hull in the form of a flattened cigar, the superstructure atop the hull was in round or oval turrets, so named because of their resemblance to gunhouses on contemporary warships. Havers toned down the more features of the whaleback. His design retained conventional bows and sterns instead of the upswept conoid snout of the whaleback, finally, the design joined the rounded turrets of whalebacks into one long and narrow rectangular structure of about half the beam, and used that space as part of the hold. Turret was designed for tonnage of 4,700 DWT at a load line draft of 20 feet 3 inches at 2,850 GRT and it was noted that the vessel had an unusually high righting angle which was obtained whether full or lightly loaded. In particular the design was seen as a solution to the problem of strength, the long, wide hatches were seen as making the design especially suitable for carrying heavy or bulky machinery. That feature later resulted in such as 75 feet long,8 feet wide girders. In side profile, turret deck ships resembled other merchant vessels with flush decks or with small forecastles, in cross-section the differences between turret deck vessels and more conventional ships are apparent. There was no gunwale, the side of a turret ship curves inward above the load line to a horizontal plane. This flat area was known as the harbour deck, further inboard, this deck arced to the vertical again by a reverse curve. That vertical plane then joined the weather deck atop the turret at a right angle, structurally these elements were part of the hull, not of the superstructure, and the cargo holds of the ship extended up to the true weather deck atop the turret. This design, and that of its relative the trunk deck ship, were said to maximize strength, allowing larger vessels. In operation their hull form promoted self-trimming of homogenous cargo and inhibited shifting, the design also called for a cellular double bottom, which was the probable reason for claims of the types exceptional hull strength, but it also raised the centre of gravity of the cargo. A higher centre of gravity increased the period and reduced the violence of rolls. But loading heavy cargo too high, and failing to properly ballast the bottom tanks, raised the centre of gravity and this led to accidents, a Board of Trade investigation, and cautions from Doxford on proper loading. The design also was inconvenient, as the narrowness of the made for smaller cargo hatches
2.
Warship
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A warship is a naval ship that is built and primarily intended for naval warfare. Usually they belong to the forces of a state. As well as being armed, warships are designed to damage and are usually faster. Unlike a merchant ship, which carries cargo, a warship typically carries weapons, ammunition. Warships usually belong to a navy, though they have also operated by individuals, cooperatives. In wartime, the distinction between warships and merchant ships is often blurred, in war, merchant ships are often armed and used as auxiliary warships, such as the Q-ships of the First World War and the armed merchant cruisers of the Second World War. Until the 17th century it was common for merchant ships to be pressed into naval service, until the threat of piracy subsided in the 19th century, it was normal practice to arm larger merchant ships such as galleons. Warships have also often used as troop carriers or supply ships. The development of catapults in the 4th century BC and the subsequent refinement of technology enabled the first fleets of artillery-equipped warships by the Hellenistic age. During late antiquity, ramming fell out of use and the galley tactics against other ships used during the Middle Ages until the late 16th century focused on boarding. Naval artillery was redeveloped in the 14th century, but cannon did not become common at sea until the guns were capable of being reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The size of a required to carry a large number of cannons made oar-based propulsion impossible. The sailing man-of-war emerged during the 16th century, by the middle of the 17th century, warships were carrying increasing numbers of cannon on their broadsides and tactics evolved to bring each ships firepower to bear in a line of battle. The man-of-war now evolved into the ship of the line, in the 18th century, the frigate and sloop-of-war – too small to stand in the line of battle – evolved to convoy trade, scout for enemy ships and blockade enemy coasts. During the 19th century a revolution took place in the means of propulsion, naval armament. Marine steam engines were introduced, at first as an auxiliary force, the Crimean War gave a great stimulus to the development of guns. The introduction of explosive shells soon led to the introduction of iron, the first ironclad warships, the French Gloire and British Warrior, made wooden vessels obsolete. Metal soon entirely replaced wood as the material for warship construction
3.
Gun turret
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A gun turret is a location from which weapons can be fired that affords protection, visibility, and some cone of fire. Rotating gun turrets have the protection, the weapon, and its crew rotate, when this meaning of the word turret started being used at the beginning of the 1860s, turrets were normally cylindrical. Barbettes were an alternative to turrets, with a barbette the protection was fixed, in the 1890s, armoured hoods were added to barbettes, these rotated with the platform. By the early 20th Century, these hoods were known as turrets, modern warships have gun-mountings described as turrets, though the protection on them is limited to protection from the weather. They may be manned or remotely controlled and are most often protected to some degree, the protection provided by the turret may be against battle damage, the weather conditions, general environment in which the weapon or its crew will be operating. A small turret, or sub-turret set on top of a one, is called a cupola. The term cupola is used for a rotating turret that carries a sighting device rather than weaponry. Before the development of large-calibre, long-range guns in the mid-19th century, firepower was provided by a large number of guns, each of which could traverse only in a limited arc. Additionally casemate mounts had to be recessed into the side of a vessel to afford a wide arc of fire, designs for a rotating gun turret date back to the late 18th century. The Lady Nancy proved a success and Coles patenting his rotating turret design after the war. Coless aim was to create a ship with the greatest possible all round arc of fire, the Admiralty accepted the principle of the turret gun as a useful innovation, and incorporated it into other new designs. Coles submitted a design for a ship having ten domed turrets each housing two large guns, the design was rejected as impractical, although the Admiralty remained interested in turret ships and instructed its own designers to create better designs. Coles enlisted the support of Prince Albert, who wrote to the first Lord of the Admiralty, in January 1862, the Admiralty agreed to construct a ship, the HMS Prince Albert which had four turrets and a low freeboard, intended only for coastal defence. While Coles designed the turrets the ship was the responsibility of the chief Constructor Isaac Watts, another ship using Coles turret designs, HMS Royal Sovereign, was completed in August 1864. Its existing broadside guns were replaced with four turrets on a flat deck, early ships like the Royal Sovereign had little sea-keeping qualities being limited to coastal waters. Sir Edward James Reed, went on to design and build HMS Monarch, laid down in 1866 and completed in June 1869, it carried two turrets, although the inclusion of a forecastle and poop prevented the turret guns firing fore and aft. The gun turret was independently invented by the Swedish inventor John Ericsson in America, Ericsson designed the USS Monitor in 1861, its most prominent feature being a large cylindrical gun turret mounted amidships above the low-freeboard upper hull, also called the raft. This extended well past the sides of the lower, more traditionally shaped hull, a small armoured pilot house was fitted on the upper deck towards the bow, however, its position prevented Monitor from firing her guns straight forward
4.
Broadside
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A broadside is the side of a ship, the battery of cannon on one side of a warship, or their coordinated fire in naval warfare. From the 16th century until the decades of the steamship. Firing all guns on one side of the ship known as a broadside. The cannons of 18th century men of war were accurate only at short range and these wooden ships sailed closer and closer towards each other until cannon fire would be effective. Each tried to be the first to fire a broadside, often giving one party a decisive headstart in the battle when it crippled the other ship. Since ancient times, war at sea had been much like on land, with melee weapons and bows and arrows. Though the introduction of guns was a significant change, it slowly changed the dynamics of ship-to-ship combat. The first guns on ships were small wrought-iron pieces mounted on the decks and in the fighting tops. They were designed to injure, kill or simply stun, shock, as guns were made more durable to withstand stronger gunpowder charges, they increased their potential to inflict critical damage to the vessel rather than just its crew. Since these guns were heavier than the earlier anti-personnel weapons, they had to be placed lower in the ships. In Northern Europe the technique of building ships with clinker planking made it difficult to cut ports in the hull, the solution was the gradual adoption of carvel-built ships that relied on an internal skeleton structure to bear the weight of the ship. The development of propulsion during the 15th century from single-masted, square-rigged cogs to three-masted carracks with a mix of square, gunports cut in the hull of ships had been introduced as early as 1501. Initially, the gunports were used to mount heavy so-called stern chasers pointing aft and this made possible coordinated volleys from all the guns on one side of a ship for the first time in history, at least in theory. Guns in the 16th century were considered to be in fixed positions and were intended to be fired independently rather than in concerted volleys. It was not until the 1590s that the word broadside in English was commonly used to refer to gunfire from the side of a rather than the ships side itself. This is calculated by multiplying the weight of the ships main armament shells times the number of barrels that can be brought to bear. If some turrets are incapable of firing to either side of the vessel, for example, the American Iowa-class battleships carried a main armament of nine 16-inch main guns in turrets which could all be trained to a single broadside. Each 16-inch shell weighed 2,700 pounds, which multiplied by nine equals a total of 24,300 pounds
5.
HMS Prince Albert (1864)
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HMS Prince Albert was designed and built as a shallow-draught coast-defence ship, and was the first British warship designed to carry her main armament in turrets. The ship was named after Prince Albert, the husband of Queen Victoria. At her wish Prince Albert remained on the active list until 1899, the Board of Admiralty, in coming to decisions on the structure and dimensions of this ship, were faced with conflicting demands for stability, armour, gun-power, rig, speed and range. Freeboard was fixed at 7 feet to ensure stability, while affording the armament a command at least comparable to that obtained in contemporary broadside ironclads. The armament was disposed in four armoured turrets, each containing one heavy gun, the guns carried were the heaviest and most powerful available at the time, the 9-inch calibre muzzle-loading rifle. The absence of a poop and forecastle limited the activity of the ship in rough weather, unlike the turrets in the contemporary American monitors, the turrets were rotated by hand, eighteen men could turn a turret through 360° in about a minute. Prince Albert was commissioned at Portsmouth and was almost immediately withdrawn from service for trials and alterations and she passed thereafter into the first division, Devonport Reserve. She formed part of the Particular Service Squadron formed in August 1878 and she was re-commissioned for the Jubilee Review in 1887 and took part in naval manoeuvres in 1889. Prince Albert was relegated to Dockyard Reserve in 1898, oscar Parkes British Battleships ISBN 0-85052-604-3 Conway All the Worlds Fighting Ships ISBN 0-85177-133-5
6.
