1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
3.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
4.
United States Army Air Forces
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Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel, the peak size of the AAF during the Second World War was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By V-E Day, the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas, in its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By the end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service and this contrast between theory and fact is. fundamental to an understanding of the AAF. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial, a strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. Since 1920, control of units had resided with commanders of the corps areas. Both were created in 1933 when a conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup détat. Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts but was small in comparison to European air forces. Corps area commanders continued to control over airfields and administration of personnel. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in a proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that the Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four air defense districts on 19 October 1940 was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii. The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with an organization of 54 groups. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a simpler system, Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy a general autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war
5.
Numbered Air Force
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A Numbered Air Force is a type of organization in the United States Air Force that is subordinate to a Major Command and has assigned to it operational units such as wings, squadrons, and groups. A Component Numbered Air Force has the role as an Air Force Component Command exercising command and control over air. Unlike MAJCOMs, which have a management role, a NAF is a organization with an operational focus. Numbered air forces are commanded by a major general or a lieutenant general. Numerical designations for Numbered Air Forces are written out, but Arabic numerals are used in abbreviations, units directly subordinate to a NAF are generally numbered 6XX. For example, the 618th Air and Space Operations Center is a subordinate to the Eighteenth Air Force. Numbered air forces began as named organizations in the United States Army Air Corps before World War II, the first four NAFs were established as the Northeast, Northwest, Southeast, and Southwest Air Districts on 19 October 1940 to provide air defense for the United States. These Air Districts were redesignated as the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Air Forces, respectively, on 26 March 1941. Over a year after the establishment of the United States Army Air Forces on June 20,1941, the Arabic numerals were changed to the First, Second, Third, after World War II, the US Air Force continued to use both named and numbered air forces. While named air forces were used in tactical and support roles, numbered air forces were generally employed only in tactical roles. These commands reflected the air combat missions that evolved during the war, and each reported directly to General Carl Spaatz. Numbered air forces served as an intermediate headquarters between these commands and the wings and groups. Eleven of the sixteen wartime air forces remained, Second Air Force would later be transferred to SAC in 1949. The numbered air forces had both operational and administrative authority, and existed as a level between major commands and air divisions. Although variations existed, and number air forces were often reassigned, the role of numbered air forces changed in the 1990s during the Air Force reorganization initiated by Air Force Chief of Staff General Merrill McPeak. The goal of the reorganization was to streamline, take out, flatten organizational charts. Numbered air forces were reorganized into tactical echelons focused on operations and this reorganization also reduced the number of major commands, and eliminated the air divisions to place numbered air forces directly in command of operational wings. The role of numbered air forces was changed in 2006 with the implementation of the Component Air Force concept
6.
U.S. Southern Command
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The United States Southern Command, located in Doral, Florida in Greater Miami, is one of nine Unified Combatant Commands in the United States Department of Defense. USSOUTHCOM is also responsible for ensuring the defense of the Panama Canal, under the leadership of a four-star Commander, USSOUTHCOM is organized into a headquarters with six main directorates, component commands and military groups that represent SOUTHCOM in the region. Civilians working at USSOUTHCOM are, for the most part, civilian employees of the Army, USSOUTHCOM exercises its authority through the commanders of its components, Joint Task Forces/Joint Interagency Task Force, and Security Cooperation Organizations. The USSOUTHCOM Area of Responsibility encompasses 32 nations, of which 31 are democracies, as of October 2002, the area of focus covered 14. ARSOUTH supports regional disaster relief and counterdrug efforts, ARSOUTH provides Title 10 and Executive Agent responsibilities throughout the Latin American and Caribbean region. At any given moment, four troops are deployed in Latin America. AFSOUTH also provides oversight, planning, execution, and logistical support for humanitarians, Twelfth Air Force is also leading the way in bringing the Chief of Staff of the Air Forces Warfighting Headquarters concept to life. The WFHQ is composed of a command and control element, an Air Force forces staff, operating as a WFHQ since June 2004, Twelfth Air Force has served as the Air Force model for the future of Combined Air and Space Operations Centers and WFHQ Air Force forces. Located at Naval Station Mayport, Florida, USNAVSO exercises command and control over all U. S. naval operations in the USSOUTHCOM area including naval exercises, maritime operations, and port visits. USNAVSO is also the agent for the operation of the cooperative security location at Comalapa, El Salvador. Rear Admiral Joseph D. Kernan was named as the commander and Commander. Up to four ships are deployed in the waters in and around Latin American, USSOCSOUTH controls all Special Operations Forces in the region and also establishes and operates a Joint Special Operations Task Force when required. As a Theater Special Operations Command, USSOCSOUTH is a command of USSOUTHCOM. There are also three task forces with specific missions in the region that report to U. S, Southern Command, Located at Soto Cano Air Base, Honduras, JTF -Bravo operates a forward, all-weather day/night C-5-capable airbase. Located at U. S. JTF – Guantanamo is also prepared to support mass migration operations at Naval Station GTMO, jIATF- South also collects, processes, and disseminates counter-drug information for interagency operations. Manta Air Base was one of JIATF-Souths bases, in Ecuador until September 19,2009, even senior leaders used inappropriate hand gestures, it said, and mentioned simulations of masturbation. Patrick Leahy, D-Vermont, the author of the Leahy Law prohibiting U. S. assistance to military units, on March 10,2017, Daniel P. While this has taken longer than we would have preferred, we want to ensure that consideration is given
7.
Air Combat Command
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Air Combat Command is one of ten Major Commands in the United States Air Force, reporting to Headquarters, United States Air Force at the Pentagon. ACC is headquartered at Langley Field, Joint Base Langley–Eustis, Virginia and its commander is General Herbert Hawk Carlisle, with Major General Jerry D. Harris Jr. as Vice Commander, and Chief Master Sergeant Steve K. McDonald as the Command Chief Master Sergeant, in addition, ACC augments the forces of the United States European Command, United States Pacific Command and United States Central Command when needed. Air Combat Command consists of approximately 98,000 active duty members, in 2015, responsibility for the B-1 Lancer bomber fleet was also transferred from ACC to AFGSC. Air Combat Command was created 1 June 1992 after the inactivation of the Tactical Air Command, Strategic Air Command, furthermore, ACC had some KC-135 and KC-10 aerial refueling tankers and C-130 tactical airlift aircraft in its composite, reconnaissance, and certain other combat wings. In 1993, control of the ICBM force was transferred to the Air Force Space Command until transferred again to Air Force Global Strike Command on 1 Dec 2009. S, Air Force and the U. S. Navy. Historically, combat command was an air unit designation. During 1941 and early 1942, the air units of the War Department, formerly known as the GHQ Air Force. The AFCC was dissolved in the reorganization of the United States Army, effective 9 March 1942, not long after activation, ACC underwent organizational and mission changes. The first such change was the transfer of the combat search. With the realigning of search and rescue units, ACC gained additional resources, the formal transfer took place on 1 February 1993, when the Air Rescue Service was assigned to ACC. On 2 July of the year, the ARS was disestablished. The USAF Combat Rescue School was subsequently assigned to the 57th Wing at Nellis AFB, one of the most significant changes for Air Combat Command resulted from an overhaul of flying training responsibilities. Following its activation, ACC was responsible for aircrew training, including initial weapon system. On 1 July 1993, the 58th and 325th Fighter Wings—F-16 and F-15 training units transferred from ACC to Air Education and Training Command. Concurrently, Luke AFB, Arizona, and Tyndall AFB, Florida, for which those respective wings were the host units, however, on 1 October 2012, both Tyndall AFB and the 325th Fighter Wing returned to the control of ACC. The next major change resulted from a fine-tuning of aerial refueling. From its activation, Air Combat Command had assumed ownership of some C-130 Hercules theater airlift assets and KC-10 Extender, there was historical precedent for the reassignment of C-130s to Air Combat Command
8.
European theatre of World War II
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The Allied forces fought the Axis powers on two major fronts as well as in the adjoining Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre. Germany was humiliated in front of the world and had to pay very large war reparations, many Germans blamed their countrys post-war economic collapse and hyperinflation on the treatys conditions. After Hitler took Germany out of the League of Nations, Mussolini of Fascist Italy and Hitler formed the Rome-Berlin axis, later, Empire of Japan, under the government of Hideki Tojo, would also join as an Axis power. Japan and Germany had already signed the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1939, other smaller powers also later joined the Axis throughout the war. On September 17, the Soviet forces joined the invasion of Poland, the Polish government evacuated the country for Romania. Poland fell within five weeks, with its last large operational units surrendering on October 5 after the Battle of Kock, as the Polish September Campaign ended, Hitler offered to Britain and France peace on the basis of recognition of German European continental dominance. On October 12, the United Kingdom formally refused, despite the quick campaign in the east, along the Franco-German frontier the war settled into a quiet period. This relatively non-confrontational and mostly non-fighting period between the major powers lasted until May 10,1940, and was known as the Phoney War, several other countries, however, were drawn into the conflict at this time. By September 28,1939, the three Baltic Republics felt they had no choice but to permit Soviet bases and troops on their territory, the Baltic Republics were occupied by the Soviet army in June 1940, and finally annexed to the Soviet Union in August 1940. The Soviet Union wanted to annex Finland and offered an agreement, but Finland rejected it. In the Moscow Peace Treaty of March 12,1940, Finland ceded 10% of her territory, the Finns were embittered over having lost more land in the peace than on the battlefields, and over the perceived lack of world sympathy. Meanwhile, in western Scandinavia, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway in April 1940, sweden was able to remain neutral. Most Allied forces were in Flanders, anticipating a re-run of the World War I Schlieffen Plan, as a result of this, and also the superior German communications and tactics, the Battle of France was shorter than virtually all pre-war Allied thought could have conceived. It lasted six weeks, including the Luftwaffe bombing of Paris June 3, on June 10 Italy declared war on both France and the United Kingdom, but did not gain any significant success in this campaign. French government fled Paris, and soon, France surrendered on June 22, many French soldiers, as well as those of other occupied countries, escaped to Britain. The General de Gaulle proclaimed himself the leader of Free France. Following the unexpected victory, Hitler promoted 12 generals to the rank of field marshal during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony. Later, on April 24,1941, the USSR gave full recognition to the Vichy government situated in the non-occupied zone in France
9.
