1.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
2.
Tver
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Tver is a city and the administrative center of Tver Oblast, Russia. It is situated at the confluence of the Volga and Tvertsa Rivers, the city was known as Kalinin from 1931 to 1990. Tver’s foundation year is accepted to be 1135, although there is no universal agreement on this date. Originally a minor settlement of Novgorodian traders, it passed to the Grand Prince of Vladimir in 1209, in 1246, Alexander Nevsky granted it to his younger brother Yaroslav Yaroslavich, from whom a dynasty of local princes descended. Four of them were killed by the Golden Horde and were proclaimed saints by the Russian Orthodox church, formerly a land of woods and bogs, the Principality of Tver was quickly transformed into one of the richest and most populous Russian states. As the area was accessible for Tatar raids, there was a great influx of population from the recently devastated south. By the end of the century, it was ready to vie with Moscow for supremacy in Russia, both Tver and Moscow were young cities, so the outcome of their rivalry was far from being certain. Mikhail, the Grand Prince of Tver, who ascended the throne of Vladimir in 1305, was one of the most beloved of medieval Russian rulers and his policy of open conflict with the Golden Horde led to his assassination there in 1318. His son Dmitry the Terrible Eyes succeeded him, and, concluding an alliance with the mighty Grand Duchy of Lithuania, exasperated by Dmitrys influence, Prince Ivan Kalita of the Grand Duchy of Moscow engineered his murder by the Mongols in 1326. On hearing the news of crime, the city revolted against the Horde. The Horde joined its forces with Muscovites and brutally repressed the rebellion, many citizens were killed, enslaved or deported. This was the blow to Tver’s aspirations for supremacy in Russia. In the second half of the 14th century, Tver was further weakened by struggles between its princes. Two senior branches of the house, those of Kashin and Kholmsky. The claimers were backed up by Moscow and eventually settled at the Moscow Kremlin court, during the Great Feudal War in the Grand Duchy of Moscow, Tver once again rose to prominence and concluded defensive alliances with Lithuania, Novgorod, Byzantium, and the Golden Horde. Grand Prince Boris of Tver sent one of his men, Afanasy Nikitin, to search for gold, nikitin’s travelogue, describing his journey from 1466 to 1472, is probably the first ever firsthand account of India by a European. A monument to Nikitin was opened on the Volga embankment in 1955, at last, on September 12,1485, the forces of Ivan the Great seized the city. The principality was given as an appanage to Ivan’s grandson, only to be abolished several decades later, last scions of the ruling dynasty were executed by Ivan the Terrible during the Oprichnina
3.
Volga River
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The Volga is the longest river in Europe. It is also Europes largest river in terms of discharge and watershed, the river flows through central Russia and into the Caspian Sea, and is widely regarded as the national river of Russia. Eleven of the twenty largest cities of Russia, including the capital, some of the largest reservoirs in the world can be found along the Volga. The river has a meaning in Russian culture and is often referred to as Волга-матушка Volga-Matushka in Russian literature and folklore. The Slavic name is a translation of earlier Scythian Rā Volga, literally wetness, cognate with Avestan Raŋhā mythical stream and Sanskrit rasā́- dew, liquid, juice. The Scythian name survives in modern Mordvin Rav Volga, the Turkic peoples living along the river formerly referred to it as Itil or Atil big river. In modern Turkic languages, the Volga is known as İdel in Tatar, Атăл in Chuvash, Idhel in Bashkir, Edil in Kazakh, the Turkic peoples associated the Itils origin with the Kama. Thus, a tributary to the Kama was named the Aq Itil White Itil which unites with the Kara Itil Black Itil at the modern city of Ufa. The name Indyl is used in Adyge language, among Asians, the river was known by its other Turkic name Sarı-su yellow water, but the Oirats also used their own name, Ijil mörön or adaptation river. Presently the Mari, another Uralic group, call the river Jul, formerly, they called the river Volgydo, a borrowing from Old Russian. The Volga is the longest river in Europe and it belongs to the closed basin of the Caspian Sea, being the longest river to flow into a closed basin. From there it turns south, flows past Ulyanovsk, Tolyatti, Samara, Saratov and Volgograd, at its most strategic point, it bends toward the Don. Volgograd, formerly Stalingrad, is located there, the Volga has many tributaries, most importantly the rivers Kama, the Oka, the Vetluga, and the Sura. The Volga and its tributaries form the Volga river system, which flows through an area of about 1,350,000 square kilometres in the most heavily populated part of Russia. The Volga Delta has a length of about 160 kilometres and includes as many as 500 channels, the largest estuary in Europe, it is the only place in Russia where pelicans, flamingos, and lotuses may be found. The Volga freezes for most of its length for three each year. The Volga drains most of Western Russia and its many large reservoirs provide irrigation and hydroelectric power. The Moscow Canal, the Volga–Don Canal, and the Volga–Baltic Waterway form navigable waterways connecting Moscow to the White Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Sea of Azov, high levels of chemical pollution have adversely affected the river and its habitats
4.
