1.
Gai Qi
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Gai Qi was a poet and painter born in western China during the Qing dynasty. As an artist, he was active in Shanghai, in painting his works mainly concerned plants, beauty, and figures. However he also did numerous landscapes, in poetry he preferred the rhyming ci form and added such poems to his paintings. His social circle included prominent literati as well as artists and he organized both a literary society and a Buddhist lay society. His work often used a delicate baimiao style, which can be see in his illustrations for Honglou meng. The illustrations are chiefly portraits of the characters in the novel. Numerous poets, including the woman poet Zhou Qi, wrote poems to accompany the illustrations. The scholar Wang Qisun 王岂孙 commissioned Gai Qi to paint an album of famous Chinese women, wangs second wife, Cao Zhenxiu 曹贞秀 wrote poems about the women and did the calligraphy in the album. Gai took as a student the talented woman painter and poet Qian Shoupu 錢守璞 and he was associated with the painter Fei Danxu 费丹旭 in what has been called the Gai Fei school. Gais grandson continued the tradition of the Gai Fei school, along with descendants of Fei Danxiu and he is perhaps best known today for the Hongloumeng tiyong, a book of portraits of characters in Dream of the Red Chamber accompanied by poems about the characters. The book was based on paintings done by Gai Qi, but was not published until 1884, the book is still in print. Chinese Paintings in the Ashmolean Museum Oxford Oxford ISBN 1-85444-132-9 China on-site Zhongguo lidai shinü huaji 中國歷代仕女畫集 edited by Guo Xueshi 郭学是and Zhang Zikang, hidden Meanings of Love and Death in Chinese Painting, Selections from the Marilyn and Roy Papp Collection
2.
Traditional Chinese characters
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Traditional Chinese characters are Chinese characters in any character set that does not contain newly created characters or character substitutions performed after 1946. They are most commonly the characters in the character sets of Taiwan, of Hong Kong. Currently, a number of overseas Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between both sets. In contrast, simplified Chinese characters are used in mainland China, Singapore, the debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters has been a long-running issue among Chinese communities. Although simplified characters are taught and endorsed by the government of Mainland China, Traditional characters are used informally in regions in China primarily in handwriting and also used for inscriptions and religious text. They are often retained in logos or graphics to evoke yesteryear, nonetheless, the vast majority of media and communications in China is dominated by simplified characters. Taiwan has never adopted Simplified Chinese characters since it is ruled by the Republic of China, the use of simplified characters in official documents is even prohibited by the government in Taiwan. Simplified characters are not well understood in general, although some stroke simplifications that have incorporated into Simplified Chinese are in common use in handwriting. For example, while the name of Taiwan is written as 臺灣, similarly, in Hong Kong and Macau, Traditional Chinese has been the legal written form since colonial times. In recent years, because of the influx of mainland Chinese tourists, today, even government websites use simplified Chinese, as they answer to the Beijing government. This has led to concerns by residents to protect their local heritage. In Southeast Asia, the Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative regarding simplification, while major public universities are teaching simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications like the Chinese Commercial News, World News, and United Daily News still use traditional characters, on the other hand, the Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified. Aside from local newspapers, magazines from Hong Kong, such as the Yazhou Zhoukan, are found in some bookstores. In case of film or television subtitles on DVD, the Chinese dub that is used in Philippines is the same as the one used in Taiwan and this is because the DVDs belongs to DVD Region Code 3. Hence, most of the subtitles are in Traditional Characters, overseas Chinese in the United States have long used traditional characters. A major influx of Chinese immigrants to the United States occurred during the half of the 19th century. Therefore, the majority of Chinese language signage in the United States, including street signs, Traditional Chinese characters are called several different names within the Chinese-speaking world
3.
Simplified Chinese characters
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Simplified Chinese characters are standardized Chinese characters prescribed in the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters for use in mainland China. Along with traditional Chinese characters, it is one of the two character sets of the contemporary Chinese written language. The government of the Peoples Republic of China in mainland China has promoted them for use in printing since the 1950s and 1960s in an attempt to increase literacy and they are officially used in the Peoples Republic of China and Singapore. Traditional Chinese characters are used in Hong Kong, Macau. Overseas Chinese communities generally tend to use traditional characters, Simplified Chinese characters may be referred to by their official name above or colloquially. Strictly, the latter refers to simplifications of character structure or body, character forms that have existed for thousands of years alongside regular, Simplified character forms were created by decreasing the number of strokes and simplifying the forms of a sizable proportion of traditional Chinese characters. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms embodying graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms, some characters were simplified by applying regular rules, for example, by replacing all occurrences of a certain component with a simplified version of the component. Variant characters with the pronunciation and identical meaning were reduced to a single standardized character. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification, and are identical between the traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. Some simplified characters are very dissimilar to and unpredictably different from traditional characters and this often leads opponents not well-versed in the method of simplification to conclude that the overall process of character simplification is also arbitrary. In reality, the methods and rules of simplification are few, on the other hand, proponents of simplification often flaunt a few choice simplified characters as ingenious inventions, when in fact these have existed for hundreds of years as ancient variants. However, the Chinese government never officially dropped its goal of further simplification in the future, in August 2009, the PRC began collecting public comments for a modified list of simplified characters. The new Table of General Standard Chinese Characters consisting of 8,105 characters was promulgated by the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China on June 5,2013, cursive written text almost always includes character simplification. Simplified forms used in print have always existed, they date back to as early as the Qin dynasty, One of the earliest proponents of character simplification was Lubi Kui, who proposed in 1909 that simplified characters should be used in education. In the years following the May Fourth Movement in 1919, many anti-imperialist Chinese intellectuals sought ways to modernise China, Traditional culture and values such as Confucianism were challenged. Soon, people in the Movement started to cite the traditional Chinese writing system as an obstacle in modernising China and it was suggested that the Chinese writing system should be either simplified or completely abolished. Fu Sinian, a leader of the May Fourth Movement, called Chinese characters the writing of ox-demons, lu Xun, a renowned Chinese author in the 20th century, stated that, If Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die. Recent commentators have claimed that Chinese characters were blamed for the problems in China during that time
4.
Standard Chinese
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Its pronunciation is based on the Beijing dialect, its vocabulary on the Mandarin dialects, and its grammar is based on written vernacular Chinese. Like other varieties of Chinese, Standard Chinese is a language with topic-prominent organization. It has more initial consonants but fewer vowels, final consonants, Standard Chinese is an analytic language, though with many compound words. There exist two standardised forms of the language, namely Putonghua in Mainland China and Guoyu in Taiwan, aside from a number of differences in pronunciation and vocabulary, Putonghua is written using simplified Chinese characters, while Guoyu is written using traditional Chinese characters. There are many characters that are identical between the two systems, in English, the governments of China and Hong Kong use Putonghua, Putonghua Chinese, Mandarin Chinese, and Mandarin, while those of Taiwan, Singapore, and Malaysia, use Mandarin. The name Putonghua also has a long, albeit unofficial, history and it was used as early as 1906 in writings by Zhu Wenxiong to differentiate a modern, standard Chinese from classical Chinese and other varieties of Chinese. For some linguists of the early 20th century, the Putonghua, or common tongue/speech, was different from the Guoyu. The former was a prestige variety, while the latter was the legal standard. Based on common understandings of the time, the two were, in fact, different, Guoyu was understood as formal vernacular Chinese, which is close to classical Chinese. By contrast, Putonghua was called the speech of the modern man. The use of the term Putonghua by left-leaning intellectuals such as Qu Qiubai, prior to this, the government used both terms interchangeably. In Taiwan, Guoyu continues to be the term for Standard Chinese. The term Putonghua, on the contrary, implies nothing more than the notion of a lingua franca, Huayu, or language of the Chinese nation, originally simply meant Chinese language, and was used in overseas communities to contrast Chinese with foreign languages. Over time, the desire to standardise the variety of Chinese spoken in these communities led to the adoption of the name Huayu to refer to Mandarin and it also incorporates the notion that Mandarin is usually not the national or common language of the areas in which overseas Chinese live. The term Mandarin is a translation of Guānhuà, which referred to the lingua franca of the late Chinese empire, in English, Mandarin may refer to the standard language, the dialect group as a whole, or to historic forms such as the late Imperial lingua franca. The name Modern Standard Mandarin is sometimes used by linguists who wish to distinguish the current state of the language from other northern. Chinese has long had considerable variation, hence prestige dialects have always existed. Confucius, for example, used yǎyán rather than colloquial regional dialects, rime books, which were written since the Northern and Southern dynasties, may also have reflected one or more systems of standard pronunciation during those times
5.
Pinyin
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Pinyin, or Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is often used to teach Standard Chinese, which is written using Chinese characters. The system includes four diacritics denoting tones, Pinyin without tone marks is used to spell Chinese names and words in languages written with the Latin alphabet, and also in certain computer input methods to enter Chinese characters. The pinyin system was developed in the 1950s by many linguists, including Zhou Youguang and it was published by the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times. The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as a standard in 1982. The system was adopted as the standard in Taiwan in 2009. The word Hànyǔ means the language of the Han people. In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci published Xizi Qiji in Beijing and this was the first book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chinese language. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China, Nicolas Trigault, neither book had much immediate impact on the way in which Chinese thought about their writing system, and the romanizations they described were intended more for Westerners than for the Chinese. One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western alphabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing Dynasty scholar-official, the first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopt a system of spelling was Song Shu. A student of the great scholars Yu Yue and Zhang Taiyan, Song had been to Japan and observed the effect of the kana syllabaries. This galvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script, while Song did not himself actually create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts. The Wade–Giles system was produced by Thomas Wade in 1859, and it was popular and used in English-language publications outside China until 1979. This Sin Wenz or New Writing was much more sophisticated than earlier alphabets. In 1940, several members attended a Border Region Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao Zedong and Zhu De, head of the army, both contributed their calligraphy for the masthead of the Sin Wenz Societys new journal. Outside the CCP, other prominent supporters included Sun Yat-sens son, Sun Fo, Cai Yuanpei, the countrys most prestigious educator, Tao Xingzhi, an educational reformer. Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz, plus large numbers of translations, biographies, some contemporary Chinese literature, and a spectrum of textbooks
6.