Operation Torch
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Operation Torch was the British-American invasion of French North Africa during the North African Campaign of the Second World War which started on 8 November 1942. The Soviet Union had pressed the United States and United Kingdom to start operations in Europe, while the American commanders favored Operation Sledgehammer, landing in Occupied Europe as soon as possible, the British commanders believed that such a course would end in disaster. The U. S. President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, suspected the African operation would rule out an invasion of Europe in 1943 but agreed to support the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. The Allies planned an Anglo-American invasion of north-western Africa — Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, with much of North Africa already under Allied control, this would allow the Allies to carry out a pincer operation against Axis forces in North Africa. These forces included 60,000 troops in Morocco,15,000 in Tunisia, in addition, there were 10 or so warships and 11 submarines at Casablanca. The Allies believed that the Vichy French forces would not fight, the French were former Allies of the U. S. and the American troops were instructed not to fire unless they were fired upon. However, they harbored suspicions that the Vichy French navy would bear a grudge over the British action at Mers-el-Kebir in 1940, an assessment of the sympathies of the French forces in North Africa was essential, and plans were made to secure their cooperation, rather than resistance. German support for the Vichy French came in the shape of air support, several Luftwaffe bomber wings undertook anti-shipping strikes against Allied ports in Algiers and along the North African coast. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was given command of the operation, the Allied Naval Commander of the Expeditionary Force would be Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, his deputy was Vice-Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay, who would plan the amphibious landings. Planners identified Oran and also Algiers and Casablanca as key targets, ideally there would also be a landing at Tunis to secure Tunisia and facilitate the rapid interdiction of supplies travelling via Tripoli to Rommels forces in Libya. However, Tunis was much too close to the Axis airfields in Sicily, a compromise would be to land at Bône, some 300 miles closer to Tunis than Algiers. They therefore chose the Casablanca option as the less risky since the forces in Algeria and Tunisia could be supplied overland from Casablanca in the event of closure of the straits. In July 1941, Mieczysław Słowikowski set up Agency Africa, one of the Second World Wars most successful intelligence organizations and his Polish allies in these endeavors included Lt. Col. Gwido Langer and Major Maksymilian Ciężki. The information gathered by the Agency was used by the Americans, to gauge the feeling of the Vichy French forces, Murphy was appointed to the American consulate in Algeria. His covert mission was to determine the mood of the French forces and he succeeded in contacting several French officers, including General Charles Mast, the French commander-in-chief in Algiers. These officers were willing to support the Allies, but asked for a conference with a senior Allied General in Algeria. However, Giraud would take no position lower than commander in chief of all the invading forces, when he was refused, he decided to remain a spectator in this affair. The Allies organized three amphibious task forces to seize the key ports and airports of Morocco and Algeria simultaneously, targeting Casablanca, Oran, successful completion of these operations was to be followed by an advance eastwards into Tunisia
10.
Tunisian Campaign
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The Tunisian Campaign was a series of battles that took place in Tunisia during the North African Campaign of the Second World War, between Axis and Allied forces. The Allies consisted of British Imperial Forces, including Polish and Greek contingents, with American, the battle opened with initial success by the German and Italian forces but the massive supply interdiction efforts led to the decisive defeat of the Axis. Over 230,000 German and Italian troops were taken as prisoners of war, the first two years of the war in North Africa were characterised by chronic supply shortages and transport problems. The North African coast has few natural harbours and the British base at Alexandria on the Nile delta was some 2,100 km by road from the main Italian port at Tripoli in Libya. Smaller ports at Benghazi and Tobruk were 1,050 km and 640 km west of Alexandria on the Litoranea Balbo running along a corridor along the coast. The chronic difficulty in the supply of military forces in the led to several indecisive victories by both sides and long fruitless advances along the coast. The Italian invasion of Egypt by the 10th Army in 1940, advanced 97 km into Egypt, the Western Desert Force fought a delaying action as it fell back to Mersa Matruh, then began Operation Compass, a raid and counter-attack into Libya. The 10th Army was destroyed and the WDF occupied El Agheila, the Eighth Army was soon pushed back to Gazala west of Tobruk and at the Battle of Gazala in May 1942, the Axis pushed them all the way back to El Alamein, only 160 km from Alexandria. In 1942, the Royal Navy and Italian Navy were still disputing the Mediterranean, large quantities of supplies became available to the British from the United States and the supply situation of the Eighth Army eventually resolved. With the Eighth Army no longer constrained, the Axis were driven westwards from Egypt following the Second Battle of El Alamein in November 1942. Because of the nearness of Sicily to Tunisia, the Allies expected that the Axis would move to occupy the country as soon as heard of the Torch landings. To forestall this, it would be necessary to occupy Tunisia as quickly as possible after the landings were made, Algiers was accordingly chosen for the most easterly landings. This would ensure the success of the landings in spite of uncertainty as to how the incumbent French forces would react. This meant that at Algiers the disembarkation of mobile forces for an advance to Tunisia would necessarily be delayed, at the end of November, naval Force K was reformed in Malta with three cruisers and four destroyers and Force Q formed in Bône with three cruisers and two destroyers. No Axis ships sailing to Tunis were sunk in November but the Allied naval forces had success in early December sinking seven Axis transports. However, this too late to affect the fighting on land because the armoured elements of 10th Panzer Division had already arrived. To counter the threat, Axis convoys were switched to daylight when they could be protected by air cover. Night convoys resumed on completion of the extension of Axis minefields which severely restricted the activities of Force K, Tunisia is rectangular, with its northern and much of its eastern boundary on the Mediterranean coast
11.
Allied invasion of Sicily
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The Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, was a major campaign of World War II, in which the Allies took the island of Sicily from the Axis powers. It was an amphibious and airborne operation, followed by a six-week land campaign and was the beginning of the Italian Campaign. Husky began on the night of 9/10 July 1943, and ended on 17 August, the Italian leader, Benito Mussolini, was toppled from power in Italy and the way was opened for the Allied invasion of Italy. The German leader, Adolf Hitler, canceled a major offensive at Kursk after only a week, in part to divert forces to Italy, resulting in a reduction of German strength on the Eastern Front. The plan for Operation Husky called for the assault of Sicily by two Allied armies, one landing on the south-eastern and one on the central southern coast. The amphibious assaults were to be supported by gunfire, as well as tactical bombing, interdiction. As such, the operation required a complex structure, incorporating land, naval. The overall commander was American General Dwight D. Eisenhower, as Commander-in-Chief of all the Allied forces in North Africa, British General Sir Harold Alexander acted as his second-in-command and as the 15th Army Group commander. The American Major General Walter Bedell Smith was appointed as Eisenhowers Chief of Staff, the overall Naval Force Commander was the British Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham. The Allied land forces were from the American, British and Canadian armies, the Eastern Task Force was led by General Sir Bernard Montgomery and consisted of the British Eighth Army. The Western Task Force was commanded by Lieutenant General George S. Patton, the two task force commanders reported to Alexander as commander of the 15th Army Group. Seventh Army consisted initially of three divisions, organized under II Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Omar Bradley. Middleton, sailed from the United States via Oran in Algeria, the 2nd Armored Division, under Major General Hugh Joseph Gaffey, also sailing from Oran, was to be a floating reserve and be fed into combat as required. On 15 July, Patton reorganized his command into two corps by creating a new Provisional Corps headquarters, commanded by his deputy army commander, Major General Geoffrey Keyes. The two divisions of XIII Corps, the 5th and 50th Infantry Divisions, commanded by Major-Generals Horatio Berney-Ficklin and Sidney Kirkman and this request was granted by the British, displacing the veteran British 3rd Infantry Division. The Red Patch Division was added to Leeses XXX Corps to become part of the British Eighth Army, in addition to the amphibious landings, airborne troops were to be flown in to support both the Western and Eastern Task Forces. To the east, the British 1st Airborne Division, commanded by Major-General George F. Hopkinson, was to seize vital bridges and high ground in support of the British Eighth Army. The initial plan dictated that the U. S. 82nd Airborne Division, Allied naval forces were also grouped into two task forces to transport and support the invading armies
12.
Allied invasion of Italy
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The Allied invasion of Italy was the Allied amphibious landing on mainland Italy that took place on 3 September 1943 during the early stages of the Italian Campaign of World War II. The operation was undertaken by General Sir Harold Alexanders 15th Army Group, the main invasion force landed around Salerno on 9 September on the western coast in Operation Avalanche, while two supporting operations took place in Calabria and Taranto. Following the defeat of the Axis Powers in North Africa in May 1943, the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, in particular wanted to invade Italy, which in November 1942 he called the soft underbelly of the axis. Popular support in Italy for the war was declining, and he believed an invasion would remove Italy, in addition, it would tie down German forces. When it became clear that no cross-channel invasion of occupied France could be undertaken in 1943, it was agreed to invade Sicily, Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations, to go ahead at the earliest possible date. The Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943, codenamed Operation Husky, was successful, although many of the Axis forces managed to avoid capture. The Axis viewed this as a success, more importantly, in late July, a coup deposed Mussolini as head of the Italian government, which then began approaching the Allies to make peace. It was believed an invasion of Italy might hasten an Italian surrender. However, Italian resistance proved relatively strong, and fighting in Italy continued even after the fall of Berlin in April 1945. In addition, the left the Allies in a position of supplying food and supplies to conquered territory. As well, Italy occupied by a hostile German army would have created problems for the German Commander-in-Chief. The short distance from Sicily meant landing craft could launch from there directly, montgomery was strongly opposed to Operation Baytown. He was proved correct, after Operation Baytown the British Eighth Army marched 300 miles north to the Salerno area against no other than engineering obstacles. Plans for the use of Allied airborne forces took several forms, the initial plan to land glider-borne troops in the mountain passes of the Sorrento Peninsula above Salerno was abandoned 12 August. Six days later it was replaced by Operation Giant, in two regiments of the U. S. 82nd Airborne Division would seize and hold crossings over the Volturno River. The main landings were scheduled to take place on 9 September and it would consist of the U. S. Its primary objectives were to seize the port of Naples to ensure resupply, the naval task force of warships, merchant ships and landing craft totaling 627 vessels came under the command of Vice Admiral Henry K. Hewitt. However, with the signing of the armistice with the Italians on 3 September the picture changed, the airborne division, which was undergoing training exercises in two locations 640 kilometres apart, was ordered on 4 September to embark on 8 September
13.