Dnieper
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It is the longest river of Ukraine and Belarus and the fourth longest river in Europe. The total length ranges between 2,145 km and 2,201 km with a basin of 504,000 square kilometres. The river is noted for its dams and hydroelectric stations, the Dnieper is an important navigable waterway for the economy of Ukraine and is connected via the Dnieper–Bug Canal to other waterways in Europe. In antiquity, the river was known to the Greeks as the Borysthenes and was part of the Amber Road, Arheimar, a capital of the Goths, was located on the Dnieper, according to the Hervarar saga. The name Dnieper is derived from Sarmatian Dānu apara the river on the far side, according to V. Abaev the name Dnieper derives from Scythian Dānu apr deep river, while the name Dniester is combination of Scythian Dānu and Thracian Ister, the old name of Dniester. In the three countries through which it flows it has essentially the name, albeit pronounced differently, Russian, Днепр, Belarusian, Дняпро or Днепр, Ukrainian. The late Greek and Roman authors called it Δάναπρις - Danapris and Danaper respectively - and its Old East Slavic name used at the time of Kievan Rus was Slavuta or Slavutych, the Huns called it Var, and Bulgars - Buri-Chai. The name in Crimean Tatar, Özü, the total length of the river is 2,145 kilometres, of which 485 km are within Russia,700 km are within Belarus, and 1,095 km are within Ukraine. Its basin covers 504,000 square kilometres, of which 289,000 km2 are within Ukraine,118,360 km2 are within Belarus, the source of the Dnieper is the sedge bogs of the Valdai Hills in central Russia, at an elevation of 220 m. For 115 km of its length, it serves as the border between Belarus and Ukraine and its estuary, or liman, used to be defended by the strong fortress of Ochakiv. On the Dnepr River to the south of Komarin urban-type settlement, Braghin District, the Dnieper has many tributaries with 89 being rivers of 100+ km. The water resources of the Dnieper basin compose around 80% out of all Ukraine, Dnieper Rapids were part of trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, first mentioned in the Kiev Chronicle. The route was established in the late eighth and early ninth centuries. On the Dnieper the Varangians had to portage their ships round seven rapids, after Dnieper Hydroelectric Station was built in 1932, they were inundated by Dnieper Reservoir. The river is part of the Quagga mussels native range, the mussel has been accidentally introduced around the world where it has become an invasive species. From the mouth of the Prypiat River to the Kakhovka Hydroelectric Station, there are six sets of dams and hydroelectric stations, the first constructed was the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station near Zaporizhia, built in 1927–1932 with an output of 558 MW. It was destroyed during World War II, but was rebuilt in 1948 with an output of 750 MW, the Dnieper River in different regions Major cities, over 100,000 in population, are in bold script. Cities and towns located on the Dnieper are listed in order from the source to its mouth, Arheimar
5.
