1.
Two-state solution
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The two-state solution refers to a solution of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict which calls for two states for two groups of people. The two-state solution envisages an independent State of Palestine alongside the State of Israel, the boundary between the two states is still subject to dispute and negotiation, with Palestinian and Arab leadership insisting on the 1967 borders, which is not accepted by Israel. The territory of the former Mandate Palestine which shall not form part of the Palestinian State, the framework of the solution is set out in UN resolutions on the Peaceful settlement of the question of Palestine, going back to 1974. The borders of the state of Palestine are based on the pre-1967 borders, the latest resolution in November 2013 was passed 165 to 6, with 6 abstentions. The countries voting against were Canada, Israel, the United States, the Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, the Palestinians have shown serious interest in a two-state solution since the mid-1970s, and its mainstream leadership has embraced the concept since the 1982 Arab Summit in Fez. Over the years, polls have consistently shown respectable Israeli and Palestinian majorities in favor of a negotiated two-state settlement, there have been many diplomatic efforts to realize a two state solution, starting from the 1991 Madrid Conference. There followed the 1993 Oslo Accords and the failed 2000 Camp David Summit followed by the Taba negotiations in early 2001, in 2002, the Arab League proposed the Arab Peace Initiative. The latest initiative, which failed, was the 2013–14 peace talks. The recommended partition proposal was rejected by the Arab community of Palestine, Partition was again proposed by the 1947 UN Partition plan for the division of Palestine. It proposed a division, again with Jerusalem held separately. The partition plan was accepted by the Jewish leadership, however, the plan was rejected by the leadership of Arab nations and the Palestinian leadership, which opposed any partition of Palestine and any independent Jewish presence in the area. The 1948 Arab-Israeli War for control of the disputed land broke out on the end of the British Mandate, the war resulted in the fleeing or expulsion of 711,000 Palestinians, which the Palestinians call Nakba, from the territories which became the state of Israel. The Palestine Liberation Organization, which had formed in 1964, strongly criticized the resolution. In September 1974,56 Member States proposed that the question of Palestine be included as an item in the General Assembly’s agenda and these rights have been affirmed every year since. The first indication that the PLO would be willing to accept a solution, on at least an interim basis, was articulated by Said Hammami in the mid-1970s. The idea has had overwhelming support in the UN General Assembly since the mid-1970s, the Partition Plan was invoked to provide legitimacy to Palestinian statehood. Subsequent clarifications were taken to amount to the first explicit Palestinian recognition of Israel, in 1975, the General Assembly established the Committee on the Exercise of the Inalienable Rights of the Palestinian People. The Security Council discussed the recommendations but failed to reach a decision due to the vote of the United States
2.
Muslims
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A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
3.
Indian subcontinent
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Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the land mass that rifted from Gondwana and merged with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago. Geographically, it is the region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, sometimes, the term South Asia is used interchangeably with Indian subcontinent. There is no consensus about which countries should be included in each and it is first attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. Its use to refer to the Indian subcontinent is seen from the twentieth century. It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both the British India and the states under British Paramountcy. The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance and it was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the Greater India once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, as a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. The Indian subcontinent has been a particularly common in the British Empire. The region, state Mittal and Thursby, has also labelled as India, Greater India. The BBC and some sources refer to the region as the Asian Subcontinent. Some academics refer to it as South Asian Subcontinent, the terms Indian subcontinent and South Asia are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or Indian subcontinent. In dictionary entries, the term subcontinent signifies a large, distinguishable subdivision of a continent, the region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago and this geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains one of the active areas. The English term mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent, physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east
4.
Language
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Language is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so, and a language is any specific example of such a system. The scientific study of language is called linguistics, questions concerning the philosophy of language, such as whether words can represent experience, have been debated since Gorgias and Plato in Ancient Greece. Thinkers such as Rousseau have argued that language originated from emotions while others like Kant have held that it originated from rational and logical thought, 20th-century philosophers such as Wittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language. Major figures in linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky, estimates of the number of languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000. However, any precise estimate depends on an arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects. Natural languages are spoken or signed, but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli – for example, in whistling, signed and this is because human language is modality-independent. All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings, human language has the properties of productivity and displacement, and relies entirely on social convention and learning. Its complex structure affords a wider range of expressions than any known system of animal communication. Language is processed in different locations in the human brain. Humans acquire language through interaction in early childhood, and children generally speak fluently when they are approximately three years old. The use of language is deeply entrenched in human culture, a group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family. The languages of the Dravidian family that are mostly in Southern India include Tamil. Academic consensus holds that between 50% and 90% of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100. The English word language derives ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s tongue, speech, language through Latin lingua, language, tongue, and Old French language. The word is used to refer to codes, ciphers. Unlike conventional human languages, a language in this sense is a system of signs for encoding and decoding information. This article specifically concerns the properties of human language as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics. As an object of study, language has two primary meanings, an abstract concept, and a specific linguistic system, e. g. French
5.
Ethnicity
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An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. Unlike other social groups, ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which one lives, in some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Ethnic groups, derived from the historical founder population, often continue to speak related languages. By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with terms such as nation or people. In English, it can also have the connotation of something exotic, generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, the largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals, while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos, the inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan, as the Septuagint used ta ethne to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews. The Greek term in antiquity could refer to any large group, a host of men. In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of peculiar to a race, people or nation, the abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character. The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972, depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship. The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, the Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus gave an account of what defined Greek ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent. Whether ethnicity qualifies as a universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf and they regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently, one is between primordialism and instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as a given, even coercive
6.
Hindus
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Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
7.
Pakistan Movement
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The first organised political movements were in Aligarh where another literary movement was led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan that built the genesis of the Pakistan movement. During the initial stages of the movement, it adopted the vision of philosopher Iqbal after addressing at the convention of the AIMLs annual session, Muhammad Ali Jinnahs constitutional struggle further helped gaining public support for the movement in the four provinces. Urdu poets such as Iqbal and Faiz used literature, poetry, feminists such as Sheila Pant and Fatima Jinnah championed the emancipation of Pakistans women and their participation in national politics. The Pakistan Movement was the result of a series of social, political, and intellectual transformations in Pakistani society, government, efforts and struggles of the Founding Fathers resulted in the creation of the democratic and independent government. In the following years, another nationally–minded subset went on to established a strong government, grievousness and unbalanced economic distribution caused an upheaval which led East Pakistan to declare independence as the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh in 1971. As the Mughal Empire quickly declined in power, the British Empire expanded quick to gain control of the subcontinent in the 1700s. The economic, social, public, and political influence of East India Company, the defeat of Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore, proved to be an event which led to the fall of Mysore Kingdom under the direct or indirect rule of the East India Company. All over the subcontinent, the British government took over the machinery, bureaucracy, universities, schools. During this time, Lord Macaulays radical and influential educational reforms led to the changes to the introduction and teaching of Western languages, history. Religious studies and the Arabic, Turkish, and Persian languages were completely barred from the state universities, traditional Hindu and Islamic studies were no longer supported by the British Crown, and nearly all of the madrasahs lost their waqf. Noting the sensitivity of this issue, Queen Victoria removed the East India Company and this tendency, had it continued for long, would have proven disastrous for the Muslim community. In justifying these actions, Macaulay argued that Sanskrit and Arabic were wholly inadequate for studying history, science. He stated, We have to educate people who cannot at present be educated by means of their mother-tongue and we must teach them some foreign language. The solution was to teach English, eventually, many Muslims barred their children to be educated at English universities which had proved to be disastrous for the Muslim communities. Very few Muslim families had their children sent at the English universities, during this time, Muslim reformer and educationist Sir Syed Ahmad Khan began to argue for the importance of the British education. Sir Syed was a jurist and a scholar who was knighted by the British Crown for his services to British Empire, witnessing this atmosphere of despair and despondency, Sir Syed launched his attempts to revive the spirit of progress within the Muslim community of British India. Despite harsh criticism from the Islamic orthodoxy, he helped convince many Muslim communities to realise that the fact was the source of progress. Therefore, modern education became the pivot of his movement for regeneration of the Indian Muslims and he tried to transform the Muslim outlook from a medieval one to a modern one
8.
Nation-state
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A state is specifically a political and geopolitical entity, whilst a nation is a cultural and ethnic one. The term nation state implies that the two coincide, in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a specific cultural group as associated with it. The concept of a state can be compared and contrasted with that of the multinational state, city state, empire, confederation. The key distinction is the identification of a people with a polity in the nation state, the origins and early history of nation states are disputed. A major theoretical question is, Which came first, the nation or the nation state and it was with these intellectual discoveries and technological advances that the nation state arose. For others, the nation existed first, then nationalist movements arose for sovereignty, some modernization theories of nationalism see it as a product of government policies to unify and modernize an already existing state. Most theories see the state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy. However, historians note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal. In France, Eric Hobsbawm argues, the French state preceded the formation of the French people, Hobsbawm considers that the state made the French nation, not French nationalism, which emerged at the end of the 19th century, the time of the Dreyfus Affair. At the time of the 1789 French Revolution, only half of the French people spoke some French, during the Italian unification, the number of people speaking the Italian language was even lower. The French state promoted the unification of various dialects and languages into the French language, the introduction of conscription and the Third Republics 1880s laws on public instruction, facilitated the creation of a national identity, under this theory. Some nation states, such as Germany and Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of campaigns by nationalists. In both cases, the territory was divided among other states, some of them very small. The sense of identity was at first a cultural movement, such as in the Völkisch movement in German-speaking states. In these cases, the nationalist sentiment and the nationalist movement clearly precede the unification of the German and Italian nation states, some authors deconstruct the distinction between ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism because of the ambiguity of the concepts. They argue that the case of Ernest Renan is an idealisation and it should be interpreted within the German tradition. For example, they argue that the used by Renan at the conference What is a nation. Are not consistent with his thinking and this alleged civic conception of the nation would be determined only by the case of the loss gives Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War
9.