Battle of Anzio
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The operation was opposed by German forces in the area of Anzio and Nettuno. Any delay could result in the occupation of the mountains by the defenders, Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, commander of the U. S. Fifth Army, understood that risk, but Clark did not pass on his appreciation of the situation to his subordinate, Lucas, the initial landing achieved complete surprise with no opposition and a jeep patrol even made it as far as the outskirts of Rome. While Lucas consolidated, Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, the German commander in the Italian theatre and his artillery units had a clear view of every Allied position. The Germans also stopped the pumps and flooded the reclaimed marsh with salt water, planning to entrap the Allies. For weeks a rain of shells fell on the beach, the marsh, the harbour, after a month of heavy but inconclusive fighting, Lucas was relieved and sent home. His replacement was Major General Lucian K. Truscott, who had commanded the U. S. 3rd Infantry Division. The Allies broke out in May, at the end of 1943, following the Allied invasion of Italy, Allied forces were bogged down at the Gustav Line, a defensive line across Italy south of the strategic objective of Rome. The terrain of central Italy had proved ideally suited to defense, Operation Shingle was originally conceived by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in December 1943, as he lay recovering from pneumonia in Marrakesh. His concept was to two divisions at Anzio, bypassing German forces in central Italy, and take Rome, the strategic objective of the current Battle of Rome. By January he had recovered and was badgering his commanders for a plan of attack, accusing them of not wanting to fight but of being interested only in drawing pay and eating rations. General Harold Alexander, commander of the Allied Armies in Italy, had considered such a plan since October using five divisions. However, the 5th Army did not have the troops nor the means to transport them, Clark proposed landing a reinforced division to divert German troops from Monte Cassino. This second landing, however, instead of failing similarly, would hold the shingle for a week in expectation of a breakthrough at Cassino, the Anzio beachhead is at the northwestern end of a tract of reclaimed marshland, formerly the Pontine Marshes, now the Pontine Fields. Previously uninhabitable due to mosquitoes carrying malaria, in Roman times armies marched as quickly as possible across it on the military road, the Via Appia. The marsh was bounded on one side by the sea and on others by mountains, the Monti Albani, the Monti Lepini, overall these mountains are referenced by the name Monti Laziali, the mountains of Lazio, the ancient Latium. Invading armies from the south had the choice of crossing the marsh or taking the other road to Rome. The marshes were turned into land in the 1930s under Benito Mussolini
14.
Trasimene Line
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The Trasimene Line was a German defensive line during the Italian Campaign of World War II. It was sometimes known as the Albert Line, there was a huge gap between the armies and with the Allies advancing some 10 km per day, the flanks of both armies were exposed and encirclement was threatened. Two days after Rome fell, General Sir Harold R. L. G, on Lieutenant General Mark W. Clarks U. S. Remarkable though this was, he was helped by the confusion caused in the Allied advance by the relieving of the U. S. II. By the last week of June the Allies were facing the Trasimene positions, heinrich von Vietinghoffs 10th Army had Traugott Herrs LXXVI Panzer Corps facing XIII and X Corps and Valentin Feursteins LI Mountain Corps facing the Polish II Corps on the Adriatic. The toughest defenses were around the lake itself with XIII Corps British 78th Infantry Division experiencing fierce fighting on 17 June at Città della Pieve and 21 June at San Fatucchio. By 24 June they had worked their way round to the north shore, the U. S. IV Corps also found progress slow but by 1 July had crossed the river Cecina and were within 20 miles of Livorno. Meanwhile, the French Corps had been held up on the river Orcia west of Lake Trasimene until the parachutist defenders withdrew on 27 June allowing them to enter Siena on 3 July, the Imperial War Museum Book of the War in Italy 1943-1945. Washington, United States Army Center of Military History, German Tactics in the Italian Campaign. An account of the Irish Brigade attack on Sanfatucchio Ridge on 21-25 June 1944
15.
Operation Dragoon
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Operation Dragoon was the code name for the Allied invasion of Southern France on 15 August 1944. By July 1944 the landing was reconsidered, as the ports in Normandy did not have the capacity to adequately supply the Allied forces. Concurrently, the French High Command pushed for a revival of the operation that would include large numbers of French troops, as a result, the operation was finally approved in July to be executed in August. The goal of the operation was to secure the ports on the French Mediterranean coast. After some preliminary commando operations, the US VI Corps landed on the beaches of the Côte dAzur under the shield of a naval task force. Hindered by total Allied air superiority and an uprising by the French Resistance. The Germans decided to withdraw towards the north through the Rhône valley, Allied mobile units were able to overtake the Germans and partially block their route at the town of Montélimar. The ensuing battle led to a stalemate, with neither able to achieve a decisive breakthrough, until the Germans were finally able to complete their withdrawal. While the Germans were retreating, the French managed to capture the important ports of Marseille and Toulon, the Germans were not able to hold Dijon and ordered a complete withdrawal from Southern France. Army Group G retreated further north, pursued by Allied forces, the fighting ultimately came to a stop at the Vosges mountains, where Army Group G was finally able to establish a stable defense line. After meeting with the Allied units from Operation Overlord, the Allied forces were in need of reorganizing and, facing stiffened German resistance, Operation Dragoon was considered a success by the Allies. The captured French ports were put into operation, allowing the Allies to solve their supply problems soon after, during planning stages, the 1942 operation was known as Anvil, to complement Operation Sledgehammer, at that time the code name for the invasion of Normandy. Subsequently, both plans were renamed, Sledgehammer becoming Operation Overlord, and Anvil becoming Operation Dragoon, the original idea of an invasion of Southern France had come from General George Marshall, the U. S. Army Chief of Staff already in 1942. Operation Dragoon was controversial from the time it was first proposed, the American military leadership and its British counterparts disagreed on the operation. When first planned, the landings were to take place simultaneously – Overlord in Normandy and it soon became clear that a dual landing was impossible to conduct with the available forces. The expansion of Overlord from a three- to a five-division front required many additional LSTs, at the same time, another Allied amphibious landing in Italy at Anzio had gone badly. All of these resulted in the postponing of Anvil by the Allies, after the landing at Normandy, a revival of Anvil became increasingly attractive to the Allied planners. These factors led to a reconsideration of the plan, despite Churchills objections, the operation was authorized by the Allied Combined Chiefs of Staff on 14 July and then renamed Dragoon on 1 August
16.
Gothic Line
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The Gothic Line was a German defensive line of the Italian Campaign of World War II. Adolf Hitler had concerns about the state of preparation of the Gothic Line, in response to this order, Kesselring renamed it the Green Line in June 1944. Initially this line was breached during Operation Olive, but Kesselrings forces were able to retire in good order. Operation Olive has been described as the biggest battle of materials ever fought in Italy, over 1,200,000 men participated in the battle. The battle took the form of a manoeuvre, carried out by the British Eighth Army. Fifth Army against the German 10th Army and German 14th Army, Rimini, a city which had been hit by previous air raids, had 1,470,000 rounds fired against it by allied land forces. This would have required the U. S and this last redoubt proved the Germans determination to continue fighting. Nevertheless, it was fortunate for the Allies that at this stage of the war the Italian partisan forces had become effective in disrupting the German preparations in the high mountains. By September 1944, German generals were no longer able to move freely in the area behind their lines because of partisan activity. One of his colleagues who ignored this caution—Wilhelm Crisolli —was caught, Fifth Army to take part in the landings in southern France, Operation Dragoon. Whilst this would threaten Germany from the rear, Churchill was more concerned to forestall the Russians advancing into central Europe, Chiefs of Staff had strongly opposed this strategy as diluting the Allied focus in France. However, following the Allied successes in France during the summer, Chiefs relented, and there was complete agreement amongst the Combined Chiefs of Staff at the Second Quebec Conference on 12 September. It was the shortest route to his objective, the plains of Lombardy and he mounted a deception operation to convince the Germans that the main blow would come on the Adriatic front. On 4 August, Alexander met Lieutenant-General Leese, the British Eighth Army commander and he suggested a surprise attack along the Adriatic coast. On the coast, Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese, the British Eighth Army commander, had Polish II Corps with 5th Kresowa Division in the front line and the 3rd Carpathian Division in reserve. To the left of the Poles was Canadian I Corps which had the Canadian 1st Infantry Division in the front line, for the opening phase the corps artillery was strengthened with the addition of the British 4th Infantry Divisions artillery. West of the Canadians was British V Corps with the British 46th Infantry Division manning the right of the front line. In reserve were the British 56th Infantry and 1st Armoured Divisions, further to the rear was the British 4th Division, waiting to be called forward to join the corps
17.
Spring 1945 offensive in Italy
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The Spring 1945 offensive in Italy, codenamed Operation Grapeshot, was the final Allied attack during the Italian Campaign in the final stages of the Second World War. The attack into the Lombardy Plain by the 15th Allied Army Group started on 6 April 1945, Fifth Army, led by Lieutenant General Mark Clark, attacking through the central Apennine Mountains. Although they managed to breach the formidable Gothic Line defences, they failed to break out into the Po Valley before the winter weather closed in. Their forward formations spent the rest of the winter in highly inhospitable conditions while preparations were made to renew the campaign when better conditions returned in the spring. When Field Marshal Sir John Dill, the head of the British Mission in Washington, died on 5 November, General Harold Alexander, having been promoted to Field Marshal, was in turn appointed to replace Wilson as Allied Supreme Commander Mediterranean on 12 December. Lieutenant General Mark Clark succeeded Alexander as commander of the Allied forces in Italy and he returned to Italy to assume command of U. S. Command changes also took place in the German army before the spring campaign, on 23 March Albert Kesselring was appointed Commander-in-Chief Army Group West, replacing General-Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt. Heinrich von Vietinghoff returned from the Baltic to take over from Kesselring while Traugott Herr, joachim Lemelsen, who had had temporary command of the 10th Army, returned to the command of the 14th Army. Looking ahead to the spring, the problems of manning continued, in early January 1945 the British 1st British Division was sent to Palestine. At the end of January 1945, I Canadian Corps and British 5th Infantry Division were ordered to North West Europe, two other divisions, both British, were to follow them to Europe, but Alexander argued for these to instead remain in Italy. S. Allied strength amounted to 17 divisions plus 8 independent brigades, an equivalent of just under 20 divisions. 15th Army Groups total headcount amounted to 1,334,000 men with Eighth Armys effective fighting strength totalling 632,980 men, against them were ranged 21 much weaker German divisions and 4 Italian ENR divisions, a total of 25. Clark set out his plan on 18 March. Its objective was. to destroy the maximum number of forces south of the Po, force crossings of the Po. An amphibious operation across the lake and parachute drop would bring pressure to bear on the flank, depending on the relative success of these actions a decision would be made on whether Eighth Armys prime objective would become Ferrara, on the Via Adriatica, or remain Budrio. Meanwhile, it was intended for U. S, Fifth Army to launch the Army Groups main effort at 24 hours notice from two days after Eighth Armys attack and break into the Po valley. The capture of Bologna was given as a secondary task, in Phase II, the Eighth Army was to drive north west to capture Ferrara and Bondeno, blocking routes of potential retreat across the Po. Fifth Army was to push past Bologna north to link with Eighth Army in the Bondeno region to complete an encirclement of German forces south of the Po
18.