Cowper Phipps Coles
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Captain Cowper Phipps Coles, C. B. R. N. was an English naval captain and inventor, he was the first to patent a design for a revolving gun turret. Coles died when HMS Captain, a warship built to his designs. The son of the Reverend John Coles and his wife Mary Ann Goodhew Rogers, on 9 January 1846, he was promoted to Lieutenant and on 5 December 1849 posted to Phaeton commanded by George Augustus Elliot. On 24 October 1853, he was posted to Agamemnon as flag lieutenant for his uncle and he distinguished himself at the siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War against Russia. On 13 November 1854 promoted to Commander and on 2 August 1856 was commander of the paddle boat Stromboli in the Black Sea. It was at time that he and other British naval officers and sailors constructed a 45 feet raft named the Lady Nancy from twenty-nine casks lashed together with spars. The raft supported a long 32 pounder gun and because of its small draft could be moved into shallow water from where it was used to attack Russian government stores in Taganrog. Coles became a hero for this action, when the press correspondent on board Stromboli reported his daring deeds, Coles expanded the idea by drawing up plans for a better raft, mounting a gun enclosed within a hemispherical shield. Admiral Lyons was impressed with the ideas and Coles was sent to London to present his ideas to the Admiralty, plans were prepared for 90 by 30 feet rafts with a draught of 3 feet 7 inches which would be used to attack the Kronstadt forts. The rafts would be able to approach through shallow waters not protected by the fort guns, unfortunately for Coles, the war ended before the raft could be built. On 27 February 1856, Coles was made captain and he was placed on half pay after the war ended and spent his time creating designs for turret ships. Up to this time the armament of warships had been batteries of guns firing from fixed ports in the sides of the ship. On 10 March 1859 he filed a patent for a revolving turret, the American USS Monitor, constructed by John Ericsson in 1861, incorporated a revolving turret and Ericsson claimed the idea of a revolving protected gun was an old one. The Times suggested that Marc Brunel had given Coles the idea, Coles design aim was to create a ship with the greatest possible all round arc of fire, as low in the water as possible to minimise the target. The Admiralty accepted the principle of the gun as a useful innovation. However, they could not accept his ideas on ship design. Coles submitted a design for a ship having ten domed turrets each housing two large guns, the design was rejected as impractical, although the Admiralty remained interested in turret ships and instructed its own designers to create better designs. In January 1862, the Admiralty agreed to construct a ship, the HMS Prince Albert, which had four turrets, Coles was allowed to design the turrets, but the ship was the responsibility of the chief Constructor Isaac Watts
7.
Battleship
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A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of large caliber guns. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the battleship was the most powerful type of warship, the word battleship was coined around 1794 and is a contraction of the phrase line-of-battle ship, the dominant wooden warship during the Age of Sail. The term came into use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship. In 1906, the commissioning of HMS Dreadnought heralded a revolution in battleship design, subsequent battleship designs, influenced by HMS Dreadnought, were referred to as dreadnoughts. Battleships were a symbol of naval dominance and national might, the launch of Dreadnought in 1906 commenced a new naval arms race. Jutland was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships in the war, the Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships, though technical innovation in battleship design continued. The value of the battleship has been questioned, even during their heyday, there were few of the decisive fleet battles that battleship proponents expected, and used to justify the vast resources spent on building battlefleets. Battleships were retained by the United States Navy into the Cold War for fire support purposes before being stricken from the U. S. Naval Vessel Register in the 2000s. A ship of the line was a large, unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns, from 1794, the alternative term line of battle ship was contracted to battle ship or battleship. The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a sail battleship could wreck any wooden enemy, holing her hull, knocking down masts, wrecking her rigging, and killing her crew. However, the range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards. The first major change to the ship of the concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system. Steam power was introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century, initially for small craft. The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun Napoléon in 1850—the first true steam battleship, Napoléon was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 knots, regardless of the wind condition. This was a decisive advantage in a naval engagement. The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships, the adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century. The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad, powered by steam, protected by metal armor, and armed with guns firing high-explosive shells. In the Crimean War, six ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853
8.
Casemate
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A casemate, sometimes erroneously rendered casement, is a fortified gun emplacement or armored structure from which guns are fired. Originally, the referred to a vaulted chamber in a fortress. In armoured fighting vehicles that do not have a turret for the main gun, the word comes from the Italian casamatta, the etymology of which is uncertain. Others think that it comes from the Arabic word kasaba, transliterated to kasbah, menagio speculated that it came from the Greek word for pit, khasma, the plural of which is khasmata. Hensleigh Wedgwood thought that it came from the Spanish casa and matar, others take matto in its archaic Italian meaning of dark, equivalent to the English matt, as in opaque, making a casamatta a dark house. Casematte were also used as prisons, making use of their lack of light to add to the punishment. This explanation seems to be the most agreed upon, a casemate was originally a vaulted chamber usually constructed underneath the rampart. It was intended to be impenetrable and could be used for sheltering troops or stores, with the addition of an embrasure through the scarp face of the rampart, it could be used as a protected gun position. In the early 19th century, French military engineer Baron Haxo designed a free-standing casemate that could be built on the top of the rampart, casemates built in concrete were used in the Second World War to protect coastal artillery from air attack. In warship design the term casemate has been used in a number of ways, the most famous naval battle of the war was the duel at Hampton Roads between the Union turretted ironclad USS Monitor and the Confederate casemate ironclad CSS Virginia. Casemate ship was a term for central battery ship or center battery ship. The casemate was a box that extended the full width of the ship protecting many guns. The armoured sides of the box were the sides of hull of the ship, there was an armoured bulkhead at the front and rear of the casemate, and a thick deck protecting the top. The lower edge of the casemate sat on top of ships belt armour, some ships, such as the Alexandra, had a two-storey casemate. A casemate was a room in the side of a warship. A typical casemate held a 6-in gun, and had a 6 front plate, with armour plates on the sides and rear, with a protected top and floor. Casemates were similar in size to turrets, ships carrying them had them in pairs, the first battleships to carry them were the British Royal Sovereign class laid down in 1889. They were adopted as a result of live-firing trials against HMS Resistance in 1888, the use of casemates enabled the 6-in guns to be dispersed, so that a single hit would not knock out all of them
9.
Weapon mount
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A weapon mount is a weapon component used to affix an armament for stabilization. Weapon mounts can be broken down into two categories, static mounts and non-static mounts, a static mount is a non-portable weapon support component used on a self-propelled vehicle. A gun turret protects the crew or mechanism of a weapon, a turret is a rotating weapon platform. This can be mounted on a building or structure such as a coast artillery battery, or on an armoured fighting vehicle. Turrets may be armed with one or more guns, automatic cannons, large-calibre guns, missile launchers. It may be manned or remotely controlled, and is often armoured, a small turret, or sub-turret on a larger one, is called a cupola. The term cupola also describes rotating turrets that carry no weapons but instead are sighting devices, a finial is an extremely small sub-turret or sub-sub-turret mounted on a cupola turret. The protection provided by the turret may be against battle damage or against the weather, conditions and environment in which the weapon or its crew operate. A coaxial mount is mounted beside the primary weapon and thus points in the general direction as the main armament. The term coaxial is a misnomer as the arrangement is often actually paraxial, nearly all main battle tanks and most infantry fighting vehicles have a coaxial machine gun mounted to fire along a parallel axis to the main gun. Coaxial weapons are usually aimed by use of the gun control. It is usually used to infantry or other soft targets when the main gun collateral damage would be excessive. A fixed mount is not moveable with respect to the vehicle, the vehicle must move in order to change direction of fire. Fixed mounts are most commonly found on aircraft, and most commonly direct the forward, along the aircrafts vector of movement, so that a pilot could aim. Some minor aircraft designs used different concept of fixed mounts, as found in Schräge Musik or AC-47 Spooky, a pintle mount is a fixed mount that allows the gun to be freely traversed and/or elevated while keeping the gun in one fixed position. It is most commonly found on armoured vehicles, gunner stations on bomber aircraft, unlike a turret, a pintle has little or no armour protection. A swing mount is a mount that allows a far greater. Utilising a system of one or two articulated arms the gunner can swing the weapon through a wide arc even though the position is fixed relative to the mount
10.
Artillery
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Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantrys small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach fortifications, and led to heavy, as technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery developed for battlefield use. This development continues today, modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility providing the largest share of an armys total firepower, in its earliest sense, the word artillery referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. In common speech, the artillery is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings. However, there is no generally recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth, the United States uses artillery piece, the projectiles fired are typically either shot or shell. Shell is a widely used term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions. By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines, in the 20th Century technology based target acquisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and flash spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms, Artillery originated for use against ground targets—against infantry, cavalry and other artillery. An early specialist development was coastal artillery for use against enemy ships, the early 20th Century saw the development of a new class of artillery for use against aircraft, anti-aircraft guns. Artillery is arguably the most lethal form of land-based armament currently employed, the majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was the God of War, although not called as such, machines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. The first references in the historical tradition begin at Syracuse in 399 BC. From the Middle Ages through most of the era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, the artillery and crew rely on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation, Artillery used by naval forces has changed significantly also, with missiles replacing guns in surface warfare. The engineering designs of the means of delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, in some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery, the actions involved in operating the piece are collectively called serving the gun by the detachment or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The term gunner is used in armed forces for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either crews or detachments, several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company
11.
Fortification
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Fortifications are military constructions or buildings designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and also used to solidify rule in a region during peace time. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs, the term is derived from the Latin fortis and facere. From very early history to modern times, walls have been a necessity for cities to survive in a changing world of invasion. Some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were the first small cities to be fortified, in ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, such as the ancient site of Mycenae. A Greek Phrourion was a collection of buildings used as a military garrison. These construction mainly served the purpose of a tower, to guard certain roads, passes. Though smaller than a fortress, they acted as a border guard rather than a real strongpoint to watch. The art of setting out a camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called castramentation since the time of the Roman legions. Fortification is usually divided into two branches, permanent fortification and field fortification, there is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the fort or fortress in that they are a residence of a monarch or noble. Roman forts and hill forts were the antecedents of castles in Europe. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of towns built around castles. Medieval-style fortifications were made obsolete by the arrival of cannons in the 14th century. Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb, Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes. The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification, steel-and-concrete fortifications were common during the 19th and early 20th centuries. However the advances in warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations. Demilitarized zones along borders are arguably another type of fortification, although a passive kind, many military installations are known as forts, although they are not always fortified. Larger forts may be called fortresses, smaller ones were known as fortalices
12.
Building
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A building or edifice is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place, such as a house or factory. To better understand the term building compare the list of nonbuilding structures, Buildings serve several needs of society – primarily as shelter from weather, security, living space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a division of the human habitat. Ever since the first cave paintings, buildings have become objects or canvasses of much artistic expression. In recent years, interest in planning and building practices has also become an intentional part of the design process of many new buildings. The word building is both a noun and a verb also an adverb, the structure itself and the act of making it. As a noun, a building is a structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place, there was a building on the corner. In the broadest interpretation a fence or wall is a building, however, the word structure is used more broadly than building including natural and man-made formations and does not necessarily have walls. Structure is more likely to be used for a fence, as a verb, building is the act of construction. Structural height in technical usage is the height to the highest architectural detail on building from street-level, depending on how they are classified, spires and masts may or may not be included in this height. Spires and masts used as antennas are not generally included, the definition of a low-rise vs. a high-rise building is a matter of debate, but generally three storeys or less is considered low-rise. A report by Shinichi Fujimura of a shelter built 500000 years ago is doubtful since Fujimura was later found to have faked many of his findings. Supposed remains of huts found at the Terra Amata site in Nice purportedly dating from 200000 to 400000 years ago have also called into question. There is clear evidence of homebuilding from around 18000 BC, Buildings became common during the Neolithic. Single-family residential buildings are most often called houses or homes, residential buildings containing more than one dwelling unit are called a duplex, apartment building to differentiate them from individual houses. A condominium is an apartment that the occupant owns rather than rents, houses which were built as a single dwelling may later be divided into apartments or bedsitters, they may also be converted to another use e. g. an office or a shop. Building types may range from huts to multimillion-dollar high-rise apartment blocks able to house thousands of people, increasing settlement density in buildings is usually a response to high ground prices resulting from many people wanting to live close to work or similar attractors. Other common building materials are brick, concrete or combinations of either of these with stone, also if the residents are in need of special care such as a nursing home, orphanage or prison, or in group housing like barracks or dormitories
13.