Partition of India
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The Partition of India was the division of British India in 1947 which accompanied the creation of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan. The Dominion of India is today the Republic of India and Dominion of Pakistan, the partition involved the division of two provinces, Bengal and the Punjab, based on district-wise Hindu or Muslim majorities. It also involved the division of the British Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy, the Indian Civil Service, the railways, and the central treasury, between the two new dominions. The partition was set forth in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Raj, the two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The violent nature of the created an atmosphere of hostility. The term partition of India does not cover the secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971, nor the earlier separations of Burma and Ceylon from the administration of British India. It does not cover the incorporation of the enclaves of French India into India during the period 1947–1954, nor the annexation of Goa, other contemporaneous political entities in the region in 1947, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and The Maldives were unaffected by the partition. The Hindu elite of Bengal, among many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants. The pervasive protests against Curzons decision took the form predominantly of the Swadeshi campaign led by two-time Congress president, Surendranath Banerjee, sporadically—but flagrantly—the protesters also took to political violence that involved attacks on civilians. The violence, however, was not effective, as most planned attacks were either preempted by the British or failed, the unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcuttas English-educated students returned home to their villages and towns. Since Calcutta was the capital, both the outrage and the slogan soon became nationally known. In conjunction, they demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This led, in December 1906, to the founding of the All-India Muslim League in Dacca, although Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dispute with his military chief Lord Kitchener and returned to England, the League was in favour of his partition plan. In the three decades since that census, Muslim leaders across northern India, had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups. In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to positions in the Congress. It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, World War I would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. Indias international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s, back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians. Secretary of State for India, Montagu and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford presented a report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter
10.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah
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Muhammad Ali Jinnah was a lawyer, politician, and the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah served as leader of the All-India Muslim League from 1913 until Pakistans creation on 14 August 1947 and he is revered in Pakistan as Qayid-i-Azam and Baba-i-Qaum. His birthday is observed as a national holiday, born in Karachi and trained as a barrister at Lincolns Inn in London, Jinnah rose to prominence in the Indian National Congress in the first two decades of the 20th century. Jinnah became a key leader in the All India Home Rule League, in 1920, however, Jinnah resigned from, the Congress when it agreed to follow a campaign of satyagraha, which he regarded as political anarchy. By 1940, Jinnah had come to believe that Indian Muslims should have their own state, in that year, the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, passed the Lahore Resolution, demanding a separate nation. During the Second World War, the League gained strength while leaders of the Congress were imprisoned, Jinnah died at age 71 in September 1948, just over a year after Pakistan gained independence from the United Kingdom. He left a deep and respected legacy in Pakistan, according to his biographer, Stanley Wolpert, he remains Pakistans greatest leader. Jinnahs family was from a Gujarati background, with sources differing over their purported Iranian or Rajput ancestry and they had moved to Karachi in 1875, having married before their departure. Karachi was then enjoying a boom, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 meant it was 200 nautical miles closer to Europe for shipping than Bombay. Jinnah was the child, he had three brothers and three sisters, including his younger sister Fatima Jinnah. The parents were native Gujarati speakers, and the children came to speak Kutchi. Except for Fatima, little is known of his siblings, where they settled or if they met with their brother as he advanced in his legal and political careers. As a boy, Jinnah lived for a time in Bombay with an aunt and may have attended the Gokal Das Tej Primary School there, later on studying at the Cathedral, in Karachi, he attended the Sindh-Madrasa-tul-Islam and the Christian Missionary Society High School. He gained his matriculation from Bombay University at the high school, in 1892, Sir Frederick Leigh Croft, a business associate of Jinnahbhai Poonja, offered young Jinnah a London apprenticeship with his firm, Grahams Shipping and Trading Company. Jinnahs mother and first wife died during his absence in England. In 1893, the Jinnahbhai family moved to Bombay, soon after his arrival in London, Jinnah gave up the apprenticeship in order to study law, enraging his father, who had, before his departure, given him enough money to live for three years. Jinnahs legal education followed the system, which had been in force there for centuries. To gain knowledge of the law, he followed an established barrister and learned from what he did, during this period, he shortened his name to Muhammad Ali Jinnah
11.
Hindu nationalism
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Hindu nationalism has been collectively referred to as the expressions of social and political thought, based on the native spiritual and cultural traditions of the Indian subcontinent. Some scholars have argued that the use of the term Hindu nationalism to refer to Hindū rāṣṭravāda is a translation and is better described by the term Hindu polity. The native thought streams became highly relevant in Indian history when they helped form an identity in relation to the Indian polity. They inspired the independence movements against the British Raj based on armed struggle, coercive politics and they also influenced social reform movements and economic thinking in India. Many Hindu reform movements originated in the nineteenth century and these movements led to the fresh interpretations of the ancient scriptures of Upanishads and Vedanta and also emphasised on social reform. The marked feature of these movements was that they countered the notion of western superiority and this led to the upsurge of patriotic ideas that formed the cultural and an ideological basis for the independence movement in India. The Brahmo Samaj was started by a Bengali scholar, Ram Mohan Roy in 1828, Ram Mohan Roy endeavoured to create from the ancient Upanishadic texts, a vision of rationalist modern India. Socially, he criticized the ongoing superstitions, and believed in a monotheistic Vedic religion and his major emphasis was social reform. He fought against Caste discrimination and advocated equal rights for women, but their efforts to systematise Hindu spirituality based on rational and logical interpretation of the ancient Indian texts would be carried forward by other movements in Bengal and across India. Arya Samaj is considered one Hindu renaissance movements of the nineteenth century. Another 19th century Hindu reformer was Swami Vivekananda, Vivekananda as a student was educated in contemporary Western thought. He joined Brahmo Samaj briefly before meeting Ramakrishna, who was a priest in the temple of the goddess Kali in Calcutta and this project started with Ram Mohan Roy of Brahmo Samaj, who collaborated with the Unitarian Church, and propagated a strict monotheism. The practical side essentially included participation in social reform and he made Hindu spirituality, intellectually available to the Westernized audience. His influence can still be discerned in popular western spirituality, such as nondualism, New Age, a major element of Vivekanandas message was nationalist. He saw his very much in terms of a revitalisation of the Hindu nation, which carried Hindu spirituality. The notions of White supremacy and Western superiority, strongly believed by the colonizers, were to be questioned based on Hindu spirituality and this kind of spiritual Hinduism was later carried forward by Mahatma Gandhi and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. It also became an inspiration for the current brand of Hindu nationalism today. One of the most revered leaders of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, historians have observed that this helped the nascent Independence movement with a distinct national identity and kept it from being the simple derivative function of European nationalisms
12.
Persecution of Muslims in India
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Violence against Muslims in India is a part of religious violence in India. Over 10,000 people have killed in Hindu-Muslim communal violence since 1950 in 6,933 instances of communal violence between 1954 and 1982. The causes of violence against Muslims are varied. Other scholars believe that the violence is not widespread but that it is restricted to urban areas because of local socio-political conditions. Violence against Muslims is frequently in the form of mob attacks on Muslims by Hindus, most incidents have occurred in the northern and western states of India, whereas communalist sentiment in the south and east is less pronounced. These patterns of violence have been well-established since partition, with dozens of studies documenting instances of violence against minority groups. Over 10,000 people have killed in Hindu-Muslim communal violence since 1950. In 1989, there were incidents of violence throughout the north of India. Praveen Swami believes these periodic acts of violence have scarred Indias post independence history and have also hindered Indias cause in Jammu, in anti-Muslim riots in India there are three Muslims killed for one Hindu. The economic competition between Hindus and Muslims also results in planned riots where Muslim businesses are specifically targeted, in 1989, the north of India saw an increase in orchestrated attacks on Muslims, and the BJP had further success in the local and state elections. The social anthropologist Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah concludes that the violence in Bhagalpur in 1989, Hashimpura in 1987, according to Ram Puniyani, the Shiv Sena were victorious in the elections due to the violence in the 1990s, and the BJP in Gujarat after the 2002 violence. Hindu nationalists use the historical subjugation of India by Muslims as an excuse for violence and their view is that these conquerors had raped Hindu women and destroyed places of worship. They feel that, since the Partition, Indian Muslims are allied to Pakistan and are possible terrorists and, therefore, the higher fertility rate among Muslims has been a recurring theme in the Hindu Rights rhetoric. They claim that the birth rate among Muslims is part of a plan to turn the Hindus into a minority within their own country. Another reason given for these outbreaks of violence is the mobility of the lower castes caused by the expansion of the economy. The violence has become a substitute for class tensions, Muslims are viewed as suspect and their loyalty to the state is questioned because of the ill-will still prevalent after the violence during partition. The Shiv Sena were complicit in the violence in 1984 in the town of Bhiwandi, in both of these instances, Sena had help from the police and local officials. Violence has been incited by Sena in 1971 and 1986, according to Sudipta Kaviraj, the Vishva Hindu Parishad are still engaged in the religious conflicts which began in the medieval times
13.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
14.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
15.
Shuddhi
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In Hinduism it is a part of worship. It also refers to converting to Hinduism, the movement strove to reduce the conversions of Hindus to Islam and Christianity, which were underway at the time. Post Swami Shraddhanand death this movement continued with similar missionary zeal, on 23 February 1928, many Catholic Gaudes in Goa were re-converted to Hinduism notwithstanding the opposition of the Church and the Portuguese government. 4851 Catholic Gaudes from Tiswadi,2174 from Ponda,250 from Bicholim and 329 from Sattari were re-converted to Hinduism after nearly 400 years, the total number of the converts to Hinduism was 7815. Ghar wapasi Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India, Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India, Volume III-I, published by Cambridge University Press,1987. Shuddhi Movement in India, A Study of Its Socio-political Dimensions, hindu Nationalism, Origins, Ideologies and Modern Myths, by Chetan Bhatt. Religion in South Asia, Religious Conversion and Revival Movements in South Asia in Medieval and Modern Times, chapter 10, Reconversion to Hinduism, The Shuddhi of the Arya Samaj
16.
Greater India
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In Central Asia transmission of ideas were predominantly of religious nature. By the early centuries of the common era most of the principalities of maritime and continental Southeast Asia had effectively absorbed defining aspects of Hindu culture and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. To the north, Indian religious ideas dissipated into the cosmology of Himalayan peoples, most profoundly in Tibet, Buddhist monasticism extended into Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and other parts of Central Asia and Buddhist texts and ideas successfully reached China and Japan in the east. Unlike Southeast Asia cultural and technological stimulation in East Asia always went in both directions, to the west, Indian culture converges with Greater Persia via the Hindukush and the Pamir Mountains. The concept of the Three Indias was in common circulation In pre-industrial Europe, Greater India was the southern part of South Asia, Lesser India was the northern part of South Asia, and Middle India was the region near the Middle East. The Portuguese form was used at least since the mid-15th century, however, in some accounts of European nautical voyages, Greater India extended from the Malabar Coast to India extra Gangem and India Minor, from Malabar to Sind. Farther India was sometimes used to all of modern Southeast Asia. German atlases distinguished Vorder-Indien as the South Asian peninsula and Hinter-Indien as Southeast Asia, the Greater India Basin hypothesis Greater India, or Greater India Basin signifies the Indian Plate plus a postulated northern extension, the product of the Indian–Asia collision. Although its usage in geology pre-dates Plate tectonic theory, the term has seen increased usage since the 1970s, the hypothesis is legitimate as long as the controversy of the location and time of the India-Asia convergence exists. How and where the India–Asia convergence was accommodated, after the collision, at or before 52 Million years ago. Since the plates have converged up to 3,600 km ±35 km, yet the upper crustal shortening documented from the record of Asia. The Greater India Society The use of Greater India refers here to a popularization by a network of Bengali scholars in the 1920s who were all members of the Calcutta-based Greater India Society, the movements early leaders included the historian R. C. Majumdar, the philologists Suniti Kumar Chatterji and P. C, bagchi and the historians Phanindranath Bose and Kalidas Nag. The term Greater India and the notion of an explicit Hindu expansion of ancient Southeast Asia have been linked to both Indian nationalism and Hindu nationalism, iron age trade expansion caused regional geostrategic remodeling. Southeast Asia was now situated in the area of convergence of the Indian and the East Asian maritime trade routes. The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities such as Funan, selective adoption of Indian civilization elements and individual suitable adaption stimulated the emergence of centralized states and development of highly organized societies. Ambitious local leaders realized the benefits of Hindu worship, rule in accord with universal moral principles represented in the concept of the devaraja was more appealing than the Chinese concept of intermediaries. The exact nature, process and extent of Indian influence upon the civilizations of the region is still debated by contemporary scholars
17.