Invasion of Grenada
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Codenamed Operation Urgent Fury, it was triggered by a hard-line Stalinist coup that resulted in the execution of the previous left-wing revolutionary leader. The invasion resulted in the appointment of a government, followed by democratic elections in 1984. The country has remained a democratic nation since then, Grenada gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1974. The leftist New Jewel Movement seized power in a coup in 1979 under Maurice Bishop, suspending the constitution and detaining a number of political prisoners. From the U. S. perspective, the decision to intervene was in part motivated by concerns over the 600 U. S. medical students on the island, the U. S. invasion began six days after Bishops death, on the morning of 25 October 1983. The U. S. Armys Rapid Deployment Force, U. S. Marines, U. S. Army Delta Force, the military government of Hudson Austin was deposed and replaced by a government appointed by Governor-General Paul Scoon until elections were held in 1984. The invasion was criticized by several countries including Canada, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher privately disapproved of the mission and the lack of notice she received, but publicly supported the intervention. The United Nations General Assembly, on 2 November 1983 with a vote of 108 to 9, the U. S. awarded more than 5,000 medals for merit and valor. The date of the invasion is now a holiday in Grenada. The commemoration was due to political prisoners that were freed after the invasion. Sir Eric Gairy had led Grenada to independence from the United Kingdom in 1974 and his term in office coincided with civil strife in Grenada. The civil strife took the form of violence between Gairys private army, the Mongoose Gang, and gangs organized by the New Jewel Movement. In the late 1970s the NJM began planning to overthrow the government, Party members began to receive military training outside of Grenada. On 13 March 1979, while Gairy was out of the country, the Bishop government began constructing the Point Salines International Airport with the help of Britain, Cuba, Libya, Algeria, and other nations. The airport had been first proposed by the British government in 1954 and it had been designed by Canadians, underwritten by the British government, and partly built by a London firm. In 1983, then-member of the United States House of Representatives Ron Dellums, traveled to Grenada on a fact-finding mission, Dellums described his findings before Congress. It is my thought that it is absurd, patronizing, on 16 October 1983, a party faction led by Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard seized power. Bishop was placed under house arrest, mass protests against the action led to Bishops escaping detention and reasserting his authority as the head of the government
19.
United States invasion of Panama
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The United States Invasion of Panama, code named Operation Just Cause, was an invasion of Panama by the United States between mid-December 1989 and late January 1990. During the invasion, de facto Panamanian leader, general, and dictator Manuel Noriega was deposed, president-elect Guillermo Endara sworn into office, and the Panamanian Defense Force dissolved. Although the canal was destined for Panamanian administration, the bases remained. Noriega received upwards of $100,000 per year from the 1960s until the 1980s, in the mid-1980s, relations between Noriega and the United States began to deteriorate. Later negotiations involved dropping the drug-trafficking indictments, in March 1988, Noriegas forces resisted an attempted coup against the government of Panama. As relations continued to deteriorate, Noriega appeared to shift his Cold War allegiance towards the Soviet bloc, soliciting and receiving aid from Cuba, Nicaragua. American military planners began preparing plans to invade Panama. Their tally showed their candidate, Guillermo Endara, defeating Carlos Duque, candidate of a pro-Noriega coalition, Endara was beaten up by Noriega supporters the next day in his motorcade. Noriega declared the election null and maintained power by force, making him unpopular among Panamanians, Noriegas government insisted that it had won the presidential election and that irregularities had been on the part of U. S. -backed candidates from opposition parties. Bush called on Noriega to honor the will of the Panamanian people, the United States reinforced its Canal Zone garrison, and increased the tempo of training and other activities intended to put pressure on Noriega. In October 1989, Noriega foiled a coup attempt by members of the Panamanian Defense Forces. Pressure mounted on Bush as the media labeled him a wimp for failing to aid Panama, on 15 December, the Panamanian general assembly passed a resolution declaring that the actions of the United States had caused a state of war to exist between Panama and the United States. The next day, four U. S. military personnel were stopped at a roadblock around 9,00 PM outside PDF headquarters in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City, the PDF asserted later that the Americans were armed and on a reconnaissance mission. The PDF opened fire and Lieutenant Paz was fatally wounded by a round that entered the rear of the vehicle, captain Hadded, the driver of the vehicle, was also wounded in the foot. Paz was rushed to Gorgas Army Hospital but died of his wounds and he received the Purple Heart posthumously. According to U. S. military sources, a U. S. Naval officer, while in police custody, they were assaulted by the PDF. The U. S. Naval officer spent two weeks in hospital recovering from the beating, PDF soldiers sexually threatened his wife. The next day, President Bush ordered the execution of the Panama invasion plan, the military set H-Hour as 0100 on 20 December
20.
Meritorious Unit Citation
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The Meritorious Unit Citation is a collective group decoration awarded to members of Australian military units. It recognises sustained outstanding service in warlike operations, the Meritorious Unit Citation was created in 1991, along with the Unit Citation for Gallantry. The insignia of a Meritorious Unit Citation is a rhodium plated sterling silver frame measuring 32 by 15 millimetres, the frame surrounds a ribbon bar of old gold, which may display a rhodium plated, 7-millimetre diameter, sterling silver Federation Star on its centre. Members attached to the unit when the citation is awarded wear it with the Federation Star, members who subsequently join the unit wear the citation without the Federation Star, and discontinue wearing it after leaving the unit. Clearance Diving Team 3 –4 November 1991 For meritorious service in clearing Kuwaiti ports of mines, explosive devices,3 Squadron, SASR –25 March 2000 For sustained outstanding service in warlike operations of the Special Air Service Regiment of the Response Force for Operation Warden. Task Group 645.1.1 –25 March 2000 For sustained outstanding service in operations in support of the International Force for East Timor during Operation Stabilise. 10th Force Support Battalion –26 January 2002 For sustained outstanding service in the provision of support to warlike operations in East Timor. No.84 Wing Detachment Manas –29 September 2002 For outstanding service during operations over the Afghanistan area of operation from March to September 2002 during Operation Slipper. No.3 Squadron RNZAF –15 November 2002 For sustained outstanding service in the support of the peacekeeping operations whilst deployed in East Timor, SASR –19 December 2002 For sustained outstanding service in warlike operations in Afghanistan in support of the International Coalition against Terrorism. HMAS Anzac –27 November 2003 For sustained outstanding service in operations in the Middle East Area of Operations between February and May 2003 whilst deployed on Operation Falconer. Clearance Diving Team 3 –27 November 2003 For sustained outstanding service in warlike conditions during Operation Bastille, No.75 Squadron –27 November 2003 For sustained outstanding service during warlike operations, in the Middle East Area of operations, over Iraq during Operation Falconer. 5th Aviation Regiment –27 November 2007 For sustained meritorious service during warlike and peace missions in support of Operation Warden, Operation Tanager. Mentoring Task Force-1 –13 June 2011 For sustained outstanding service in operations on Operation Slipper in Uruzgan Province, Afghanistan. 1st Joint Movement Group –26 January 2015 For sustained and outstanding warlike operational service in the Middle East Area of Operations over the period November 2001 to June 2014, the superior combat operations results of Task Group 66 further emphasised the Group’s exceptional courage and commitment. No.36 and No.37 Squadron RAAF –13 June 2016 For sustained outstanding service in operations throughout the Middle East Area of Operations over the period January 2002 to June 2014. Australian Honours Order of Precedence Its an Honour – Meritorious Unit Citation ADF Honours and Awards – Unit Citations
21.
Air Force Outstanding Unit Award
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The Air Force Outstanding Unit Award is one of the unit awards of the United States Air Force. It was established in 1954 and was the first independent Air Force decoration created, the Air Force Longevity Service Award would follow in 1957 with most of the standard Air Force awards established in the early to mid 1960s. The Outstanding Unit Award is awarded to any unit of the U. S, multiple awards of the Outstanding Unit Award are denoted by oak leaf clusters on the ribbon. Until 2004, the Outstanding Unit Award was the senior most unit award in the U. S. Air Force and it is awarded to personnel who were assigned or attached to the unit receiving the award during the period it was awarded for. Non-USAF personnel personnel assigned to USAF units awarded the Outstanding Unit Award are also eligible to wear the ribbon on their uniforms, however, the ribbon does not come in the larger size of unit awards common to the U. S. Army
22.
Jimmy Doolittle
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James Harold Jimmy Doolittle was an American aviation pioneer. He was eventually promoted to lieutenant general and commanded the Twelfth Air Force over North Africa, the Fifteenth Air Force over the Mediterranean, Doolittle was born in Alameda, California, and spent his youth in Nome, Alaska, where he earned a reputation as a boxer. His parents were Frank Henry Doolittle and Rosa Cerenah Shephard, by 1910, Jimmy Doolittle was attending school in Los Angeles. When his school attended the 1910 Los Angeles International Air Meet at Dominguez Field Doolittle saw his first airplane and he was a member of Theta Kappa Nu fraternity, which would merge into Lambda Chi Alpha during the latter stages of the Great Depression. Doolittle received his Reserve Military Aviator rating and was commissioned a first lieutenant in the Signal Officers Reserve Corps of the U. S. Army on March 11,1918, Doolittles service at Rockwell Field consisted of duty as a flight leader and gunnery instructor. At Kelly Field, he served with the 104th Aero Squadron and his detachment of the 90th Aero Squadron was based at Eagle Pass, patrolling the Mexican border. On May 10,1921, he was engineering officer and pilot for an expedition recovering a plane that had force-landed in a Mexican canyon on February 10 during a flight attempt by Lieut. Doolittle reached the plane on May 3 and found it serviceable, then returned May 8 with a replacement motor, the oil pressure of the new motor was inadequate and Doolittle requested two pressure gauges, using carrier pigeons to communicate. The additional parts were dropped by air and installed, and Doolittle flew the plane to Del Rio, Texas himself, subsequently, he attended the Air Service Mechanical School at Kelly Field and the Aeronautical Engineering Course at McCook Field, Ohio. Having at last returned to complete his degree, he earned the Bachelor of Arts from the University of California, Berkeley in 1922. Doolittle was one of the most famous pilots during the inter-war period, the U. S. Army awarded him the Distinguished Flying Cross. Within days after the flight, he was at the Air Service Engineering School at McCook Field, Dayton. For Doolittle, the assignment had special significance, In the early 20s. So some of us who had previous engineering training were sent to the school at old McCook Field. After a years training there in practical aeronautical engineering, some of us were sent on to MIT where we took advanced degrees in aeronautical engineering, I believe that the purpose was served, that there was thereafter a better understanding between pilots and engineers. In July 1923, after serving as a test pilot and aeronautical engineer at McCook Field, in March 1924, he conducted aircraft acceleration tests at McCook Field, which became the basis of his masters thesis and led to his second Distinguished Flying Cross. He received his M. S. in Aeronautics from MIT in June 1924. Because the Army had given him two years to get his degree and he had done it in just one, he started working on his Sc. D. in Aeronautics
23.