Structure
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Structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as biological organisms, abstract structures include data structures in computer science and musical form. Types of structure include a hierarchy, a network featuring many-to-many links, buildings, aircraft, skeletons, anthills, beaver dams and salt domes are all examples of load-bearing structures. The results of construction are divided into buildings and non-building structures, the effects of loads on physical structures are determined through structural analysis, which is one of the tasks of structural engineering. The structural elements can be classified as one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional, the latter was the main option available to early structures such as Chichen Itza. Two-dimensional elements with a third dimension have little of either. The structure elements are combined in structural systems, the majority of everyday load-bearing structures are section-active structures like frames, which are primarily composed of one-dimensional structures. In biology, structures exist at all levels of organization, ranging hierarchically from the atomic and molecular to the cellular, tissue, organ, organismic, population, usually, a higher-level structure is composed of multiple copies of a lower-level structure. Structural biology is concerned with the structure of macromolecules, particularly proteins. The function of molecules is determined by their shape as well as their composition. Protein structure has a four-level hierarchy, the primary structure is the sequence of amino acids that make it up. It has a backbone made up of a repeated sequence of a nitrogen. The secondary structure consists of repeated patterns determined by hydrogen bonding, the two basic types are the α-helix and the β-pleated sheet. The tertiary structure is a back and forth bending of the chain. Chemical structure refers to both molecular geometry and electronic structure, the structure can be represented by a variety of diagrams called structural formulas. Lewis structures use a dot notation to represent the valence electrons for an atom, bonds between atoms can be represented by lines with one line for each pair of electrons that is shared. In a simplified version of such a diagram, called a skeletal formula, only carbon-carbon bonds, atoms in a crystal have a structure that involves repetition of a basic unit called a unit cell. The atoms can be modeled as points on a lattice, and one can explore the effect of symmetry operations that include rotations about a point, reflections about a symmetry planes, and translations
14.
Coastal artillery
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Coastal artillery is the branch of the armed forces concerned with operating anti-ship artillery or fixed gun batteries in coastal fortifications. The advent of 20th-century technologies, especially aviation, naval aviation, jet aircraft, and guided missiles, reduced the primacy of cannon, battleships. In countries where coastal artillery has not been disbanded, these forces have acquired amphibious capabilities, in littoral warfare, mobile coastal artillery armed with surface-to-surface missiles still can be used to deny the use of sea lanes. Land-based guns also benefited in most cases from the protection of walls or earth mounds. The Martello tower is an excellent example of a widely used coastal fort which mounted defensive artillery, during the 19th century China also built hundreds of coastal fortresses in an attempt to counter Western naval threats. Coastal artillery could be part of the Navy, or part of the Army, in English-speaking countries, certain coastal artillery positions were sometimes referred to as Land Batteries, distinguishing this form of artillery battery from for example floating batteries. In the United Kingdom, in the later 19th and earlier 20th Centuries, then, following the Spanish–American War and the report of the Endicott Board, U. S. harbor defenses were greatly strengthened and provided with new, rifled artillery and minefield defenses. Shortly thereafter, in 1907, Congress split the field artillery, the first decade of the 20th Century, the United States Marine Corps established the Advanced Base Force. The force was used for setting up and defending advanced bases, during the Siege of Port Arthur, Japanese forces had captured the vantage point on 203 Meter Hill overlooking Port Arthur harbor. The battleship Sevastopol, although hit 5 times by 11-inch shells, after 3 weeks, the Sevastopol was still afloat, having survived 124 torpedoes fired at her while sinking two Japanese destroyers and damaging six other vessels. The Japanese had meanwhile lost the cruiser Takasago to a mine outside the harbor, the Blücher had entered the narrow waters of the Oslofjord, carrying 1,000 soldiers and leading a German invasion fleet. The first salvo from the Norwegian defenders, fired from Oscarsborg Fortress about 1 mile distant, disabled Blüchers main battery, fire from the smaller guns swept her decks and disabled her steering, and she received several torpedo hits before the fires reached her magazines and doomed her. Singapore was defended by its famous large-caliber coastal guns, which included one battery of three 15-inch guns and one with two 15-inch guns, AP shells were designed to penetrate the hulls of heavily armoured warships and were ineffective against personnel. The Japanese defended the island of Betio in the Tarawa atoll with numerous 203 mm coastal guns, in 1943, these were knocked out early in the battle with a combined USN naval and aerial bombardment. Nazi Germany fortified its conquered territories with the Atlantic Wall, the intent was to destroy the Allied landing craft before they could unload. During the Normandy Landings in 1944, shore bombardment was given a high importance, using ships from battleships to destroyers, for example, the Canadians at Juno beach had fire support many times greater than they had had for the Dieppe Raid in 1942. In addition, there were modified landing-craft, eight Landing Craft Gun, twenty-four Landing Craft Tank carried Priest self-propelled howitzers which also fired while they were on the run-in to the beach. Similar arrangements existed at other beaches, on June 25,1944 the American battleship Texas engaged German shore batteries on the Cotentin Peninsula
15.
Combat vehicle
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A combat vehicle, also known as a ground combat vehicle, is a self-propelled, weaponized military vehicle used for combat operations. Combat vehicles can be wheeled or tracked, the chariot is a type of carriage using animals to provide rapid motive power. The original chariot was a fast, light, open, two-wheeled conveyance drawn by two or more horses that were hitched side by side, the car was little more than a floor with a waist-high semicircular guard in front. The chariot, driven by a charioteer, was used for ancient warfare during the bronze, armor was limited to a shield. In the modern time, combat vehicle is protected by armour and armed with weapons, which combines operational mobility, tactical offensive. The automation of human tasks endeavors to reduce the crew size with improvements in robotics. Enhancements to automation can help achieve operational effectiveness with a smaller, more economical, the automation of combat vehicles has proved to be difficult due to the time latency between the operator controlling the vehicle and the signal being received. Unlike air forces, ground forces must navigate the terrain and plan around obstacles, the rapid tactical implications of operating a weaponized vehicle in a combat environment are great. Use of titanium armor on vehicles is increasing. The use of titanium can lighten the vehicles weight, appliqué armor can be quickly applied to vehicles and has been utilized on the U. S. Armys M8 Armored Gun System. Fire suppression Contemporary combat vehicles may incorporate a system to mitigate damage from fire. Systems can be employed in the engine and crew compartments and portable systems may be mounted inside and outside the vehicle as well, automatic fire suppression systems activate instantaneously upon the detection of fire and have been shown to significantly improve crew survivability. Halon fire suppression systems quickly inundate an affected fire breach with a flood of halon to extinguish leaking fuel, halon remains necessary for crew compartment fire suppression due to space and weight constraints, and toxicity concerns. Nitrogen systems take up about twice as much space as a comparable halon unit, germany uses this system as a replacement for its halon system. Some systems, such as Germanys previous extinguisher, have a shot of suppressant to mitigate re-ignition or the effects of a second hit. Though not as instantaneous, portable crew-operable extinguishers are also used inside and outside the vehicle, typically, portable extinguishers use a CO2 agent instead of the halon agents used in the past. CO2 can become lethal to vehicle occupants if it accumulates into a deadly concentration, the U. S. Army has adopted a replacement formula consisting of 50% water, 50% potassium acetate. Alternatives such as powder formulas also exist, hygiene upkeep is difficult when operating a combat vehicle
16.