Qing dynasty
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It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria, in the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Banners, military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci formed the Jurchen clans into an entity, which he renamed as the Manchus. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, in 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital, Beijing. The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia, the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their title was Emperor, they used khan to the Mongols and they were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. They governed using Confucian styles and institutions of government and retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the system in dealing with neighboring territories. The Qianlong reign saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, the Taiping Rebellion and the Dungan Revolt in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people, most of them due to famines caused by war. In spite of disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea, New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a conservative leader. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei, after the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on October 11,1911, led to the Xinhai Revolution, General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on February 12,1912. Nurhaci declared himself the Bright Khan of the Later Jin state in both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng. The character Qīng is composed of water and azure, both associated with the water element and this association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water
7.
Han dynasty
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The Han dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period. Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered an age in Chinese history. To this day, Chinas majority ethnic group refers to itself as the Han people and it was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods, the Western Han or Former Han and the Eastern Han or Later Han, the emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States, from the reign of Emperor Wu onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 AD, the Han dynasty was an age of economic prosperity and saw a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty. The coinage issued by the government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty. The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations, the Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu of Han launched several campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries, the territories north of Hans borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Imperial authority was seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, following Liu Bangs victory in the Chu–Han Contention, the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief. Chinas first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty, the Qin unified the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their empire became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion. Although Xiang Yu proved to be a commander, Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia. Liu Bang assumed the title emperor at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu, Changan was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han
8.
Anqing
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Anqing is a prefecture-level city in the southwest of Anhui province, Peoples Republic of China. Its population was 5,311,579 at the 2010 census, the city was founded during the Han Dynasty in the second century BC. In the Middle Ages it received the name of Anqing, from 1853 to 1861 it was held by the rebels of the Taiping rebellion. Zeng Guofan began his conquest of the Taiping by besieging the position with double walls and he made it his headquarters after its fall. Anqing is located in the part of Anhui province. To the north are the Dabie Mountains. 4% of the total, Anqing has a four-season, monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate, with chilly, damp winters and very hot, humid summers. Cold northwesterly winds from Siberia can occasionally cause nightly temperatures to drop below freezing, the monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from 4.0 °C in January to 28.7 °C in July, while the annual mean is 16.76 °C. Precipitation tends to reach a maximum in tandem with the meiyu while wintertime rainfall is generally light, with monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 30% in March to 54% in August, the city receives 1,831 hours of bright sunshine annually. Anqing has one Yangtze River crossing, the Anqing Yangtze River Bridge, Anqing Tianzhushan Airport serves the city. The Nanjing–Anqing Intercity Railway opened in December 2015, allowing a 90-minute journey time to Nanjing, the Zhenfeng Pagoda, built in 1570 during the Ming Dynasty, is located in Anqing on the banks of the Yangtze River. Government website of Anqing Investment information website of Anqing City planning website of Anqing
9.
Anhui
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Anhui is a landlocked province of the Peoples Republic of China located in the eastern region of the country. The name Anhui derives from the names of two cities, Anqing and Huizhou, the abbreviation for Anhui is Chinese, 皖, pinyin, wǎn after the historical State of Wan, Mount Wan, and the Wan river. The province of Anhui was formed in the 17th century, before then, there was no coherent concept of Anhui. In terms of culture, Northern Anhui was firmly a part of the North China Plain together with modern-day Henan province, northern Jiangsu, Central Anhui was densely populated and constituted mostly of fertile land from the Huai River watershed. In contrast, the culture of Southern Anhui, bordered mostly along the Yangtze, was closer to Jiangxi, the hills of southeastern Anhui formed a unique and distinct cultural sphere of its own. In the 2007 book China Road, author Rob Gifford stated that the Chinese refer to Anhui as a big agricultural province, according to Gifford, this is an euphemism for a very poor area and that people have referred to Anhui as the Appalachia of China. The north of the province is part of the North China Plain while the areas are part of the Huai River watershed. Both of these regions are flat and densely populated. The land becomes more uneven further south, with the Dabie Mountains occupying much of southwestern Anhui, the Yangtze River finds its way through south Anhui in between these two mountainous regions. The highest peak in Anhui is Lotus Peak, part of Huangshan in southeastern Anhui and it has an altitude of 1873 m. Major rivers include the Huai River in the north and the Yangtze in the south, the largest lake is Lake Chaohu situated in the center of the province, with an area of about 800 km2. The southeastern part of the province near the Yangtze River has many lakes as well, as with topography, the province differs in climate from north to south. The north is more temperate and has more clearcut seasons, january temperatures average at around -1 to 2 °C north of the Huai River, and 0 to 3 °C south of the Huai River, in July temperatures average 27 °C or above. Plum rains occur in June and July and may cause flooding, major cities, Anhui is divided into sixteen prefecture-level divisions, all prefecture-level cities, The sixteen prefecture-level divisions of Anhui are subdivided into 105 county-level divisions. Those are in turn divided into 1,845 township-level divisions, the Politics of Anhui Province is structured in a dual party-government system like all other governing institutions in mainland China. The Governor of Anhui is the official in the Peoples Government of Anhui. Agriculture in Anhui varies according to the zones that the province crosses. To the north of the Huai River, wheat and sweet potatoes are grown, while to the south of the Huai River it is rice, natural resources of Anhui include iron in Maanshan, coal in Huainan, and copper in Tongling
10.
Sun Ce
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Sun Ce, courtesy name Bofu, was a military general and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty. He was the eldest child of Sun Jian, who was killed during the Battle of Xiangyang when Sun Ce was only 16, Sun Ce then broke away from his fathers overlord, Yuan Shu, and headed to southeastern China to establish his own power base there. With the help of people, such as Zhang Zhao and Zhou Yu. In 200, when the warlord Cao Cao was at war with his rival Yuan Shao in the Battle of Guandu, However, he was assassinated before he could carry out the plan. Sun Ce was posthumously honored as Prince Huan of Changsha by his younger brother Sun Quan when the became the first emperor of Eastern Wu. Chen Shous Records of the Three Kingdoms describes Sun Ce as a man who was full of laughter. He was also a generous and receptive man who employed people according to their abilities, as such, his subjects were willing to risk their lives for him. One detractor named Xu Gong, in a letter to Emperor Xian, likened Sun Ce to Xiang Yu, as a result, Sun Ce was also referred to as the Little Conqueror in popular culture. Born in 175, Sun Ce was the eldest among five sons and one daughter of Sun Jian, in 190, a year after Emperor Ling died, the warlord Dong Zhuo usurped power, placing in the throne the puppet Emperor Xian. Regional warlords in eastern China then launched a campaign against Dong Zhuo, Sun Jian rendered his service to Yuan Shu, one of the leaders of the coalition. The attempt to oust Dong Zhuo soon failed and China slid into a series of civil wars. In the next year, Sun Jian was sent by Yuan Shu to attack Liu Biao, governor of Jing Province, Sun Ce brought his fathers body to Qua for burial and settled his mother down before heading for Danyang, where his uncle Wu Jing was the governor. There he raised a militia a few hundred in strength. This small force was far from sufficient for him to establish his own power so in 194 Sun Ce went to Yuan Shu, Yuan Shu was very impressed with Sun Ce and often lamented that he had no son like him. He also returned Sun Jians former division of troops to Sun Ce, initially, Yuan Shu promised to appoint Sun Ce the governor of Jiujiang but eventually gave the governorship to Chen Ji. Later, when Yuan Shu was denied a loan of grains from the governor of Lujiang, he sent Sun Ce to attack the latter. When Sun Ce did, however, Yuan Shu again went back on his words, the disappointed Sun Ce then began to contemplate leaving. Meanwhile, Liu Yao, who was by imperial decree the governor of Yang Province, occupied Qua as the regional seat Shouchun was already occupied by Yuan Shu
11.
Eastern Wu
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Wu, commonly known as Eastern Wu or Sun Wu, was one of the three major states that competed for supremacy over China in the Three Kingdoms period. It previously existed from 220–222 as a vassal kingdom nominally under Cao Wei, its rival state and it became an empire in 229 after its founding ruler, Sun Quan, declared himself Emperor. Its name was derived from the place it was based in — the Jiangnan region and it was called Eastern Wu because it occupied most of eastern China in the Three Kingdoms period, and Sun Wu because the family name of its rulers was Sun. During its existence, Wus capital was at Jianye, but at times it was also at Wuchang. Sun Ce broke off relations with Yuan Shu around 196-197 after the latter declared himself emperor — an act deemed as treason against Emperor Xian, the figurehead ruler of the Han dynasty. The warlord Cao Cao, who was the de facto head of government in the Han imperial court, Sun Ce was assassinated in the summer of 200 and was succeeded by his younger brother, Sun Quan. Sun Quan, like his brother, also paid nominal allegiance to Emperor Xian while maintaining autonomous rule over the Wu territories. In 208, Sun Quan allied with the warlord Liu Bei, Sun Quan and Liu Bei maintained their alliance against Cao Cao after the battle for the next ten years or so, despite having some territorial disputes over Jing Province. In 219, Sun Quan severed ties with Liu Bei when he sent his general Lü Meng to invade Lius territories in Jing Province, Guan Yu, who was defending Liu Beis assets in Jing Province, was captured and executed by Sun Quans forces. After that, the boundaries of Sun Quans domain extended from beyond the Jiangdong region to include the part of Jing Province. In 220, Cao Caos son and successor, Cao Pi, ended the Han dynasty by forcing Emperor Xian to abdicate in his favour, Sun Quan agreed to submit to Wei and was granted the title of a vassal king, King of Wu, by Cao Pi. A year later, Liu Bei declared himself emperor and founded the state of Shu Han, in 222, Liu Bei launched a military campaign against Sun Quan to take back Jing Province and avenge Guan Yu, leading to the Battle of Xiaoting. However, Liu Bei suffered a defeat at the hands of Sun Quans general Lu Xun and was forced to retreat to Baidicheng. Liu Beis successor, Liu Shan, and his regent, Zhuge Liang, made peace with Sun Quan later, Sun Quan declared independence from Wei in 222, but continued to rule as King of Wu until 229, when he declared himself Emperor of Wu. His legitimacy was recognised by Shu, Sun Quan ruled for over 30 years and his long reign resulted in stability in southern China. During his reign, Wu engaged Wei in numerous wars, including the battles of Ruxu, Shiting, however, Wu never managed to gain any territory north of the Yangtze River while Wei also never succeeded in conquering the lands south of the Yangtze. The conflict resulted in the emergence of two rivalling factions, each supporting either Sun He or Sun Ba, in Sun Quans imperial court. Sun Quan eventually deposed Sun He and forced Sun Ba to commit suicide, while Lu Xun, Sun Quan appointed his youngest son, Sun Liang, as the crown prince after the incident
12.