John K. Cannon
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General John Kenneth Cannon was a World War II Mediterranean combat commander and former chief of United States Air Forces in Europe for whom Cannon Air Force Base, Clovis, New Mexico, is named. John Kenneth Cannon was born in Salt Lake City, Utah Territory and he graduated from Utah Agricultural College in 1914 and was appointed a second lieutenant in the United States Army Infantry Reserve on November 27,1917. He served the infantry at Camp Fremont, California, Camp Mills, New York, the Presidio of San Francisco and he completed pursuit pilot training at Ellington Field, Texas, on April 23,1922, where one of his seven classmates was Lt. Claire Lee Chennault. In the Air Service he became director of flying at Kelly in the fall of 1922, Cannon went to Hawaii in January 1925, assigned to the 6th Pursuit Squadron at Luke Field on Ford Island, where he became operations officer of the 5th Composite Group. Two years later, he was commanding officer of the 94th Pursuit Squadron at Selfridge Field and he returned to Kelly in 1929 as director of pursuit training, with promotion to captain, and became director of training at Randolph Field, Texas, in August 1931. He completed the courses at the Air Corps Tactical School and the Command and General Staff School, with promotion to major in March 1935 and assignment to March Field, California. In June 1938, Cannon went to Buenos Aires, Argentina, while there, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel in March 1940 and to colonel in January 1941. That October, he went to Mitchel Field, New York as chief of staff of the 1st Air Force and he was promoted to brigadier general in February 1942. During Operation Torch in November 1942, Cannon was the general of the XII Air Support Command for the Western Task Force during the invasion of French Morocco. He moved to Algeria as commanding general of the XII Bomber Command, in May 1943, Cannon became deputy commanding general of the Northwest African Tactical Air Force under Commander Air Marshal Sir Arthur Coningham for the Sicilian campaign and the invasion of Italy. General Cannon was responsible for all air operations during the invasion of southern France in August 1944, in March 1945, he was promoted to lieutenant general and named air commander in chief of all Allied Air Forces in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations. In May 1945, Lt. Gen. John K. Cannon became commanding general of U. S. Air Forces in Europe USAFE. He earned four Distinguished Service Medals, Legion of Merit, Bronze Star, Air Medal and decorations from Great Britain, France, Italy, Poland, Yugoslavia and Morocco. General Cannon returned to the U. S. in April 1946 as commanding general of Air Training Command at Barksdale Field, Louisiana. In October 1948, he returned to Europe as commanding general of U. S. Air Forces in Europe, in October 1951, he was promoted to general and appointed commanding general of Tactical Air Command at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia. General Cannon retired from the service on March 31,1954, at the time of his retirement, he was senior air officer in point-of-service, holding serial number 3A. He died of an attack on January 12,1955. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery, on 8 June 1957, the Clovis Air Force Base in Clovis, New Mexico was renamed Cannon Air Force Base in honor of General Cannon
24.
Merrill McPeak
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Merrill Anthony Tony McPeak is a retired 4 star General in the United States Air Force whose final assignment before retirement was as the 14th Chief of Staff of the Air Force from 1990 to 1994. For a while in 1993, McPeak served as Acting Secretary of the Air Force, before Sheila E. McPeak was born in Santa Rosa and he was commissioned through Air Force ROTC, and entered active duty in November of that year. He later earned a Master of Arts degree in international relations from George Washington University in 1974, after completing preflight and pilot training, McPeak flew fighter F-100 Super Sabre and F-104 Starfighter aircraft in operational squadrons in the United States and in the United Kingdom. Later he returned to the U. S. as a pilot and weapons officer at Luke Air Force Base. From December 1966 to December 1968, McPeak was assigned as a solo and lead pilot with the Thunderbirds. While with the Thunderbirds he performed in nearly 200 air shows in the U. S. upon completion of his tour with the Thunderbirds, he was assigned as an F-100 pilot with the 37th Tactical Fighter Wing at Phù Cát Air Base in South Vietnam. On February 1,1969, he was assigned to Project Commando Sabre, known as the Misty FACs, a specialized group of high speed forward air controllers trying to stop traffic down the Ho Chi Minh Trail. He became the commander of Commando Sabre on April 22,1969, and moved it to the 31st Tactical Fighter Wing at Tuy Hoa Air Base on May 1. Rotating out of his command on May 31,1969 after 98 missions, from 1970 to 1973, McPeak was an air operations staff officer for the Mideast Division at Headquarters USAF in Washington. After graduating from the National War College in 1974, he was named assistant deputy commander for operations for the 1st Tactical Fighter Wing at MacDill AFB, from 1975 to 1976, he was a military fellow with the Council on Foreign Relations in New York City. In 1976, McPeak contributed an article to Foreign Affairs Journal expressing his views on the Israelis occupation of territories during the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, from 1978 to 1980, he was assistant chief of staff for current operations, Allied Air Forces Central Europe. 1980 and 1981 saw him flying the F-111E and commanding the 20th Tactical Fighter Wing, based at RAF Station Upper Heyford, United Kingdom. McPeak was chief of staff at USAFE headquarters from 1981 to 1982 and he returned to Headquarters USAF in 1985-87 as deputy chief of staff for programs and resources. In June 1987, McPeak moved to Bergstrom AFB, Texas in the roles of Commander. A year later he was named commander-in-chief of Pacific Air Forces PACAF and he was appointed Air Force Chief of Staff by President George H. W. Bush in October 1990, replacing the retiring General Michael Dugan. McPeak took over as Chief of Staff during the run-up for Operation Desert Shield, also, his tenure oversaw the merging of Air Training Command and Air University into Air Education and Training Command. McPeak pushed through major organizational change, aimed at streamlining and emphasizing operations, much of his tenure focused on elevating the status of flight operations, some say at the expense of support, or non-flying career fields. He also created the Air Force Expeditionary Wing concept, a fusion of combat forces and he also transferred several flying wing and space wing command billets to Brigadier Generals, even though previously these had been commanded by Colonels
25.
Arizona
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Arizona is a state in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the Western United States and the Mountain West states and it is the sixth largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix, Arizona is one of the Four Corners states. It has borders with New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, California, and Mexico, Arizonas border with Mexico is 389 miles long, on the northern border of the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California. Arizona is the 48th state and last of the states to be admitted to the Union. Historically part of the territory of Alta California in New Spain, after being defeated in the Mexican–American War, Mexico ceded much of this territory to the United States in 1848. The southernmost portion of the state was acquired in 1853 through the Gadsden Purchase, Southern Arizona is known for its desert climate, with very hot summers and mild winters. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff, Alpine, in addition to the Grand Canyon National Park, there are several national forests, national parks, and national monuments. To the European settlers, their pronunciation sounded like Arissona, the area is still known as alĭ ṣonak in the Oodham language. Another possible origin is the Basque phrase haritz ona, as there were numerous Basque sheepherders in the area, There is a misconception that the states name originated from the Spanish term Árida Zona. See also lists of counties, islands, rivers, lakes, state parks, national parks, Arizona is in the Southwestern United States as one of the Four Corners states. Arizona is the sixth largest state by area, ranked after New Mexico, of the states 113,998 square miles, approximately 15% is privately owned. The remaining area is public forest and park land, state trust land, Arizona is well known for its desert Basin and Range region in the states southern portions, which is rich in a landscape of xerophyte plants such as the cactus. This regions topography was shaped by volcanism, followed by the cooling-off. Its climate has hot summers and mild winters. The state is well known for its pine-covered north-central portion of the high country of the Colorado Plateau. Like other states of the Southwest United States, Arizona has an abundance of mountains, despite the states aridity, 27% of Arizona is forest, a percentage comparable to modern-day France or Germany. The worlds largest stand of pine trees is in Arizona
26.
United States Southern Command
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The United States Southern Command, located in Doral, Florida in Greater Miami, is one of nine Unified Combatant Commands in the United States Department of Defense. USSOUTHCOM is also responsible for ensuring the defense of the Panama Canal, under the leadership of a four-star Commander, USSOUTHCOM is organized into a headquarters with six main directorates, component commands and military groups that represent SOUTHCOM in the region. Civilians working at USSOUTHCOM are, for the most part, civilian employees of the Army, USSOUTHCOM exercises its authority through the commanders of its components, Joint Task Forces/Joint Interagency Task Force, and Security Cooperation Organizations. The USSOUTHCOM Area of Responsibility encompasses 32 nations, of which 31 are democracies, as of October 2002, the area of focus covered 14. ARSOUTH supports regional disaster relief and counterdrug efforts, ARSOUTH provides Title 10 and Executive Agent responsibilities throughout the Latin American and Caribbean region. At any given moment, four troops are deployed in Latin America. AFSOUTH also provides oversight, planning, execution, and logistical support for humanitarians, Twelfth Air Force is also leading the way in bringing the Chief of Staff of the Air Forces Warfighting Headquarters concept to life. The WFHQ is composed of a command and control element, an Air Force forces staff, operating as a WFHQ since June 2004, Twelfth Air Force has served as the Air Force model for the future of Combined Air and Space Operations Centers and WFHQ Air Force forces. Located at Naval Station Mayport, Florida, USNAVSO exercises command and control over all U. S. naval operations in the USSOUTHCOM area including naval exercises, maritime operations, and port visits. USNAVSO is also the agent for the operation of the cooperative security location at Comalapa, El Salvador. Rear Admiral Joseph D. Kernan was named as the commander and Commander. Up to four ships are deployed in the waters in and around Latin American, USSOCSOUTH controls all Special Operations Forces in the region and also establishes and operates a Joint Special Operations Task Force when required. As a Theater Special Operations Command, USSOCSOUTH is a command of USSOUTHCOM. There are also three task forces with specific missions in the region that report to U. S, Southern Command, Located at Soto Cano Air Base, Honduras, JTF -Bravo operates a forward, all-weather day/night C-5-capable airbase. Located at U. S. JTF – Guantanamo is also prepared to support mass migration operations at Naval Station GTMO, jIATF- South also collects, processes, and disseminates counter-drug information for interagency operations. Manta Air Base was one of JIATF-Souths bases, in Ecuador until September 19,2009, even senior leaders used inappropriate hand gestures, it said, and mentioned simulations of masturbation. Patrick Leahy, D-Vermont, the author of the Leahy Law prohibiting U. S. assistance to military units, on March 10,2017, Daniel P. While this has taken longer than we would have preferred, we want to ensure that consideration is given
27.