Republic of India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
18.
Liaquat Ali Khan
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Allegations had been pointed towards the involvement of Afghan monarch Zahir Shah and the United States government in his assassination, though this claim has not merited any substantial evidence. Prior to that, he tenured as the first finance minister in the interim government led by its Governor General Mountbatten. He was born into an influential feudal Jatt–Mandall Nousherwani family in a village of district Karnal named Jundla. Ali Khan was educated at the Aligarh Muslim University in India, well educated, he was a democratic political theorist who promoted the parliamentarism in India. Ali Khan assisted Jinnah in campaigning for the creation of a state for Indian Muslims. Facing internal political unrest, his government survived a coup hatched by the leftists and communists, nonetheless, his influence grew further after Jinnahs death, and he was responsible for promulgating the Objectives Resolution. In 1951, at a rally in Rawalpindi, Ali Khan was assassinated by a hired assassin. He was born into a Muslim Jat– Mandall Nousherwani family in Karnal, Eastern Punjab of India, on October 1,1895. His father, Nawab Rustam Ali Khan, possessed the titles of Rukun-al-Daulah, Shamsher Jang and Nawab Bahadur, by the local population, the Ali Khan family was one of the few landlords whose property expanded across both eastern Punjab and the United Provinces. The family owned pre-eminence to timely support given by Liaqats grandfather Nawab Ahmed Ali Khan of Karnal to British army during 1857 rebellion, Liaquat Ali Khans mother, Mahmoodah Begum, arranged for his lessons in the Quran and Ahadith at home before his formal schooling started. His family had ties with the British Government, and the senior British government officers were usually visited at his big. Ali Khan was sent to Aligarh to attend the AMU where he would obtain degrees in law and political science. In 1913, Ali Khan attended the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, graduating with a BSc in Political science and LLB in 1918, in 1921, Ali Khan was awarded the Master of Law in Law and Justice, by the college faculty who also conferred him with a Bronze Medallion. Thereafter, Ali Khan was called to join the Inner Temple and he was called to the Bar in 1922 by one of his English law professor, and starting his practices in law as an advocate. His political philosophy strongly emphasis a united India, first gradually believing in the Indian nationalism, the Congress leadership approached to Ali Khan to become a part of the party, but after attending the meeting with Jawaharlal Nehru, Ali Khans political views and ambitions gradually changed. Therefore, Ali Khan refused, informing the Congress Party about his decision, at this meeting, Khan was among those who attended this conference, and recommending the new goals for the party. Ali Khan initially compaigned in the 1926 elections from the rural Muslim constituency of Muzzaffarnagar for the legislative council. Ali Khan won the elections with unanimously and with heavy margin, after taking the oath, Ali Khan embarked his parliamentary career, representing the United Provinces at the Legislative Council in 1926
19.
Pakistan studies
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Pakistan studies curriculum is the name of a curriculum of academic research and study that encompasses the culture, demographics, geography, history, and politics of Pakistan. The subject is widely researched in and outside the country, several universities in Pakistan have departments and research centers dedicated to the subject, whereas many independent research institutes carry out multidisciplinary research on Pakistan Studies. There are also a number of organizations that are engaged in collaborative teaching, research. As the second largest South Asian country, and one of the actors in the politics of the Muslim world. Various universities in the United States and the United Kingdom have research groups busy in academic, one such example is the American Institute of Pakistan Studies at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, established since 1973. An affiliate of the Association for Asian Studies, the institute regularly holds events such as seminars, public lectures and it also offers annual international fellowships for the research on materials relating to the history and culture of Pakistan. In April 2004, AIPS organized a workshop on the Salt Range Culture Zone of Pakistan at the University of Pennsylvania. The event provided the audience with an opportunity to understand the archaeological and architectural heritage of the country. Another academic initiative is the British Association for Pakistan Studies that was established in 1989, the forum has wider views on the topic than the common historiographical contexts, and encourages research and dialogue that involves both the academics and practitioners. There are also larger multinational and multicultural organizations that provide pluralist platforms for the discussions, Pakistan Studies is one of the few heritage subjects for O-level and IGCSE qualifications governed by Cambridge International Examinations. The syllabus covers Pakistans history, cultural heritage, national identity, geography, economy, in Pakistan, the subject is one of the three compulsory courses at the Secondary School and Higher Secondary school levels of education. It is also taught as a course at most of the Social Science departments in many universities. There are also university departments dedicated to the education and research in Pakistan Studies, many of these departments provide degree programmes for in-depth studies, as well as research facilities for M. Phil and PhD scholars. Courses broadly range from the history, politics and linguistics to the geography and economics. The focused attention on the subject at higher education levels means a wider scope for the research, the variable political history of Pakistan shows the country being ruled alternately by the civilian and military leaderships. However, the attempts to alter the historical texts did not escape criticisms from the academics and scholars in Pakistan. Historian Ayesha Jalal in her 1995 article also raised concerns over the trends of historiography in Pakistans history textbooks. Yvette Rosser, in an article based on her PhD thesis and she identifies significant defects, inherent contradictions and inaccurate information within educational syllabus in general and the Pakistan Studies textbooks in particular
20.
Muhammad bin Qasim
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‘Imād ad-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Qāsim ath-Thaqafī was an Umayyad general who conquered the Sindh and Multan regions along the Indus River for the Umayyad Caliphate. He was born and raised in the city of Taif, Qasims conquest of Sindh and southern-most parts of Multan enabled further Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. A member of the Thaqif tribe of the Taif region, Muhammad bin Qasims father was Qasim bin Yusuf, Umayyad governor Al-Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf Al-Thaqafi, Muhammad bin Qasims paternal uncle, was instrumental in teaching Muhammad bin Qasim about warfare and governance. Muhammad bin Qasim married his cousin Zubaidah, Al-Hajjajs daughter, shortly before going to Sindh, due to his close relationship with Al-Hajjaj, Bin Qasim was executed after the accession of Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. According to Berzin, Umayyad interest in the region occurred because of attacks from Sindh Raja Dahir on ships of Muslims and they had earlier unsuccessfully sought to gain control of the route, via the Khyber Pass, from the Kabul Shahi of Gandhara. But by taking Sindh, Gandharas southern neighbour, they were able to open a front against Gandhara. According to Wink, Umayyad interest in the region was galvanized by the operation of the Meds, at the time, Sindh was the wild frontier region of al-Hind, inhabited mostly by semi-nomadic tribes whose activities disturbed much of the Western Indian Ocean. Also cited as a reason for this campaign was the policy of providing refuge to Sassanids fleeing the Arab advance and these Arabs were imprisoned later on by the Governor Deebal Partaab Raye. A letter written by an Arab girl who escaped from the prison of Partab Raye asked Hajjaj Bin Yusuf for help, when Hajjaj asked Dahir for the release of prisoners and compensation, the latter refused on the ground that he had no control over those. Al-Hajjaj sent Muhammad Bin Qasim for action against the Sindh in 711, Muhammad bin Qasims expedition was actually the third attempt, the first two having failed due to stiffer-than-expected opposition as well as heat, exhaustion. Hajjaj had put more care and planning into this campaign than the first campaign under Badil bin Tuhfa, the army which departed from Shiraz in 710 CE under Muhammad bin Qasim was 6,000 Syrian cavalry and detachments of mawali from Iraq. The army that eventually captured Sindh would later be swelled by the Gurjars, from Debal the Arab army then marched north taking towns such as Nerun and Sadusan peacefully. Often using their components, additionally one-fifth of the booty including slaves were dispatched to Hajjaj, the conquest of these towns was accomplished easily, however, Raja Dahirs armies being prepared on the other side of the Indus were yet to be fought. In preparation to meet them, Muhammad bin Qasim moved back to Nerun to resupply, camped on the east bank of the Indus, Qasim sent emissaries and bargained with the river Jats and boatmen. Upon securing the aid of Mokah Basayah, the King of the island of Bet, Muhammad bin Qasim crossed over the river where he was joined by the forces of the Thakore of Bhatta, at Ar-rur he was met by Dahirs forces and the eastern Jats in battle. Dahir died in the battle, his forces were defeated and a triumphant Muhammad bin Qasim took control of Sindh, soon the capitals of the other provinces, Brahmanabad, Alor and Multan, were captured alongside other in-between towns with only light Muslim casualties. Usually after a siege of a few weeks or months the Arabs gained a city through the intervention of heads of houses with whom subsequent treaties. After battles all fighting men were executed and their wives and children enslaved in considerable numbers, the general populace was encouraged to carry on with their trades and taxes and tributes settled
21.
Pakistan movement
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The first organised political movements were in Aligarh where another literary movement was led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan that built the genesis of the Pakistan movement. During the initial stages of the movement, it adopted the vision of philosopher Iqbal after addressing at the convention of the AIMLs annual session, Muhammad Ali Jinnahs constitutional struggle further helped gaining public support for the movement in the four provinces. Urdu poets such as Iqbal and Faiz used literature, poetry, feminists such as Sheila Pant and Fatima Jinnah championed the emancipation of Pakistans women and their participation in national politics. The Pakistan Movement was the result of a series of social, political, and intellectual transformations in Pakistani society, government, efforts and struggles of the Founding Fathers resulted in the creation of the democratic and independent government. In the following years, another nationally–minded subset went on to established a strong government, grievousness and unbalanced economic distribution caused an upheaval which led East Pakistan to declare independence as the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh in 1971. As the Mughal Empire quickly declined in power, the British Empire expanded quick to gain control of the subcontinent in the 1700s. The economic, social, public, and political influence of East India Company, the defeat of Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore, proved to be an event which led to the fall of Mysore Kingdom under the direct or indirect rule of the East India Company. All over the subcontinent, the British government took over the machinery, bureaucracy, universities, schools. During this time, Lord Macaulays radical and influential educational reforms led to the changes to the introduction and teaching of Western languages, history. Religious studies and the Arabic, Turkish, and Persian languages were completely barred from the state universities, traditional Hindu and Islamic studies were no longer supported by the British Crown, and nearly all of the madrasahs lost their waqf. Noting the sensitivity of this issue, Queen Victoria removed the East India Company and this tendency, had it continued for long, would have proven disastrous for the Muslim community. In justifying these actions, Macaulay argued that Sanskrit and Arabic were wholly inadequate for studying history, science. He stated, We have to educate people who cannot at present be educated by means of their mother-tongue and we must teach them some foreign language. The solution was to teach English, eventually, many Muslims barred their children to be educated at English universities which had proved to be disastrous for the Muslim communities. Very few Muslim families had their children sent at the English universities, during this time, Muslim reformer and educationist Sir Syed Ahmad Khan began to argue for the importance of the British education. Sir Syed was a jurist and a scholar who was knighted by the British Crown for his services to British Empire, witnessing this atmosphere of despair and despondency, Sir Syed launched his attempts to revive the spirit of progress within the Muslim community of British India. Despite harsh criticism from the Islamic orthodoxy, he helped convince many Muslim communities to realise that the fact was the source of progress. Therefore, modern education became the pivot of his movement for regeneration of the Indian Muslims and he tried to transform the Muslim outlook from a medieval one to a modern one
22.