Torzhok
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Torzhok is a town in Tver Oblast, Russia, located on the Tvertsa River along the federal highway M10 and a branch of the Oktyabrskaya Railway division of the Russian Railways. The town is famous for its folk craft of goldwork embroidery, Torzhok was first mentioned in a chronicle in 1139 as Novy Torg. The Mongols burned it in 1238, but did not proceed northward to Novgorod, at that time, the town commanded the only route whereby grain was delivered to Novgorod. Once Torzhok blocked the route, a shortage of grain. Consequently, Torzhok was known as a key to the Novgorod Republic, the town was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Moscow with the rest of the Novgorod Republic in 1478. The Polish army frequently ravaged it during the Time of Troubles, during the imperial period, Torzhok was known as an important post station on the highway from Moscow to St. Petersburg. Alexander Pushkin, for instance, used to pass through Torzhok on a number of occasions, in the course of the administrative reform carried out in 1708 by Peter the Great, Torzhok was included into Ingermanlandia Governorate, and in 1727 Novgorod Governorate split off. In 1775, Novotorzhsky Uyezd was established, with the center in Torzhok, on July 12,1929 the governorates and uyezds were abolished. Novotorzhsky District, with the center in Torzhok, was established within Tver Okrug of Moscow Oblast. On July 23,1930, the okrugs were abolished, on January 29,1935 Kalinin Oblast was established, and Novotorzhsky District was transferred to Kalinin Oblast. On March 4,1964 Likhoslavlsky District, and on January 12,1965 Kuvshinovsky District were re-established, Torzhoksky District retained the new name. In 1990, Kalinin Oblast was renamed Tver Oblast, within the framework of administrative divisions, Torzhok serves as the administrative center of Torzhoksky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as Torzhok Okrug—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, Torzhok Okrug is incorporated as Torzhok Urban Okrug, Torzhok has twenty-two large and medium-sized industrial enterprises. Two of them are especially significant, JSC Pozhtekhnika and OAO Torzhok Plant Printing Inks account for 70% of all industrial output. A railway line which connects Likhoslavl with Soblago via Selizharovo runs through Torzhok, another railway line branches off in Torzhok and heads south to Rzhev via Vysokoye. Both lines are served by infrequent passenger traffic, the M10 highway, which connects Moscow and St. Petersburg, passes close to Torzhok. A road to Ostashkov branches off to the west, there is also a road connecting Torzhok with Staritsa
6.
Toropets
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Toropets is a town and the administrative center of Toropetsky District in Tver Oblast, Russia, located where the Toropa River enters Lake Solomennoye. In 1074, when the town was first mentioned in chronicles, by 1167, it was large enough to have its own princes. The most famous of its rulers was Mstislav the Bold, whose grandson Alexander Nevsky wed Alexandra of Polotsk in Toropets in 1239. In the mid-14th century the town passed to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in the early 17th century, Toropets was ransacked by the Polish army. In the course of the administrative reform carried out in 1708 by Peter the Great, in 1727, separate Novgorod Governorate was split off. Toropets was included into Velikiye Luki Province, in 1772, as a result of the First Partition of Poland, Inflanty Voivodeship and eastern Belarus were transferred to Russia. In order to accommodate these areas, Pskov Governorate was created, the town of Opochka was made the administrative center of the governorate. Pskov Governorate has proven to be too big to be administered properly, and in 1776 and it divided the governorate into Pskov and Polotsk Governorates. Pskov was made the center of Pskov Governorate, and Toropets remained in Pskov Governorate. In 1777, Pskov Governorate was transformed into Pskov Viceroyalty, which was administered from Novgorod by Jacob Sievers, in 1796, the viceroyalty was abolished, and on 31 December 1796 the emperor Paul I issued a decree restoring Pskov Governorate. Toropets was the center of Toropetsky Uyezd of Pskov Governorate, the Soviet authority in Toropets was established on October 30,1917. On August 1,1927 Pskov Governorate was abolished, and Leningrad Oblast was established, Toropetsky Uyezd was abolished as well, and Toropetsky District, with the administrative center in Toropets, was established. It belonged to Velikiye Luki Okrug of Leningrad Oblast, on June 17,1929, the district was transferred to Western Oblast. On August 1,1930 the okrugs were abolished, and the districts were subordinated directly to the oblast, on January 29,1935 Kalinin Oblast was established, and Toropetsky District was transferred to Kalinin Oblast. The town was occupied by the Wehrmacht during WWII, from August 29,1941 until January 21,1942, on August 22,1944, the district was transferred to newly established Velikiye Luki Oblast. On October 2,1957, Velikiye Luki Oblast was abolished, in 1990, Kalinin Oblast was renamed Tver Oblast. Within the framework of administrative divisions, Toropets serves as the center of Toropetsky District. As an administrative division, it is incorporated within Toropetsky District as Toropets Urban Settlement, as a municipal division, this administrative unit also has urban settlement status and is a part of Toropetsky Municipal District
7.
