1.
Magnetic tape
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Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin, magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was developed in Germany, based on magnetic wire recording, devices that record and play back audio and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders and video tape recorders. A device that stores data on magnetic tape is a tape drive. Magnetic tape revolutionized broadcast and recording, when all radio was live, it allowed programming to be recorded. At a time when gramophone records were recorded in one take, it allowed recordings to be made in multiple parts, which were then mixed and edited with tolerable loss in quality. It was a key technology in computer development, allowing unparalleled amounts of data to be mechanically created, stored for long periods. Nowadays, other technologies can perform the functions of magnetic tape, in many cases, these technologies are replacing tape. Despite this, innovation in the technology continues, and Sony, over years, magnetic tape made in the 1970s and 1980s can suffer from a type of deterioration called sticky-shed syndrome. Caused by hydrolysis of the binder of the tape, it can render the tape unusable, the oxide side of a tape is the surface that can be magnetically manipulated by a tape head. This is the side that stores the information, the side is simply a substrate to hold the tape together. The name originates from the fact that the side of most tapes is made of an oxide of iron. Magnetic tape was invented for recording sound by Fritz Pfleumer in 1928 in Germany, based on the invention of magnetic wire recording by Oberlin Smith in 1888, pfleumers invention used a ferric oxide powder coating on a long strip of paper. This invention was developed by the German electronics company AEG, which manufactured the recording machines and BASF. In 1933, working for AEG, Eduard Schuller developed the ring-shaped tape head, previous head designs were needle-shaped and tended to shred the tape. An important discovery made in this period was the technique of AC biasing, due to the escalating political tensions, and the outbreak of World War II, these developments were largely kept secret. A wide variety of recorders and formats have developed since, most significantly reel-to-reel, the practice of recording and editing audio using magnetic tape rapidly established itself as an obvious improvement over previous methods. Many saw the potential of making the same improvements in recording television, television signals are similar to audio signals. A major difference is that video signals use more bandwidth than audio signals, existing audio tape recorders could not practically capture a video signal
2.
Content format
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A content format is an encoded format for converting a specific type of data to displayable information. Content formats are used in recording and transmission to prepare data for observation or interpretation and this includes both analog and digitized content. Content formats may be recorded and read by either natural or manufactured tools, in addition to converting data to information, a content format may include the encryption and/or scrambling of that information. Multiple content formats may be contained within a section of a storage medium or transmitted via a single channel of a transmission medium. With multimedia, multiple tracks containing multiple content formats are presented simultaneously, content formats may either be recorded in secondary signal processing methods such as a software container format or recorded in the primary format. Observable data is known as raw data, or raw content. There has been a number of content formats throughout history
3.
NTSC
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The first NTSC standard was developed in 1941 and had no provision for color. In 1953 a second NTSC standard was adopted, which allowed for television broadcasting which was compatible with the existing stock of black-and-white receivers. NTSC was the first widely adopted broadcast color system and remained dominant until 1997, North America, parts of Central America, and South Korea are adopting or have adopted the ATSC standards, while other countries are adopting or have adopted other standards instead of ATSC. After nearly 70 years, the majority of over-the-air NTSC transmissions in the United States ceased on January 1,2010, the majority of NTSC transmissions ended in Japan on July 24,2011, with the Japanese prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima ending the next year. In March 1941, the committee issued a standard for black-and-white television that built upon a 1936 recommendation made by the Radio Manufacturers Association. Technical advancements of the side band technique allowed for the opportunity to increase the image resolution. The NTSC selected 525 scan lines as a compromise between RCAs 441-scan line standard and Philcos and DuMonts desire to increase the number of lines to between 605 and 800. The standard recommended a frame rate of 30 frames per second, other standards in the final recommendation were an aspect ratio of 4,3, and frequency modulation for the sound signal. In January 1950, the committee was reconstituted to standardize color television, in December 1953, it unanimously approved what is now called the NTSC color television standard. The compatible color standard retained full backward compatibility with existing black-and-white television sets, Color information was added to the black-and-white image by introducing a color subcarrier of precisely 315/88 MHz. These changes amounted to 0.1 percent and were tolerated by existing television receivers. The FCC had briefly approved a different color standard, starting in October 1950. However, this standard was incompatible with black-and-white broadcasts and it used a rotating color wheel, reduced the number of scan lines from 525 to 405, and increased the field rate from 60 to 144, but had an effective frame rate of only 24 frames per second. CBS rescinded its system in March 1953, and the FCC replaced it on December 17,1953, with the NTSC color standard, later that year, the improved TK-41 became the standard camera used throughout much of the 1960s. The NTSC standard has been adopted by countries, including most of the Americas. With the advent of television, analog broadcasts are being phased out. Most US NTSC broadcasters were required by the FCC to shut down their analog transmitters in 2009, low-power stations, Class A stations and translators were required to shut down by 2015. NTSC color encoding is used with the System M television signal, each frame is composed of two fields, each consisting of 262.5 scan lines, for a total of 525 scan lines
4.