Gateway of Islam
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Sindh /sɪnd/ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan, in the southeast of the country. Historically home to the Sindhi people, it is locally known as the Mehran. It was formerly known as Sind until 1956, Sindh is the third largest province of Pakistan by area, and second largest province by population after Punjab. Sindh is bordered by Balochistan province to the west, and Punjab province to the north, Sindh also borders the Indian states of Gujarat and Rajasthan to the east, and Arabian Sea to the south. Sindhs climate is noted for hot summers and mild winters, the provincial capital of Sindh is Pakistans largest city and financial hub, Karachi. Sindh has Pakistans second largest economy with Karachi being its capital hosts the headquarters of several multinational banks. Sindh is home to a portion of Pakistans industrial sector. The remainder of Sindh has an agriculture based economy, and produces fruit, food consumer items, Sindh is also the centre of Pakistans pharmaceutical industry. Sindh is known for its culture which is strongly influenced by Sufism. Several important Sufi shrines are located throughout the province which attract millions of annual devotees, Sindh also has Pakistans highest percentage of Hindu residents. Karachi and other centres of Sindh have seen ethnic tensions between the native Sindhis and the Muhajirs boil over into violence on several occasions. Sindh is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites - the Historical Monuments at Makli, and the Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro, the word Sindh is derived from the Sanskrit language and is adapted from the Sanskrit term Sindhu which literally means river hence a reference to Indus River. Spelling of its name as Sind was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in Sindh Assembly. The Greeks who conquered Sindh in 325 BC under the command of Alexander the Great rendered it as Indós, the ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as hind from the word Sindh. When the British arrived in the 17th century in India, then ruled by the Maratha Empire, they applied the Greek version of the name Sindh to all of South Asia, calling it India. The name of Pakistan is actually an acronym in which the letter s is derived from the first letter in Sindh, Sindhs first known village settlements date as far back as 7000 BCE. Permanent settlements at Mehrgarh, currently in Balochistan, to the west expanded into Sindh and this culture blossomed over several millennia and gave rise to the Indus Valley Civilization around 3000 BCE. The primitive village communities in Balochistan were still struggling against a difficult highland environment and this was one of the most developed urban civilizations of the ancient world
23.
Muslim nationalism in South Asia
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Muslim nationalism in South Asia refers to the political and cultural expression of nationalism, founded upon the religious tenets and identity of Islam, of the Muslims of South Asia. The first organized expressions began with Muslim scholars and reformers like Syed Ahmed Khan, Syed Ameer Ali, expression of Muslim separatism and nationhood emerged from modern Islams pre-eminent poet and philosopher, Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal and political activists like Choudhary Rahmat Ali. Some prominent Muslims politically sought a base for themselves, separate from Hindus and other Indian nationalists, Muslim scholars, religious leaders and politicians founded the All India Muslim League in 1906. Muslims comprised 25% to 30% of pre-independence Indias collective population, some Muslim leaders felt that their cultural and economic contributions to Indias heritage and life merited a significant role for Muslims in a future independent Indias governance and politics. They espoused the Two-Nation Theory, that India was in home to the Muslim and Hindu nations. Muhammad Ali Jinnah led the Muslim Leagues call for Pakistan, as time went on, communal tensions rose and so partition won increasing support among many Muslims in Muslim-majority areas of the British India. Communal violence broke out and millions of people were forced to flee their homes, Hindus and Sikhs fled from Pakistan to India and Muslims fled from India to Pakistan. However, because Muslim communities existed throughout the South Asia, independence actually left tens of millions of Muslims within the boundaries of the secular Indian state, currently, approximately 14. 2% of the population of India is Muslim. Unlike the secular nationalism of other countries, Pakistani nationalism and the religion of Islam are not mutually exclusive, realists, driven by political inflexibility demonstrated by the Indian National Congress, feared a systematic disenfranchisement of Muslims. This also included members of the Parsi, and Nizari Ismaili communities. Traditionalists, primarily lower Orthodoxy, that feared the power of the upper Orthodoxy. Although many upper Orthodoxy also supported the state in the interests of an Islamic Republic and it is the third-largest home to Muslims after Indonesia and Pakistan, and the third-largest home to Shia Muslims. The Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind, a leading Indian Islamic organization has propounded a theological basis for Indian Muslims nationalistic philosophy and their thesis is that Muslims and non-Muslims have entered upon a mutual contract in India since independence, to establish a secular state. The Constitution of India represents this contract and this is known in Urdu as a muahadah. Accordingly, as the Muslim communitys elected representatives supported and swore allegiance to this muahadah so the duty of Muslims is to keep loyalty to the Constitution. This muahadah is similar to a similar contract signed between the Muslims and the Jews in Medina. K. Fazlul Huq, Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz, Syed Ahmed Khan, religious Qazi Syed Rafi Mohammad, Maulana Syed Maudoodi, Ahmad Raza Khan, Mohammad Abdul Ghafoor Hazarvi. Arrow of a Blue-Skinned God by Jonah Blank Patel, A Life by Rajmohan Gandhi India and Pakistan in War and Peace by J. N
24.
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
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Syed Ahmad bin Muttaqi Khan KCSI, commonly known as Sir Syed, was an Indian Muslim pragmatist, Islamic reformist and philosopher of nineteenth century British India. Born into nobility with ties with Mughal court, Syed studied the Quran and sciences within the court. In 1838, Syed entered the service of East India Company and went on to become a judge at a Small Causes Court in 1867, during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, he remained loyal to the British Empire and was noted for his actions in saving European lives. After the rebellion, he penned the booklet The Causes of the Indian Mutiny – a daring critique, at the time, in 1859, Syed, established Gulshan School at Muradabad, Victoria School at Ghazipur in 1863, and a scientific society for Muslims in 1864. In 1875, founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, the first Muslim university in South Asia, during his career, Syed repeatedly called upon Muslims to loyally serve the British Empire and promoted the adoption of Urdu as the lingua franca of all Indian Muslims. Syed heavily critiqued the Indian National Congress, Syed maintains a strong legacy in Pakistan and Indian Muslims, and is often described as the founder of the two-nation theory - the ideological foundation of Pakistan Movement. He strongly influenced other Muslim leaders including Allama Iqbal and Jinnah, many universities and public buildings in Pakistan bear Sir Syeds name. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was born on 17 October 1817 to a Noble Syed family in Delhi and his family ancestral roots is said to have come from Arabia, and then moved to subcontinent in the ruling times of Mughal emperor Akbar–I. Many generations of his family had since been connected with the administrative position in Mughal Empire. His maternal grandfather Khwaja Fariduddin served as Wazir in the court of Emperor Akbar–II and his paternal grandfather Syed Hadi Jawwad bin Imaduddin held a mansab – a high-ranking administrative position and honorary name of Mir Jawwad Ali Khan in the court of Emperor Alamgir II. Sir Syeds father Syed Muttaqi Muhammad bin Hadi Khan was personally close to Emperor Akbar–II, with his elder brother Syed Muhammad bin Muttaqi Khan, Sir Syed was raised in a large house in a wealthy area of the city. They were raised in accordance with Mughal noble traditions and exposed to politics. Their mother Asiz-un-Nisa played a role in Sir Syeds early life. Sir Syed was taught to read and understand the Holy Quran by a female tutor and he received an education traditional to Muslim nobility in Delhi. Under the charge of Lord Wellesley, Sir Syed was trained in Persian, Arabic, Urdu and he read the works of Muslim scholars and writers such as Sahbai, Rumi and Ghalib. Other tutors instructed him in mathematics, astronomy and Islamic jurisprudence, Sir Syed was also adept at swimming, wrestling and other sports. He took a part in the Mughal courts cultural activities. His elder brother founded the citys first printing press in the Urdu language along with the journal Sayyad-ul-Akbar, Sir Syed pursued the study of medicine for several years but did not complete the course
25.
Muhammad Iqbal
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He is called the Spiritual father of Pakistan. He is considered one of the most important figures in Urdu literature, Iqbal is admired as a prominent poet by Pakistanis, Indians, Iranians, Bangladeshis, Sri Lankans and other international scholars of literature. Though Iqbal is best known as an eminent poet, he is also a highly acclaimed Muslim philosophical thinker of modern times and his first poetry book, Asrar-e-Khudi, appeared in the Persian language in 1915, and other books of poetry include Rumuz-i-Bekhudi, Payam-i-Mashriq and Zabur-i-Ajam. Amongst these, his best known Urdu works are Bang-i-Dara, Bal-i-Jibril, Zarb-i Kalim, along with his Urdu and Persian poetry, his Urdu and English lectures and letters have been very influential in cultural, social, religious and political disputes. In 1922, he was knighted by King George V, granting him the title Sir, while studying law and philosophy in England, Iqbal became a member of the London branch of the All-India Muslim League. In much of South Asia and the Urdu speaking world, Iqbal is regarded as the Shair-e-Mashriq and he is also called Mufakkir-e-Pakistan, Musawar-e-Pakistan and Hakeem-ul-Ummat. The Pakistan government officially named him a national poet and his birthday Yōm-e Welādat-e Muḥammad Iqbāl, or Iqbal Day, is a public holiday in Pakistan. In India he is remembered as the author of the popular song Saare Jahaan Se Achcha. Iqbal was born on 9 November 1877 in Sialkot within the Punjab Province of British India and his grandparents were Kashmiri Pandits, the Brahmins of the Sapru clan from Kashmir who converted to Islam. In the 19th century, when the Sikh Empire was conquering Kashmir, Iqbal often mentioned and commemorated his Kashmiri Pandit Brahmin lineage in his writings. Iqbals father, Sheikh Noor Muhammad, was a tailor, not formally educated, Iqbals mother Imam Bibi was a polite and humble woman who helped the poor and solved the problems of neighbours. She died on 9 November 1914 in Sialkot, Iqbal loved his mother, and on her death he expressed his feelings of pathos in a poetic form elegy. Who would wait for me anxiously in my native place, who would display restlessness if my letter fails to arrive. I will visit thy grave with this complaint, Who will now think of me in midnight prayers, All thy life thy love served me with devotion— When I became fit to serve thee, thou hast departed. Iqbal was four years old when he was admitted to the masjid to learn the Quran and he learned the Arabic language from his teacher Syed Mir Hassan, the head of the madrassa and professor of Arabic language at Scotch Mission College in Sialkot, where he matriculated in 1893. He received Intermediate with the Faculty of Arts diploma from Murray College Sialkot in 1895, the same year he enrolled at the Government College Lahore where he obtained his Bachelor of Arts in philosophy, English literature and Arabic in 1897, and won the Khan Bahadurddin F. S. Jalaluddin medal as he took higher numbers in Arabic class, in 1899, he received his Masters of Arts degree from the same college and had the first place in Punjab University, Lahore. Iqbal married three times, in 1895 while studying Bachelor of Arts he had his first marriage with Karim Bibi and they had daughter Miraj Begum and son Aftab Iqbal
26.