Central America
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Central America is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. Central America is bordered by Mexico to the north, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the east, Central America consists of seven countries, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. The combined population of Central America is between 41,739,000 and 42,688,190, Central America is a part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, which extends from northern Guatemala through to central Panama. Due to the presence of several active faults and the Central America Volcanic Arc. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur frequently, these disasters have resulted in the loss of many lives. In the Pre-Columbian era, Central America was inhabited by the peoples of Mesoamerica to the north and west. Soon after Christopher Columbuss voyages to the Americas, the Spanish began to colonize the Americas, the seven states finally became independent autonomous states, beginning with Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala, followed by El Salvador, then Panama, and finally Belize. Middle America is usually thought to comprise Mexico to the north of the 7 states of Central America as well as Colombia, usually the whole of the Caribbean to the north-east and sometimes the Guyanas are also included. According to one source, the term Central America was used as a synonym for Middle America as recently as 1962, in Brazil, Central America comprises all countries between Mexico and Colombia, including those in the Caribbean. Mexico, in whole or in part, is included by British people. For the people living in the 5 countries formerly part of the Federal Republic of Central America there is a distinction between the Spanish language terms América Central and Centroamérica, in the Pre-Columbian era, the northern areas of Central America were inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. Most notable among these were the Mayans, who had built numerous cities throughout the region, and the Aztecs, following Christopher Columbuss voyages to the Americas, the Spanish sent many expeditions to the region, and they began their conquest of Maya territory in 1523. Soon after the conquest of the Aztec Empire, Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado commenced the conquest of northern Central America for the Spanish Empire. Beginning with his arrival in Soconusco in 1523, Alvarados forces systematically conquered and subjugated most of the major Maya kingdoms, including the Kiche, Tzutujil, Pipil, and the Kaqchikel. By 1528, the conquest of Guatemala was nearly complete, with only the Petén Basin remaining outside the Spanish sphere of influence, the last independent Maya kingdoms – the Kowoj and the Itza people – were finally defeated in 1697, as part of the Spanish conquest of Petén. In 1538, Spain established the Real Audiencia of Panama, which had jurisdiction over all land from the Strait of Magellan to the Gulf of Fonseca. This entity was dissolved in 1543, and most of the territory within Central America then fell under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real de Guatemala. This area included the current territories of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Mexican state of Chiapas, the president of the Audiencia, which had its seat in Antigua Guatemala, was the governor of the entire area
28.
District of Columbia
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
29.
Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
30.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
31.
Tactical Air Command
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Tactical Air Command is an inactive United States Air Force organization. It was a Major Command of the United States Air Force, established on 21 March 1946 and headquartered at Langley Air Force Base and it was inactivated on 1 June 1992 and its personnel and equipment absorbed by Air Combat Command. Tactical Air Command was established to provide a balance between strategic, air defense, and tactical forces of the post–World War II U. S. Army Air Forces followed by, in 1947, the U. S. Air Force. In 1948, the Continental Air Command assumed control over air defense, tactical air, after two years in a subordinate role, Tactical Air Command was established as a major command. World War II showed the effectiveness of air power in supporting army ground forces. However, the demobilization in late 1945 meant that the huge air armada that had brought Germany to her knees. Following the end of World War II, Headquarters United States Army Air Forces had little funding and most wartime personnel had been released from active duty and returned to civilian life. Many USAAF aircraft were being sent to storage or scrapyards, although the tension with the Soviet Union meant that combat military air forces were still needed. The big questions were how large and what kind of forces, a major realignment of the USAAF was undertaken in early 1946. As part of the realignment, three major divisions within the Continental United States were formed, Strategic Air Command, Tactical Air Command. Each was given a specific responsibility, using assets prescribed to accomplish the assigned mission, Tactical Air Command was formed to command, organize, equip, train and administer assigned or attached forces. It was to plan for and participate in tactics for fighter, light bombardment and these included tactical fighters, tactical bombers, tactical missiles, troop carrier aircraft, assault, reconnaissance, and support units. TAC also planned for and developed the capability to deploy tactical striking forces anywhere in the world, during its existence, Tactical Air Command deployed personnel, material and/or aircraft to Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe and Australia in support of its prescribed mission. TACs original authorization was 25,500 officers and enlisted men, aircraft assets available consisted of propeller-driven North American P-51 Mustangs, Republic P-47 Thunderbolts and a handful of the new jet-powered Lockheed P-80 Shooting Stars. TAC was also given control of the Third Air Force, Ninth Air Force, on 18 September 1947, the United States Air Force was established as a separate military force, with TAC as one of its major commands. At the time, there was only one U. S. Air Forces in Europe tactical air unit available in Europe, TAC was called upon to send additional units and aircraft to Europe to reinforce the 86 FG. The 36th Fighter Group, flying Lockheed F-80B Shooting Stars, was transferred from Howard AFB in the Panama Canal Zone to Furstenfeldbruck Air Base near Munich. In addition to fighter aircraft, TAC also deployed available C-47 Skytrain transports to Europe, transferring them to USAFE
32.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
33.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
34.
War on Terror
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The War on Terror, also known as the Global War on Terrorism, is a metaphor of war referring to the international military campaign that started after the September 11th attacks on the United States. U. S. President George W. Bush first used the term War on Terror on 20 September 2001 and it was originally used with a particular focus on countries associated with Islamic terrorist organizations including al-Qaeda and like-minded organizations. In 2013, President Barack Obama announced that the United States was no longer pursuing a War on Terror, in 2017 Donald Trump assumed presidency of the United States and vowed that the fight against ISIL is his number one priority. Trump has also agreed to work together and carry joint operations with Russian President Vladimir Putin in the war on terror. The phrase War on Terror has been used to refer to the ongoing military campaign led by the U. S. The conflict has also referred to by names other than the War on Terror. Author Shane Harris asserts this was a reaction to the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing, Bush later apologized for this remark due to the negative connotations the term crusade has to people, e. g. of the Muslim faith. The word crusade was not used again, on 20 September 2001, during a televised address to a joint session of Congress, Bush stated that ur war on terror begins with al-Qaeda, but it does not end there. It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, in April 2007, the British government announced publicly that it was abandoning the use of the phrase War on Terror as they found it to be less than helpful. This was explained more recently by Lady Eliza Manningham-Buller, in her 2011 Reith lecture, the former head of MI5 said that the 9/11 attacks were a crime, not an act of war. So I never felt it helpful to refer to a war on terror. U. S. President Barack Obama has rarely used the term, in March 2009 the Defense Department officially changed the name of operations from Global War on Terror to Overseas Contingency Operation. In March 2009, the Obama administration requested that Pentagon staff members avoid the use of the term, basic objectives of the Bush administration war on terror, such as targeting al Qaeda and building international counterterrorism alliances, remain in place. Because the actions involved in the war on terrorism are diffuse, jackson cites among many examples a statement by John Ashcroft that the attacks of September 11 drew a bright line of demarcation between the civil and the savage. Administration officials also described terrorists as hateful, treacherous, barbarous, mad, twisted, perverted, without faith, parasitical, inhuman, Americans, in contrast, were described as brave, loving, generous, strong, resourceful, heroic, and respectful of human rights. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to the Soviet war in Afghanistan, a small number of Afghan Arab volunteers joined the fight against the Soviets, including Osama bin Laden, but there is no evidence they received any external assistance. On 7 August 1998, al-Qaeda struck the U. S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, killing 224 people, the plant produced much of the regions antimalarial drugs and around 50% of Sudans pharmaceutical needs. The strikes failed to kill any leaders of WIFJAJC or the Taliban, next came the 2000 millennium attack plots, which included an attempted bombing of Los Angeles International Airport
35.
United States Central Command
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The United States Central Command is a theater-level Unified Combatant Command of the U. S. Department of Defense. It was established in 1983, taking over the 1980 Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force responsibilities, the CENTCOM Area of Responsibility includes countries in the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia, most notably Afghanistan and Iraq. CENTCOM has been the main American presence in many operations, including the Persian Gulf War, the War in Afghanistan. As of 2015, CENTCOM forces are deployed primarily in Afghanistan and Iraq in supporting, as of 1 August 2016, CENTCOMs commander was General Joseph Votel, U. S. Army. Of all six American regional unified combatant commands, CENTCOM is among the three with headquarters outside its area of operations, CENTCOMs main headquarters is located at MacDill Air Force Base, in Tampa, Florida. A forward headquarters was established in 2002 at Camp As Sayliyah in Doha, Qatar, United States Central Command was established on January 1,1983. As its name implies, CENTCOM covers the area of the globe located between the European and Pacific Commands. Steps were taken to transform the RDJTF into a permanent unified command over a two-year period, the first step was to make the RDJTF independent of U. S. Readiness Command, followed by the activation of CENTCOM in January 1983, overcoming skeptical perceptions that the command was still an RDJTF in all but name, designed to support a Cold War strategy, took time. The Iran–Iraq War clearly underlined the growing tensions in the region, on 17 May 1987, the USS Stark, conducting operations in the Persian Gulf during the Iran-Iraq War, was struck by Exocet missiles fired by an Iraqi aircraft, resulting in 37 casualties. Soon afterward, as part of what became known as the Tanker War, in Operation Earnest Will, these tankers were escorted by USCENTCOM’s Middle East Force through the Persian Gulf to Kuwait and back through the Strait of Hormuz. By late 1988, the regional strategy still focused on the potential threat of a massive Soviet invasion of Iran. Exercise Internal Look has been one of CENTCOMs primary planning events and it had frequently been used to train CENTCOM to be ready to defend the Zagros Mountains from a Soviet attack and was held annually. In autumn 1989, the main CENTCOM contingency plan, OPLAN 1002-88, the plan called for five-and-two-thirds US divisions to deploy, mostly light and heavy forces at something less than full strength. The original plan called for these divisions to march from the Persian Gulf to the Zagros Mountains. After 1990, General Norman Schwarzkopf reoriented CENTCOMs planning to fend off a threat from Iraq, U. S. President George Bush responded quickly. A timely deployment of forces and the formation of a coalition deterred Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia, the buildup of forces continued, reinforced by United Nations Security Council Resolution 678, which called for Iraqi forces to leave Kuwait. On January 17,1991, U. S. and coalition forces launched Operation Desert Storm with an air interdiction campaign
36.