Naval ship
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A naval ship is a military ship used by a navy. Naval ships are differentiated from civilian ships by construction and purpose, generally, naval ships are damage resilient and armed with weapon systems, though armament on troop transports is light or non-existent. Naval ships designed primarily for naval warfare are termed warships, as opposed to support or shipyard operations, submarine – self-propelled submersible types regardless of whether they are employed as combatant, auxiliary, or research and development vehicles which have at least a residual combat capability. Amphibious warfare – ships having organic capability for amphibious assault and which have characteristics enabling long duration operations on the high seas, combat logistics – ships that have the capability to provide underway replenishment to fleet units. Mine warfare – ships whose primary function is mine warfare on the high seas, coastal defense – ships whose primary function is coastal patrol and interdiction. Sealift – ships that have the capability to provide material support to other deployed units operating far from home base. Support – ships, such as oilers, designed to operate in the ocean in a variety of sea states to provide general support to either combatant forces or shore based establishments. Service type craft – navy-subordinated craft designed to provide support to either combatant forces or shore-based establishments. In rough order of tonnage, modern naval ships are commonly divided into the following different classes. There is also much blurring / gray areas between the classes, depending on their use, history, and interpretation of the class by different navies. Official Website of the United States Navy, heres the Entire U. S. Navy Fleet in One Chart. Official Website of the United States Navy, *United States Naval Recognition Training Slides-Grand Valley State University Archives and Special Collections
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Military aviation
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Airpower includes the national means of conducting such warfare, including the intersection of transport and war craft. Military aircraft include bombers, fighters, transports, trainer aircraft, the first military uses of aviation involved lighter-than-air balloons. During the Battle of Fleurus in 1794, the French observation balloon lEntreprenant was used to monitor Austrian troop movements, the use of lighter-than-air aircraft in warfare became prevalent in the 19th century, including regular use in the American Civil War. Lighter-than-air military aviation persisted until shortly after World War II, gradually being withdrawn from various roles as heavier-than-air aircraft improved, heavier-than-air aircraft were recognized as having military applications early on, despite resistance from traditionalists and the severe limitations of early aircraft. The U. S. Army Signal Corps purchased a Wright Model A on 2 August 1909 which became the first military aircraft in history, in 1911, the Italians used a variety of aircraft types in reconnaissance, photo-reconnaissance, and bombing roles during the Italo-Turkish War. The Turks, lacking anti-aircraft weapons, were the first to shoot down an aeroplane by rifle fire, technological improvements were made at a frenzied pace, and the first all-metal cantilevered airplanes were going into service as the war ended. The Allies would later use rocket-equipped fighters in the role, immobilizing German armored divisions during the Battle of Normandy. This played a role in winning the Battle of the Atlantic. The introduction of the jet engine, radar, early missiles, helicopters, post World War II, the development of military aviation was spurred by the Cold War stand-off between the super-powers. In the early 1960s, missiles were expected to replace manned interceptors, missiles were also expensive, especially against low-value ground targets. The 1970s saw the return of the fighter, and a greater emphasis on maneuverability. The 1980s through to the present day were characterized by stealth technology, airborne Early Warning provides advance warning of enemy activities to reduce the chance of being surprised. Many also have functions that allow them to direct or vector friendly fighters onto incoming bogeys. Bombers are capable of carrying payloads of bombs and may sacrifice speed or maneuverability to maximize payload. Experimental aircraft are designed to test advanced aerodynamic, structural, avionic and these are usually well instrumented, with performance data telemetered on radio-frequency data links to ground stations located at the test ranges where they are flown. Fighters establish and maintain air superiority, speed and maneuverability are usually requirements and they carry a variety of weapons, including machine guns and guided missiles, to do this. Forward Air Control directs close air support aircraft to ensure that the targets are nullified. Ground-attack aircraft support ground troops by weakening or nullifying enemy defenses, helicopter gunships and specialized ground attack aircraft attack enemy armor or troops and provide close air support for ground troops
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Great Britain
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Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Crimean War
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The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to March 1856 in which the Russian Empire lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. The immediate cause involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, the French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. While the churches eventually worked out their differences and came to an agreement, Nicholas I of Russia, Nicholas issued an ultimatum that the Orthodox subjects of the Empire be placed under his protection. Britain attempted to mediate and arranged a compromise that Nicholas agreed to, when the Ottomans demanded changes, Nicholas refused and prepared for war. Having obtained promises of support from France and Britain, the Ottomans declared war on Russia in October 1853. The war started in the Balkans, when Russian troops occupied the Danubian Principalities, until then under Ottoman suzerainty and now part of modern Romania, led by Omar Pasha, the Ottomans fought a strong defensive campaign and stopped the advance at Silistra. A separate action on the town of Kars in eastern Anatolia led to a siege. Fearing an Ottoman collapse, France and Britain rushed forces to Gallipoli and they then moved north to Varna in June, arriving just in time for the Russians to abandon Silistra. Aside from a skirmish at Köstence, there was little for the allies to do. Karl Marx quipped that there they are, the French doing nothing, after extended preparations, the forces landed on the peninsula in September 1854 and fought their way to a point south of Sevastopol after a series of successful battles. The Russians counterattacked on 25 October in what became the Battle of Balaclava and were repulsed, a second counterattack, ordered personally by Nicholas, was defeated by Omar Pasha. The front settled into a siege and led to conditions for troops on both sides. Smaller actions were carried out in the Baltic, the Caucasus, Sevastopol fell after eleven months, and neutral countries began to join the Allied cause. Isolated and facing a bleak prospect of invasion from the west if the war continued and this was welcomed by France and Britain, as their subjects were beginning to turn against their governments as the war dragged on. The war was ended by the Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 March 1856, Russia was forbidden from hosting warships in the Black Sea. The Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent, Christians there were granted a degree of official equality, and the Orthodox Church regained control of the Christian churches in dispute. The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways
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Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
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Raft
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A raft is any flat structure for support or transportation over water. It is the most basic of boat design, characterized by the absence of a hull, traditional or primitive rafts are constructed of wood or reeds. Modern rafts may also use pontoons, drums, or extruded polystyrene blocks, inflatable rafts use durable, multi-layered rubberized fabrics. Depending on its use and size, it may have a superstructure, masts, timber rafting is used by the logging industry for the transportation of logs, by tying them together into rafts and drifting or pulling them down a river. This method was common up until the middle of the 20th century but is now used only rarely. Large rafts made of logs and using sails for navigation were important in maritime trade on the Pacific Ocean coast of South America from pre-Columbian times until the 19th century. The type of raft used for recreational rafting is almost exclusively an inflatable boat, in biology, particularly in island biogeography, non-manmade rafts are an important concept. g. They stay afloat by its buoyancy and can travel for hundreds, even thousands of miles and ultimately are destroyed by wave action and decomposition. Rafting events are important means of dispersal for non-flying animals. World of Boats Collection ~ Australian Reed Raft World of Boats Collection ~ Brazilian Jangada Homemade Raft Plans and Photos of Rafts Neutrino Raft – vessels made from scrap
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Siege of Taganrog
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The Siege of Taganrog is a name given in some Russian histories to Anglo-French naval operations in the northeastern part of the Sea of Azov between June and October 1855 during the Crimean War. British and French forces were implementing a strategy of destroying the supply lines for the main Russian army which ran across the Sea Azov. In the spring of 1855, as the Crimean War dragged on into its third year, the British and the French decided to begin operations in the Sea of Azov. They reasoned that this would allow them to cut off the Crimea even further from Russia and this strategy required them to occupy the Strait of Kerch, which was to be undertaken by a joint force of British and French soldiers and warships. Taganrog, at the far end of the Sea of Azov, was selected as a potential target for attack. Taganrog is located on a strip of land jutting out slightly into the Sea of Azov and, to the British, taking Rostov-on-Don would allow the allies to threaten the rear of the Russian forces. Plans were drawn up, and the British and French prepared 16,000 ground troops, meanwhile, Taganrogs governor-general, Nikolay Adlerberg, had been replaced by Yegor Tolstoy, an ageing but versatile general, who had served in the Russian Army in fighting against the Turks. In April 1854, Tolstoy assumed command at Taganrog, along with Ivan Krasnov and he had three sotnias of Don Cossacks and a local garrison of some 630 soldiers at his command at the time of the siege. A unit of home guards, totalling 250 men, were recruited from the local population, Taganrog lacked any modern fortifications and Tolstoy had no artillery to speak of. A four-oared gig that landed Lt Cecil Buckley and Boatswain Henry Cooper HMS Sulina and HMS Medina along with Danube towed the launches to outside Taganrog, similarly the French paddle aviso Dauphin,2 towed their launches, but did not approach the city. The light forces were split into two groups, one under Commander Coles was to bombard the store, and a group under Lt J. F. C. Mackenzie, RMA landed and covered Buckley and Cooper, starting on 24 May,1855, the British and the French began operations in the Sea of Azov. They landed troops on either side of the Kerch Strait, quickly capturing the cities of Kerch, following those actions, naval forces destroyed the Russian coastal battery at Kamishevaya Bay and entered the Sea of Azov. On the 2nd HMS Recruit was sent forward to reconnoiter Taganrog, accompanying the Recruit were the British paddle steamer Danube, the French paddle aviso Mouette, and many small launches from larger ships operating elsewhere. These included 12 British armed steam launches,4 similarly armed French launches, from this sprang ultimately the modern turret used aboard warships. The allies demanded the surrender of all government property, the withdrawal of troops, after an hour of consideration Baron Pfeilizer-Frank returned to the envoys with Tolstoys reply, rejecting the demands. The Recruit then hauled down her flag of truce and opened fire on the town, the Danube and Mouette, towing the Lady Nancy moved up in the company of the armed launches and joined in the bombardment. The raft Lady Nancy and some of the launches gave close support to the raiding party, both earned the Victoria Cross for their actions and due to seniority and spelling Buckley was awarded the first VC ever gazetted
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Taganrog
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Taganrog is a port city in Rostov Oblast, Russia, located on the north shore of the Taganrog Bay in the Sea of Azov, several kilometers west of the mouth of the Don River. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 257,681, Taganrog was officially founded by Peter the Great on September 12,1698. The first Russian Navy base, it hosted the Azov Flotilla of Catherine the Great, Taganrog was granted city status in 1775. By the end of the 18th century, Taganrog had lost its importance as a base after Crimea. In 1802, Tsar Alexander I granted the city special status, in 1825, the Alexander I Palace in Taganrog was used as the Tsars summer residence, where he died in November 1825. Taganrog became an important as a port, used for the import and export of grain by the end of the 19th century until the early 20th century. Industrialization increased in the city when Belgian and German investors founded a factory, an iron and steel foundry, a leather factory. By 1911, fifteen foreign consulates had opened in the city, during World War I, Taganrog was occupied by the troops of the German Army from May 1918 until August. In 1919, General Anton Denikin established his headquarters at the Avgerino mansion in the city while commanding White Russian troops fighting in South Russia during the Russian Civil War. When the White Russians were defeated and Bolshevik power was established in the city on December 25,1919, Denikins remaining troops and the British Consulate were evacuated by HMS Montrose. The occuption led to the government system being replaced by German-style Bürgermeisteramt. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as Taganrog Urban Okrug—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, this unit also has urban okrug status. The climate of Taganrog is temperate, Taganrog experiences moderately cold winters and hot summers. Taganrog is the industrial center of Rostov Oblast. The biggest company currently operating in Taganrog is Taganrog Metallurgical Plant which manufactures steel, steel pipe for oil and gas industry, the other major employer is Taganrog Auto Factory which originated from Taganrog Combine Harvester Factory. The plant manufactures automobiles licensed by Hyundai, the production line includes Hyundai Accent compact sedan, mid-size Hyundai Sonata, sport utility vehicle Santa Fe and Hyundai Porter pickup truck. Taganrog is also home to the design bureau Beriev
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Black Sea
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The Black Sea is a body of water between Eastern Europe and Western Asia, bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine. It is supplied by a number of rivers, such as the Danube, Dnieper, Rioni, Southern Bug. The Black Sea has an area of 436,400 km2, a depth of 2,212 m. It is constrained by the Pontic Mountains to the south and by the Caucasus Mountains to the east, the longest east-west extent is about 1,175 km. The Black Sea has a water balance, that is, a net outflow of water 300 km3 per year through the Bosphorus. Mediterranean water flows into the Black Sea as part of a two-way hydrological exchange, the Black Sea drains into the Mediterranean Sea and then the Atlantic Ocean, via the Aegean Sea and various straits. The Bosphorus Strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and these waters separate Eastern Europe and Western Asia. The Black Sea is also connected to the Sea of Azov by the Strait of Kerch, the water level has varied significantly. Due to these variations in the level in the basin. At certain critical water levels it is possible for connections with surrounding water bodies to become established and it is through the most active of these connective routes, the Turkish Straits, that the Black Sea joins the world ocean. When this hydrological link is not present, the Black Sea is a basin, operating independently of the global ocean system. Currently the Black Sea water level is high, thus water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean. The Turkish Straits connect the Black Sea with the Aegean Sea, and comprise the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Black Sea as follows, On the Southwest. The Northeastern limit of the Sea of Marmara, a line joining Cape Takil and Cape Panaghia. Strabos Geographica reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often just called the Sea, for the most part, Graeco-Roman tradition refers to the Black Sea as the Hospitable sea, Εὔξεινος Πόντος Eúxeinos Póntos. This is a euphemism replacing an earlier Inhospitable Sea, Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos, strabo thinks that the Black Sea was called inhospitable before Greek colonization because it was difficult to navigate, and because its shores were inhabited by savage tribes. The name was changed to hospitable after the Milesians had colonized the southern shoreline and it is also possible that the epithet Áxeinos arose by popular etymology from a Scythian word axšaina- unlit, dark, the designation Black Sea may thus date from antiquity. A map of Asia dating to 1570, entitled Asiae Nova Descriptio, from Abraham Orteliuss Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, english-language writers of the 18th century often used the name Euxine Sea to refer to the Black Sea
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Admiralty
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The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board. It is common for the authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply The Admiralty. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011, the title was awarded to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday. There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom, the office of Admiral of England was created around 1400 although there had already been Admirals of the Northern and Western Seas. In 1546, King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy Board, operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. In 1628, Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission, the office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709 after which the office was almost permanently in commission. In 1831, the first Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity, in 1964, the Admiralty along with the War Office and the Air Ministry as separate departments of state were abolished, and re-emerged under one single new Ministry of Defence. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board which has a separate Navy Board responsible for the running of the Royal Navy. The Army Board and the Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence, the Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords and Civil Lords, the quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, after 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian while the professional head of the navy came to be known as the First Sea Lord. The first real concerted effort to organise the Admiralty was started by Henry VIII. Between 1860 and 1908 there was no study of strategy and of staff work conducted within the naval service. All the navys talent flowed to the great technical universitys and it was perceived by officials within the Admiralty at this time that the running of war was quite a simple matter for any flag officer who required no formal training. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign, there was no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions in 1914 a Trade Division was created. In 1916, Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty, he organized the staff as following, Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilization, Trade. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the Board, the would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations
27.