Barrister
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A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
27.
All-India Muslim League
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The All-India Muslim League was a political party established during the early years of the 20th century in the British Indian Empire. Its strong advocacy for the establishment of a separate Muslim-majority nation-state, Pakistan, the party arose out of a literary movement begun at The Aligarh Muslim University in which Syed Ahmad Khan was a central figure. Sir Syed had founded, in 1886, the Muhammadan Educational Conference, at its December 1906 conference in Dhaka, attended by 3,000 delegates, the conference removed the ban and adopted a resolution to form an All Indian Muslim League political party. Its original political goal was to define and advance the Indian Muslims civil rights and to provide protection to the upper, after the partition and subsequent establishment of Pakistan, the Muslim League continued as a minor party in India where it was often part of the government. In Bangladesh, the Muslim League was revived in 1976 but it was reduced, furthermore, it was the only party to have received votes from both East and West Pakistan during the elections held in 1970. During the successive periods of Pakistan, the Muslim League continued to be a party in the different periods of Pakistan. Since 1985, the Pakistan Muslim League split into various factions, however, the PML-N remains to be influential faction than others, and has been in power during the elections held in 1990 and in the 1997. As of current of 2013 elections, the PML-N remains to be a party of Pakistan. The All-India Muslim League was formed with the help from the reformist Syed Ahmad Khan and his strong advocacy for British education and political activism had inspired upper class Muslims to support the cause for the AIML. Originally hosting the All-India Muhammadan Educational Conference in 1886 in a vision to uplift the cause for the British education especially science and literature, in turn this new awareness of Muslim needs helped stimulate a political consciousness among Muslim elites that went on to form the AIML. The formation of a Muslim political party on national level was seen as essential by 1901, the first stage of its formation was the meeting held at Lucknow in September 1906, with participation of representatives from all over India. The decision for re-consideration to form the all Indian Muslim political party was taken, meanwhile, Nawab Salimullah Khan published a detailed scheme through which he suggested the party to be named All-India Muslim Confederacy. That was headed by both Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk and Nawab Muhasan-ul-Mulk, in which he explained its objectives and stressed the unity of the Muslims under the banner of an association, the political party was established at the end of the conference. The name All-India Muslim League was proposed by Sir Mian Muhammad Shafi, Sir Agha Khan III was appointed its first president. Fifty eight delegates from all over the Subcontinent were the members of League. The Leagues constitution was framed in 1907 in Karachi, in 1910, Nawaab Syed Shamsul Huda selected as the president of the party. Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah was appointed the first Honorary President of the Muslim League, the headquarters were established at Lucknow. There were also six vice-presidents, a secretary and two joint secretaries initially appointed for a term, proportionately from different provinces
28.
Al-Biruni
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Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Al-Bīrūnī, known as Al-Biruni in English, was an Iranian scholar and polymath from Khwarezm. He studied almost all fields of science and was compensated for his research, royalty and powerful members of society sought out Al-Biruni to conduct research and study in order to uncover certain findings. He lived during the Islamic Golden Age, in which scholarly thought went hand in hand with the thinking and methodology of the Islamic religion. In addition to type of influence, Al-Biruni was also influenced by other nations, such as the Greek. He was conversant in Khwarezmian, Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit and he spent a large part of his life in Ghazni in modern-day Afghanistan, capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty which was based in what is now central-eastern Afghanistan. In 1017 he traveled to the Indian subcontinent and authored Tarikh Al-Hind after exploring the Hindu faith practised in India and he was given the title founder of Indology. He was a writer on customs and creeds of various nations. He also made contributions to Earth sciences, and is regarded as the father of geodesy for his important contributions to that field and he was born in the outer district of Kath, the capital of the Afrighid dynasty of Khwarezm. The word Biruni means from the outer-district in Persian, and so became his nisba. Al-Birunis relatives also took interest in the studies of science as well and he even had ties to royalty as there are links in his family to the families of prestigious elites. In order to conduct his research, Al-Biruni used different types of methods to tackle the different fields he studied, people consider Al-Biruni to be one of the greatest scientists in history and especially of Islam because of his discoveries and methodology. He lived during the Islamic Golden Age, which promoted astronomy and he was sympathetic to the Afrighids, who were overthrown by the rival dynasty of Mamunids in 995. He left his homeland for Bukhara, then under the Samanid ruler Mansur II the son of Nuh, there he corresponded with Avicenna and there are extant exchanges of views between these two scholars. In 998, he went to the court of the Ziyarid amir of Tabaristan and he also visited the court of the Bavandid ruler Al-Marzuban. Accepting the definite demise of the Afrighids at the hands of the Mamunids and their court at Gorganj was gaining fame for its gathering of brilliant scientists. In 1017, Mahmud of Ghazni took Rey, most scholars, including al-Biruni, were taken to Ghazni, the capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty. Biruni was made court astrologer and accompanied Mahmud on his invasions into India and he was forty-four years old when he went on the journeys with Mahmud of Ghazni. Biruni became acquainted with all related to India
29.
Jinnah
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Muhammad Ali Jinnah was a lawyer, politician, and the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah served as leader of the All-India Muslim League from 1913 until Pakistans creation on 14 August 1947 and he is revered in Pakistan as Qayid-i-Azam and Baba-i-Qaum. His birthday is observed as a national holiday, born in Karachi and trained as a barrister at Lincolns Inn in London, Jinnah rose to prominence in the Indian National Congress in the first two decades of the 20th century. Jinnah became a key leader in the All India Home Rule League, in 1920, however, Jinnah resigned from, the Congress when it agreed to follow a campaign of satyagraha, which he regarded as political anarchy. By 1940, Jinnah had come to believe that Indian Muslims should have their own state, in that year, the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, passed the Lahore Resolution, demanding a separate nation. During the Second World War, the League gained strength while leaders of the Congress were imprisoned, Jinnah died at age 71 in September 1948, just over a year after Pakistan gained independence from the United Kingdom. He left a deep and respected legacy in Pakistan, according to his biographer, Stanley Wolpert, he remains Pakistans greatest leader. Jinnahs family was from a Gujarati background, with sources differing over their purported Iranian or Rajput ancestry and they had moved to Karachi in 1875, having married before their departure. Karachi was then enjoying a boom, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 meant it was 200 nautical miles closer to Europe for shipping than Bombay. Jinnah was the child, he had three brothers and three sisters, including his younger sister Fatima Jinnah. The parents were native Gujarati speakers, and the children came to speak Kutchi. Except for Fatima, little is known of his siblings, where they settled or if they met with their brother as he advanced in his legal and political careers. As a boy, Jinnah lived for a time in Bombay with an aunt and may have attended the Gokal Das Tej Primary School there, later on studying at the Cathedral, in Karachi, he attended the Sindh-Madrasa-tul-Islam and the Christian Missionary Society High School. He gained his matriculation from Bombay University at the high school, in 1892, Sir Frederick Leigh Croft, a business associate of Jinnahbhai Poonja, offered young Jinnah a London apprenticeship with his firm, Grahams Shipping and Trading Company. Jinnahs mother and first wife died during his absence in England. In 1893, the Jinnahbhai family moved to Bombay, soon after his arrival in London, Jinnah gave up the apprenticeship in order to study law, enraging his father, who had, before his departure, given him enough money to live for three years. Jinnahs legal education followed the system, which had been in force there for centuries. To gain knowledge of the law, he followed an established barrister and learned from what he did, during this period, he shortened his name to Muhammad Ali Jinnah
30.
Lahore
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Lahore is the capital city of the Pakistani province of Punjab. It is the second most populous city in Pakistan and the 32nd most populous city in the world, the city is located in the north-eastern end of Pakistans Punjab province, near the border with the Indian state of Punjab. Lahore is ranked as a world city, and is one of Pakistans wealthiest cities with an estimated GDP of $58.14 billion as of 2014. Lahore is the cultural centre of the Punjab region, and is the largest Punjabi city in the world. The city has a history, and was once under the rule of the Hindu Shahis, Ghaznavids, Ghurids. Lahore reached the height of its splendour under the Mughal Empire, the city was captured by the forces of Persian Safavid Emperor Nader Shah during his invasion of the Mughal Empire. The city was contested between different powers before it became capital of the Sikh Empire, and then the capital of the Punjab under British rule. Following the independence of Pakistan in 1947, Lahore became the capital of Pakistans Punjab province, Lahore is one of Pakistans most liberal, and cosmopolitan cities. It exerts a strong influence over Pakistan. Lahore is a centre for Pakistans publishing industry, and remains the foremost centre of Pakistans literary scene. The city is also a centre of education in Pakistan. Lahore is also home to Pakistans film industry, Lollywood, and is a centre of Qawwali music. The city is much of Pakistans tourist industry, with major attractions including the old Walled City. Lahore is also home to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Lahore Fort, the etymology of Lahore is uncertain, but according to legend the city was once known as Lavapura, in honour of Prince Lava of the Hindu epic poem, the Ramayana. Lahore Fort also contains a vacant Lava temple, dedicated to the founder of the city. Lahore was called by different names throughout history, to date there is no conclusive evidence as to when it was founded. Lahore is described as a Hindu principality in the Rajput accounts, keneksen, the founder of Suryavansha, is believed to have migrated out from the city. The Solanki tribe, belonging to Amukhara Pattan, which included the Bhatti Rajputs of Jaisalmer, Lahore appears as the capital of the Punjab for the first time under Anandapala – the Hindu Shahi king who is referred to as the ruler of –after leaving the earlier capital of Waihind
31.