Three Kingdoms
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The Three Kingdoms was the tripartite division of China between the states of Wei, Shu, and Wu, following the Han dynasty and preceding the Jin dynasty. The term Three Kingdoms itself is something of a mistranslation, since each state was eventually headed not by a king, nevertheless, the term Three Kingdoms has become standard among sinologists. Academically, the period of the Three Kingdoms refers to the period between the foundation of the state of Wei in 220 AD and the conquest of the state of Wu by the Jin dynasty in 280. The earlier, unofficial part of the period, from 184 to 220, was marked by infighting between warlords in various parts of China. The middle part of the period, from 220 and 263, was marked by a more militarily stable arrangement between three states of Wei, Shu, and Wu. The later part of the era was marked by the conquest of Shu by Wei, the usurpation of Wei by the Jin dynasty, the Three Kingdoms period is one of the bloodiest in Chinese history. While the census may not have been particularly accurate due to a multitude of factors of the times, technology advanced significantly during this period. Shu chancellor Zhuge Liang invented the wooden ox, suggested to be a form of the wheelbarrow. Wei mechanical engineer Ma Jun is considered by many to be the equal of his predecessor Zhang Heng, although relatively short, this historical period has been greatly romanticized in the cultures of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. It has been celebrated and popularized in operas, folk stories, novels and in recent times, films, television. The best known of these is Luo Guanzhongs Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the authoritative historical record of the era is Chen Shous Records of the Three Kingdoms, along with Pei Songzhis later annotations of the text. There is no set time period for the era, and many definitions are given. The strictest rule of dating would be to deem the era to be from the point where all three states coexisted as independent states up until the downfall of the Shu-Han states. Mao Zonggang, a commentator on the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, mentions in his commentary on Chapter 120 of the novel that, the Han royal house declined when the eunuchs abused the sovereign and officials subverted the government. In doing so, he suggests that the historiography of the Three Kingdoms should begin at the rise of the Ten Eunuchs to power. He further argues that the Romance of the Three Kingdoms defines the end of the era as 280, to end the tale before Hans enemy had itself met its fate would be to leave the reader unsatisfied. The novel could have ended with the fall of Wei, to end the tale before Hans ally had fallen would be to leave the reader with an incomplete picture. So the tale had to end with the fall of Wu, the power of the Eastern Han dynasty went into depression and steadily declined from a variety of political and economic problems after the death in 105 of Emperor He
13.
Zhou Yu
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Zhou Yu, courtesy name Gongjin, was a military general and strategist serving under the warlord Sun Ce in the late Eastern Han dynasty. He continued serving under Sun Quan, Sun Ces younger brother and successor, around late 208, the northern warlord Cao Cao led his forces south with the intention of conquering the Jiangdong region, where Sun Quans territories were based. Zhou Yu, as the commander of Sun Quans forces. He then led Sun Quans forces at the follow-up Battle of Jiangling, Zhou Yus victories helped to solidify the survivability of Sun Quans regime, which served as the foundation of the state of Eastern Wu in the Three Kingdoms period. He died in 210 at a young age of 35 while preparing for a conquest of the Bashu region. Zhou Yu was from Shu County, Lujiang Commandery, which is in present-day Shucheng County, two of his relatives – his granduncle, Zhou Jing, and Zhou Jings son, Zhou Zhong – served as the Grand Commandant in the Han imperial court. Zhou Yus father, Zhou Yi, was a former Prefect of the imperial capital, around 190, when Sun Jian raised an army to join the campaign against Dong Zhuo, he relocated his family from Changsha Commandery to Shu County. In Shu County, Zhou Yu met and befriended Sun Jians eldest son, Sun Ce, Zhou Yu offered to let Sun Ce and his family stay with him, and he paid respects to Sun Ces mother Lady Wu as though she was his real mother. Zhou Yu and Sun Ce became very close friends, Zhou Yu later travelled to Danyang Commandery to join his uncle Zhou Shang, who was serving as the Administrator of Danyang Commandery. Around 194, Sun Ce, under a commission from the warlord Yuan Shu, entered Yang Province to aid his relatives, Wu Jing and Sun Ben, who were under attack by another warlord Liu Yao. When Sun Ce was at Liyang and was preparing to cross the Yangtze River to attack Liu Yao, Zhou Yu led some troops to assist Sun Ce. Sun Ce was delighted and he said to Zhou Yu, With you, Zhou Yu then joined Sun Ce in his conquests of Hengjiang and Dangli and achieved success. They crossed the Yangtze River, conquered Moling, and defeated Liu Yaos forces led by Ze Rong and they also conquered Hushu, Jiangcheng, and Que. Liu Yao fled after his defeats, and by then, the strength of Sun Ces forces had reached tens of thousands, Sun Ce told Zhou Yu, I now have sufficient military power to conquer Wu and pacify the Shanyue. You can return to Danyang and garrison there, Zhou Yu then made his way back to Danyang. After Yuan Shu agreed to his request, Zhou Yu travelled to Wu Commandery via Juchao, in 198, Zhou Yu arrived in Wu Commandery, where Sun Ce personally received and welcomed him. Sun Ce appointed Zhou Yu as General of the Household Who Establishes Might and put him in command of 2,000 troops, Sun Ce said, Zhou Gongjin is an extraordinary hero and talent. Hes very close to me and were like brothers, I still remember that time when he brought his troops and supplies from Danyang to assist me in my campaign
14.
Sun Quan
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Sun Quan, courtesy name Zhongmou, formally known as Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period. He inherited control of the regime established by his elder brother, Sun Ce. He declared formal independence and ruled from 222 to 229 as the King of Wu, Sun Quan was born in Xiapi while his father Sun Jian served there. When Sun Ce was assassinated by the retainers of Xu Gong in 200, the 18-year-old Sun Quan inherited the lands southeast of the Yangtze River from his brother. His administration proved to be stable in those early years as Sun Jian and Sun Ces most senior officers, such as Zhou Yu, Zhang Zhao, Zhang Hong. Thus throughout the 200s, Sun Quan, under the tutelage of his able advisers, in early 207, his forces finally won complete victory over Huang Zu, a military leader under Liu Biao, who dominated the middle Yangtze. In winter of year, the northern warlord Cao Cao led an army of some 830,000 to conquer the south to complete the reunification of China. Two distinct factions emerged at his court on how to handle the situation, one, led by Zhang Zhao, urged surrender whilst the other, led by Zhou Yu and Lu Su, opposed capitulation. Eventually, Sun Quan decided to oppose Cao Cao in the middle Yangtze with his superior riverine forces, allied with Liu Bei and employing the combined strategies of Zhou Yu and Huang Gai, they defeated Cao Cao decisively at the Battle of Red Cliffs. In 220, Cao Pi, Cao Caos son and successor, seized the throne and proclaimed himself to be the Emperor of China and it was not until the year 229 that he formally declared himself emperor. Because of his skill in gathering important, honourable men to his cause and this primary strength served him well in gaining the support of the common people and surrounding himself with capable generals. After the death of his crown prince, Sun Deng. When Sun He succeeded Sun Deng as the new prince, he was supported by Lu Xun and Zhuge Ke, while his rival Sun Ba was supported by Quan Cong and Bu Zhi. Over a prolonged power struggle, numerous officials were executed. Sun Quan died in 252 at the age of 70 and he enjoyed the longest reign among all the founders of the Three Kingdoms and was succeeded by his son, Sun Liang. Sun Quan was born in 182, while his father Sun Jian was still a general of the Han dynasty, after his fathers death in 191, he became the charge of his brother Sun Ce. As he grew up, he served his brother during the conquests of the south of the Yangtze River. He was made a county magistrate in 196, at the age of 14, the Records of the Three Kingdoms mentioned that Sun Jian was a descendant of Sun Wu, a militarist in the Spring and Autumn Period and the author of The Art of War
15.
Romance of the Three Kingdoms
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The story – part historical, part legend, and part mythical – romanticises and dramatises the lives of feudal lords and their retainers, who tried to replace the dwindling Han dynasty or restore it. The novel deals with the plots, personal and military battles, intrigues, Romance of the Three Kingdoms is acclaimed as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, it has a total of 800,000 words and nearly a thousand dramatic characters in 120 chapters. The novel is among the most beloved works of literature in East Asia and it is arguably the most widely read historical novel in late imperial and modern China. Myths from the Three Kingdoms era existed as oral traditions before written compilations, with their focus on the history of Han Chinese, the stories grew in popularity during the reign of the Mongol emperors of the Yuan dynasty. During the succeeding Ming dynasty an interest in plays and novels resulted in further expansions, the earliest written work to combine these stories was a pinghua, Sanguozhi Pinghua, published sometime between 1321 and 1323. This version combined themes of legend, magic, and morality to appeal to the common people, elements of reincarnation and karma were woven into this version of the story. It was first printed in 1522 as Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi in an edition which bore a perhaps spurious preface date 1494, the text may well have circulated before either date in handwritten manuscripts. The novel also includes material from Tang dynasty poetic works, Yuan dynasty operas and his own interpretation of elements such as virtue. The author combined this knowledge with a gift for storytelling to create a rich tapestry of personalities. Several versions of the expanded Sanguozhi are extant today, luo Guanzhongs version in 24 volumes, known as the Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi, is now held in the Shanghai Library in China, Tenri Central Library in Japan, and several other major libraries. Various 10-volume, 12-volume and 20-volume recensions of Luos text, made between 1522 and 1690, are held at libraries around the world. However, the standard text familiar to readers is a recension by Mao Lun. Scholars have long debated whether the Maos viewpoint was anti-Qing or pro-Qing, the famous opening lines of the novel, The empire, long divided, must unite, long united, must divide. Thus it has ever been, long understood to be Luos introduction, none of the earlier editions contained this phrase. In addition, Mao also added Yang Shens The Immortals by the River as the introductory poem. One of the greatest achievements of Romance of the Three Kingdoms is the complexity of its stories. The novel contains numerous secondary stories, the following consists of a summary of the central plot and some well-known highlights in the story. In the final years of the Eastern Han dynasty, treacherous eunuchs and villainous officials deceived the emperor, the government gradually became extremely corrupt on all levels, leading to widespread deterioration of the Han Empire
16.