Prototype
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A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from. It is a used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics. A prototype is used to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts. Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one, in some design workflow models, creating a prototype is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea. The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον prototypon, primitive form, neutral of πρωτότυπος prototypos, original, primitive, from πρῶτος protos, first and τύπος typos, a Working Prototype represents all or nearly all of the functionality of the final product. A Visual Prototype represents the size and appearance, but not the functionality, a User Experience Prototype represents enough of the appearance and function of the product that it can be used for user research. A Functional Prototype captures both function and appearance of the design, though it may be created with different techniques. A Paper Prototype is a printed or hand-drawn representation of the interface of a software product. In some cases, the final production materials may still be undergoing development themselves, process - Mass-production processes are often unsuitable for making a small number of parts, so prototypes may be made using different fabrication processes than the final product. Differences in fabrication process may lead to differences in the appearance of the prototype as compared to the final product, verification - The final product may be subject to a number of quality assurance tests to verify conformance with drawings or specifications. These tests may involve custom inspection fixtures, statistical sampling methods, prototypes are generally made with much closer individual inspection and the assumption that some adjustment or rework will be part of the fabrication process. Prototypes may also be exempted from some requirements that apply to the final product. Engineers and prototype specialists will attempt to minimize the impact of these differences on the role for the prototype. Engineers and prototyping specialists seek to understand the limitations of prototypes to exactly simulate the characteristics of their intended design and it is important to realize that by their very definition, prototypes will represent some compromise from the final production design. Due to differences in materials, processes and design fidelity, it is possible that a prototype may fail to perform acceptably whereas the design may have been sound. In general, it can be expected that individual prototype costs will be greater than the final production costs due to inefficiencies in materials. Prototypes are also used to revise the design for the purposes of reducing costs through optimization and it is possible to use prototype testing to reduce the risk that a design may not perform as intended, however prototypes generally cannot eliminate all risk. As an alternative, rapid prototyping or rapid application development techniques are used for the prototypes, which implement part
28.
Aetna-class ironclad floating battery
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The Aetna-class ironclad floating batteries were built during the Crimean War for the attack of Russian coastal fortifications. Britain and France each laid down five of these coastal attack vessels in 1854, the French used three of their batteries in 1855 against the defences at Kinburn on the Black Sea, where they were effective against Russian shore defences. The British plan to use theirs in the Baltic Sea against Kronstadt in 1856 was influential in causing the Russians to sue for peace, the development of such iron-armoured batteries was a step towards the development of ironclad warships. These armoured batteries were among the most revolutionary ships ever built and provided British, one of the British batteries, the Trusty, was used for trials in 1861 with a prototype rotating turret, based on Captain Cowper Phipps Coles designs. Emperor Napoleon III initiated the design of armoured steam-powered batteries for the French Navy, the original idea was to protect the sides with boxes of cannonballs, but the British engineer Thomas Lloyd suggested using thick wrought iron plates instead. Trials at Vincennes showed that Lloyds idea was more effective, so it was adopted, Napoleon wanted ten floating batteries built in time for the 1855 campaign, but as French industry could only build five in time, Frances British allies were asked to build the other five. These vessels were copies of the French Dévastation-class batteries, the French batteries carried 16 guns, but had 24 gun ports. The British Aetna class were intended to carry 16 guns. The Admiralty design drawing showed them with 32 gunports and these ports were very large -34 by 40 in. The wooden hulled Aetna class had straight sides and a flat bottom with a very bluff bow. Their armour plates, nominally 4in but in many cases rolled 0. 25-0. 5in under thickness, were locked together with tongue, the iron armour was supported by 20 in thick oak sides. The wooden upper deck was 9 in thick, there were two conning towers protected by 5⁄8 in wrought iron plate. In October 1858, experimental firing trials were undertaken against the Meteor and one of the class of iron-hulled armoured batteries. These demonstrated the importance of backing for the armour, as the Meteor put up far better resistance than Erebus. The first four completed had two-cylinder 25.5 in diameter 24 in stroke horizontal single expansion engines of 150 nhp, which operated at 62 psi. Although they were completed as single screw vessels, the Meteor was altered to triple screw with wing-shafts, the most likely method of driving the wing shafts was a belt arrangement, which was common practice at the time. It is unclear whether any of the others were altered to triple-screw. On trials with a single 6 ft diameter,12 ft 6 in pitch screw, Meteor reached 5.7 kn at 139 rpm with the safety set at 60 psi
29.
HMS Captain (1869)
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HMS Captain was an unsuccessful warship built for the Royal Navy due to public pressure. She was a turret ship, designed and built by a private contractor against the wishes of the Controllers department. The Captain was completed in April 1870 and capsized in September 1870 with the loss of nearly 500 lives because of design, the history of the Captain can be traced back to the Crimean War and the experiences of British captain Cowper Phipps Coles in 1855. Coles and a group of British sailors constructed a raft with guns protected by a cupola and used the raft, named the Lady Nancy, the Lady Nancy proved a great success, and Coles patented his rotating turret after the war. Following Coles patenting, the British Admiralty ordered a prototype of Coles design in 1859, the Prince Albert was completed with four turrets mounting single 12-ton 9-inch guns and 4. 5-inch-thick armour plate on the hull. The Royal Sovereign had five 10. 5-inch,12. 5-ton guns in one twin, both ships were flush deck with only a jury rig, and could only operate as coastal service vessels. The Admiralty, although impressed with Coles rotating turret, required oceangoing vessels to protect its worldwide empire, unfortunately for Coles, engine technology had not yet caught up with his designs and consequently oceangoing ships required sails. Combining rigging, masts, and turrets proved complicated if rigging was not to impede the turrets arcs of fire, in June 1863 the Admiralty suspended progress on the vessel until the Royal Sovereign finished her trials. In 1864, Coles was allowed to start a second project and he was lent the services of Joseph Scullard, Chief Draughtsman of Portsmouth Dockyard. The next year,1865, a committee established by the Admiralty to study the new design concluded that while the turret should be adopted, the committee proposed a two-turret fully rigged vessel with either two 9-inch guns per turret, or one 12-inch gun per turret. The committees proposal was accepted by the Admiralty, and construction was started on Monarch, monarchs two turrets were each equipped with two 12-inch guns. So vociferously did Coles complain that in January 1866 his contract as a consultant to the Admiralty was terminated, at the end of January, his protestations that he had been misunderstood led to his being re-employed from 1 March 1866. Further, Coles lobbied the press and Parliament and was able to force the Admiralty to allow him to build his own two-turret design. On 8 May 1866, Coles informed the Admiralty of his selection of Laird Brothers Merseyside yard, the Merseyside yard had already built several successful iron warships. In mid-July, Lairds submitted two designs for Coles proposed turret-ship. Tripod masts were used to minimise standing rigging. The design called for the ship to have a low freeboard, both the Controller Vice-Admiral Sir Robert Spencer Robinson and the Chief Constructor Edward James Reed raised serious concerns. Robinson noted that the low freeboard could cause flooding issues on the gun deck, on the latter, Reed noted that it would cause issues especially as it is proposed to spread a large surface of canvas upon the Captain
30.
Albert, Prince Consort
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Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was the husband of Queen Victoria. He was born in the Saxon duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld to a family connected to many of Europes ruling monarchs, at the age of 20, he married his first cousin, Queen Victoria, they had nine children. He was heavily involved with the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851, the Queen came to depend more and more on his support and guidance. Albert died at the young age of 42, plunging the Queen into deep mourning for the rest of her life. Upon Queen Victorias death in 1901, their eldest son succeeded as Edward VII, Albert was born at Schloss Rosenau, near Coburg, Germany, the second son of Ernest III, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and his first wife, Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. Alberts future wife, Victoria, was earlier in the same year with the assistance of the same midwife. Albert was baptised into the Lutheran Evangelical Church on 19 September 1819 in the Marble Hall at Schloss Rosenau with water taken from the local river, in 1825, Alberts great-uncle, Frederick IV, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, died. His death led to a realignment of Saxon duchies the following year and Alberts father became the first reigning duke of Saxe-Coburg, Albert and his elder brother, Ernest, spent their youth in a close companionship marred by their parents turbulent marriage and eventual separation and divorce. After their mother was exiled from court in 1824, she married her lover, Alexander von Hanstein, Count of Polzig and she presumably never saw her children again, and died of cancer at the age of 30 in 1831. The brothers were educated privately at home by Christoph Florschütz and later studied in Brussels, like many other German princes, Albert attended the University of Bonn, where he studied law, political economics, philosophy and the history of art. He played music and excelled at sport, especially fencing and riding and his tutors at Bonn included the philosopher Fichte and the poet Schlegel. By 1836, the idea of marriage between Albert and his cousin, Victoria, had arisen in the mind of their ambitious uncle Leopold, at this time, Victoria was the heiress presumptive to the British throne. Her father, Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent, the son of King George III, had died when she was a baby. Her mother the Duchess of Kent, was the sister of both Alberts father—the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha—and King Leopold. Leopold arranged for his sister, Victorias mother, to invite the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander, second son of the Prince of Orange. Victoria was well aware of the matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes. Alexander, on the hand, she described as very plain. Victoria wrote to her uncle Leopold to thank him for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me and he possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy
31.