League of Nations
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The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, at its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, however, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them, after a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, the onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years, the United Nations replaced it after the end of the Second World War on 20 April 1946 and inherited a number of agencies and organisations founded by the League. As historians William H. Harbaugh and Ronald E. Powaski point out, the organisation was international in scope, with a third of the members of parliaments serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were held to help refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure consisted of a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League, at the start of the 20th century, two power blocs emerged from alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that, at the start of the First World War in 1914 and this was the first major war in Europe between industrialised countries, and the first time in Western Europe that the results of industrialisation had been dedicated to war. By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had an impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world, the First World War was described as the war to end all wars, the causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British political scientist, coined the term League of Nations in 1914, together with Lord Bryce, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group, later the League of Nations Union. The group became more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing Liberal Party. In Dickinsons 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his League of Peace as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation
32.
Self-determination
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The right of peoples to self-determination is a cardinal principle in modern international law, binding, as such, on the United Nations as authoritative interpretation of the Charter’s norms. The principle does not state how the decision is to be made, nor what the outcome should be, whether it be independence, federation, protection, neither does it state what the delimitation between peoples should be—nor what constitutes a people. There are conflicting definitions and legal criteria for determining which groups may legitimately claim the right to self-determination, National aspirations must be respected, people may now be dominated and governed only by their own consent. Self determination is not a phrase, it is an imperative principle of action. By extension the term self-determination has come to mean the free choice of ones own acts without external compulsion, during, and after, the Industrial Revolution many groups of people recognized their shared history, geography, language, and customs. Such groups often pursued independence and sovereignty over territory, but sometimes a different sense of autonomy has been pursued or achieved, the world possessed several traditional, continental empires such as the Ottoman, Russian, Austrian/Habsburg, and the Qing Empire. During the early 19th century, competition in Europe produced multiple wars, after this conflict, the British Empire became dominant and entered its imperial century, while nationalism became a powerful political ideology in Europe. Later, after the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, New Imperialism was unleashed with France and later Germany establishing colonies in Asia, the Pacific, Japan also emerged as a new power. The Ottoman Empire, Austrian Empire, Russian Empire, Qing Empire, all ignored notions of self-determination for those governed. The French Revolution was motivated similarly and legitimatized the ideas of self-determination on that Old World continent, within the New World during the early 19th century, most of the nations of Spanish America achieved independence from Spain. The United States supported that status, as policy in the relative to European colonialism. Such support, however, never became official government policy, due to balancing of other national interests, meanwhile, in Europe itself there was a rise of nationalism, with nations such as Greece, Hungary, Poland and Bulgaria seeking or winning their independence. Karl Marx supported such nationalism, believing it might be a condition to social reform. In 1914 Vladimir Lenin wrote, would be wrong to interpret the right to self-determination as meaning anything, woodrow Wilson revived Americas commitment to self-determination, at least for European states, during World War I. When the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia in November 1917 and they also supported the right of all nations, including colonies, to self-determination. The 1918 Constitution of the Soviet Union acknowledged the right of secession for its constituent republics and this presented a challenge to Wilsons more limited demands. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918 led to Russias exit from the war, however, this imposition of states where some nationalities were given power over nationalities who disliked and distrusted them eventually helped lead to World War II. Also Germany lost land after WWI, Northern Slesvig voted to return to Denmark after a referendum, the League of Nations was proposed as much as a means of consolidating these new states, as a path to peace
33.
Ummah
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Ummah is an Arabic word meaning community. It is distinguished from Shab which means a nation with common ancestry or geography, thus, it can be said to be a supra-national community with a common history. It is a synonym for ummat al-Islamiyah, and it is used to mean the collective community of Islamic peoples. In the Quran the ummah typically refers to a group that shares common religious beliefs. In the context of Pan-Islamism and politics, the word Ummah can be used to mean the concept of a Commonwealth of the Believers, the word Ummah means Nation in Arabic, Plural, Ummam. For example the Arabic term for the United Nations in Arabic is الأمم المتحدة Al-Ummam Al-Mutahedah, the Word Ummah differs from the concept of a country or people. In it is greater context it is used to describe a group of people. For example, in Arabic the world شعب Shaab would be used to describe the citizens of Turkey. However, the term Ummah is used to describe the Turkic Nation as a whole, which includes Turkey, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, the phrase Ummah Wāhidah in the Quran refers to all of the Islamic world as it existed at the time. The Quran says, You are the best nation brought out for Mankind, commanding what is righteous, at the time of Muhammad, before the conception of the ummah, Arab communities were typically governed by kinship. In other words, the ideology of the Arabs centered around tribal affiliations. In the midst of a society, the religion of Islam emerged. The ummah emerged according to the idea that a messenger or prophet has been sent to a community, but unlike earlier messengers who had been sent to various communities in the past, Muhammad had been given the task to develop a universal ummah and not only for the Arabs. Muhammads purpose as messenger to them was to transmit a divine message, since Muhammad is the messenger for the ummah, it indicates there is a divine message, which further implies that God is directing the life affairs of the ummah. Accordingly, the purpose of the ummah was to be based on religion, following the commands of God, there are a total of sixty-two instances that the term ummah is mentioned in the Quran. The use of ummah in the Quran almost always refers to ethical, linguistic, the meaning of the term ummah in the Quran appears to transform throughout the chronology of the Quran. When it is first used in the Quran it is distinguishable from the term qawm which can be translated to people. The Quran recognizes that each ummah has a messenger that has sent to relay a divine message to the community
34.
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar
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He was Independent Indias first law minister and the principal architect of the Constitution of India. In his early career he was an economist, professor, in 1956 he converted to Buddhism, initiating mass conversions of Dalits. In 1990, the Bharat Ratna, Indias highest civilian award, was conferred upon Ambedkar. Ambedkars legacy includes numerous memorials and depictions in popular culture, Ambedkar was born on 14 April 1891 in the town and military cantonment of Mhow in the Central Provinces. He was the 14th and last child of Ramji Maloji Sakpal, an officer who held the rank of Subedar. His family was of Marathi background from the town of Ambavade in Ratnagiri district of modern-day Maharashtra, Ambedkar was born into a poor low Mahar caste, who were treated as untouchables and subjected to socio-economic discrimination. Ambedkars ancestors had long worked for the army of the British East India Company, although they attended school, Ambedkar and other untouchable children were segregated and given little attention or help by teachers. They were not allowed to sit inside the class, when they needed to drink water, someone from a higher caste had to pour that water from a height as they were not allowed to touch either the water or the vessel that contained it. He was required to sit on a sack which he had to take home with him. Ramji Sakpal retired in 1894 and the moved to Satara two years later. Shortly after their move, Ambedkars mother died, the children were cared for by their paternal aunt and lived in difficult circumstances. Three sons – Balaram, Anandrao and Bhimrao – and two daughters – Manjula and Tulasa – of the Ambedkars survived them, of his brothers and sisters, only Ambedkar passed his examinations and went to high school. His original surname Ambavadekar comes from his native village Ambavade in Ratnagiri district and his teacher, Mahadev Ambedkar, who was fond of him, changed his surname from Ambavadekar to his own surname Ambedkar in school records. In 1897, Ambedkars family moved to Bombay where Ambedkar became the only untouchable enrolled at Elphinstone High School, in 1906, when he was about 15 years old, his marriage to a nine-year-old girl, Ramabai, was arranged. In 1907, he passed his examination and in the following year he entered Elphinstone College. This success evoked much celebration among untouchables and after a ceremony, he was presented with a biography of the Buddha by Dada Keluskar, the author. By 1912, he obtained his degree in economics and political science from Bombay University and his wife had just moved his young family and started work when he had to quickly return to Mumbai to see his ailing father, who died on 2 February 1913. In 1913, Ambedkar moved to the United States at the age of 22, soon after arriving there he settled in rooms at Livingston Hall with Naval Bhathena, a Parsi who was to be a lifelong friend
35.
Jawaharlal Nehru
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Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India and a central figure in Indian politics before and after independence. He is considered to be the architect of the modern Indian nation-state, a sovereign, socialist, secular and he was also known as Pandit Nehru due to his roots with the Kashmiri Pandit community while many Indian children knew him as Chacha Nehru. The son of Motilal Nehru, a prominent lawyer and nationalist statesman and Swaroop Rani, Nehru was a graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge and the Inner Temple, where he trained to be a barrister. Upon his return to India, he enrolled at the Allahabad High Court, and took an interest in national politics, a committed nationalist since his teenage years, he became a rising figure in Indian politics during the upheavals of the 1910s. He became the prominent leader of the factions of the Indian National Congress during the 1920s. As Congress President in 1929, Nehru called for independence from the British Raj. Nehru and the Congress dominated Indian politics during the 1930s as the country moved towards independence, but these achievements were seriously compromised in the aftermath of the Quit India Movement in 1942, which saw the British effectively crush the Congress as a political organisation. The Muslim League under his old Congress colleague and now bête noire, negotiations between Nehru and Jinnah for power sharing failed and gave way to the independence and bloody partition of India in 1947. As Prime Minister, he set out to realise his vision of India, the Constitution of India was enacted in 1950, after which he embarked on an ambitious program of economic, social and political reforms. Chiefly, he oversaw Indias transition from a colony to a republic, while nurturing a plural, in foreign policy, he took a leading role in Non-Alignment while projecting India as a regional hegemon in South Asia. Under Nehrus leadership, the Congress emerged as a party, dominating national and state-level politics and winning consecutive elections in 1951,1957. He remained popular with the people of India in spite of troubles in his final years. In India, his birthday is celebrated as Childrens Day, Jawaharlal Nehru was born on 14 November 1889 in Allahabad in British India. His father, Motilal Nehru, a barrister who belonged to the Kashmiri Pandit community. His mother, Swaruprani Thussu, who came from a well-known Kashmiri Brahmin family settled in Lahore, was Motilals second wife, Jawaharlal was the eldest of three children, two of whom were girls. The elder sister, Vijaya Lakshmi, later became the first female president of the United Nations General Assembly, the youngest sister, Krishna Hutheesing, became a noted writer and authored several books on her brother. Nehru described his childhood as a sheltered and uneventful one and he grew up in an atmosphere of privilege at wealthy homes including a palatial estate called the Anand Bhawan. His father had him educated at home by governesses and tutors
36.