PAL
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Phase Alternating Line is a colour encoding system for analogue television used in broadcast television systems in most countries broadcasting at 625-line /50 field per second. Other common colour encoding systems are NTSC and SECAM, all the countries using PAL are currently in process of conversion or have already converted standards to DVB, ISDB or DTMB. This page primarily discusses the PAL colour encoding system, the articles on broadcast television systems and analogue television further describe frame rates, image resolution and audio modulation. To overcome NTSCs shortcomings, alternative standards were devised, resulting in the development of the PAL, the goal was to provide a colour TV standard for the European picture frequency of 50 fields per second, and finding a way to eliminate the problems with NTSC. PAL was developed by Walter Bruch at Telefunken in Hannover, Germany, with important input from Dr. Kruse, the format was patented by Telefunken in 1962, citing Bruch as inventor, and unveiled to members of the European Broadcasting Union on 3 January 1963. When asked, why the system was named PAL and not Bruch the inventor answered that a Bruch system would not have sold very well. The first broadcasts began in the United Kingdom in June 1967, the one BBC channel initially using the broadcast standard was BBC2, which had been the first UK TV service to introduce 625-lines in 1964. Telefunken PALcolor 708T was the first PAL commercial TV set and it was followed by Loewe-Farbfernseher S920 & F900. Telefunken was later bought by the French electronics manufacturer Thomson, Thomson also bought the Compagnie Générale de Télévision where Henri de France developed SECAM, the first European Standard for colour television. The term PAL was often used informally and somewhat imprecisely to refer to the 625-line/50 Hz television system in general, accordingly, DVDs were labelled as PAL or NTSC even though technically the discs do not carry either PAL or NTSC composite signal. CCIR 625/50 and EIA 525/60 are the names for these standards, PAL. Both the PAL and the NTSC system use a quadrature amplitude modulated subcarrier carrying the chrominance information added to the video signal to form a composite video baseband signal. The frequency of this subcarrier is 4.43361875 MHz for PAL and NTSC4.43, the SECAM system, on the other hand, uses a frequency modulation scheme on its two line alternate colour subcarriers 4.25000 and 4.40625 MHz. Early PAL receivers relied on the eye to do that cancelling, however. The effect is that phase errors result in changes, which are less objectionable than the equivalent hue changes of NTSC. In any case, NTSC, PAL, and SECAM all have chrominance bandwidth reduced greatly compared to the luminance signal. The 4.43361875 MHz frequency of the carrier is a result of 283.75 colour clock cycles per line plus a 25 Hz offset to avoid interferences. Since the line frequency is 15625 Hz, the carrier frequency calculates as follows,4.43361875 MHz =283.75 ×15625 Hz +25 Hz
5.