First Lord of the Admiralty
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The Admiralty Commission was dissolved in 1701, but was reconstituted in 1709 on the death of Prince George of Denmark, who had been appointed Lord High Admiral. The office has held in commission from that time onwards, however. The Board of the Admiralty comprised a number of “Lords Commissioners” headed by a First Lord, from the early 1800s the post was always held by a civilian. In 1832 First Lord Sir James Graham instituted reforms and amalgamated the Board of Admiralty, by the provisions of the Admiralty Act of 1832, two Lords in committee could legalize any action of the Board. In 1868 Prime Minister, William Gladstone appointed Hugh Childers First Lord, however these changes restricted communication between the board members who were affected by these new regulations and the sittings of the Board were discontinued altogether. This situation described was further exacerbated by the disaster of HMS Captain in 1870 a poorly designed new vessel for the navy. However by describing the Lords of the Admiralty as the assistants of the First Lord, in 1931 for the First time since 1709 the First Lord was not a member of the cabinet. M. S. Pinafore, is Sir Joseph Henry Porter, KCB, the counterparts shared a known lack of naval background. It has been suggested the character was drawn on Smiths actual Radical predecessor of 1868–71, the Making of the Modern Admiralty, British Naval Policy-Making, 1805-1927
32.
Edward Seymour, 12th Duke of Somerset
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Edward Adolphus Seymour, 12th Duke of Somerset, etc. KG, PC, styled Lord Seymour until 1855, was a British Whig aristocrat and politician, Somerset was the eldest son of Edward St. Maur, 11th Duke of Somerset, and Lady Charlotte, daughter of Archibald Hamilton, 9th Duke of Hamilton. He was baptized on 16 February 1805 at St. Georges, Hanover Square and he was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. Somerset sat as Member of Parliament for Okehampton between 1830 and 1831 and for Totnes between 1834 and 1855 and he served on the Royal Commission on the British Museum. In August 1851 he was appointed to the newly created office of First Commissioner of Works by Russell, in October of the same year he entered the cabinet and was sworn of the Privy Council. He remained First Commissioner of Works until the government fell in February 1852, Somerset succeeded his father in the dukedom in 1855 and entered the House of Lords. He held this post until 1866, the last year under the premiership of Russell and he refused to join William Ewart Gladstones first ministry in 1868, but gave independent support to the chief measures of the government. He was made a Knight of the Garter in 1862 and in 1863 he was created Earl St. Maur, St. Maur was supposed to have been the original form of the family name and Seymour a later corruption. From some time in the early 19th century until 1923, St. Maur was used for the family name, Somerset was also the author of Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism, and Monarchy and Democracy. Between 1861 and 1885 he served as Lord Lieutenant of Devon, Somerset married in Grosvenor Square, London, on 10 June 1830, Jane Georgiana Sheridan. Hon. Lord Henry Frederick Thynne, Privy Councilor, Member of Parliament and Treasurer of the Household, son of the 3rd Marquesses of Bath Edward Adolphus Ferdinand Seymour, Lady Guendolen inherited the Bulstrode estate. The Duchess of Somerset died in December 1884, Somerset survived her by less than a year and died in November 1885, aged 80, and was buried with her in St Jamess Churchyard in Gerrards Cross, Buckinghamshire. As his two sons had died in his lifetime, the family titles devolved on his younger brother, Archibald Seymour. The 12th Duke left his London residence, Somerset House in Park Lane, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Duke of Somerset Ducal House of Somerset
33.
HMS Royal Sovereign (1857)
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HMS Royal Sovereign was originally laid down as a 121-gun first-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy. She would have mounted sixteen 8 in cannon,114 32-pounder guns, with the rise of steam and screw propulsion, she was ordered to be converted on the stocks to a 131-gun screw ship, with conversion beginning on 25 January 1855. She was finally launched directly into the ordinary on 25 April 1857 and she measured 3,765 long tons burthen, with a gundeck of 240 feet 6 inches and breadth of 62 feet, and a crew of 1,100, with engines of 780 nhp. When this conversion was completed 20 August 1864, she was the first British turret-armed ship, the order to proceed with the conversion was issued on 4 April 1862. She was razed down to the deck, leaving her with between 7 and 8 feet of freeboard. The decks and hull sides were strengthened to carry the planned armament, there was some delay when it was found that she had been cut down too far, necessitating some re-building of the sides. On completion her length-to-beam ratio was slightly under 4,1, the original design included five turrets, each containing either two 68-pounder smoothbore or one 100-pounder smoothbore cannon. This was modified to a configuration, with one 164 long tons twin turret. The initial guns carried were 10 1⁄2-inch smoothbores that fired a 150-pound spherical steel shot, in 1867 they were all replaced by 9-inch muzzle-loading rifles. While the armour plates of the turret were displaced, and one pierced the back of the turret, the ability of the turret to turn. She was commissioned at Portsmouth for service in the English Channel and she paid off in October 1866, being then re-commissioned in July 1867 for the Naval Review. She was thereafter attached to the gunnery school HMS Excellent as gunnery ship until 1873. She saw no service until her sale in May 1885. Oscar Parkes British Battleships ISBN 0-85052-604-3 Conway All the Worlds Fighting Ships ISBN 0-85177-133-5 David Lyon & Rif Winfield The Sail & Steam Navy List 1815–1889 ISBN 1-86176-032-9
34.
Belt armor
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Belt armor is a layer of heavy metal armor plated onto or within the outer hulls of warships, typically on battleships, battlecruisers and cruisers, and aircraft carriers. The belt armor is designed to prevent projectiles from penetrating to the heart of a warship, typically, the main armor belt covers the warship from its main deck down to some distance below the waterline. If, instead of forming the hull, the armor belt is built inside the hull, it is installed at a sloped angle for improved protection. Furthermore, the spaces around the main belt in some designs were filled with storage tanks that could contain fuel oil, seawater. The liquids in these tanks absorb or scatter much of the force of warheads. To deal with the leakage from the tanks and incoming seawater and this multilayer design is featured in the cross-sectional drawings of Tirpitz and King George V. In combat, a warship can be seriously damaged underwater not only by torpedoes, to improve protection against both shells and torpedoes, an air space can be added between the armor belt and the hull to increase the buoyancy of the warship. Some kinds of naval warships have belt armor thinner than actually necessary for protection against projectiles and this is common especially with battlecruisers, battleships, and aircraft carriers to reduce their weight, thus increasing their acceleration and speed. Another possible reason is to meet treaty restrictions on ship displacement, one such method is all-or-nothing armoring, where belt armor is stripped from areas deemed non-vital to the functioning of the ship in battle. Agility gained from such processes are an asset to offensive warships that seek to quickly bring their heavy striking power to the enemy. In carriers, the maneuverability is exploited when deploying and recovering aircraft, since planes take off and land most easily when flying into the wind, the aircraft carrier steams rapidly into the wind in both maneuvers, making take-off and landing safer and easier. S. Comparison of WW2 battleship armor schemes Torpedo belt Protected cruiser Armored cruiser
35.
Waterline
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The waterline is the line where the hull of a ship meets the surface of the water. Temperature affects the level, because warm water provides less buoyancy, being less dense than water, as does salinity. For vessels with displacement hulls, the speed is determined by, among other things. In a sailing boat, the length can change significantly as the boat heels. The waterline can also refer to any line on a hull that is parallel to the waters surface when the ship is afloat in a normal position. Hence, all waterlines are one class of ships used to denote the shape of a hull in naval architecture plans. In aircraft design, the term refers to the vertical location of items on the aircraft. This is the Z axis of an XYZ coordinate system, the two axes being the fuselage station and buttock line. The purpose of a line is to ensure that a ship has sufficient freeboard. All commercial ships, other than in exceptional circumstances, have a load line symbol painted amidships on each side of the ship and this symbol is also permanently marked, so that if the paint wears off it remains visible. The load line makes it easy for anyone to determine if a ship has been overloaded, the exact location of the load line is calculated and verified by a classification society and that society issues the relevant certificates. This marking was invented in 1876 by Samuel Plimsoll, roman sea regulations also contained similar regulations. In the Middle Ages the Venetian Republic, the city of Genoa, in the case of Venice this was a cross marked on the side of the ship, and of Genoa three horizontal lines. The first 19th century loading recommendations were introduced by Lloyds Register of British and Foreign Shipping in 1835, Lloyds recommended freeboards as a function of the depth of the hold. These recommendations, used extensively until 1880, became known as Lloyds Rule, in the 1860s, after increased loss of ships due to overloading, a British MP, Samuel Plimsoll, took up the load line cause. In 1906, laws were passed requiring foreign ships visiting British ports to be marked with a load line and it was not until 1930 that there was international agreement for universal application of load line regulations. In 1966 the International Convention on Load Lines was concluded in London which re-examined and amended the 1930 rules, the 1966 convention has since seen amendments in 1971,1975,1979,1983,1995 and 2003, none of which have entered into force. The original Plimsoll mark was a circle with a line through it to show the maximum draft of a ship
36.
USS Monitor
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USS Monitor was an iron-hulled steamship. Built during the American Civil War, she was the first ironclad warship commissioned by the Union Navy, the unique design of the ship, distinguished by its revolving turret which was designed by American inventor Theodore Timby, was quickly duplicated and established the monitor type of warship. The remainder of the ship was designed by the Swedish-born engineer and inventor John Ericsson, before Monitor could reach Hampton Roads, the Confederate ironclad had destroyed the sail frigates USS Cumberland and USS Congress and had run the steam frigate USS Minnesota aground. A four-hour battle ensued, both ships pounding the other with cannon fire, although neither ship could destroy or seriously damage the other. This was the battle fought between two armored warships and marked a turning point in naval warfare. After the Confederates were forced to destroy Virginia as they withdrew in early May, on her way there she foundered while under tow, during a storm off Cape Hatteras on the last day of the year. Monitors wreck was discovered in 1973 and has been partially salvaged and her guns, gun turret, engine and other relics are on display at the Mariners Museum in Newport News, Virginia. The use of iron plating on the sides of warships was not practical until steam propulsion matured enough to carry its great weight. Developments in gun technology had progressed by the 1840s so that no practical thickness of wood could withstand the power of a shell, since there was no pressing need for such a ship at the time, there was little demand to continue work on the unfinished vessel. It was France that introduced the first operational armored ships as well as the first shell guns, the French followed those ships with the first ocean-going ironclad, the armored frigate Gloire in 1859, and the British responded with HMS Warrior. Northern newspapers published accounts of the Confederates progress in converting the Merrimack to an ironclad. Concealed in her dress was a message from a Union sympathizer who worked in the Navy Yard warning that the former Merrimack, convinced by the papers Mary was carrying he had production of Monitor sped up. Welles later recorded in his memoirs that Mrs. Louveste encountered no small risk in bringing this information, after the United States received word of the construction of Virginia, Congress appropriated $1.5 million on 3 August 1861 to build one or more armored steamships. It also ordered the creation of a board to inquire into the various designs proposed for armored ships, the Union Navy advertised for proposals for iron-clad steam vessels of war on 7 August and Welles appointed three senior officers as the Ironclad Board the following day. Their task was to examine plans for the completion of iron-clad vessels, the two first met on 9 September and again on the following day, after Ericsson had time to evaluate Galenas design. During this second meeting Ericsson showed Bushnell a model of his own design, Bushnell got Ericssons permission to show the model to Welles, who told Bushnell to show it to the board. Upon review of Ericssons unusual design, the board was skeptical, concerned that such a vessel would not float, especially in rough seas, President Lincoln, who had also examined the design, overruled them. Ericsson assured the board his ship would float exclaiming, The sea shall ride over her, on 15 September, after further deliberations, the board accepted Ericssons proposal
37.