Zubtsov
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Zubtsov was first mentioned in a chronicle in 1216. Due to its location on the Volga, it controlled one of the versions of the Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, in the Middle Ages, it was a border fortress of Principality of Tver. Between 1318 and 1460, separate Zubtsov Principality existed with the seat in Zubtsov and it was subordinate to the Tver principality. In 1460, it was abolished and merged back to Principality of Tver, the Grand Duchy of Moscow annexed it with the rest of Principality of Tver in 1485. Subsequently, the town was important chiefly as a flax trade market and its Neoclassical cathedral was constructed in 1801. In the course of the administrative reform carried out in 1708 by Peter the Great, Zubtsov was included into Ingermanlandia Governorate, in 1775, Zubtsovsky Uyezd was established, with the center in Zubtsov. On 30 May 1922, Zubtsovsky Uyezd was abolished and merged into Rzhevsky Uyezd, on 12 July 1929, governorates and uyezds were abolished, and Zubtsovsky District with the administrative center in Zubtsov was established. It belonged to Rzhev Okrug of Western Oblast, on August 1,1930 the okrugs were abolished, and the districts were subordinated directly to the oblast. On 29 January 1935 Kalinin Oblast was established, and Zubtsovsky District was transferred to Kalinin Oblast, during World War II, in 1941—1943, the town was occupied by German troops from October 11,1941 to August 23,1942 and almost razed to the ground. It was a place of fighting of the Battle of Rzhev. About 15,000 of Red Army soldiers are buried at the Zubtsovs memorial, the town was revitalized after the Vazuza Reservoir project was started in the 1970s. The reservoir currently provides Moscow with one quarter of its drinking water, in February 1963, during the abortive administrative reform by Nikita Khrushchev, Zubtsovsky District was merged into Rzhevsky District, but on 12 January 1965 it was re-established. In 1990, Kalinin Oblast was renamed Tver Oblast, within the framework of administrative divisions, Zubtsov serves as the administrative center of Zubtsovsky District. As an administrative division, it is incorporated within Zubtsovsky District as Zubtsov Urban Settlement, as a municipal division, this administrative unit also has urban settlement status and is a part of Zubtsovsky Municipal District. There are enterprises of timber industry and of metallurgy in Zubtsov, the railroad which connects Moscow and Riga via Rzhev, runs through Zubtsov. The M9 highway connecting Moscow with Riga also passes Zobtsov, another road to Gagarin branches off south. There are also local roads with bus traffic originating from Zubtsov, the Volga is navigable, however, there is no passenger navigation. Zubtsov contains four cultural heritage monuments of significance and additionally twenty-two objects classified as cultural and historical heritage of local significance
8.