Helical scan
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Helical scan is a method of recording high frequency signals on magnetic tape. It is used in video tape recorders, video cassette recorders, digital audio tape recorders. In a fixed tape head recording system, magnetic tape is drawn past the head at a constant speed. The head creates a magnetic field in response to the signal to be recorded. As the tape moves away, the magnetic particles carry an imprint of the signal in their magnetic orientation. If the tape moves too slowly, a frequency signal will not be imprinted. Thus the bandwidth capacity of the recorded signal can be seen to be related to tape speed, the faster the speed. Digital video and digital audio need considerably more bandwidth than analog audio and this is impractical, since tapes of immense length would be required. The generally adopted solution is to rotate the head against the tape at high speed, so that the velocity is high. To accomplish this, the head must be tilted so that at each rotation of the head, each segment of the signal is recorded as a diagonal stripe across the tape. This is known as a helical scan because the tape wraps around the drum at an angle. The difference between the writing speed and linear tape speed is vast, for example,13 mph versus 35 mm/s. The helical scan method of recording was first developed by Eduard Schüller, with the advent of television broadcasting in Japan in the early 1950s, they saw the need for magnetic television signal recording just as engineers in the United States and Europe did. Thus, when tape motion was stopped, only a segment of the picture recording was present at the playback heads. The motivation to overcome this limitation led, in part, to the development of the helical scan system, toshiba introduced helical scan technology to the television industry in 1959. During the 1960s and 1970s, helical scan recording machines were introduced by many manufacturers and these factors also made it possible eventually to bring video recording to users at home, in a cassette format. There were a number of problems to be overcome with this system, the high tape/head speed could lead to rapid wear of both the tape and the head, so both need to be highly polished, and the head made of a hard, wear resistant material. Most systems operate with an air bearing separating the heads from the surface of the drum, supplying signals to a rotating head is also problematic, This is usually accomplished by coupling the signal inductively through a rotary transformer
6.
Sony
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Sony Corporation is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation that is headquartered in Kōnan, Minato, Tokyo. Its diversified business includes consumer and professional electronics, gaming, entertainment, the company is one of the leading manufacturers of electronic products for the consumer and professional markets. Sony was ranked 116th on the 2015 list of Fortune Global 500 and these make Sony one of the most comprehensive entertainment companies in the world. The group consists of Sony Corporation, Sony Pictures Entertainment, Sony Interactive Entertainment, Sony Music Entertainment, Sony Financial Holdings and others. Sony is among the Semiconductor sales leaders by year and as of 2013, the companys current slogan is BE MOVED. Their former slogans were make. believe, like. no. other, Sony has a weak tie to the SMFG keiretsu, the successor to the Mitsui keiretsu. Sony began in the wake of World War II, in 1946, Masaru Ibuka started an electronics shop in a department store building in Tokyo. The company had $530 in capital and a total of eight employees, in the following year he was joined by his colleague, Akio Morita, and they founded a company called Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo 東京通信工業. The company built Japans first tape recorder, called the Type-G, in 1958 the company changed its name to Sony. When Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo was looking for a name to use to market themselves, they strongly considered using their initials. The primary reason they did not is that the railway company Tokyo Kyuko was known as TTK, the company occasionally used the acronym Totsuko in Japan, but during his visit to the United States, Morita discovered that Americans had trouble pronouncing that name. Another early name that was tried out for a while was Tokyo Teletech until Akio Morita discovered that there was an American company already using Teletech as a brand name, the name Sony was chosen for the brand as a mix of two words. One was the Latin word sonus, which is the root of sonic and sound, and the other was sonny, a common slang term used in 1950s America to call a boy. In the 1950s Japan sonny boys, was a word into Japanese which connoted smart and presentable young men. The first Sony-branded product, the TR-55 transistor radio, appeared in 1955, at the time of the change, it was extremely unusual for a Japanese company to use Roman letters to spell its name instead of writing it in kanji. The move was not without opposition, TTKs principal bank at the time and they pushed for a name such as Sony Electronic Industries, or Sony Teletech. Akio Morita was firm, however, as he did not want the company tied to any particular industry. Eventually, both Ibuka and Mitsui Banks chairman gave their approval, according to Schiffer, Sonys TR-63 radio cracked open the U. S. market and launched the new industry of consumer microelectronics
7.