Edward James Reed
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Sir Edward James Reed, KCB, FRS, was a British naval architect, author, politician, and railroad magnate. He was the Chief Constructor of the Royal Navy from 1863 until 1870 and he was a Liberal politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1874 to 1906. Edward Reed was born in Sheerness, Kent and was the son of John and he was a naval apprentice at Sheerness and subsequently entered the School of Mathematics and Naval Construction at Portsmouth. In 1851 he married Rosetta, the sister of Nathaniel Barnaby, Barnaby was at that time a fellow student, he would subsequently succeed Reed as Chief Constructor. In 1852 he entered employment at Sheerness Dockyard, but resigned after a disagreement with the management and he then worked in journalism, including editing the Mechanics Magazine. In 1860, Reed was appointed secretary of the newly formed Institute of Naval Architects, in 1863, at the early age of 33, succeeded Isaac Watts as Chief Constructor. His term of office saw the transition from wooden to ironclad warships. Notable warships constructed under his direction included, HMS Bellerophon using a bracket frame system of construction in 1865. The ocean-going turret-ship HMS Monarch in 1868, the mastless turret ship HMS Devastation in 1871. His tenure was marred by intense controversy with the officer, MP. This culminated in the funding by Parliament of a new battleship, HMS Captain, to be built to Coles requirement without reference to Reeds department, embittered, Reed resigned in July 1870. His departure was described as a disaster by the Controller. The following September, the Captain foundered in a gale with the loss of nearly 500 lives and he was a trenchant, though ultimately reactionary, critic of the policy of his successors as Chief Constructor. After leaving the Admiralty, he continued to design warships for the navies of other nations and these included Brazil, Germany, Chile and Japan. A number of vessels were subsequently purchased by the Royal Navy. Reed was appointed Companion of the Bath in 1868, during his term as Chief Constructor and he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1876. He was also a Knight Commander of the Imperial Russian Order of St Stanislus, a Knight of the Austrian Order of Franz Joseph, at the 1874 general election Reed was elected as Liberal member of parliament for Pembroke. Reed visited Japan in 1879 at the invitation of the Imperial Government, ostensibly Reed was there to oversee the delivery of three new British built iron-clad warships, Fusō, Kongō, and Hiei for the Imperial Japanese Navy
38.
HMS Monarch (1868)
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HMS Monarch was the first seagoing British warship to carry her guns in turrets, and the first British warship to carry guns of 12-inch calibre. She was designed by Sir Edward Reed, at a time when the configuration of battleship design was undergoing major change simultaneously in many aspects. In this melting-pot, any design was fated to be a compromise. Reed objected to this concept, which had the effect of preventing the main artillery from firing on any other angle than on the port. He was overruled, and is reported to have taken pride in the resulting ship. In 1890 she was selected for what was at the time called modernisation and she was given new triple expansion engines and new boilers, and thereafter could make 15.75 knots – less than a knot better than on her first trials. At this time she received four 12-pounder and ten 3-pounder quick-firers as a torpedo-boat defence, the four 12-inch muzzle-loading rifles carried as main armament were housed in two pairs in two centre-line turrets on the upper deck, one on either side of the funnel. These guns, each of which weighed 25 long tons, could fire a shell weighing 600 pounds with a velocity of 1,380 ft/s. Unlike earlier turret-equipped coast-defence ships, training was by steam power, a good gun crew could fire an aimed shell every two minutes. To compensate for the inability of the guns to train either fore or after. She was commissioned for the Channel Fleet at Chatham, and served therein until 1872, during the service she crossed the Atlantic in the company of USS Plymouth carrying the remains of George Peabody, American merchant, financier and philanthropist, to the United States for burial. On her way home she sailed on one day a distance of 242 nautical miles and she paid off for refit, rejoining the Channel Fleet in 1874. In 1876 she was posted to the Mediterranean, where she served until 1885 and she was present and active at the bombardment of Alexandria in 1882 firing 125 12-inch shells at the Egyptian forts. After refit she again served in the Channel between 1885 and 1890 and she spent the years from 1890 to 1897 undergoing a lengthy modernisation, after which she was guardship at Simons Bay until 1902. Captain Charles Henry Bayly was appointed in command on 1 February 1900, in March 1902 Captain Robert Kyle McAlpine was appointed in command, for service as Naval Officer in Charge Ascension. She was thereafter reduced to the status of a ship under the new name of HMS Simoon, brought home in 1904. The Metal Fighting Ship in the Royal Navy 1860–1970
39.
Keel laying
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Laying the keel or laying down is the formal recognition of the start of a ships construction. It is often marked with a ceremony attended by dignitaries from the shipbuilding company, keel laying is one of the four specially-celebrated events in the life of a ship, the others are launching, commissioning, and decommissioning. In earlier times, the event recognized as the keel laying was the placement of the central timber making up the backbone of a vessel. As steel ships replaced wooden ones, the central timber gave way to a steel beam. Modern ships are now built in a series of pre-fabricated. The event recognized as the keel laying is the first joining of modular components and it is now often called keel authentication, and is the ceremonial beginning of the ships life, although modules may have been started months before that stage of construction. Keel-related traditions from the times of wooden ships are said to bring luck to the ship during construction and to the captain, the first milestone in the history of a ship is the generally simple ceremony that marks the laying of the keel. Invitations to the ceremony are issued by officials, and the ceremony is conducted by them. The builder may be the commander of a shipyard or the president of a private company. The ships prospective name, without the USS, is mentioned in the invitation, if known, otherwise her type and number are given, e. g. DD2217
40.
Forecastle
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Forecastle refers to the upper deck of a sailing ship forward of the foremast, or the forward part of a ship with the sailors living quarters. Related to the meaning is the phrase before the mast which denotes anything related to ordinary sailors. The syncope of the word, focsle or focsle, is common among nautical terms, the positioning of the apostrophes represents silent letters, thus focsle. In medieval shipbuilding, a ship of war was usually equipped with a tall and it served as a platform for archers to shoot down on enemy ships, or as a defensive stronghold if the ship were boarded. A similar but usually much larger structure, called the aftcastle, was at the aft end of the ship, having such tall upper works on the ship was detrimental to sailing performance. Sailors stationed on the forecastle, or forecastle men, were responsible for handling the headsails, in the Royal Navy of the 17th and 18th centuries, these roles were reserved for older seamen who lacked the agility to go aloft or take other more strenuous duties aboard. By the end of the 19th century, raised forecastle had become a feature on warships again, in an attempt to keep forward gun positions from getting unacceptably wet on heavy seas. In addition the forecastle may provide additional crews quarters as in the past, a disadvantage of such a design is the structural weakness at the forecastle break relative to a flush deck structure. Media related to Forecastles at Wikimedia Commons
41.
John Ericsson
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John Ericsson was a Swedish-American inventor, active in England and the United States, and regarded as one of the most influential mechanical engineers ever. Ericsson collaborated on the design of the steam locomotive Novelty, which competed in the Rainhill Trials on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, won by George Stephensons Rocket. In America he designed the US Navys first screw-propelled steam-frigate USS Princeton, in partnership with Captain Robert Stockton, a new partnership with Cornelius H. Johan Ericsson was born at Långban in Värmland, Sweden. He was the brother of Nils Ericson, a distinguished canal and their father Olaf Ericsson had worked as the supervisor for a mine in Värmland. He had lost money in speculation and had to move his family to Forsvik in 1810, there he worked as a director of blastings during the excavation of the Swedish Göta Canal. The extraordinary skills of the two Ericsson brothers were discovered by Baltzar von Platen, the architect of the Göta Canal and they were dubbed cadets of mechanics of the Swedish Royal Navy, and engaged as trainees at the canal enterprise. At the age of fourteen, John was already working independently as a surveyor and his assistant had to carry a footstool for him to reach the instruments during surveying work. At the age of seventeen he joined the Swedish army in Jämtland, serving in the Jämtland Field Ranger Regiment, as a Second Lieutenant, but was soon promoted to Lieutenant. He was sent to northern Sweden to do surveying, and in his time he constructed a heat engine which used the fumes from the fire instead of steam as a propellant. His skill and interest in mechanics made him resign from the army, however his heat engine was not a success, as his prototype was designed to burn birchwood and would not work well with coal. Notwithstanding the disappointment, he invented several other mechanisms instead based on steam, in 1829 he and John Braithwaite built Novelty for the Rainhill Trials arranged by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. It proved considerably faster than the other entrants but suffered recurring problems. Two further engines were built by Braithwaite and Ericsson, named William IV and Queen Adelaide after the new king and these were generally larger and more robust than Novelty and differed in several details. The pair ran trials on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway but the railway declined to purchase the new designs, an engine Ericsson constructed for Sir John Franklins use failed under the Antarctic conditions for which, out of Franklins desire to conceal his destination, it had not been designed. At this stage of Ercissons career the most successful and enduring of his inventions was the steam condenser and his deep sea lead, a pressure-activated fathometer was another minor, but enduring success. The commercial failure and development costs of some of the machines devised, at this time he also married 19-year-old Amelia Byam, a disastrous match that ended in the couples separation until Amelias death. His only formal education was an officers education and training during his time in the Swedish Army. On March 27,1822, John passed an examination in Stockholm
42.