Records of the Three Kingdoms
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The Records of the Three Kingdoms is a Chinese historical text which covers the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period. It is widely regarded as the official and authoritative text for that period. Written by Chen Shou in the century, the work combines the smaller histories of the rival states of Cao Wei, Shu Han. The Records of the Three Kingdoms provided the basis for the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms written by Luo Guanzhong in the 14th century and it contains 65 volumes and about 360,000 Chinese characters which are broken into three books. The Book of Wei contains 30 volumes, the Book of Shu 15 volumes, each volume is organised in the form of one or more biographies. The amount of space a biography takes up is dictated by the importance of the figure, the original author was Chen Shou, who was born in present-day Nanchong, Sichuan, in the state of Shu. After the fall of Shu in 263, he became a historian under the government of the Jin dynasty. After the fall of Wu in 280, his work received the acclaim of the senior minister Zhang Hua. Prior to the Jin dynasty, both the states of Wei and Wu already had their histories, such as the Book of Wei by Wang Chen, the Weilüe by Yu Huan. Chen Shou created the Records of the Three Kingdoms with these works as a foundation. The Records of the Three Kingdoms used the year 220 AD — which marked the end of the Han dynasty — as the year in which the state of Wei was established. The Records of the Three Kingdoms referred the rulers of Wei as Emperors, the romantic and historical traditions for the Three Kingdoms period have been so confused over the centuries that the Records of the Three Kingdoms is often regarded as an invaluable resource. Although it contains errors, it is more historically accurate than the embellishments of writers in later periods. In its nature, the work is indeed a chronicle, much like those of early Medieval Europe written much later, the text is bland and little more than a collection of historical facts. A rough translation of an extract from Guan Yus biography is as follows, In the 24th year, the Former Lord became the King of Hanzhong. In the same year, Yu led his men to attack Cao Ren at Fan, Lord Cao sent Yu Jin to aid Ren. In autumn, great rains caused the Han River to flood, Jin, from this, we can establish reasonably accurately the flow of events and how history unfolded but almost nothing about society or elements of institutions or policies. The amount of creative imagination used in ancient Chinese historical narratives — of fictionalising — is impossible to estimate precisely
17.
Zhuge Liang
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Zhuge Liang, courtesy name Kongming, was a chancellor and regent of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. He is recognised as the most accomplished strategist of his era, and has compared to Sun Tzu. A self-avowed Legalist, he compared himself with Guan Zhong, developing Shus agriculture and he attached great importance to the works of Shen Buhai and Han Fei, refusing to indulge local elites and adopting strict, but fair and clear laws. In remembrance of his governance, local people maintained shrines to him for ages, often depicted wearing a Taoist robe and holding a hand fan made of crane feathers, Zhuge Liang was an important military strategist, statesman and accomplished scholar and inventor. His reputation as an intelligent and learned scholar grew even while he was living in relative seclusion, Zhuge is an uncommon two-character Chinese compound family name. His name – even his surname alone – has become synonymous with intelligence, Zhuge Liang was born in Yangdu County, Langya Commandery, which is in present-day Yishui, Shandong. Orphaned at an age, he was raised by his uncle. Later, he followed his uncle to live in Jing Province, Zhuge Liang enjoyed reciting Liangfu Yin, a folk song popular in Shandong, his birthplace. He also liked to compare himself to Guan Zhong and Yue Yi and he developed close friendships with members of the local literati, such as Xu Shu, Cui Zhouping, Meng Jian and Shi Tao. Zhuge Liang also maintained relations with other well-known intellectuals such as Sima Hui. Huang Chengyan once told Zhuge Liang, I heard that youre seeking a spouse, ive an ugly daughter with a yellow face and dark complexion, but her talent matches yours. Zhuge Liang agreed and married Huang Chengyans daughter, at that time, Liu Bei resided at Xinye County while he was taking shelter under Jing Provinces governor, Liu Biao. Liu Bei visited Sima Hui, who told him, Confucian academics and common scholars and those who analyse current affairs well are elites. Crouching Dragon and Young Phoenix are the ones in this region. Xu Shu later recommended Zhuge Liang to Liu Bei again, however, Xu Shu replied, You must visit this man in person. He cannot be invited to meet you, Liu Bei succeeded in recruiting Zhuge Liang in 207 after paying three personal visits. Zhuge Liang presented the Longzhong Plan to Liu Bei and left his residence to follow Liu, afterwards, Liu Bei became very close to Zhuge Liang and often had discussions with him. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were not pleased and complained, Liu Bei explained, Now that I have Kongming, I am like a fish that has found water
18.
Cao Cao
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Cao Cao, courtesy name Mengde, was a Chinese warlord and the penultimate Chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty who rose to great power in the final years of the dynasty. As one of the figures of the Three Kingdoms period. During the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty, Cao Cao was able to secure the most populated and prosperous cities of the central plains and northern China. Cao had much success as the Han chancellor, but his handling of the Han emperor Liu Xie was heavily criticized and resulted in a continued, opposition directly gathered around warlords Liu Bei and Sun Quan, whom Cao was unable to quell. Cao was also skilled in poetry and martial arts and wrote many war journals, Cao Cao was born in Qiao in 155. His father Cao Song was a son of Cao Teng. Some historical records, including the Biography of Cao Man, claim that Cao Songs original family name was Xiahou, Cao was known for his craftiness as an adolescent. According to the Biography of Cao Man, Cao Caos uncle complained to Cao Song about Cao Caos indulgence in hunting, in retaliation, Cao Cao feigned a fit before his uncle, who immediately rushed to inform Cao Song. When Cao Song went to see his son, Cao Cao behaved normally, when asked, Cao Cao replied, I have never had a fit, but I lost the love of my uncle, and therefore he deceived you. Afterwards, Cao Song ceased to believe his brother regarding Cao Cao, at that time, there was a man named Xu Shao who lived in Runan and was famous for his ability to evaluate a persons potentials and talents. Cao Cao paid him a visit in hopes of receiving an evaluation that would help him politically. At first, Xu Shao refused to make a statement, however, under persistent questioning, he said, You would be a capable minister in peaceful times. There are two versions of this comment in other unofficial historical records. At the age of 20, Cao Cao was appointed captain of Luoyang. Upon taking up the post, he placed rows of multicolored stakes outside his office and ordered his deputies to flog those who violated the law, regardless of their status. An uncle of Jian Shuo, one of the most powerful and this prompted Jian Shuo and other higher authorities to ostensibly promote Cao Cao to the post of governor of Dunqiu County while actually moving him out of the imperial capital. Cao Cao remained in position for little more than a year. Around 180, Cao Cao returned to court as a Consultant, when the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in 184, Cao Cao was recalled to Luoyang and appointed Captain of the Cavalry and sent to Yingchuan in Yu Province to suppress the rebels
19.
Cao Zhi
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Cao Zhi, courtesy name Zijian, was a prince of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period and an accomplished poet in his time. His poetry style, greatly revered during the Jin Dynasty and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Cao Zhi was a son of Cao Cao, a warlord who rose to power towards the end of the Han Dynasty and laid the foundation of Wei. As Cao Zhi once engaged his elder brother Cao Pi in a struggle to succeed their father, he was ostracised by his victorious brother after the latter became the emperor. In his later life, Cao Zhi was not allowed to meddle in politics, born in 192, Cao Zhi was the third son of the warlord Cao Cao and Lady Bian. According to the Records of the Three Kingdoms, Cao Zhi could recite the Shi Jing, Analects and his literary talent made him a favorite son of Cao Cao in the early stage of his life. However, Cao Zhi was a man with little self-discipline. He was also a heavy drinker, on the other hand, his older brother Cao Pi was a shrewd man who knew how to feign emotions at the right times. Cao Pi also enjoyed a closer relationship to the servants and subjects around Cao Cao. In 217, Cao Cao eventually picked Cao Pi to succeed himself and this further aggravated Cao Zhis already eccentric behavior. He once rode his chariot along the road reserved for the emperor and this infuriated his father, who sentenced the chariot driver to death. Having chosen a successor, Cao Cao took measures to emasculate other contestants and he did this by executing Yang Xiu, a chief advisor to Cao Zhi. This greatly unsettled Cao Zhi, but failed to jolt him back to his senses, on the contrary, he sank further into his drunken habits. In 219, Cao Caos cousin and leading general Cao Ren was besieged at the fortress at Fancheng by Guan Yu, Cao Cao named Cao Zhi to lead a relief force to the rescue, in the hope that the task would instill into the latter a sense of responsibility. However, Cao Zhi was so drunk that he could not come forth to take the order, Cao Cao then gave up on this son. One of the first things Cao Pi did was to do away with Ding Yi and Ding Yi and he also sent Cao Zhi, along with the other brothers, away from the capital and prohibited them from taking part in central political issues. Prospects for Cao Zhi did not improve after Cao Pi died in 226 and he wrote to the second Wei emperor Cao Rui many times, seeking a position to apply his talents. In 232, he sought a private meeting with Cao Rui to discuss politics. However, Cao Rui probably still considered him a threat to the throne, severely depressed by the setbacks, Cao Zhi soon died of illness, leaving behind instructions for a simple burial
20.