Kalyazin
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A sloboda appeared on the site of modern Kalyazin in the 12th century. Its importance grew significantly with the foundation of the Makaryevsky Monastery on the bank of the Volga in the 15th century. This abbey used to be the most conspicuous landmark of Kalyazin and comprised numerous buildings of historic interest, the name of the town originates from certain Kolyaga, a land proprietor in the 15th century. In the 18th century, the area was included into Moscow Governorate, in 1775, Kalyazin was granted town rights and Kalyazinsky Uyezd was established. It was a part of newly established Tver Viceroyalty, in 1796, the Viceroyalty was abolished and transformed into Tver Governorate. Kalyazinsky Uyezd was abolished, but in 1803, it was re-established, on May 30,1922, Kalyazinsky Uyezd was abolished and merged into Kashinsky Uyezd. On October 3,1927, Kashinsky Uyezd itself was abolished, on August 12,1929, Tver Governorate was abolished, with its territory transferred to Moscow Oblast. Uyezds were abolished as well, and Kalyazinsky District, with the center in Kalyazin, was established within Kimry Okrug of Moscow Oblast. On July 23,1930, the okrugs were abolished and the districts were subordinated to the oblast. On January 29,1935, Kalinin Oblast was established, in 1940, the monastery and most of the old town were submerged under water during the construction of the Uglich Hydroelectric Station, which created the Uglich Reservoir. After that, the town was relocated to a new. On February 13,1963, during the abortive Khrushchevs administrative reform, Kalyazinsky District was merged into Kimrsky District, in July 1990, Kalinin Oblast was renamed Tver Oblast. On November 19,2001, a chartered IRS Aero Ilyushin Il-18 airplane crashed in Kalyazin, on August 26,2010, dozens of Central Asian guest workers were deported from the town after mass clashes with the locals. Their construction site jobs were given to locals instead, within the framework of administrative divisions, Kalyazin serves as the administrative center of Kalyazinsky District. As an administrative division, it is incorporated within Kalyazinsky District as Kalyazin Urban Settlement, as a municipal division, this administrative unit also has urban settlement status and is a part of Kalyazinsky Municipal District. Two factories in Kalyazin—one producing oil extraction equipment and another one manufacturing some parts of MiG airplanes—are responsible for 42% of the industrial production of the district. Chemical, food, leather, and textile industry are present as well, Kalyazin is home to one of the largest railway stations in Tver Oblast. Trains from St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kashin, Uglich, Rybinsk, Sonkovo, Savyolovo, Kalyazin is connected by roads with Sergiyev Posad, Uglich, and with Tver and Kimry via Kashin
9.
Battles of Rzhev
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The operations took place in the general area of Rzhev, Sychyovka and Vyazma against German forces. As a result, a salient was formed along the front line in the direction of the capital and it was strategically important for the German Army Group Centre due to the threat it posed to Moscow, and was therefore heavily fortified and strongly defended. The intent was for the 22nd Army, 29th Army and 39th Armies supported by the 11th Cavalry Corps to attack West of Rzhev, and penetrate deep into the western flank of Army Group Centres 9th Army. This was achieved in January, and by the end of the month the cavalry corps found itself 110 km in the depth of the German flank. To eliminate this threat to the rear of the Army Group Centres 9th Army, the cutting of a major highway to Rzhev by the cavalry signalled the commencement of the Toropets–Kholm Offensive. The offensive was conducted in late 1942 and this offensive was conducted by the Western Front against the Wehrmachts 4th Panzer Army and the 4th Army. A Soviet airborne operation, conducted by the 4th Airborne Corps in seven separate landing zones, five of them intended to cut major road, in the aftermath of the Soviet winter counteroffensive of 1941–42, substantial Soviet forces remained in the rear of the German Ninth Army. These forces maintained a hold on the forested swamp region between Rzhev and Bely. On July 2,1942, Ninth Army under General Model launched Operation Seydlitz to clear the Soviet forces out, the Germans first blocked the natural breakout route through the Obsha valley and then split the Soviet forces into two isolated pockets. The battle lasted eleven days and ended with the elimination of the encircled Soviet forces, the next Rzhev-Sychyovka Offensive codenamed Operation Mars. An NKVD double agent known as Heine provided information about the offensive to the OKH as part of the plan to divert German forces from any relief of those trapped at Stalingrad. German forces in the salient were eventually withdrawn by Hitler during Operation Büffel to provide greater force for the German offensive operation at Kursk, fighting in the area remained mostly static for 14 months. Losses and setbacks elsewhere along the front finally compelled the Germans to abandon the salient in order to free up reserves for the front as a whole, defending the salient required 29 divisions. Its abandonment freed up 22 of those divisions and created a reserve which allowed the Germans to stabilize the front. The retreat of the Germans in Operation Büffel was tactically and militarily successful, the Soviet Army paid a high price for their defeat at Rzhev, but with the Germans were forced to withdraw from an important bridgehead which enabled the Germans to threaten Moscow. Losses for the series of operations around the Rzhev salient from 1941 to 1943 are difficult to calculate. These operations cover a series of battles and defensive operations over a wide area involving many formations on both sides. For the whole series of Rzhev battles, the numbers are not clear yet, but, since the mobilized manpower of both sides were enormous and the fighting is violent, casualties should be very high
10.