Glossary of nautical terms
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This is a partial glossary of nautical terms, some remain current, while many date from the 17th to 19th centuries. See also Wiktionarys nautical terms, Category, Nautical terms, See the Further reading section for additional words and references. A & AS Alterations and additions to the structure, rigging, abaft Toward the stern, relative to some object. Abaft the beam Further aft than the beam, a bearing of greater than 90 degrees from the bow. That would describe an object lying 22.5 degrees toward the rear of the ship, as measured clockwise from a line from the right side, center, of the ship. An imperative to leave the vessel immediately, usually in the face of some imminent overwhelming danger and it is an order issued by the Master or a delegated person in command. Abeam On the beam, a bearing at right angles to the ships keel. A merchant seaman qualified to perform all duties, or a junior rank in some navies. Aboard On or in a vessel, about To go about is to change the course of a ship by tacking. Ready about, or boutship, is the order to prepare for tacking, above board On or above the deck, in plain view, not hiding anything. Pirates would secret their crews below decks, thereby creating the impression that an encounter with another ship was a casual matter of chance. Above-water hull The hull section of a vessel above the waterline, absentee pennant Special pennant flown to indicate absence of commanding officer, admiral, his chief of staff, or officer whose flag is flying. Absolute bearing The bearing of an object in relation to north, either true bearing, using the geographical or true north, or magnetic bearing, using magnetic north. See also bearing and relative bearing, accommodation ladder A portable flight of steps down a ships side. Accommodation ship A ship or hulk used as housing, generally there is a lack of quarters available ashore. An operational ship can be used, but more commonly a hulk modified for accommodation is used, Act of Pardon or Act of Grace A letter from a state or power authorising action by a privateer. Admiral Senior naval officer of Flag rank, in ascending order of seniority, Rear Admiral, Vice Admiral, Admiral and Admiral of the Fleet. A high naval authority in charge of a states Navy or a territorial component
43.
Hull (watercraft)
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The hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure and/or deckhouse, where present, the line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline. The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type, the uppermost continuous deck may be called the upper deck, weather deck, spar deck, main deck, or simply deck. The particular name given depends on the type of ship or boat. In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames and bulkheads, often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel. In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, in many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb or other material. The shape of the hull is entirely dependent upon the needs of the design, shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of scow barges, to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat. Hulls come in varieties and can have composite shape, but are grouped primarily as follows. Examples are the flat-bottom, v-bottom, and multi-bottom hull and these types have at least one pronounced knuckle throughout all or most of their length. These hull shapes all have smooth curves, examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge, and s-bottom hull. After this they can be categorized as, Displacement The hull is supported exclusively or predominantly by buoyancy, vessels that have this type of hull travel through the water at a limited rate that is defined by the waterline length. They are often, though not always, heavier than planing types, planing The planing hull form is configured to develop positive dynamic pressure so that its draft decreases with increasing speed. The dynamic lift reduces the surface and therefore also the drag. They are sometimes flat-bottomed, sometimes V-bottomed and more rarely, round-bilged, the most common form is to have at least one chine, which makes for more efficient planing and can throw spray down. Planing hulls are more efficient at speeds, although they still require more energy to achieve these speeds. An effective planing hull must be as light as possible with flat surfaces that are consistent with sea keeping. Sail boats that plane must also sail efficiently in displacement mode in light winds, semi-displacement, or semi-planing The hull form is capable of developing a moderate amount of dynamic lift, however, most of the vessels weight is still supported through buoyancy. At present, the most widely used form is the round bilge hull, in the inverted bell shape of the hull, with a smaller payload the waterline cross-section is less, hence the resistance is less and the speed is higher
44.
Bridge (nautical)
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The bridge of a ship is the room or platform from which the ship can be commanded. When a ship is underway the bridge is manned by an OOW aided usually by an AB acting as lookout. During critical maneuvers the captain will be on the bridge supported, perhaps, by an OOW as a set of hands. Wheelhouses are the small enclosed parts of a bridge that historically held the ships wheel, today, ships bridges do not have a separate wheelhouse, the term wheelhouse or pilothouse is used nowadays to refer to the smaller bridges of small vessels, such as tugs. Traditionally, sailing ships were commanded from the quarterdeck, aft of the mainmast, with the arrival of paddle steamers, engineers required a platform from which they could inspect the paddle wheels and where the captains view would not be obstructed by the paddle houses. A raised walkway, literally a bridge, connecting the houses was therefore provided. When the screw propeller superseded the paddle wheel, the bridge was retained, helm orders would be passed to an enclosed wheel house, where the coxswain or helmsman operated the ships wheel. Engine commands would be relayed to the engineer in the room by an engine order telegraph that displayed the captains orders on a dial. The engineer would ensure that the combination of steam pressure. Iron, and later steel, ships also required a compass platform and this was usually a tower, where a magnetic compass could be sited far away as possible from the ferrous interference of the hulk of the ship. Depending upon the design and layout of a ship, all of these terms can be variously interchangeable, larger ships, particularly warships, often had a number of different bridges. A navigation bridge would be used for the conning of the ship. A separate admirals bridge could be provided in flagships, where the admiral could exercise control over his fleet without interfering with the Captains tactical command of the vessel. In older warships, an armored conning tower was often provided. Modern advances in remote control equipment have seen progressive transfer of the control of the ship to the bridge. The wheel and throttles can be operated directly from the bridge, aboard modern warships it is common that actual commanding is carried out on the bridge while weapon systems are controlled from a room usually deep inside the vessel. This also enables a redundant setup in which the vessel is able to fight in case one of the command instances has been hit or destroyed. On a commercial vessel, the bridge will contain the equipment necessary to navigate a vessel on passage
45.
Steam donkey
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Steam donkey, or donkey engine, is the common nickname for a steam-powered winch, or logging engine, widely used in past logging operations, though not limited to logging. They were also found in the mining, maritime, and nearly any other industry that needed a powered winch, a good deal of the cable-logging terminology derived from 19th-century merchant sailing, as much of the early technology originated from that industry. A logging engine comprised at least one powered winch around which was wound hemp rope or steel cable and they were usually fitted with a boiler and usually equipped with skids, or sleds made from logs, to aid them during transit from one setting to the next. The larger steam donkeys often had a house built either on the skids or as a separate structure. Usually, a tank, and sometimes a fuel oil tank, was mounted on the back of the sled. In rare cases, steam donkeys were also mounted on wheels, later steam donkeys were built with multiple horizontally mounted drums/spools, on which were wound heavy steel cable instead of the original rope. This describes the use of a donkey for logging operations. In the simplest setup, a horse would carry the cable out to a log in the woods. The cable would be attached, and, on signal, the steam donkeys operator would open the regulator, allowing the steam donkey to drag, or skid, the log towards it. The log was taken either to a mill or to a landing where the log would be transferred for onward shipment by rail, road or river. Later, a drum was added, where a smaller cable could be routed around the setting. If a donkey was to be moved, one of its cables was attached to a tree, stump or other anchor. In Canada, and in particular Ontario, the engine was often mounted on a barge that could float. Log booms would be winched across water with the engine and it would often be reconfigured with a saw to mill the timber. John Dolbeer, a partner of the Dolbeer and Carson Lumber Company in Eureka, California. The patent was issued April 18,1882, on Dolbeers first model, a 150-foot, 4½ inch manila rope was wrapped several times around a gypsy head and attached at the other end to a log. The invention of the engine led to the development of the diesel-powered tractor crawler. Though some have preserved in museums, very few are in operating order
46.
Caulking
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Caulking is both the processes and material to seal joints or seams in various structures and some types of piping. The oldest form of caulking is used to make the seams in wooden boats or ships watertight, a related process was formerly employed to join sections of cast iron sewerage pipe. Caulking is also the term to describe the used to make riveted iron or steel ships. The same term also refers to the application of flexible sealing compounds to close up gaps in buildings and other structures against water, air, dust, insects, or as a component in firestopping. In the tunnelling industry, caulking refers to the sealing of joints in segmental precast concrete tunnels, traditional caulking on wooden vessels uses fibers of cotton and oakum. These fibers are driven into the seam between planks, with a caulking mallet and a broad chisel-like tool called a caulking iron. In riveted steel or iron ship construction, caulking was a process of rendering seams watertight by driving a thick and this had the effect of displacing the metal into a close fit with the adjoining piece. Originally done by hand much like wooden vessel caulking, pneumatic tools were later employed, with the advent of electric-arc welding for ship construction, steel ship caulking was rendered obsolete. Caulking of iron and steel, of the type described above for ships hulls, was also used by boilermakers in the era of riveted boilers to make the joints watertight and steamtight. Caulk can refer either to the substance or to the process of applying it. Caulking as a term has spread to the trade, meaning the activity of closing up joints. The function of caulking is to provide insulation, control water penetration. This is mostly done with ready-mixed construction chemicals sold as such as silicone, polyurethane, polysulfide, sylil-terminated-polyether or polyurethane. Unlike construction caulk, which is applied where no building movement is expected, one-component sealants are commonly sold in cartridges which are loaded into a pistol-like caulking gun or barrel gun for application. During the tool-working time, which varies by chemistry, the bead can be pressed into the joint so that it can bond with the materials on both sides, and also be smoothed. The time it takes for a chemical sealant to become a rubber is known as the time and varies by temperature. Silicone sealants form a durable, water-tight seal, but are not typically paintable, some silicone sealants are made to be paintable with certain types of paint such as water or oil-based paints. Backer rods can also be used to reduce consumption of the caulking by filling part of the joints, backer rod is often round and rope-like in shape but many special types and shaped such as square, rectangular and D-shapes are available
47.
Passaic-class monitor
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The Passaic-class ironclad monitors of the U. S. Navy saw service in the U. S. Civil War and the Spanish–American War. This highly successful class was a version of the Monitor equipped with a XV-inch Dahlgren gun in place of one of the XI-inchers. Naval architect and engineer John Ericsson designed the Passaic-class warships, drawing upon lessons learned from the first USS Monitor, the Passaic monitors were larger than the original Monitor and had their pilothouses atop the turret, rather than near the bow. This allowed a field of view and easier communications between captain, pilot and crew. The shape of the hull was an improvement with a less pronounced overhang than the Monitor, the Passaic class featured an 18 ft funnel and improved ventilation. The turret was 21 ft in diameter inside with the 15 in gun mounted flush because the diameter was too large for the turret opening. The large volume of propellant gases released inside the turret required the addition of a box at the muzzle in the interior of the turret. As a result, the 15 in gunners could not see their targets and had to aim with the 8 in or 11 in guns, Lehigh had her 11-inch smoothbore replaced with an 8-inch Parrot. Passaic also had this modification by July 1863, and, eventually, later improvements included an additional 50 tons of deck plating over the magazines and machinery spaces as well as rings fitted around the turret and pilot houses. Warships of Passaic class included, Passaic Montauk Nahant Patapsco Weehawken Sangamon Catskill Nantucket Lehigh Camanche The first ship of the class was named for the town of Passaic, uragan-class monitor, an Imperial Russian Navy monitor type built to the plans of the American Passaic class. The Old Steam Navy, The Ironclads, 1842–1885, warships and Naval Battles of the Civil War. Olmstead, Edwin, Stark, Wayne E. Tucker, Spencer C, the Big Guns, Civil War Siege, Seacoast, and Naval Cannon. Alexandria Bay, New York, Museum Restoration Service, silverstone, Paul H. Civil War Navies 1855–1883. Arming the Fleet, U. S. Naval Ordnance in the Muzzle-Loading Era
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