Liu Bei
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Liu Bei, courtesy name Xuande, was a warlord in the late Eastern Han dynasty who founded the state of Shu Han in the Three Kingdoms period and became its first ruler. Liu Bei overcame his many defeats to carve out his own realm, which at its peak spanned present-day Sichuan, Chongqing, Guizhou, Hunan, parts of Hubei, and parts of Gansu. His fictional counterpart in the novel was a example of a ruler who adhered to the Confucian set of moral values, such as loyalty. Historically, Liu Bei like many Han rulers was greatly influenced by Laozi and he was a brilliant politician and leader whose skill was a remarkable demonstration of a Legalist. Liu Beis somewhat Confucian tendencies were also dramatized compared to his rival states founders Cao Pi and Sun Quan, who both ruled as pure Legalists. The historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms described Liu Bei as a man seven chi and five cun tall, with arms that extended beyond his knees. The historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong gave a description about Liu Beis physical appearance. According to the historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms, Liu Bei was born in Zhuo County and he was a descendant of Liu Zhen, a son of Liu Sheng and a grandson of Emperor Jing. However, Pei Songzhis commentary, based on the Dianlue, said that Liu Bei was a descendant of the Marquis of Linyi, the title of Marquis of Linyi was held by Liu Fu, and later by Liu Fus son Liu Taotu. All three descended from Emperor Jing, Liu Beis grandfather Liu Xiong and father Liu Hong were both employed as local clerks. Liu Bei grew up in a family, having lost his father when he was still a child. To support themselves, Liu Bei and his mother sold shoes, even so, Liu Bei was full of ambition from childhood, he once said to his peers, while under a tree that resembled the royal chariot, that he desired to become an emperor. At the age of 14, Liu Bei, sponsored by an affluent relative who recognised his potential in leadership. There he met and befriended Gongsun Zan, who would become a prominent warlord in northern China. The adolescent Liu Bei was said to be unenthusiastic in studying and displayed interest in hunting, music, concise in speech, calm in demeanour, and kind to his friends, Liu Bei was well liked by his contemporaries. In 184, at the outbreak of the Yellow Turban Rebellion, Liu Bei became much more politically aware and called for the assembly of a volunteer army to help government forces suppress the rebellion. Liu Bei received financial contributions from two wealthy horse merchants named Zhang Shiping and Su Shuang and rallied a group of followers, including Guan Yu, Zhang Fei. Liu Bei led his army to join the provincial army, together, they scored several victories against the rebels
21.
Koei
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Koei Co. Ltd. is a Japanese video game publisher, developer, and distributor founded in 1978. The company is known for its historical simulation games based on the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Koei also owned a division known as Ruby Party, which focused in dating sim games. On April 1,2009, Koei merged with Tecmo to form the Tecmo Koei Holdings holding company, Koei changed its name to Tecmo Koei Games on April 1,2010 by absorbing Tecmo, and again on July 1,2014 to Koei Tecmo Games. As of 2017, Koei Tecmo Games continues to use the Koei brand, Koei was established in July 1978 by Yōichi Erikawa and Keiko Erikawa. Yoichi was a student at Keio University, and when his familys rural dyestuffs business failed he decided to pursue his interest in programming, the company to this day is located in the Hiyoshi area of Yokohama along with Erikawas alma mater. The company initially focused on personal computer sales and made-to-order business software, in 1983 it released Nobunagas Ambition, a historical strategy game set during the Sengoku period of Japanese history. In 1988, Koei established a North American subsidiary, Koei America Corporation, after Hedlunds departure, this subsidiary ceased game development in 1995, focusing instead on localization, sales and marketing. A Canadian subsidiary, Koei Canada, Inc. was established in early 2001, Koei also maintains subsidiaries in mainland China, Korea, Taiwan and Lithuania. Recently, Koei created a Singapore branch for game development such as Sangokushi Online, all Koei operations in English in turn ceased in 2012, with the previously unannounced closing of Koeis North American support forums and website. They resumed in 2016, with the English language PC release of Romance of the Three Kingdoms XIII, Koeis Ruby Party division specializes on games labeled as Neoromance, GxB dating sims, usually with extra side-quests. Out of the three Neoromance series, the best known is Angelique, which has been in production since 1994, harukanaru Toki no Naka de is a newer Neoromance hit, with many sequels and an anime TV series based on it. The newest game in the series, Kiniro no Corda, is gaining popularity partially because the series it was based on, has been recently licensed by Viz for English language publishing. It gaining more popularity though, and a television series based on it began airing in October 2006. A sequel was released on the PlayStation 2 in March 2007. On September 4,2008, Koei announced that it was in talks to purchase ailing competitor Tecmo and they agreed in November 2008 to merge on April 1,2009 to form Tecmo Koei Holdings. On January 26,2009 the two companies approved the merger, the company formed on April 1,2009 as planned. On April 1,2010, Koei absorbed Tecmo and renamed itself Tecmo Koei Games, Koeis subsidiaries in the United States, Europe and Korea already had their names changed months before the Japanese parent. Koei continues as a brand within Tecmo Koei Games, Koei has built a large base of franchises, and has developed on various consoles and computers
22.
Dynasty Warriors
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Dynasty Warriors is a series of tactical action video games created by Omega Force and Koei. The first game titled Dynasty Warriors, Sangokumusō in Japan, is a fighting game and it is Koeis most successful franchise. Including its many spin-offs,18 million copies of the Dynasty Warriors series have sold worldwide by 2011, the first Dynasty Warriors is a traditional one-on-one fighting game, released in 1997 for the PlayStation. Its gameplay style is reminiscent of Virtua Fighter and Soul Blade, the next game was released in Japan as Shin Sangokumusou. This game was released in countries as Dynasty Warriors 2. In this game mode, known as Musou Mode, the generals are usually chosen from one of the three kingdoms, Dynasty Warriors 3 has two secret characters, Nü Wa and Fu Xi, that are not playable in Musou Mode. Dynasty Warriors 2, Dynasty Warriors 3, Dynasty Warriors 5, in Dynasty Warriors 4, Dynasty Warriors 7, and Dynasty Warriors 8, each of the Three Kingdoms has its own Musou Mode, which all characters from a particular kingdom would play. The stages are presented in a view, with the camera set behind the player as they engage the enemy forces. Each scenario can have different win/lose conditions, but the losing conditions still hold. In Dynasty Warriors 5, a more realistic Musou Mode is introduced for each character. Instead of participating in the set of their kingdoms events. Therefore, characters start at different points in time and they may never have opportunities to encounter some of the other characters. In between stages there are some dramatic cutscenes, in which the character will express his/her thoughts on the situation, adding a personal touch. Besides, a characters Musou Mode may end before the unification of China at any point of time, however, some characters such as the three founders may continue to participate in battles that occurred after their deaths, representing an extended leadership under more successful circumstances. In 2002, an Xtreme Legends expansion was first released for the main games and this expansion features new Musou Modes for the characters in the Other category as well as new stages, weapons, items, and modes. The Xtreme Legends expansion only have the new contents by its own, so players would require the game disc. The following games would continue the tradition by having Xtreme Legends expansion, New characters were also added through the Xtreme Legends starting with Dynasty Warriors 7. Beginning in 2004, another line, titled Empires was first released for Dynasty Warriors 4
23.
Warriors Orochi
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Warriors Orochi is a beat em up video game for PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360, developed by Koei and Omega Force. It is a crossover of two of Koeis popular video series, Dynasty Warriors and Samurai Warriors and the first title in the Warriors Orochi series. The game was released on March 21,2007 in Japan, September 18 in the United States, September 21 in Europe, September 27 in Australia and September 28 in New Zealand. The game came out for the Xbox 360 in Japan on September 13, the game was ported to the PlayStation Portable, released in Japan on February 2008, March 25 in the US, and March 28 in the UK. A PC version was released in the US on March 25,2008, the fictional events of the game begin when the Serpent King Orochi created a rift in time and space. The story is told in four separate but related subplots, each subplot starts the player with three characters. More characters are unlocked as the player progresses through the story or satisfies certain conditions in certain stages, each subplot is named after one of the Three Kingdoms, and one from the perspective of the Samurai Warriors characters. Characters from different factions band together in each subplot to confront Orochi, because of the storyline, most of the characters have split from their respective factions in the original games and have been forced into other scenarios. However, the selection screen still places all the characters in their original positions. In the Kingdom of Shu story, the Shu forces were in shambles after their battle with Orochi, many Shu officers were captured by Orochi, went missing, or joined other forces. Zhao Yun was captured by Orochis forces and held prisoner in Ueda Castle and he is later rescued by Zuo Ci, Yoshihiro Shimazu and Xing Cai. Zuo Ci revealed startling news to Zhao Yun, which led him to embark upon a quest with help from unexpected allies, in the Kingdom of Wei story, Cao Cao had disappeared in his battle against Orochis forces. His son, Cao Pi, took up leadership of the Wei clan and allied himself with Orochi, under the offer sent by his strategist, there were a few Wei officers who refused to surrender, or ended up joining other forces opposing Orochi. Under the new alliance, Orochi orders Cao Pi to suppress all those who oppose him, though Cao Pi obediently obeys Orochis every command, he has an ulterior motive that he is planning as the story progresses. In the Kingdom of Wu story, Orochi uses the captive Sun Jian, Orochi demanded that rebel leaders and officers be turned over in exchange for the release of the captives. Sun Ce is the first to rebel against Orochi, under the guidance of Sakon Shima, in this story, Nobunaga Oda, Shingen Takeda, and Kenshin Uesugi each maintained a resistance force against Orochis army. Even in this most dire of circumstances, the three daimyos refuse to work together against Orochi, each of them were focused on assimilating smaller resistance forces spread throughout the land into their own forces. The Orochi Army consists of pale-skinned troops that behave similarly to regular troops of the protagonist forces, several major characters from both Dynasty Warriors and Samurai Warriors either aligned themselves or were subverted by Orochi, fighting in his name
24.