Air Force Reserve Command
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The Air Force Reserve Command is a Major Command of the United States Air Force, with its headquarters at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia. It is the federally controlled Air Reserve Component of the U. S. Air Force, consisting of duly appointed commissioned officers, AFRC supports the Air Force mission to defend the United States through the control and exploitation of air and space by supporting Global Engagement. AFRC also plays an role in the day-to-day Air Force mission and is not strictly a force held in reserve for possible war or contingency operations. The inventory, both AFRC-controlled and active duty Regular Air Force-controlled, includes the latest, most capable models of aircraft that are assigned to the U. S. Air Force. On any given day,99 percent of AFRCs aircraft are mission-ready, in addition to flying units, AFRC has numerous ground organizations ranging from medical units to civil engineers, intelligence and space operations, and security forces, just to name a few. In combination with the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve comprises half of what is known as the Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force, AFRC forces are under the administrative control of the Commander, Air Force Reserve Command. The Air Force Reserve also contains other specialized capabilities not found in active duty Air Force units. A third unique mission set in the Air Force Reserve, Aerial Firefighting, is conducted in tandem with the Air National Guard, there are several categories of service for personnel in the Air Force Reserve. However, many Air Force Reservists, especially those in a flying status, serve well in excess of this minimum duty requirement. A smaller but equally important category of TR is the Individual Mobilization Augmentee and their job is to bring Air Force Reserve expertise to the planning and decision-making processes at senior levels within the Air Force, other services, and the Unified Combatant Commands. Like the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve Command also requires two categories of personnel to perform functions that require full-time manning. These full-time positions are filled via the two programs as employed by the Air National Guard, the Active Guard and Reserve program. Air Force Reservists who become members of the Active Guard and Reserve receive full active duty pay, the majority of AGRs are former TRs and they serve four-year controlled tours of special duty that can be renewed. S. Air Force, on the staffs of Unified Combatant Commands, on the Joint Staff, AFRC Recruiting is another field that employs AGR personnel. AGRs also have the option with good performance to serve 20 or more years on duty and receive a retirement after 20 or more years. Another category of Air Force Reservists serving full-time are those in the Air Reserve Technician Program, ARTs are accessed from either the active duty Regular Air Force, the AGR program, Traditional Guardsmen in the Air National Guard, or TRs in the Air Force Reserve. This category also includes all full-time ART personnel and they are predominantly assigned to the Unit Program or as IMAs. Standby Reserve Includes Reservists whose civilian jobs are considered key to defense or who have temporary disability or personal hardship
37.
Air National Guard
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When Air National Guard units are used under the jurisdiction of the state governor they are fulfilling their militia role. However, if federalized by order of the President of the United States and they are jointly administered by the states and the National Guard Bureau, a joint bureau of the Army and Air Force that oversees the National Guard of the United States. The ANG of the territories of Guam and the Virgin Islands have no aircraft assigned, ANG units typically operate under Title 32 USC. However, when operating under Title 10 USC all ANG units are operationally-gained by an active duty USAF major command. ANG units of the Combat Air Forces based in the Continental United States, conversely, CONUS-based ANG units in the Mobility Air Forces, plus the Puerto Rico ANGs airlift wing and the Virgin Islands ANGs civil engineering squadron are gained by the Air Mobility Command. The vast majority of ANG units fall under either ACC or AMC, established under Title 10 and Title 32 of the U. S. S. When not in a status, the Air National Guard operates under their respective state. The exception to rule is the District of Columbia Air National Guard. Because both state Air National Guard and the Air National Guard of the United States relatively go hand-in-hand, Air National Guard of the United States units or members may be called up for federal active duty in times of Congressionally sanctioned war or national emergency. The United States Air National Guard has about 110,000 men and women in service, even traditional part-time air guardsmen, especially pilots, navigators/combat systems officers, air battle managers and enlisted aircrew, often serve 100 or more man-days annually. As such, the concept of Air National Guard service as representing only one weekend a month, the Georgia Air National Guard and the Kansas Air National Guard previously flew the B-1B Lancer prior to converting to the E-8 Joint STARS and KC-135R Stratotanker, respectively. In addition, the 131st Fighter Wing of the Missouri Air National Guard transitioned from flying the F-15C/D Eagle at St and these proposals were eventually overruled and cancelled by the U. S. Congress. As state militia units, the units in the Air National Guard are not in the normal United States Air Force chain of command and they are under the jurisdiction of the United States National Guard Bureau unless they are federalized by order of the President of the United States. Air National Guard units are trained and equipped by the United States Air Force, the state ANG units, depending on their mission, are operationally gained by a major command of the USAF if federalized. Air National Guard personnel are expected to adhere to the moral and physical standards as their full-time active duty Air Force. The same ranks and insignia of the U. S. Air Force are used by the Air National Guard, the Air National Guard also bestows a number of state awards for local services rendered in a service members home state or equivalent. The creation of the regiments was caused by the perceived need to defend the Bay Colony against American Indians. This organization formed the basis of subsequent colonial and, post-independence, state and this distinction accounts for why there are no National Guard components in the U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps or U. S. Coast Guard
38.
Caribbean
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The Caribbean is a region that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands and the surrounding coasts. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region comprises more than 700 islands, islets, reefs and cays. These islands generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea, in a wider sense, the mainland countries of Belize, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana are often included due to their political and cultural ties with the region. Geopolitically, the Caribbean islands are usually regarded as a subregion of North America and are organized into 30 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. From December 15,1954, to October 10,2010, there was a known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five states. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations, the region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest. The two most prevalent pronunciations of Caribbean are KARR-ə-BEE-ən, with the accent on the third syllable. The former pronunciation is the older of the two, although the variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer KARR-ə-BEE-ən while North American speakers more typically use kə-RIB-ee-ən, usage is split within Caribbean English itself. The word Caribbean has multiple uses and its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to slavery, European colonisation, the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas accords the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas. Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea, to the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America, politically, the Caribbean may be centred on socio-economic groupings found in the region. For example, the known as the Caribbean Community contains the Co-operative Republic of Guyana. Bermuda and the Turks and Caicos Islands, which are in the Atlantic Ocean, are members of the Caribbean Community. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is also in the Atlantic and is a member of the Caribbean Community. According to the ACS, the population of its member states is 227 million people. The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies, Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin and these islands include Aruba, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua
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49th Wing
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The 49th Wing is a United States Air Force unit, assigned to Twelfth Air Force, Air Combat Command. It is stationed at Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, the 49th Wing supports national security objectives by deploying worldwide in support of peacetime and wartime contingencies. The wing provides combat-ready Airmen training MQ-1 Predator and MQ-9 Reaper pilots, the wing has a proud history of service in Korea, Southeast Asia, Southwest Asia and NATO-led Operation Allied Force. 49th Operations Group The 49th Operations Group supports training of MQ-1 Predator and MQ-9 Reaper pilots, the group also directs all maintenance, qualification, on-the-job and ancillary training for over 1,200 people. The groups 431 authorized personnel encompass 42 Air Force specialties and are responsible for bare base assets worth over $234 million dollars. 49th Medical Group The 49th Medical Groups mission is to sustain and enhance a culture of safety, maximize combat readiness, enhance access to quality patient care, and develop our Airmen and staff. For additional history and lineage, see 49th Operations Group The history of the 49th Wing begins with its activation at Misawa Air Base, in January 1946, the 49th Fighter Group became the first United States Army Air Forces unit assigned to the rebuilt base. In 1948, with the adoption of the Hobson Plan, the United States Air Force 49th Fighter Wing was activated, the initial mission of the 49th Fighter Wing was the air defense of Northern Honshu and Hokkaido. Its 7th Fighter Squadron, 8th Fighter Squadron and 9th Fighter Squadrons were initially equipped with P-51D Mustangs, initially under its parent wing, the 49th was reassigned to the 8th Fighter-Bomber Wing during July through September, and finally the 6149th Tactical Support Wing during October and November 1950. Korean War squadrons of the 49th were the 7th, 8th and 9th Fighter-Bomber Squadrons, the 49ths first task in South Korea was to cover the evacuation of civilians from Kimpo and Suwon. Next, it flew air support missions to help slow the advancing North Korean armies. Later, it turned to the interdiction of troops, supplies. Phasing out its F-51s for Lockheed F-80C Shooting Stars jets, the 49th FBW moved to Taegu AB on 1 October 1950 and it received a Distinguished Unit Citation for its combat operations during the first five months of the war. When the Chinese Communist Forces Intervention Campaign gained momentum in 1950–1951 and it converted to Republic F-84G Thunderjets, June–September 1951, one squadron at a time, while the others continued combat operations. The 49th FBG earned another DUC for its contribution to the success of the 1st UN Counteroffensive Campaign, afterwards, it engaged primarily in air interdiction operations against the main enemy channel of transportation, the roads and railroads between Pyongyang and Sinuiju. On 27 July 1953, the 49th FBG joined the 58th FBG to bomb Sunan Airfield for the action of F-84 fighter-bombers during the Korean War. The unit was one of the most decorated Air Force units in the war, such accomplishments earned the wing a niche in United States Air Force history. The wing remained in Korea for a time after the armistice and it was reassigned to Misawa AB, Japan on 2 November 1953 and provided air defense for Japan through 1957
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Holloman Air Force Base
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The base was named in honor of Col. George V. Holloman, a pioneer in guided missile research. It is the home of the 49th Wing of the Air Combat Command, Holloman is located in New Mexicos Tularosa Basin between the Sacramento and San Andres mountain ranges. The base is about 10 miles west of Alamogordo, New Mexico, on U. S. Route 70,90 miles north of El Paso, Texas, the base covers 59,639 acres and is located at an altitude of 4,093 feet. Holloman is home to the worlds longest, at 50,188 feet, the 49th Wing – host wing at Holloman Air Force Base – supports national security objectives by deploying worldwide to support peacetime and wartime contingencies. The wing provides combat-ready Airmen, and trains General Atomics MQ-1 Predator and General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper pilots, sensor operators, the wing has a proud history of service in World War II, Korea, Southeast Asia, Southwest Asia and NATO-led Operation Allied Force. The 49th Wing is the host unit at Holloman Air Force Base, supporting national security objectives with mission-ready F-22 Raptors, Air Transportable Medical Clinic, the wing deploys combat-ready and mission-support forces supporting Air Expeditionary Force operations, Overseas Contingency Operations, and peacetime contingencies. The 49th Operations Group supports national security objectives, as directed by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the operational squadron is, 7th Fighter Squadron All F-22A carry the HO Tailcode. The Operations Group took over the activities of the inactivated 37th Fighter Wing at Tonopah Test Range Airport when the F-117As were transferred to Holloman in 1993, 49th Mission Support Group, Provides support to all base operations, personnel, and family members. In February 2006, the Bush Administration announced that Holloman would cease to be home to the F-117A Nighthawk and this move coincided with an announcement that the F-117 will be removed from service on or about 2008. On 1 March 2006, it was announced by the United States Air Force that Holloman would be the new home of two squadrons of F-22A Raptors. Along with the 49th FW, the 96th Test Group, part of the 96th Test Wing from Eglin Air Force Base, the 96th TG is an Air Force Materiel Command unit responsible for operational testing and evaluation of new equipment and systems proposed for use by these forces. The 54th Fighter Group ia a geographically separated unit of the 56th Fighter Wing, out of Luke AFB, the German Air Force Tactical Training Center activated at Holloman 1 May 1996. With the activation,300 German military personnel and 12 Panavia Tornado aircraft joined Team Holloman, German aircrews come to Holloman for approximately three weeks for advanced tactical training and then return to Germany. The German Air Force also conducts a Fighter Weapons Instructor Course for the Tornado, aircrews for this course come to Holloman for about six months. As of November 2006 there are 650 German military personnel and 25 Tornado aircraft assigned to Holloman AFB, there are numerous reasons the German Air Force trains at Holloman. The area offers great flying weather and has suitable air space, other reasons are the proximity of Holloman to the German Air Force Air Defense Center at Fort Bliss, Texas and the centralizing of German aircrew training at a single location. To facilitate this, there is a memorandum of understanding between the two governments, on 29 September 1999, two Luftwaffe Tornados crashed near Marathon Indian Basin, about 15 miles northwest of Carlsbad, New Mexico. The crash details were kept quiet from the American public, as the crash was investigated under Luftwaffe jurisdiction, in September 2004, Luftwaffe chief of staff, Klaus-Peter Stieglitz announced a reduction in its training program of roughly 20%
41.