Vologda Oblast
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Vologda Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. The largest city is Cherepovets, the home of the Severstal metallurgical plant, large reserves of wood and fresh water are the main natural resources. The area of Vologda Oblast was settled by Finno-Ugric peoples since prehistory, Vepsians still living in the west of the Oblast are the descendants of that population. Subsequently, the area was colonized by the Russians, Belozersk has been mentioned in chronicles in 862 as one of the oldest towns in Russia. Much of the area was controlled by the Novgorod Republic, in particular, Veliky Ustyug and the west of the current territory of the Oblast, with Belozersk and Ustyuzhna, belonged to the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality and were constantly threatened by Novgorod. Not later than in the 13th century the Novgorod merchants already reached the White Sea and they penetrated the area using the waterways. In the 13th century, minor principalities started to proliferate, first, the Principality of Beloozero separated from Rostov. It northern and northeastern parts in the 15th century became quasi-independent, many smaller principalities are only mentioned once in chronicles, and the very existence of these principalities is questionable. Vologda between 1452 and 1481 was the center of the Principality of Vologda, the last independent principality in Vologda lands, by the end of the 15th century, all these lands were a part of the Great Duchy of Moscow. In the 14th and the 15th centuries, the lands around Vologda became attractive for monks looking for desolate areas, the princes, in their turn, viewed the monasteries as means to keep the influence of the Grand Duchy of Moscow in its remote areas. A number of monasteries, including Spaso-Prilutsky, Pavlo-Obnorsky, Kirillo-Belozersky. Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery soon became one of the most prominent Russian monasteries, with a lot of political influence, during the Time of Troubles, the area was ravaged by Polish troops, who at some point besieged Vologda but did not succeed in conquering the city. In the 17th century, Vologda was a city located on the main trading route from Moscow to Western Europe. During the reign of Tsar Peter the Great in the 18th century, Vologda became a shipbuilding center, however, the importance of Vologda as a trade center was diminished after Saint Petersburg was founded in 1703, and the foreign trade was rerouted to the Baltic Sea. Peter even imposed restrictions to the White Sea trade, Vologda was the northernmost territory where serfdom existed in Russia. In the lands west and south of Vologda, estates existed, but to the north and to the east of Vologda serfdom was never implemented, in 1708, Peter the Great issued an edict which established seven governorates. The description of the borders of the governorates was not given, instead, their area was defined as a set of towns, in the present area of Vologda oblast, two of the governorates — Archangelgorod Governorate and Ingermanland Governorate — were located. Vologda was part of Archangelgorod Governorate, subsequently, the western part of the Oblast was transferred to Novgorod Governorate
11.