Ikki Tousen
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Ikki Tousen, also known as Battle Vixens in North America, is a manga series written and illustrated by Yuji Shiozaki. The story centers on Hakufu Sonsaku, a fighter who transfers to Nanyo Academy, the manga started serialization in the seinen manga magazine Comic Gum, and the first tankōbon was released in October 2000, with a total of 24 volumes available as of September 25,2015. The manga was licensed in North America and the United Kingdom by Tokyopop with adaptation from Keith Giffen under the title Battle Vixens, a 13-episode anime adaptation produced by J. C. Staff aired between July and October 2003, on AT-X and other channels. A second anime season produced by Arms aired on AT-X between February and May 2007, spanning twelve episodes, a third anime season, also produced by Arms, aired on AT-X between June and August 2008, spanning twelve episodes and featuring an all-new plotline and characters. A fourth anime season produced by TNK and Arms aired on AT-X, an anime OVA was announced by Media Factory, and premiered in Japanese theaters on November 12,2011. The first anime season was licensed in North America by Geneon Entertainment, the second anime season is licensed in North America by Media Blasters. The third anime season was licensed by Media Blasters. The fourth anime season is licensed by Funimation. The fighters of each bear the sacred jewels called magatama. Her destiny, as with her predecessor, was to all of the schools. But there is a darker and more side to her fate. Magatama, sacred bead in English dub Magatama are jewels worn as earrings by all fighters which contain the spirits, how they found their way to Japan is a mystery. However, a few seem to be able to overcome their fate. Some magatama are very selective, others can switch their magatama and they also indicate a fighters skill and power by a distinctive color related to the Olympic medal system, which often tends to be misleading with certain characters. The ambiguity of this is enhanced by the animes introduction of Hakufus jade magatama. Gyokuji The Imperial Seal supposedly found by Bundai Sonken, Hakufus father and it is a large jade seal that serves a role similar to a Royal Crown. Whoever carries it is granted authority over all the other nations, Seito Academy originally held it before Toutaku stole it, but it eventually went to Ryomou from Ryofu, who passed it to Saji before it finally returns to Seito. It is proof of their birthright as conquerors and they confer massive power onto each of them, putting them well above A-rank regardless of their own skill, though each manifestation varies
25.
Lin Chi-ling
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Lin Chi-ling is a Taiwanese model and actress. Lins unusually fast rise to fame was noted by one Taiwanese commentator, lins father, Lin Fan-nan, and her mother, Wu Tzu-mei, are both from Tainan, in southern Taiwan. Following their marriage, they moved to Taipei where Lin and her elder brother Lin Chi-hong were born, Lin attended Taipei Municipal Zhongzheng Junior High School and at the age of 15 was discovered by model talent scout Lin Chien-huan. After graduating from university, Lin returned to Taiwan and she intended to pursue a career in fine art and sought a position at the Taipei Fine Arts Museum, but was turned away because she lacked a postgraduate degree in the field. Lin continued to model part-time before leaving the industry and working as an assistant for the Fubon Cultural and Educational Foundation. In 2000, Lin left Fubon and spent three months studying in Japan, then returned to Taiwan and modeling, with Catwalk Production House, in 2002, Lin was invited to model in a television advertisement in Hong Kong. The advertisement received attention and discussion on the internet, and interest in Lin began to grow, the following year, noted television producer Ge Hongfu offered Lin a position as hostess of a fashion program on Shanghai Oriental Television. In 2004, Lin starred in a series of advertisements in Taiwan that included big giant building-size posters, billboards. Almost overnight, Lin skyrocketed to fame and became an instant celebrity model. Her rise to fame initiated a Taiwanese craze for supermodels, an effect commentators named The Lin Chi-ling Phenomenon, lins popularity grew throughout the rest of 2004, as she began modeling in Hong Kong and Mainland Chinese advertisements, and continued when she began doing Japanese advertisements in 2005. From 2004 to 2006, Lin served as Taiwans goodwill ambassador to the Japan Tourism Association. On 8 August 2005, Lin was in Dalian, China, workers rushed Lin to a nearby hospital where doctors discovered that she had suffered six broken ribs, a punctured left lung, and an accumulation of blood in the pleural cavity. Lin underwent four months of treatment and therapy, and announced in November 2005 that she had completely recovered, Lin starred as one of the three female leads in the 2010 Fuji TV Japanese television drama Tsuki no Koibito. The male lead is popular actor Takuya Kimura, Lin has made her film début role in a historical epic directed by John Woo entitled Red Cliff. Playing the role of Xiaoqiao, it was her first time acting, in 2009, she starred together with Jay Chou in the action-adventure film The Treasure Hunter. As of 2006, Lin has served as a spokesperson for both China Airlines and Longines. Hong Kong press reported she was 2009s #1 highest-paid model in the Greater China region, followed by Chinese Jennifer Du, Hong Kongs Gaile Lai and she has continuously ranked #1 on Taiwans Highest-earning models list since 2004. Her earnings was estimated to be TWD$160,000,000 in 2010, which consisted of those from advertisements and various such as TV-series appearance in Japan, and TWD$200,000,000 in 2011
26.
Red Cliff (film)
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Red Cliff is a 2008-09 Chinese epic war film, based on the Battle of Red Cliffs and the events at the end of the Han dynasty and immediately prior to the Three Kingdoms period in ancient China. The film was directed by John Woo, and stars Tony Leung, Takeshi Kaneshiro, Zhang Fengyi, Chang Chen, Zhao Wei, Hu Jun and it is Woos first major film since 2003s Paycheck and his first Chinese-language feature since 1992s Hard Boiled, also starring Leung. In China and much of Asia, Red Cliff was released in two parts, totaling over four hours in length, the first part premiered in Beijing on 2 July 2008 and the second was released in China on 7 January 2009. Outside Asia, a cut-down single 148 minute version was released in 2009, however, the full-length two-part version was released on DVD and Blu-ray in the United Kingdom on 5 October 2009, and in the United States and Canada on 23 March 2010. The first part of the film grossed US$124 million in Asia, director John Woo said in an interview with David Stratton that the film is only 50% factual. Woo decided to alter the story using modern feelings and his own feelings for a more worldly acceptance, according to Woo, historical accuracy was less important than how the audience felt about the battle. Emperor Xian reluctantly approves the campaign, Cao Caos mighty army swiftly conquers Jing Province. The Battle of Changban is ignited when Cao Caos cavalry starts attacking civilians on an exodus led by Liu Bei, the warrior Zhao Yun fights bravely to rescue Liu Beis entrapped family but only succeeds in rescuing Lius infant son. Following the battle, Liu Beis advisor, Zhuge Liang, goes on a mission to Jiangdong to form an alliance between his lord and Sun Quan against Cao Cao. Meanwhile, Cai Mao and Zhang Yun, two commanders from Jing Province, pledge allegiance to Cao Cao, who puts them in command of his navy. The battle begins with Sun Shangxiang leading some riders to lure Cao Caos vanguard force into the allies Bagua Formation. The vanguard force is defeated by the allies but Cao Cao shows no disappointment and proceeds to lead his army to the riverbank directly opposite Red Cliff. While the allies throw a banquet to celebrate their victory, Zhuge Liang conceives a plan to send Sun Shangxiang on a mission to Cao Caos camp. They maintain contact by sending messages via a pigeon, the film ends with Zhou Yu lighting his miniaturised battleships on a map based on the battle formation. Sun Shangxiang has infiltrated Cao Caos camp and is secretly noting its details, meanwhile, Cao Caos army is seized with a plague of typhoid fever that kills a number of his troops. Cao Cao orders the corpses to be sent on floating rafts to the allies camp, the allied armys morale is affected when some unsuspecting soldiers let the plague in. Eventually, a disheartened Liu Bei leaves with his forces while Zhuge Liang stays behind to assist Sun Quan, Cao Cao is overjoyed when he hears that the alliance has collapsed. Zhou Yu and Zhuge Liang make plans to eliminate Cai Mao and Zhang Yun and they agreed that whoever fails to complete his mission shall be executed under military law
27.
John Woo
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John Woo SBS is a Chinese-born Hong Kong film director, writer, and producer. He is the owner of Lion Rock Productions and he is considered a major influence on the action genre, known for his highly chaotic action sequences, Mexican standoffs, and frequent use of slow motion. Woo has directed several notable Hong Kong action films, among them, A Better Tomorrow, The Killer, Hard Boiled and his Hollywood films include the action films Hard Target and Broken Arrow, the sci-fi action thriller Face/Off and the action spy film Mission, Impossible II. He also created the comic series Seven Brothers, published by Virgin Comics, Woo cites his three favorite films as David Leans Lawrence of Arabia, Akira Kurosawas Seven Samurai and Jean-Pierre Melvilles Le Samouraï. Woo was born Wu Yu-Seng in Guangzhou, China, amidst the chaos of the Chinese Civil War at the end of October,1946, because of school age restrictions, his mother changed his birth date to 22 September 1948, which is what remains on his passport. The Christian Woo family, faced persecution during Mao Zedongs early anti-bourgeois purges after the communist revolution in China. Impoverished, the Woo family lived in the slums at Shek Kip Mei and his father was a teacher, though rendered unable to work by tuberculosis, and his mother was a manual laborer on construction sites. The family was rendered homeless by the big Shek Kip Mei fire of 1953, charitable donations from disaster relief efforts enabled the family to relocate, however, violent crime had by then become commonplace in Hong Kong housing projects. At age three he was diagnosed with a medical condition. Following surgery on his spine, he was unable to walk correctly until eight years old and his Christian background shows influences in his films. As a young boy, Woo had wanted to be a Christian minister and he later found a passion for movies influenced by the French New Wave especially Jean-Pierre Melville. Woo has said he was shy and had difficulty speaking, but found making movies a way to explore his feelings and thinking, the local cinema would prove a haven of retreat. Woo found respite in musical films, such as The Wizard of Oz, Woo married Annie Woo Ngau Chun-lung in 1976 and has three children. He has lived in the United States since 1993, in 1969, Woo was hired as a script supervisor at Cathay Studios. In 1971, he became an assistant director at Shaw Studios and his directorial debut in 1974 was the feature film The Young Dragons. In the Kung fu action genre, it was choreographed by Jackie Chan and featured dynamic camera-work, the film was picked up by Golden Harvest Studio where he went on to direct more martial arts films. He later had success as a director with Money Crazy. By the mid-1980s, Woo was experiencing occupational burnout, several of his films were commercial disappointments, and he felt a distinct lack of creative control
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Just Another Pandora's Box
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It is a spiritual successor to Laus two-part 1995 film A Chinese Odyssey. Athena Chu, who starred in A Chinese Odyssey, makes a guest appearance in Just Another Pandoras Box, the films Chinese title is a pun on the Chinese title of the first part of A Chinese Odyssey, Yuè Guāng Bǎo Hé. The last three characters of each title are the same, only the first differs, the pronunciations of 月 and 越 are the same in both Cantonese and Mandarin. The older title translates literally to Moonlight Treasure Box, in the title of this film, Rose Fairy is sailing along the river when she suddenly trips on a rope and falls into the water. The trap is set by the bandit Qingyise, who wants to rob her and he steals the Purple Sword from her and plans to sell it. Just then, Joker appears and makes Qingyise unsheathe the sword by pulling away its scabbard, Rose Fairy regains consciousness and mistakenly thinks it was Qingyise who unsheathed the sword. Since she has made a promise to marry the person who unsheathes the sword, she follows Qingyise wherever he goes, Qingyise and Rose Fairy run into Grandpa Buddha and his assistant, who are chasing Bull King for the Pandoras Box. By accident, Qingyise recites Prajñāpāramitā and activates the box, causing him to be transported back in time to the Eastern Han dynasty and he finds himself as Zhao Yun at the Battle of Changban, where he is supposed to save Liu Beis infant son. While the rescue mission turns out to be successful, Qingyise unwittingly brings Liu Beis son straight into the camp, right before Cao Cao. Unable to return to his own time, Qingyise is forced to cooperate with Rose Fairy, the two of them make their escape in the midst of the Battle of Red Cliffs. The opening sequence of the states that Jackie Chan, Stephen Chow, Jet Li, Chow Yun-fat, Maggie Cheung, Zhang Ziyi. Once Upon a Chinese Classic launches official website, Just Another Pandoras Box at the Internet Movie Database Just Another Pandoras Box at the Hong Kong Movie DataBase
29.