Television program
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It may be a single production, or more commonly, a series of related productions. A limited number of episodes of a show may be called a miniseries or a serial or limited series. Television series are without a fixed length and are divided into seasons or series. While there is no defined length, U. S. industry practice has traditionally favored longer television seasons than those of other countries, a one-time broadcast may be called a special, or particularly in the UK a special episode. A television film is a film that is initially broadcast on television rather than released in theaters or direct-to-video, a program can be either recorded, as on video tape, other various electronic media forms, played with an on-demand player or viewed on live television. Television programs may be fictional, or non-fictional and it may be topical, or historical. They could be primarily instructional or educational, or entertaining as is the case in situation comedy, a drama program usually features a set of actors playing characters in a historical or contemporary setting. The program follows their lives and adventures, except for soap opera-type serials, many shows especially before the 1980s, remained static without story arcs, and the main characters and premise changed little. If some change happened to the characters lives during the episode, because of this, the episodes could be broadcast in any order. Since the 1980s, there are series that feature progressive change to the plot. For instance, Hill Street Blues and St. Elsewhere were two of the first American prime time television series to have this kind of dramatic structure. While the later series, Babylon 5 is an example of such production that had a predetermined story running over its intended five-season run. In 2012, it was reported that television was growing into a component of major media companies revenues than film. Some also noted the increase in quality of television programs. When a person or company decides to create a new series, they develop the elements, consisting of the concept, the characters, the crew. Then they offer it to the networks in an attempt to find one interested enough to order a prototype first episode of the series. They want very much to get the word out on what types of shows they’re looking for, to create the pilot, the structure and team of the whole series must be put together. If the network likes the pilot, they pick up the show to air it the next season, sometimes they save it for mid-season, or request rewrites and further review
8.
Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers
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SMPTE Membership is open to any individual or organization with interest in the subject matter. SMPTE standards documents are copyrighted and may be purchased from the SMPTE website, standard documents may be purchased by the general public. Significant standards promulgated by SMPTE include, All film and television formats and media. The society sponsors many awards, the oldest of which are the SMPTE Progress Medal, the Samuel Warner Memorial Medal, SMPTE also has a number of student Chapters and sponsors scholarships for college students in the motion imaging disciplines. A group within the standards committees has begun to work on the definition of the SMPTE 3D Home Master. SMPTE, instituted in 1999, a committee for the foundations of Digital Cinema. The SMPTE presents awards to individuals for outstanding contributions in fields of the society, James Cameron Edwin Catmull Birney Dayton Clyde D. Smith Roderick Snell Dr. Kees Immink Stanley N. Baron William C. Miller Bernard J. Lechner Ray Dolby Harold E. Edgerton Vladimir K. Zworykin John G. Frayne Walt Disney Chuck Pagano James M. DeFilippis Bernard J. Lechner Stanley N. Baron William F. Schreiber Adrian Ettlinger Joseph A. Flaherty, goldmark W. R. G. Baker Albert Rose Charles Ginsburg Robert E. Shelby Arthur V. Loughren Otto H. Recent recipients are Andrew Laszlo James MacKay Dr. Roderick T. Swartz
9.
Reel-to-reel audio tape recording
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Reel-to-reel or open-reel audio tape recording is the form of magnetic tape audio recording in which the recording medium is held on a reel, rather than being securely contained within a cassette. Reel-to-reel systems use a tape that is 1⁄4 inches in width and this compares to 0.15 inches wide and 1.875 inches per second for a cassette. By writing out the audio signal across more tape, reel-to-reel systems offer much higher fidelity. In spite of the tapes, less convenient use and generally higher cost media. Studer, Stellavox and Denon still produced reel to reel tape recorders in the 1990s, but as of 2014, only Nagra, Otari, originally, this format had no name, since all forms of magnetic tape recorders used it. The earliest machines produced distortion during the process which German engineers significantly reduced during the Nazi era by applying a bias signal to the tape. In 1939 one machine was found to make consistently better recordings than other ostensibly identical models, and when it was taken apart a minor flaw was noticed. It was introducing an AC signal to the tape, and this was adapted to new models using a high-frequency AC bias that has remained a part of audio tape recording to this day. American audio engineer Jack Mullin was a member of the U. S. Army Signal Corps during World War II and he acquired two Magnetophon recorders and 50 reels of I. G. Farben recording tape and shipped them home, over the next two years, he worked to develop the machines for commercial use, hoping to interest the Hollywood film studios in using magnetic tape for movie soundtrack recording. Crosby invested $50,000 in an electronics company, Ampex. Ampex went on to develop the first practical videotape recorders in the early 1950s to pre-record Crosbys TV shows, inexpensive reel-to-reel tape recorders were widely used for voice recording in the home and in schools before the Philips compact cassette, introduced in 1963, gradually took over. Cassettes eventually displaced reel-to-reel recorders for consumer use, however, the narrow tracks and slow recording speeds used in cassettes compromised fidelity. Columbia House carried pre-recorded reel-to-reel tapes from 1960 to 1984, even today, some artists of all genres prefer analog tapes musical, natural and especially warm sound. Due to harmonic distortion, bass can thicken up, creating a fuller-sounding mix, in addition, high end can be slightly compressed, which is more natural to the human ear. It is common for artists to record to digital and re-record the tracks to analog reels for this effect of natural sound. In addition to all of these attributes of tape, tape saturation is a form of distortion that many rock, blues. For the first time, audio could be manipulated as a physical entity, Tape editing is performed simply by cutting the tape at the required point, and rejoining it to another section of tape using adhesive tape, or sometimes glue
10.