Litterateur
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Socially, intellectuals constitute the intelligentsia, a status class organised either by ideology, or by nationality. Man of Letters The English term Man of Letters derives from the French term belletrist, the term Man of Letters distinguished the literate man from the illiterate man, in a time when literacy was a rare form of cultural capital. In late 19th century, the term became common usage to denote the defenders of the falsely accused artillery officer Alfred Dreyfus. Likewise, in Tsarist Russia, there arose the intelligentsia, who were the class of white-collar workers. As such, politically radical thinkers already had participated in the French Revolution, Robert Darnton said that they were not societal outsiders, but respectable, domesticated, moreover, some intellectuals were anti-academic, despite universities being synonymous with intellectualism. Habermas Structural Transformation of Public Sphere made significant contribution to the notion of public intellectual by historically and conceptually delineating the idea of private, such civil servants earned academic degrees by means of imperial examination, and also were skilled calligraphers, and knew Confucian philosophy. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that, Generally speaking, the record of these scholar-gentlemen has been a worthy one and it was good enough to be praised and imitated in 18th century Europe. Nevertheless, it has given China a tremendous handicap in their transition from government by men to government by law, and personal considerations in Chinese government have been a curse. In Joseon Korea, the intellectuals were the literati, who knew how to read and write, socially, they constituted the petite bourgeoisie, composed of scholar-bureaucrats who administered the dynastic rule of the Joseon dynasty. The Italian Communist theoretician Antonio Gramsci developed Karl Marx’s conception of the intelligentsia to include political leadership in the public sphere and that, because all knowledge is existentially-based, the intellectuals, who create and preserve knowledge, are spokesmen for different social groups, and articulate particular social interests. That intellectuals occur in social class and throughout the right wing, the centre. That, as a class, the intellectuals view themselves as autonomous from the ruling class of their society. Therefore, the leadership of intellectuals is required for effecting and realizing social change, because, in the formal codification of Leninism, the Hungarian Marxist philosopher, György Lukács identified the intelligentsia as the privileged social class who provide revolutionary leadership. By means of intelligible and accessible interpretation, the intellectuals explain to the workers, the How. and the Why. of the social, economic, and political status quo—the ideological totality of society—and its practical, revolutionary application to the transformation of their society. The term public intellectual describes the intellectual participating in the discourse of society. In Representations of the Intellectual, Edward Saïd said that the … true intellectual is, therefore, always an outsider, living in self-imposed exile, and on the margins of society. An intellectual usually is associated with an ideology or with a philosophy and that intellectuals be mindful of the social and cultural ties created with their words, insights, and ideas, and should be heard as social critics of politics and power. In journalism, the term usually connotes a university academic of the humanities—especially a philosopher—who addresses important social and political matters of the day
37.
Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma
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During the Second World War, he was Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia Command. He was the last Viceroy of India and the first Governor-General of independent India, from 1954 until 1959 he was First Sea Lord, a position that had been held by his father, Prince Louis of Battenberg, some forty years earlier. Thereafter he served as Chief of the Defence Staff until 1965, during this period Mountbatten also served as Chairman of the NATO Military Committee for a year. He was the youngest child and the son of Prince Louis of Battenberg and his wife Princess Victoria of Hesse. His maternal grandparents were Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, and Princess Alice of the United Kingdom and his paternal grandparents were Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine and Julia, Princess of Battenberg. His siblings were Princess Andrew of Greece and Denmark, Queen Louise of Sweden, young Mountbattens nickname among family and friends was Dickie, although Richard was not among his given names. This was because his great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, had suggested the nickname of Nicky, but to avoid confusion with the many Nickys of the Russian Imperial Family, Nicky was changed to Dickie. Mountbatten was educated at home for the first 10 years of his life, he was sent to Lockers Park School in Hertfordshire and on to the Royal Naval College. His second son acquired the courtesy title Lord Louis Mountbatten and was known as Lord Louis until he was created a peer in 1946 and he paid a brief visit of ten days to the Western Front, in July 1918. He was appointed officer of the small warship HMS P.31 on 13 October 1918 and was promoted sub-lieutenant on 15 January 1919. HMS P.31 took part in the Peace River Pageant on 4 April 1919, Mountbatten attended Christs College, Cambridge for two terms, starting in October 1919, where he studied English literature in a programme that was specially designed for ex-servicemen. He was posted to the battlecruiser HMS Renown in March 1920 and accompanied Edward, Prince of Wales and he was promoted lieutenant on 15 April 1920. HMS Renown returned to Portsmouth on 11 October 1920, early in 1921 Royal Navy personnel were used for civil defence duties as serious industrial unrest seemed imminent. Mountbatten had to command a platoon of stokers, many of whom had never handled a rifle before and he transferred to the battlecruiser HMS Repulse in March 1921 and accompanied the Prince of Wales on a Royal tour of India and Japan. Edward and Mountbatten formed a friendship during the trip. Mountbatten survived the deep defence cuts known as the Geddes Axe and he was posted to the battleship HMS Revenge in the Mediterranean Fleet in January 1923. Promoted lieutenant-commander on 15 April 1928, he returned to the Signals School in July 1929 as Senior Wireless Instructor. He was appointed Fleet Wireless Officer to the Mediterranean Fleet in August 1931, in 1934, Mountbatten was appointed to his first command – the destroyer HMS Daring
38.
Hindu Maha Sabha
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The Akhil Bhāratiya Hindū Mahāsabhā is a Hindu nationalist political party in India. Although quite an old Hindu nationalist political party, the Hindu Mahasabha has remained marginal in its influence on Indian politics, in 1909, Arya Samaj leaders Lala Lajpat Rai, Lal Chand and Shadi Lal established the Punjab Hindu Sabha. Madan Mohan Malaviya presided over the Sabhas first session at Lahore in October 1909, the Sabha stated that it was not a sectarian organisation, but an all-embracing movement that aimed to safeguard the interests of the entire Hindu community. The Sabha organised five more annual conferences in Punjab. The development of the work for Hindu unity that started in the early 20th century in Punjab was a precursor for the formation of the All India Hindu Sabha. Over the next few years, several such Hindu Sabhas were established outside Punjab, including in United Provinces, Bihar, Bengal, Central Provinces and Berar, a formal move to establish an umbrella All-India Hindu Sabha was made at the Allahabad session of Congress in 1910. A committee headed by Lala Baij Nath was set up to draw up a constitution, another conference of Hindu leaders in Allahabad also took the initial step to establish an All India Hindu Sabha in 1910, but this organisation did not become operational due to factional strife. On 8 December 1913, the Punjab Hindu Sabha passed a resolution to create an All India Hindu Sabha at its Ambala session, the Conference proposed holding a general conference of Hindu leaders from all over India at the 1915 Kumbh Mela in Haridwar. Preparatory sessions of the All India Hindu Sabha were held at Haridwar, Lucknow, in April 1915, Sarvadeshak Hindu Sabha was formed as an umbrella organisation of regional Hindu Sabhas, at the Kumbh Mela in Haridwar. Gandhi and Swami Shraddhanand were also present at the conference, and were supportive of the formation of All India Hindu Sabha, the Sabha laid emphasis on Hindu solidarity and the need for social reform. Manindra Chandra Nandy, the President of the Conference, declared that the Sabha would be loyal to the British Government and this pro-British stance was criticised by Shraddhanand. The Sabha formally changed its name to Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha at its session in April 1921. Amongst the Mahasabhas early leaders was the prominent nationalist and educationalist Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, who founded the Benaras Hindu University, and the Punjabi populist Lala Lajpat Rai. Under Malaviya, the Mahasabha campaigned for Hindu political unity, for the education, in the late 1920s, the Mahasabha came under the influence of leaders like Balakrishna Shivram Moonje and Vinayak Damodar Savarkar. Savarkar was a revolutionary who had been banned from anti-British political activities. Under Savarkar, the Mahasabha became a more intense critic of the Congress, although ideologically similar to the Mahasabha, the RSS grew faster across the nation and became a competitor for the core constituency of the Mahasabha. While not exactly loyal to the British Raj, the Hindu Mahasabha did not actively support the Indian freedom movement against British rule in India, under the leadership of Mohandas Gandhi, the Congress led several nationwide campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience. The Mahasabha officially abstained from participating in the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930, the Indian National Congress won a massive victory in the Indian provincial elections,1937, decimating the Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha
39.
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar
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He was Independent Indias first law minister and the principal architect of the Constitution of India. In his early career he was an economist, professor, in 1956 he converted to Buddhism, initiating mass conversions of Dalits. In 1990, the Bharat Ratna, Indias highest civilian award, was conferred upon Ambedkar. Ambedkars legacy includes numerous memorials and depictions in popular culture, Ambedkar was born on 14 April 1891 in the town and military cantonment of Mhow in the Central Provinces. He was the 14th and last child of Ramji Maloji Sakpal, an officer who held the rank of Subedar. His family was of Marathi background from the town of Ambavade in Ratnagiri district of modern-day Maharashtra, Ambedkar was born into a poor low Mahar caste, who were treated as untouchables and subjected to socio-economic discrimination. Ambedkars ancestors had long worked for the army of the British East India Company, although they attended school, Ambedkar and other untouchable children were segregated and given little attention or help by teachers. They were not allowed to sit inside the class, when they needed to drink water, someone from a higher caste had to pour that water from a height as they were not allowed to touch either the water or the vessel that contained it. He was required to sit on a sack which he had to take home with him. Ramji Sakpal retired in 1894 and the moved to Satara two years later. Shortly after their move, Ambedkars mother died, the children were cared for by their paternal aunt and lived in difficult circumstances. Three sons – Balaram, Anandrao and Bhimrao – and two daughters – Manjula and Tulasa – of the Ambedkars survived them, of his brothers and sisters, only Ambedkar passed his examinations and went to high school. His original surname Ambavadekar comes from his native village Ambavade in Ratnagiri district and his teacher, Mahadev Ambedkar, who was fond of him, changed his surname from Ambavadekar to his own surname Ambedkar in school records. In 1897, Ambedkars family moved to Bombay where Ambedkar became the only untouchable enrolled at Elphinstone High School, in 1906, when he was about 15 years old, his marriage to a nine-year-old girl, Ramabai, was arranged. In 1907, he passed his examination and in the following year he entered Elphinstone College. This success evoked much celebration among untouchables and after a ceremony, he was presented with a biography of the Buddha by Dada Keluskar, the author. By 1912, he obtained his degree in economics and political science from Bombay University and his wife had just moved his young family and started work when he had to quickly return to Mumbai to see his ailing father, who died on 2 February 1913. In 1913, Ambedkar moved to the United States at the age of 22, soon after arriving there he settled in rooms at Livingston Hall with Naval Bhathena, a Parsi who was to be a lifelong friend
40.