Novgorod Oblast
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Novgorod Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. Its administrative center is the city of Veliky Novgorod, some of the oldest Russian cities, including Veliky Novgorod and Staraya Russa, are located in the oblast. The historic monuments of Veliky Novgorod and surroundings have been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Novgorod Oblast borders with Leningrad Oblast in the north and in the northwest, Vologda Oblast in the east, Tver Oblast in the southeast and in the south, the western part is a lowland around Lake Ilmen, while the eastern part is a highland. The highest point is Mount Ryzhokha in the Valdai Hills, in the center of the oblast is Lake Ilmen, one of the largest lakes in Central Russia. The only outflow of the lake is the Volkhov, a tributary of Lake Ladoga. Almost all of the oblast belongs to the basin of the Volkhov. Sorted by the discharge, the biggest rivers of the oblast are the Volkhov, the Mologa, the Msta, the Lovat, the Syas, the south and the southeast of the oblast contain one of the largest lake districts in European Russia. The biggest lake in the area, Lake Seliger, is divided between Novgorod and Tver Oblasts, other big lakes in the area include Lake Valdayskoye, Lake Shlino, Lake Velyo, Lake Piros, and Lake Meglino. Two areas in Novgorod Oblast have been designated as protected areas of federal significance. Novgorod was one of the oldest centers of Russian civilization, Novgorod is indicated in the chronicles as the site where Rurik settled and founded the Rurik Dynasty in 862. Subsequently Ruriks successor, Oleg, moved the capital to Kiev, in 1136, Novgorod evicted the prince and became the center of the Novgorod Republic, which included the major part of what is currently northwestern Russia. It was an example of a republic, in which decisions were taken by veche - a meeting of the city population -. Novgorod was one of the few areas of Rus not affected by the Mongol invasions and it was also an important cultural center, and the majority of monuments preserved in Russia from the 11th through the 14th century are those standing in Veliky Novgorod. Towards the end of the 15th century Novgorod was defeated by the army of Ivan III, the prince of Moscow, in 1560, Ivan the Terrible, fearing treason, sent his army to sack the city. This event, known as the Massacre of Novgorod, had consequences for the city. Additionally, in the beginning of the 17th century, during the Time of Troubles, december 29,1708 Tsar Peter the Great issued an edict which established seven governorates. The present area of Novgorod oblast was a part of Ingermanland Governorate, in 1727, a separate Novgorod Governorate was established
12.
Moscow Oblast
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Moscow Oblast, or Podmoskovye, is a federal subject of Russia. With a population of 7,095,120 living in an area of 44,300 square kilometers, the oblast has no official administrative center, its public authorities are located in Moscow and across other locations in the oblast. In the center stands the city of Moscow, which is a separate federal subject in its own right. The oblast is highly industrialized, with its main branches being metallurgy, oil refining, and mechanical engineering, food, energy. The oblast is flat, with some hills with the height of about 160 meters in the western. The western and northern parts of the oblast contain the Moscow Uplands and their average height peaks at about 300 meters near Dmitrov and the upper point of 310 meters lies near the village of Shapkino in Mozhaysky District. The northern part of the Moscow Uplands is steeper than the southern part, the uplands contain lakes of glacial origin, such as Lakes Nerskoye and Krugloye. To the north of the Moscow Uplands lies the alluvial Verhnevolzhsk Depression, It is marshy, to the south stretches a hilly area of the Moskvoretsko-Oksk plain. Its greatest height of 254 meters lies in the area of Tyoply Stan, the plain has clearly defined river valleys, especially in the south parts, and occasional karst relief, mostly in Serpukhovsky District. In the extreme south, after the Oka River, lies the Central Russian Upland and it contains numerous gullies and ravines and has average height above 200 m with the maximum of 236 m near Pushchino. Most of the part of Moscow Oblast is taken by the vast Meshchera Lowlands with much wetland in their eastern part. Their highest hill peaks at 214 meters but the heights are 120–150 meters. Most lakes of the lowlands, such as Lakes Chyornoye and Svyatoye, are of glacial origin, here lies the lowest natural elevation of the region, the water level of Oka River at 97 meters. Moscow Oblast is located in the part of the East European craton. Like all cratons, the latter is composed of the crystalline basement, the basement consists of Archaean and Proterozoic rocks and the cover is deposited in the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. The lowest depth of the basement is to the south of Serebryanye Prudy, in the south area of the oblast. Tertiary deposits are almost absent within the oblast, significantly more abundant are deposits of the Carboniferous and Jurassic periods. In the Cretaceous period, a sea was covering Moscow Oblast, as evidenced by phosphate deposits, Cretaceous sediments are most common in the north of the oblast
Media related to Tver Oblast at Wikimedia Commons