K.O.3an Guo
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K. O. 3an Guo is a Taiwanese drama starring George Hu, Xiu, Kirsten Ren, and three out of four members of Fahrenheit as special guests, who starred in the prequels. The title is pronounced as K. O. -san-guo and it is the third installment of the Zhong Ji series, preceded by KO One and The X-Family. This series is a spoof of the Chinese historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the series started filming on 24 December 2008 and wrapped on 21 January 2010. Guan Yu Guan Yu is straight-headed, righteous and loyal and he is known for fighting around the world alongside his best friend, Zhang Fei, with whom he has attended twenty-four schools together. Eventually, he lands a place in East Han Academy with the help of his sworn brother, because of his honesty, he is sometimes taken advantage by his enemies. His friends are forced to lie to him, which leads to unpredicted consequences. Guan Yu will blush bright red for two reasons, when he is embarrassed or when he gets extremely upset and he is the second brother to Zhang Fei and Liu Bei. He develops a crush on the daughter, Diao Chan on his first day in school. Then later they become a couple, Guan Yu’s weapon is Qing Long Yan Yue Dao. Long Yin Tai Xu is his attack, but because its power is unlimited. Zhang Fei Zhang Fei himself comes from a wealthy family. All gangster members are afraid of his wrath and would do anything to avoid provoking him, even to the point of pretending to be nice and polite. With some help from his sworn brother Liu Bei, Zhang Fei manages to enroll East Han Academy - where he can explore his abilities, whenever someone calls him Xiao Nao Nao he will get so mad that his face will turn black and his strength will rapidly increase. Zhang Fei and Guan Yu are childhood friends and have even attended, when they encounter Liu Bei, the three of them become sworn brothers, with Zhang Fei being the youngest of the three. Zhang Fei’s weapon is Zhan Ba She Mao, Liu Bei Liu Bei is the eldest sworn brother of Guan Yu and Zhang Fei. He is a descendant of the royal family, Although he appears to be righteous, he is actually extremely selfish. The moment he swears his vows a gigantic rock falls down on him, Xiu / Liu Bei Xiu is a power-user from the Iron Dimension who is the leader as well as main guitarist of the magical music band, Dong Cheng Wei. Xiu’s alternate counterpart in the Silver Dimension is Liu Bei, after Liu Bei is fatally injured, Xiu finds himself put in a position he’s never imagined before, to be a leader and run an army of his own
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Three Kingdoms (TV series)
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Three Kingdoms is a Chinese television series based on the events in the late Eastern Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period. The plot is adapted from the 14th century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, directed by Gao Xixi, the series had a budget of over 180 million RMB and was released in China in May 2010. The series was received both domestically and internationally, earning an estimated 800 million RMB in total as of May 2012. Jiang Wen was originally cast as Cao Cao, but decided to abandon the role after two directors quit the project. Soon afterwards, Tang Guoqiang, who played Zhuge Liang in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, asked for the role, ken Watanabe asked director Gao Xixi for the role of Guan Yu. Gao reportedly was unable to meet Watanabes request for a salary of 30-40 million yuan, the role eventually went to Yu Rongguang. Filming for Three Kingdoms started in July 2009 and ended in March 2010, with a budget of over 180 million yuan
31.
Puzzle & Dragons
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Puzzle & Dragons is a puzzle video game with elements of RPGs and strategy games, developed by GungHo Online Entertainment for the iOS, Android, and Kindle Fire platforms. In Japan, the title is shortened to Pazudora, while in English it is shortened to PAD. Puzzle & Dragons is, at its core, a puzzle game, requiring players to move. The amount and type of matches determine which of the six monsters on the team attack the waves of enemy monsters. The game is free-to-play and financed by the sale of in-game currency, in September 2015, total worldwide downloads surpassed 50 million. Puzzle & Dragons is the first mobile game in history to reach $1 billion in revenue, Puzzle & Dragons is a combination of two types of gameplay, tile matching and a monster collecting RPG. The monsters in PAD are drawn from many origins, players collect these monsters as rewards for completing the games dungeons or spending in-game currency at the Egg Machines. The various statistics different monsters possess add to the nature of the game. One monster on the team is designated as the Leader, during play, the player also picks a monster from other players to add to their party. Players are limited to what monsters they can use on their teams based on their rank, when the player increases his or her player rank through completing dungeons and earning experience points, the total team cost is increased, as well. Players can save multiple teams to use in the game, starting out at six possible combinations to set up, teams can be tailored to defeat a particular dungeon, or be set up to best utilize the teams leader skill. Monsters are made more powerful through fusing them with others, which increases the selected monsters experience, if the two monsters possess the same skill, there is a chance that the base monsters skill level will be increased, which will lower the skills cooldown counter permanently. Once a monster reaches a set level, the monster can be evolved. Evolution resets the monsters back to 1, but it also allows for the monsters statistics to be increased through leveling once more. The update to version 6.0 added the Awoken Skill system, the puzzle system in Puzzle & Dragons is found within the games dungeons, where the play of a tile-matching puzzle determines the strength of the players monsters attacks. Dungeons consist of numbers of waves of enemy monsters, each with their own offensive and defensive statistics. The player must clear all of the floors without having their teams collective HP drop to zero. The game screen is split, with the monsters appearing on the top half of the screen
32.
Yueyang
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Yueyang is a prefecture-level city at the northeastern corner of Hunan province, Peoples Republic of China, on the southern shores of Dongting Lake. Yueyang has an area of 14,896 km2 and the city proper,304 km2. The population was 5,477,911 at the 2010 census whom 991,465 lived in the area made up of Yueyanglou District. The citys most famous attraction is the Yueyang Tower and Dongting Lake, the Yueyang prefecture is made up of six outlying districts, two special districts and the city proper. The six city districts are Huarong, Linxiang, Xiangyin, Pingjiang, Miluo, the two special districts are Junshan and Yunxi, which used to be part of Yueyang city proper but were separated into their own special districts for administrative purposes. It was originally established as a prefecture called Hanchang in 210 AD during the Three Kingdoms period, under the Song Dynasty it was heavily fortified, with walls 4 miles in circumference, and became the seat of the military prefecture of Yueyang, whence its present name. During the Taiping Rebellion, its capture by the rebels in AD1852 was an important stage in their advance up the Yangtze River valley to Nanjing. At the time of the foundation of the Republic of China in AD1911, it became a county, Yueyang Tower is an ancient Chinese tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province, on the shore of Lake Dongting. Alongside the Pavilion of Prince Teng and Yellow Crane Tower, it is one of the Three Great Towers of Jiangnan, Yueyang has one Yangtze River crossing, the Jingyue Yangtze River Bridge
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Hunan
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Hunan Province is the 7th most populous Province of China and the 10th most extensive by area. The name Hunan means south of Lake Dongting, a lake in the northeast of the province, vehicle license plates from Hunan are marked Xiang, after the Xiang River, which runs from south to north through Hunan and forms part of the largest drainage system for the province. Hunans primeval forests were first occupied by the ancestors of the modern Miao, Tujia, Dong and it entered the written history of China around 350 BC, when under the kings of the Zhou Dynasty, it became part of the State of Chu. After Qin conquered the Chu heartland in 278 BC, the region came under the control of Qin, the agricultural colonization of the lowlands was carried out in part by the Han state, which managed river dikes to protect farmland from floods. To this day many of the villages in Hunan are named after the Han families who settled there. Migration from the north was especially prevalent during the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Southern and Northern Dynasties Periods, during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, Hunan was home to its own independent regime, Ma Chu. Hunan and Hubei became a part of the province of Huguang until the Qing dynasty, Hunan province was created in 1664 from Huguang, renamed to its current name in 1723. Hunan became an important communications center due to its position on the Yangzi River and it was an important centre of scholarly activity and Confucian thought, particularly in the Yuelu Academy in Changsha. It was also on the Imperial Highway constructed between northern and southern China, the land produced grain so abundantly that it fed many parts of China with its surpluses. The population continued to climb until, by the century, Hunan became overcrowded. Some of the uprisings, such as the ten-year Miao Rebellion of 1795–1806, were caused by ethnic tensions, the Taiping Rebellion began in the south in Guangxi Province in 1850. The rebellion spread into Hunan and then further eastward along the Yangzi River valley, ultimately, it was a Hunanese army under Zeng Guofan who marched into Nanjing to put down the uprising in 1864. Hunan was relatively quiet until 1910 when there were uprisings against the crumbling Qing dynasty and it was led by Hunanese native Mao Zedong, and established a short-lived Hunan Soviet in 1927. The Communists maintained an army in the mountains along the Hunan-Jiangxi border until 1934. Under pressure from the Nationalist Kuomintang forces, they began the Long March to bases in Shaanxi Province, after the departure of the Communists, the KMT army fought against the Japanese in the second Sino-Japanese war. They defended the Changsha until it fell in 1944, japan launched Operation Ichigo, a plan to control the railroad from Wuchang to Guangzhou. Hunan was relatively unscathed by the war that followed the defeat of the Japanese in 1945. In 1949, the Communists returned once more as the Nationalists retreated southward, as Mao Zedongs home province, Hunan supported the Cultural Revolution of 1966–1976
34.