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
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Abdul Ghaffār Khān, nicknamed Bāchā Khān or Pāchā Khān, was a Pashtun independence activist against the rule of the British Raj. He was a political and spiritual leader known for his nonviolent opposition, a close friend of Mohandas Gandhi, Bacha Khan was nicknamed the Frontier Gandhi in British India. Badshah Khan strongly opposed the All-India Muslim Leagues demand for the partition of India, Badshah Khan also spent much of the 1960s and 1970s either in jail or in exile. Upon his death in 1988 in Peshawar under house arrest, following his will, he was buried at his house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. Tens of thousands of mourners attended his funeral, marching through the Khyber Pass from Peshawar to Jalalabad, despite the heavy fighting at the time, both sides of the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the communist army and the mujahideen, declared a ceasefire to allow his burial. Ghaffar Khan was born on 6 February 1890 into a generally peaceful and his father, Bahram Khan, was a land owner in the area commonly referred to as Hashtnaghar. Ghaffar was the son of Bahram to attend the British run Edwards mission school. At school the young Ghaffar did well in his studies, and was inspired by his mentor Reverend Wigram to see the importance of education in service to the community. In his 10th and final year of school, he was offered a highly prestigious commission in The Guides. Young Ghaffar refused the commission after realising that even The Guides officers were still second-class citizens in their own country and he resumed his intention of university study, and Reverend Wigram offered him the opportunity to follow his brother, Dr. Khan Sahib, to study in London. An alumnus of Aligarh Muslim University, Ghaffar eventually received the permission of his father, ghaffars mother wasnt willing to lose another son to London. So Ghaffar began working on his fathers lands, while attempting to discern what more he might do with his life, in 1910, at the age of 20, Badshah Khan opened a mosque school at his hometown Utmanzai. In 1911, he joined independence movement of the Pashtun independence activist Haji Sahib of Turangzai, however, in 1915, the British authorities banned his mosque school. Having witnessed the repeated failure of revolts against the British Raj, Bacha Khan decided that social activism and this led to the formation of Anjuman-e Islāh-e Afāghina in 1921, and the youth movement Pax̌tūn Jirga in 1927. After Bacha Khans return from the Hajj pilgrimage at Mecca in May 1928, finally, in November 1929, Bacha Khan founded the Khudāyī Khidmatgār movement, whose success triggered a harsh crackdown by the British Empire against him and his supporters. They suffered some of the most severe repression of the Indian independence movement from the British Raj, in response to his inability to continue his own education, Ghaffar Khan turned to helping others start theirs. At 20 years of age, Ghaffar opened his first school in Utmanzai and it was an instant success and he was soon invited into a larger circle of progressively minded reformers. While he faced opposition and personal difficulties, Ghaffar Khan worked tirelessly to organise and raise the consciousness of his fellow Pushtuns
41.
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
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Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is one of the four provinces of Pakistan, located in the northwestern region of the country. It was formerly known as North-West Frontier Province and commonly called Sarhad and its provincial capital and largest city is Peshawar, followed by Mardan. It shares borders with the Federally Administered Tribal Areas to the west, Gilgit–Baltistan to the northeast, Azad Kashmir, Islamabad, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa does not share a border with Balochistan, which lies to its southwest. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa also shares a border with Afghanistan, connected through the Khyber Pass. It is also the site of the ancient kingdom Gandhara, the ruins of its capital, Pushkalavati, and the most prominent center of learning in the Peshawar Valley, Takht-i-Bahi. It has been under the suzerainty of the Persians, Greeks, Mauryans, Kushans, Shahis, Ghaznavids, Mughals, Afghanistan, Sikhs, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is the third largest province of Pakistan by the size of both population and economy though it is geographically the smallest of four. It comprises 10. 5% of Pakistans economy, and is home to 11. 9% of Pakistans total population, with the majority of the inhabitants being Pashtuns, Hazarewal, Chitrali. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa means Khyber side of the land of Pakhtuns while only the word Pakhtunkhwa means Land of Pakhtuns and according to scholars it means Pakhtun culture. When the British established it as a province, they called it North West Frontier Province due to its location being in north west of their Indian Empire. After independence of Pakistan, Pakistan continued with this name but a Pakhtun nationalist party and their logic behind that demand was that Punjabi people, Sindhi people and Balochi people have their provinces named after their ethnicities but that is not the case for Pashtun people. Major political parties especially Pakistan Muslim League were against that name since it was too similar to Bacha Khans demand of separate nation Pashtunistan. The ancient Aryan Migration is believed to have taken place around 2000 BCE, darius Hystaspes sent Scylax, a Greek seaman from Karyanda, to explore the course of the Indus river. Darius Hystaspes subsequently subdued the races dwelling west of the Indus, Gandhara was incorporated into the Persian Empire as one of its far easternmost satrapy system of government. The satrapy of Gandhara is recorded to have sent troops for Xerxes invasion of Greece in 480 BCE, in the spring of 327 BCE Alexander the Great crossed the Indian Caucasus and advanced to Nicaea, where Omphis, king of Taxila and other chiefs joined him. Alexander then dispatched part of his force through the valley of the Kabul River, while he advanced into modern Khyber Pakhtunkhwas Bajaur. Alexander then made Embolima his base, after Alexanders death in 323 BCE Porus obtained possession of the region, but was murdered by Eudemus in 317 BCE. Eudemus then left the region, and with his departure Macedonian power collapsed, sandrocottus, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, then declared himself master of the province. His grandson, Ashoka, made Buddhism the dominant religion in ancient Gandhara, after Ashokas death the Mauryan empire collapse, just as in the west the Seleucid power was rising
42.
Pashtunistan
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Pashtunistan is the geographic region inhabited by the indigenous Pashtun people of modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Alternative names historically used for the region included Afghānistān and Pashtūnkhwā, Pashtunistan borders Punjab to the east, Persian and Turkic speaking regions to the west and north, Kashmir to the northeast, and Balochistan to the south. For administrative division in 1893, Mortimer Durand drew the Durand Line and this porous line that runs through the center of the Pashtun region forms the modern border between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Thus it is clear that for this reason the people of the call their home in their own language Afghánistán. But it occurs to me, that when, under the rule of Muhammadan sovereigns, Musulmáns first came to the city of Patná, and dwelt there, the very concept of Pakhtunistan was taken from the old word Pakhtunkhwa. The British were using Pathanistan for Pakhtunistan in the beginning, depending on the source, the ethnic Pashtuns constitute 42-60% of the population of Afghanistan. In neighboring Pakistan they constitute 15.42 percent of the 190 million population, in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan, Pashto speakers constitute above 73 percent of the population as of 1998. In recent age, people of the Western world have explored the area. Arab Muslims arrived in the 7th century and began introducing Islam to the native Pashtun people, some of the Arabs settled in the Sulaiman Mountains, the Pashtunistan area later fell to the Turkish Ghaznavids whose main capital was at Ghazni, with Lahore serving as the second power house. The Ghaznavid Empire was then taken over by the Ghorids from todays Ghor, the army of Genghis Khan arrived in the 13th century and began destroying Persian-speaking cities in the north while the Pashtun territory was defended by the Khilji dynasty of Delhi. In the 14th and 15th century, the Timurid dynasty was in control of the cities and towns. During the Delhi Sultanate era, the region was ruled by Turkic dynasties from Delhi, an early Pashtun nationalist was the warrior-poet Khushal Khan Khattak, who was imprisoned by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb for trying to incite the Pashtuns to rebel against the rule of the Mughals. However, despite sharing a language and believing in a common ancestry. The eastern parts of Pashtunistan was ruled by the Mughal Empire, during the early 18th century, Pashtun tribes led by Mirwais Hotak successfully revolted against the Safavids in the city of Kandahar. In a chain of events, he declared Kandahar and other parts of what is now southern Afghanistan independent, by 1738 the Mughal Empire had been crushingly defeated and their capital sacked and looted by forces of a new Iranian ruler, the military genius and commander Nader Shah. Besides Persian, Turkmen, and Caucasian forces, Nader was also accompanied by the young Ahmad Shah Durrani, and 4,000 well trained Pashtun troops from what is now Afghanistan and North-west Pakistan. The famous couplet by Ahmad Shah Durrani describes the association the people have with the city of Kandahar. Translation, I forget the throne of Delhi when I recall the mountain peaks of my beautiful Pukhtunkhwa, the last Afghan Empire was established in 1747 and united all the different Pashtun tribes as well as many other ethnic groups
43.
Mahatma Gandhi
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Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was the preeminent leader of the Indian independence movement in British-ruled India. Employing nonviolent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights, the honorific Mahatma —applied to him first in 1914 in South Africa—is now used worldwide. In India, he is also called Bapu and Gandhiji and he is unofficially called the Father of the Nation. After his return to India in 1915, he set about organising peasants, farmers, Gandhi famously led Indians in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the 400 km Dandi Salt March in 1930, and later in calling for the British to Quit India in 1942. He was imprisoned for years, upon many occasions, in both South Africa and India. Gandhi attempted to practise nonviolence and truth in all situations, and he lived modestly in a self-sufficient residential community and wore the traditional Indian dhoti and shawl, woven with yarn hand-spun on a charkha. He ate simple food, and also undertook long fasts as a means of both self-purification and social protest. Eventually, in August 1947, Britain granted independence, but the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two dominions, a Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan. As many displaced Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs made their way to their new lands, religious violence broke out, especially in the Punjab, eschewing the official celebration of independence in Delhi, Gandhi visited the affected areas, attempting to provide solace. In the months following, he undertook several fasts unto death to promote religious harmony, the last of these, undertaken on 12 January 1948 when he was 78, also had the indirect goal of pressuring India to pay out some cash assets owed to Pakistan. Some Indians thought Gandhi was too accommodating, among them was Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, who assassinated Gandhi on 30 January 1948 by firing three bullets into his chest. Mahatma Gandhis birthday,2 October, is commemorated in India as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday and his father, Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi, served as the diwan of Porbandar state. The Gandhi family originated from the village of Kutiana in what was then Junagadh State, in the late 17th or early 18th century, one Lalji Gandhi moved to Porbandar and entered the service of its ruler, the Rana. In 1831, Rana Khimojiraji died suddenly and was succeeded by his 12-year-old only son, as a result, Rana Khimojirajjis widow, Rani Rupaliba, became regent for her son. She soon fell out with Uttamchand and forced him to return to his village in Junagadh. While in Junagadh, Uttamchand appeared before its Nawab and saluted him with his hand instead of his right. In 1841, Vikmatji assumed the throne and reinstated Uttamchand as his diwan, in 1847, Rana Vikmatji appointed Uttamchands son, Karamchand, as diwan after disagreeing with Uttamchand over the states maintenance of a British garrison. Although he only had an education and had previously been a clerk in the state administration
44.
Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman
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Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman was a Pakistani politician and a very important Muslim figure during British India. He was one of the top leaders of the All India Muslim League and he came from the United Provinces. He was born in Chunar, an ancient town in UPs Mirzapur district, at the time, his his father was a naib tehsildar there. He was one of the four individuals who addressed the Constituent Assembly in the hall of Parliament during the moment of Indian independence at midnight of August 14,1947. The other three were Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Dr. Radhakrishnan and he was the first president of the Pakistan Muslim League. He served as the governor of East Bengal from March 31,1953, in 1961, he published his memoirs entitled Pathway to Pakistan. The Urdu version of the autobiography came out in 1967 and he further wrote, He doubted the utility of the two-nation theory, which to my mind also had never paid any dividends to us. But after the partition, it proved positively injurious to the Muslims of India, according to him, Jinnah bade farewell to it in his famous speech of August 11,1947. Mr. Rafi uz Zaman, a former Pakistani ambassador to Nairobi, is his grandson, Rafi belongs to the 1986 batch of the Foreign Service of Pakistan. He has served abroad in many capitals, including Dhaka and Paris
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