Analog recording
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Analog recording is a technique used for the recording of analog signals which, among many possibilities, allows analog audio and analog video for later playback. Analog recording methods store signals as a signal in or on the media. The signal may be stored as a texture on a phonograph record. This is different from digital recording which digital signals are represented as discrete numbers, the Phonograph was the first machine used to capture analog sound, and was invented by the well-known inventor Thomas Edison in 1877. Edison incorporated various elements into his Phonograph that would become staples that can be found in recording devices to this day, for a sound to be recorded by the Phonograph, it has to go through three distinct steps. First, the sound enters a cone-shaped component of the device and that sound causes the microphone diaphragm, which is connected to a small metal needle, to vibrate. The needle then vibrates in the way, causing its sharp tip to etch a distinctive groove into a cylinder. In order to playback the sound recorded on one of the tinfoil cylinders, as the cylinder spins, the needle follows the groove created by the previous recording session. This causes the needle to vibrate, and then the diaphragm and this vibration comes out of the diaphragm, which is now functioning as a sort of sound amplification device, much like the bell on any wind instrument. The result is a reproduction of the originally recorded sound. Edisons phonograph was the first of its kind, but drawbacks were nevertheless obvious, the biggest of these, and the one that ended up being fixed first, came from the physical contact between the phonograph needle and the tinfoil diaphragm. Because the needle had to make contact with the groove in the diaphragm every time the recording was played. This meant that every time a recording was played, it was one step closer to being gone forever. Another problem with the phonograph was the permanence of its recordings, unlike music today, which can be edited endlessly, the music captured by phonograph machines were single-take, live recordings. The last problem with the phonograph was related to fidelity, fidelity is the similarity/difference between the original recorded sound, and that same sound after it has been reproduced by a playback device, in this case the phonograph. As can be expected from such an early audio recording machine and this lack of sound quality is why the phonograph was originally used to record speeches, meetings, and telephone calls, rather than music. Fans of modern players are already familiar with one very early improvement on the phonograph. Inventor Emile Berliner created the device in 1887, only ten years after Edisons original device, Berliners main improvement to the phonograph was related to the component of the device that actually held the recorded information
11.
Videotape
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Videotape is magnetic tape used for storing video and usually sound in addition. Information stored can be in the form of either a signal or digital signal. Videotape is used in video tape recorders or, more commonly, videocassette recorders and camcorders. Videotapes are also used for storing scientific or medical data, such as the produced by an electrocardiogram. Tape is a method of storing information and thus imposes delays to access a portion of the tape that is not already under the heads. The early 2000s saw the introduction and rise to prominence of high quality video recording media such as hard disks. Since then, videotape has been relegated to archival and similar uses. The electronics division of entertainer Bing Crosbys production company, Bing Crosby Enterprises, overall the picture quality was still considered inferior to the best kinescope recordings on film. Bing Crosby Enterprises hoped to have a version available in 1954. The BBC experimented from 1952 to 1958 with a high-speed linear videotape system called VERA and it used half-inch tape traveling at 200 inches per second. RCA demonstrated the magnetic recording of both black-and-white and color television programs at its Princeton laboratories on December 1,1953. The high-speed longitudinal tape system, called Simplex, in development since 1951, could record, the color system used half-inch tape to record five tracks, one each for red, blue, green, synchronization, and audio. The black-and-white system used quarter-inch tape with two tracks, one for video and one for audio, both systems ran at 360 inches per second. RCA-owned NBC first used it on The Jonathan Winters Show on October 23,1956 when a song sequence by Dorothy Collins in color was included in the otherwise live television program. BCE demonstrated a color system in February 1955 using a longitudinal recording on half-inch tape. CBS, RCAs competitor, was about to order BCE machines when Ampex introduced the superior Quadruplex system, BCE was acquired by 3M Company in 1956. Quad employed a transverse four-head system on a tape. On January 22,1957, the NBC Television game show Truth or Consequences, produced in Hollywood, Ampex introduced a color videotape recorder in 1958 in a cross-licensing agreement with RCA, whose engineers had developed it from an Ampex black-and-white recorder
12.