Fan Ye (historian)
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Fan Ye, courtesy name Weizong, was a historian and politician of the Liu Song dynasty during the Southern and Northern dynasties period. He was the compiler of the historical text Book of the Later Han, the son of Fan Tai, Fan Ye was born in present-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang, but his ancestral home was in Nanyang, Henan
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Book of the Later Han
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The Hou Hanshu, or Book of the Later Han, also known as History of the Later Han, is a Chinese court document covering the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE. It was compiled by Fan Ye and others in the 5th century during the Liu Song dynasty, using a number of earlier histories and documents as sources. The book is part of four early historiographies of the Twenty-Four Histories canon, together with the Records of the Grand Historian, Book of Han and Records of the Three Kingdoms. Fan Ye used earlier histories, including accounts by Sima Qian and Ban Gu, along many others. The section on the Treatise on the Western Regions was based on a report composed by Ban Yong and it presumably includes notes from his father Ban Chao. It contains a few references to events occurring after the death of Emperor An, including a brief account of the arrival of the first official envoys from Rome in 166. Now, the reports of the Jianwu period onwards recorded in this Chapter on the Western Regions differ from the earlier, they are from Ban Yongs report at the end of Emperor An, trois Généraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Orientaux. Pan Tch’ao, – son fils Pan Yong, – Leang K’in, chapitre LXXVII du Heou Han chou. Les pay doccident daprès le Heou Han chou, through the Jade Gate - China to Rome, A Study of the Silk Routes 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. A History of the Relationships between the Western and Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Western Regions, sino-Platonic Papers No.131 March,2004. Dept. of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania, encyclopedia of China, 1st ed. Silk Road Seattle - University of Washington Hou Han Shu
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Sima Guang
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Sima Guang, courtesy name Junshi, was a high-ranking Song dynasty scholar-official and historian who authored the monumental history book Zizhi Tongjian. Sima was a conservative who opposed Wang Anshis reforms. Sima Guang was named after his birthplace Guāng Prefecture, where his father Sima Chi served as a county magistrate in Guangshan County, the Simas were originally from Xia County in Shǎn Prefecture, and claimed descent from Sima Fu in the 3rd century. A famous anecdote relates how the young Sima Guang once saved a playmate who had fallen into a vat full of water. As other children scattered in panic, Sima Guang calmly picked up a rock, water leaked out, and his friend was saved from drowning. At age 6, Sima Guang once heard a lecture on the 4th-century BC history book Zuo Zhuan, fascinated, he was able to retell the stories to his family when he returned home. He became a reader, to the point of not recognizing hunger, thirst. Sima Guang obtained early success as a scholar and officer, when he was barely twenty, he passed the Imperial examination with the highest rank of jìnshì, and spent the next several years in official positions. Sima Guang is best remembered for his masterwork, Zizhi Tongjian, in 1064, Sima presented to Emperor Yingzong of Song the five-volume Liniantu. It chronologically summarized events in Chinese history from 403 BCE to 959 CE, in 1066, he presented a more detailed eight-volume Tongzhi, which chronicled Chinese history from 403 BCE to 207 BCE. After Yingzong died in 1067, Sima was invited to the palace to introduce his work-in-progress to Emperor Shenzong of Song. The new emperor not only confirmed the interest his father had shown, scholars interpret the Mirror of the title to denote a work of reference and guidance, indicating that Shenzong accepted Sima as his guide in the study of history and its application to government. The emperor maintained his support for the compilation of comprehensive history until its completion in 1084. From the late 1060s, Sima came to assume a role as leader of what has been identified as a faction at court. Sima presented increasingly critical memorials to the throne until 1070, when he refused further appointment, in 1071, he took up residence in Luoyang, where he remained with an official sinecure, providing sufficient time and resources to continue the compilation of Zizhi Tongjian. Contemporary accounts relate that when Sima Guang was writing his great opus and he called this Jingzhen 警枕, and used it throughout the period of Zizhi Tongjians compilation. Emperor Shenzong died in 1085, shortly after Sima had submitted Zizhi Tongjian to the throne, Sima was recalled to court and appointed to lead the government under Emperor Zhezong of Song. He used this time in power to many of the New Policies
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Zizhi Tongjian
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The Zizhi Tongjian is a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084, in the form of a chronicle. The task took 19 years to be completed, and, in 1084 AD, the Zizhi Tongjian records Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynasties and spanning across almost 1,400 years, and contains 294 volumes and about 3 million Chinese characters. The principal text of the Zizhi Tongjian was recorded on 294 juan, the text is a chronological narrative of the history of China from the Warring States to the Five Dynasties. The major contributor, Sima Guang, was active in each step from collecting events and dates from previous works to drafting. Sima Guang left the traditional usage in Chinese historiography, for almost 1,000 years since the Shiji was written, standard Chinese dynastic histories had primarily divided chapters between annals of rulers, and biographies of officials. In Chinese terms, the changed the format of histories from biographical style to chronological style. According to Wilkinson, It had an influence on later Chinese historical writing, either directly or through its many abbreviations, continuations. It remains a useful first reference for a quick and reliable coverage of events at a particular time. The 294 juan sweep through 11 Chinese historical periods and it was one of the largest historical magna opera in history. In the 12th century, Zhu Xi produced a reworked, condensed version of Zizhi Tongjian, known as Tongjian Gangmu, or Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu. This condensed version was later translated into Manchu as ᡨᡠᠩ ᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᡬᠠᠩ ᠮᡠ Wylie, Tung giyan gang mu, Möllendorff, Tung giyan gang mu. This Manchu version was translated into French by French Jesuit missionary Joseph-Anna-Marie de Moyriac de Mailla. His twelve-volume translation, Histoire générale de la Chine, ou Annales de cet Empire, the Zhonghua Shuju edition contains textual criticism made by Yuan Dynasty historian Hu Sanxing. The whole of Zizhi tongjian Volumes 1-8, covering the years 403-207 BCE, have translated into English with copious notes. Some additional sections of Zizhi tongjian pertaining to Chinas relations with the Xiongnu have been translated into English, encyclopedia of China, 1st ed. Bo Yang. Modern Chinese Edition of Zizhi Tongjian, Ltd, vol.1 ISBN 957-32-0795-8 to vol.72 ISBN 957-32-1810-0. Universal Histories, in Essays on the Sources for Chinese History, Donald D. Leslie, Colin Mackerras, Wang Gungwu, columbia, University of South Carolina Press, pp. 64–70. Mirror for Government, Ssu-ma Kuangs Thought on Politics and Government in Tzu-chih tung-chien, in The New, lee, ed. Hong Kong, Chinese University Press, pp. 1–32
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End of the Han dynasty
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The end of the Han dynasty refers to the period of Chinese history from 189 to 220 AD, which roughly coincides with the tumultuous reign of the Han dynastys last ruler, Emperor Xian. During this period, the country was thrown into turmoil by the Yellow Turban Rebellion, eventually, one of those warlords, Cao Cao, was able to gradually reunify the empire, ostensibly under Emperor Xians rule, but the empire was actually controlled by Cao Cao himself. Cao Caos efforts to reunite the Han empire were rebuffed at the Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 /209. The Han dynasty formally ended in 220 when Cao Caos son and heir, Cao Pi, Cao Pi became the emperor of a new state, Cao Wei. A year later, in response to Cao Pis usurpation of the Han throne, Liu Bei declared himself emperor of Shu Han, and in 229, Sun Quan followed suit, declaring himself emperor of Eastern Wu. The period from Emperor Xians abdication in 220 to the reunification of China under the Jin dynasty in 265 was known as the Three Kingdoms era in Chinese history. Towards the end of the reign of Emperor Ling of Han, Emperor Ling, convinced by Liu Yan, changed the Inspectors titles to Governor and granted them the authority to levy taxes and command armed forces within the borders. Liu Yan was commissioned as the Governor of Yi Province, while other important officials also became Governors, including Liu Yu. The increased influence of these provincial governors formed the basis on which later warlords would control large regions of the Han empire, Emperor Ling died in 189 and was succeeded by his 13-year-old son, Liu Bian, who became known as Emperor Shao. Empress He, now empress dowager, became regent to the emperor, while her older brother, General-in-Chief He Jin. He Jin and Yuan Shao plotted to exterminate all the Ten Attendants, a group of ten influential eunuch officials in the court, after the eunuchs discovered He Jins plot, they lured him into the palace and murdered him. In response, Yuan Shao led the guards on an indiscriminate massacre of the palace eunuchs. Dong Zhuo arrived on the scene and found Emperor Shao and the Prince of Chenliu, the young emperor appeared nervous and fearful, while the prince remained calm and composed, and gave orders to Dong Zhuo to escort them back to the palace. Dong Zhuo used the opportunity to control of state power. Not long later, Dong Zhuo deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with the Prince of Chenliu, in the spring of 190, several provincial officials and warlords formed a coalition against Dong Zhuo, claiming that he was set on usurping the throne and had effectively kidnapped Emperor Xian. Yuan Shao, Administrator of Bohai, was nominated to be the leader of the coalition, the coalition armies was stationed at Henei and appeared to be ready to move on the capital Luoyang. However, the coalition was actually rather disorganized, and Yuan Shao did not have command over the entire alliance. Besides, the members were also hesitant to directly confront Dong Zhuo
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