355th Fighter Wing
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The 355th Fighter Wing is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the Air Combat Commands Twelfth Air Force. It is stationed at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona, the wings mission is to provide close air support, air interdiction, forward air control, combat search and rescue, ground based tactical air control, and airbase operations. Originally equipped with Republic P-47 Thunderbolts, the group began using North American P-51 Mustangs in Spring,1944, the group was under the command of the 65th Fighter Wing of the VIII Fighter Command, Eighth Air Force. The aircraft group identification was white spinners and cowling bands, the group also flew fighter sweeps, area patrols, and bombing missions, striking such targets as air parks, locomotives, bridges, radio stations, and armoured cars. The 355th quickly gained acclaim as the Steeple Morden Strafers, a reference to its base in England, the fighter group destroyed or damaged 1,500 enemy planes, making it the top strafing outfit in the VIII Fighter Command during World War II. The group provided cover for Allied forces landing in Normandy on 6 June 1944. Hit fuel dumps, locomotives, and other targets in support of forces during the breakthrough at Saint-Lô in July. The 355th Fighter Group flew its last combat mission on 25 April 1945, on 3 July the group transferred to Gablingen, Germany for duty with United States Air Forces in Europe as part of the army of occupation. Transferred, without personnel and equipment, to Mitchel Field New York on 1 August 1946, the group replaced the 516th Air Defense Group and assumed its mission, personnel and equipment at McGhee Tyson Airport, near Knoxville Tennessee. The group served as the United States Air Force host organization for active duty units at McGhee Tyson and was assigned a number of maintenance, the 354th and 469th Squadrons both flew the radar equipped and Mighty Mouse rocket armed North American F-86D Sabre. The group focused on defending the Oak Ridge atomic plant and Alcoa aluminum production site, in July 1957 the 355th was reduced to a single fighter squadron when the 469th was inactivated. On 13 April 1962 the 355th Tactical Fighter Wing was established and activated at George AFB, California, after a period of organization at George, the wing was assigned to McConnell AFB, Kansas, becoming the host unit at the base. The unit transferred to the Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base in Thailand in 1965, during the next five years, it flew more than 101,000 sorties over North Vietnam, dropping 202,596 tons of bombs and destroying 12,675 targets. The wings pilots were credited with twenty airborne kills of MiG aircraft, nicknamed PACAFs Pride, the unit received three Presidential Unit Citations and three Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards with the combat V device. It is also noteworthy that, of the twelve airmen awarded the Medal of Honor in the Vietnam War, the 355th was inactivated at Takhli on 10 December 1970 as part of the drawdown of US Forces in Southeast Asia in the early 1970s. The 355th was reactivated at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in 1971, initially, the wing had four squadrons equipped with the new A-7D Corsair II ground air support aircraft. It achieved operationally-ready status in 1972, withdrawing from Thailand in 1974, the wing began to send its Corsairs to the Air National Guard, and transitioning to the new A-10 Thunderbolt II. By 1979, the wing had completely transitioned to the A-10, in 1984 the 355th Fighter Group was consolidated with the Wing, giving the 355th Tactical Training Wing the history, honors and lineage of the World War II and Cold War organization
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366th Fighter Wing
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The 366th Fighter Wing is a fighter wing of the United States Air Force Air Combat Command stationed at Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho. The wing comprises four groups, the 366th Operations Group, 366th Maintenance Group, 366th Mission Support Group, until September 2010, a fourth squadron, the 390th Fighter Squadron flew the F-15C Eagle in an air superiority mission. The 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron which flew F-4D Phantoms and later F-111s, the 726th Air Control Squadron assigned here gives an air picture to the aircraft as they train. This is a radar unit that routinely deploys to various theaters to operate command. Structured as a Control and Reporting Center, able to accommodate Control, Air Weapons Controller personnel often deploy without home-system to support flying units in various scenarios and exercises throughout the U. S. and European theater. An active Air National Guard unit, the 266th Range Squadron, controls and maintains emitter sites within the 7, additionally, the 390th Electronic Combat Squadron, located at Naval Air Station Whidbey Island, Washington, is assigned to the 366th Operations Group. The squadron, consisting of USAF flight crews flying U. S, for additional history and lineage, see 366th Operations Group The wing was activated on 1 January 1953 as the 366th Fighter Bomber Wing at Alexandria Air Force Base, Louisiana. It replaced the Federalized Iowa Air National Guard 132d Fighter Bomber Wing which was being returned to control after a twenty-one month period of activation as a result of the Korean War. Initially using the former ANG F-51D Mustangs, the 366th received F-86F Sabres which were returned from Korea in the summer of 1953, on 18 March 1954, the KB-29 equipped 420th Air Refueling Squadron was attached to the Wing to provide air refueling for the Thunderstreaks. The B-29s were later replaced with KB-50 aerial tankers, the Wing became first TAC unit to perform six-month TDY rotations with NATO at Aviano AB, Italy, with rotations continuing to both Italy and France for six-month stretches. As it did so, the wing began converting to the F-84F Thunderstreak. The 366th Fighter Day Group was inactivated in September 1957 when parent wing adopted Tri-Deputate organization, in late 1957, the wing began conversion to the F-100 Super Sabre to its inventory while continuing to operate the F-84. Redesignated 366th Tactical Fighter Wing 1 July 1958 as part of Air Force-Wide naming change, inactivated 1 April 1959 as part of a general budgetary reduction of USAF wings. Aircraft transferred to Air National Guard and this multi-base organizational structure was unique in that it was the only tactical fighter wing in USAFE with four squadrons at four different air bases in Europe. The 366th was also the last USAFE tactical fighter wing formed in Europe, each squadron flew 20 F-84F Thunderstreaks left by the departing Air National Guard Units. In addition to the units being dispersed, the 366th also formed Combat Support Groups at each base to support the flying operations. The decision to form, organize, equip and train the 366th at four different bases was a decision by USAFE. The first major problem being the simple logistics needed to operate the squadrons, deliveries of services in France had always been a problem since the USAF bases were established in the early 1950s
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Mountain Home Air Force Base
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Mountain Home Air Force Base is a United States Air Force installation in the western United States. Located in southwestern Idaho in Elmore County, the base is twelve miles southwest of Mountain Home, the host unit at Mountain Home since 1972 has been the 366th Fighter Wing of the Air Combat Command, nicknamed the Gunfighters. The bases primary mission is to provide combat airpower and combat capabilities to respond to. Constructed in the early 1940s during World War II as a base for bombers, after the war it briefly had transports, then was a bomber. It became a fighter base 51 years ago in 1966, part of the base is a census-designated place, the population was 3,238 at the 2010 census. Mountain Home AFB is the home of the 366th Fighter Wing, an active Idaho Air National Guard unit, the 266th Range Squadron, controls and maintains emitter sites within the 7,412 sq mi operational training range in southwestern Idaho. Crews started building the base in November 1942 and the new field opened on 7 August 1943. Shortly thereafter, airmen at the field began training U. S. Army Air Forces crews for World War II, the 396th Bombardment Group was the first unit assigned and its planned mission was to train crews for the B-17 Flying Fortress. However, before the first B-17s arrived, plans for the field changed, instead of training B-17 crews, Mountain Home airmen began training crews for the B-24 Liberator. The first group to do so was the 470th Bombardment Group, which trained at Mountain Home from May 1943 until January 1944, the 490th Bombardment Group replaced the 470th and trained B-24 crews until it deployed to RAF Eye England in April 1944. The 494th Bombardment Group then replaced the 490th, once more training Liberator crews, senator George McGovern was a pilot in the USAAF, and did his second stage of B-24 training here. McGovern served 24 years in both houses of Congress from South Dakota, and was the Democratic nominee in the election of 1972. The base also received fighter aircraft to add realism to its training, a few P-38 Lightning and P-63 Kingcobra pursuit planes arrived in January 1945 to simulate attacks on B-24s. The base was placed in inactive status in October 1945, the base remained inactive for over three years, until December 1948, when the newly independent U. S. Air Force reopened the base. The mission of the 5th Strategic Reconnaissance Group was long-range strategic reconnaissance, on 3 September 1949, aircraft of the 72d identified the first evidence of a successful explosion of a Soviet nuclear weapon in the Semipalatinsk test site in eastern Kazakh SSR on 29 August 1949. The 4209th Base Service Squadron was assigned to the base which supervised construction activities to modernize facilities and also construct a 12, the base was formally closed on 25 April 1950, however the 5th SRW maintained control of Mountain Home from Fairfield-Suisun, maintaining it as a subbase. ARCS was Special Operations organization, which performed Psychological Warfare missions, Mountain Home AFB was selected as a training base for ARCS, for which it was well-suited due to the relative remoteness of the facility. Once manned, equipped and trained, the deployed to various parts of the world
United States of America
United States Air Force (18 September 1947 – present)
United States Army (
Army Air Forces, 20 August 1941 – 18 September 1947)
Air Combat Command
U.S. Southern Command
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This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.