Ampex
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Ampex is an American electronics company founded in 1944 by Alexander M. Poniatoff. The name AMPEX is an acronym, created by its founder, at one time public, the remaining ongoing business unit was acquired by Delta Information Systems in October 2014, with the original parent, Ampex Corporation, ceasing operations in October 2014. Ampexs first great success was a line of tape recorders developed from the German wartime Magnetophon system at the behest of Bing Crosby. Ampex quickly became a leader in audio technology, developing many of the analog recording formats for both music and movies that remained in use into the 1990s. They also introduced multi-track recording, slow-motion and instant playback television, Ampexs tape business was rendered obsolete during the 1990s, and the company turned to digital storage products. They never managed to become a player in this field, russian inventor Alexander Matthew Poniatoff established the company in San Carlos, California, in 1944 as the Ampex Electric and Manufacturing Company. The name came from his initials plus ex to avoid using the name AMP already in use, during World War II, Ampex was a small manufacturer of high quality electric motors and generators for radars that used alnico 5 magnets from General Electric. Ampexs first offices were at 1313 Laurel St. San Carlos California, near the end of the war, while serving in the U. S. Army Signal Corps, Major Jack Mullin was assigned to investigate German radio and electronics experiments. He discovered the Magnetophons with AC biasing on a trip to Radio Frankfurt, the device produced much better fidelity than shellac records. Mullin acquired two Magnetophon recorders and 50 reels of BASF Type L tape, and brought them to America and he demonstrated them to the Institute of Radio Engineers in San Francisco on May 16,1946. Bing Crosby, a big star on radio at the time, was receptive to the idea of pre-recording his radio programs and he disliked the regimentation of live broadcasts, and much preferred the relaxed atmosphere of the recording studio. This may have been what Crosby was hoping to avoid, as that was the argument Crosby used with the network when he asked to use transcription disc recordings of his show. Those recordings were made directly from the live east coast show, in June 1947, Mullin, who was pitching the technology to the major Hollywood movie studios, got the chance to demonstrate his modified tape recorders to Crosby. When Crosby heard a demonstration of Mullins tape recorders, he saw the potential of the new technology. Ampex was finishing its prototype of the Model 200 tape recorder, after a successful test broadcast, ABC agreed to allow Crosby to pre-record his shows on tape. Crosby immediately appointed Mullin as his engineer and placed an order for $50,000 worth of the new recorders so that Ampex could develop a commercial production model from the prototypes. Crosby Enterprises was Ampexs West Coast representative until 1957, the companys first tape recorder, the Ampex Model 200A, was first shipped in April 1948. The first two units, serial numbers 1 and 2, were used to record the Bing Crosby Show
13.
Video
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Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video systems vary greatly in the resolution of the display and refresh rate, video can be carried on a variety of media, including radio broadcast, tapes, DVDs, computer files etc. Video was originally exclusively a live technology, charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing one of the first practical video tape recorder. In 1951 the first video tape recorder captured live images from television cameras by converting the electrical impulses. Video recorders were sold for $50,000 in 1956, however, prices gradually dropped over the years, in 1971, Sony began selling videocassette recorder decks and tapes into the consumer market. The use of techniques in video created digital video, which allowed higher quality and, eventually. After the invention of the DVD in 1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape, the advent of digital broadcasting and the subsequent digital television transition is in the process of relegating analog video to the status of a legacy technology in most parts of the world. PAL standards and SECAM specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC standards specify 29.97 frames, film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24 frames per second, which slightly complicates the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve a comfortable illusion of an image is about sixteen frames per second. Video can be interlaced or progressive, analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats, abbreviated video resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example, PAL video format is specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing. In progressive scan systems, each refresh period updates all scan lines in each frame in sequence, when displaying a natively progressive broadcast or recorded signal, the result is optimum spatial resolution of both the stationary and moving parts of the image. Deinterlacing cannot, however, produce video quality that is equivalent to true progressive scan source material, aspect ratio describes the dimensions of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectilinear, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height, the screen aspect ratio of a traditional television screen is 4,3, or about 1.33,1. High definition televisions use a ratio of 16,9. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack is 1.375,1. Therefore, a 720 by 480 pixel NTSC DV image displayes with the 4,3 aspect ratio if the pixels are thin, the popularity of viewing video on mobile phones has led to the growth of vertical video
14.
Quadruplex videotape
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2-inch quadruplex videotape is the first practical and commercially successful analog recording videotape format. It was developed and released for the broadcast television industry in 1956 by Ampex, the first videotape recorder using this format was built and created in the same year. Broadcasters also sought a medium that was not as costly or time-consuming to edit. Faced with these challenges, broadcasters sought to adapt magnetic tape recording technology for use with television as well and this method was called quadrature scanning, as opposed to the helical scan transport used by later videotape formats. The cue track was used either as an audio track. A typical 4,800 ft reel of 2 in quad tape holds approximately one hour of recorded material at 15 inches per second, the quadruplex format employs segmented recording, each transversely recorded video track on a 2-inch quad videotape holds one-sixteenth or one-twentieth of a field of video. This meant that 2-inch quad did not support trick-play functions, such as still, shuttle, most quad machines made later in the 1960s and 1970s by Ampex could play back both low and high-band 2-inch quad tape. Time-shifting of television programming for the West Coast of the United States by the networks in the 1950s using kinescope films was quite a rushed and this usually meant the kinescope was aired almost immediately after it came straight out of the developing equipment, still warm from the film dryer. These were referred to by the networks as hot kines, by 1954, the networks used more raw film stock for kinescopes than all of the Hollywood film studios combined, spending up to $4,000 per half hour. They were desperate to obtain a quicker, less expensive, in the early 1950s, Ampex and several other companies such as Bing Crosby Enterprises and RCA were competing to release a videotape format. RCA and BCE did release working prototypes of their recorders, but their downfall was that all used a longitudinal method of recording. At the same time, the BBC developed a similar stationary-head video tape recorder system that saw some on-air use, starting in 1952, Ampex built the Mark I prototype VTR, using 2 in -wide tape. Ampex decided that instead of having the tape move fast across the head to record enough bandwidth for video and this resulted in the Mark I using arcuate scanning, which consisted of a spinning disk with a face which contacted the tape. This resulted in a track being recorded across the width of the tape. Ampex continued through the mid-1950s with the Mark II and Mark III prototype recorders, the Mark II used frequency modulation for recording video to tape, resulting in a much-improved, but still noisy, video image. The Mark III had improved signal-processing and servo electronics, resulting in much better video reproduction, the Mark III worked well, but its appearance was quite that of a prototype, and not a finished, saleable product. It was in a wooden case, with several parts of its chassis externally mounted in partially filled racks. Ampex then built the Mark IV by putting Mark III components into a sleek metal console, the Mark IV was the machine first publicly demonstrated at the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters convention in Chicago on April 14,1956
15.
Video tape recorder
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A video tape recorder is a tape recorder designed to record video material on magnetic tape. The first practical tape recorder, using transverse tape head scanning, was developed by Ampex Corporation in 1956. The early VTRs were reel to reel devices which recorded on reels of 2 inch wide magnetic tape. They were used in studios, serving as a replacement for motion picture film stock. Beginning in 1963, videotape machines made instant replay during televised sporting events possible, improved formats, in which the tape was contained inside a videocassette, were introduced around 1969, the machines which play them are called videocassette recorders. The first efforts at recording, using recorders similar to audio recorders with fixed heads, were unsuccessful. The problem was that a signal has a much wider bandwidth than an audio signal. One of the first efforts was the Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus and this machine used a thin steel tape on a 21-inch reel traveling at over 200 inches per second. Despite 10 years of research and improvements, it was never used due to the immense length of tape required for each minute of recorded video. Many other fixed-head recording systems were tried but all required impractically high tape speed and it became clear that practical video recording technology depended on finding some way of recording the wide-bandwidth video signal without the high tape speed required by linear-scan machines. The Ampex VRX-1000 became the worlds first commercially successful videotape recorder in 1956 and it used the 2 Quadruplex format, using two-inch tape. Because of its US$50,000 price, the Ampex VRX-1000 could be afforded only by the television networks and the largest individual stations. In 1963, Philips introduced its EL34001 helical scan recorder and Sony marketed the 2 PV-100, its first reel-to-reel VTR intended for business, medical, airline and educational use. The Telcan, produced by the Nottingham Electronic Valve Company and demonstrated on June 24,1963, was the first home video recorder and it could be bought as a unit or in kit form for £60. However, there were drawbacks, it was expensive, not easy to put together. The Sony model CV-2000, first marketed in 1965, was its first VTR intended for use and was based on half-inch tape. Ampex and RCA followed in 1965 with its own reel-to-reel monochrome VTRs priced under US $1,000 for the consumer market. Prerecorded movies for home replay became available in 1967, the EIAJ format was a standard half-inch format used by various manufacturers
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Slow motion
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Slow motion is an effect in film-making whereby time appears to be slowed down. It was invented by the Austrian priest August Musger in the early 20th century, typically this style is achieved when each film frame is captured at a rate much faster than it will be played back. When replayed at normal speed, time appears to be moving more slowly, a term for creating slow motion film is overcranking which refers to hand cranking an early camera at a faster rate than normal. Slow motion can also be achieved by playing normally recorded footage at a slower speed and this technique is more often applied to video subjected to instant replay than to film. Motion can be slowed further by combining techniques, interpolating between overcranked frames, slow motion is ubiquitous in modern filmmaking. It is used by a range of directors to achieve diverse effects. Some classic subjects of slow motion include, Athletic activities of all kinds, to demonstrate skill, to recapture a key moment in an athletic game, typically shown as a replay. Natural phenomena, such as a drop of water hitting a glass, slow motion can also be used for artistic effect, to create a romantic or suspenseful aura or to stress a moment in time. Vsevolod Pudovkin, for instance, used slow motion in a scene in The Deserter. Another example is Face/Off, in which John Woo used the technique in the movements of a flock of flying pigeons. The Matrix made a success in applying the effect into action scenes through the use of multiple cameras, as well as mixing slow-motion with live action in other scenes. Japanese director Akira Kurosawa was a pioneer using this technique in his 1954 movie Seven Samurai, american director Sam Peckinpah was another classic lover of the use of slow motion. The technique is associated with explosion effect shots and underwater footage. The opposite of motion is fast motion. Cinematographers refer to fast motion as undercranking since it was achieved by cranking a handcranked camera slower than normal. It is often used for effect, time lapse or occasional stylistic effect. The concept of motion may have existed before the invention of the motion picture. There are two ways in which slow motion can be achieved in modern cinematography, both involve a camera and a projector
17.
Recording head
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A recording head is the physical interface between a recording apparatus and a moving recording medium. Recording heads are generally classified according to the principle that allows them to impress their data upon their medium. A recording head is often paired with a playback head. Record heads are constructed of laminated permalloy, ferrite, or sendust, as of 2006 this is by far the most dominant type of head in use. Optical - Optical recording heads use the principles of optics and light to impart energy on a recording medium, note that Magneto-optical recording, though using optics and heat, should properly be considered a magnetic process, since the data stored on magneto-optical media is stored magnetically. Earlier systems, such as records, used mechanical heads known as styli to physically cut grooves in the recording medium. A tape recorder, showing the head assemblies, photo of an early recording head as part of a wire recorder
18.
Composite video
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Composite video is an analog video transmission that carries standard definition video typically at 480i or 576i resolution. Video information is encoded on one channel, unlike the higher-quality S-video, Composite video is usually in standard formats such as NTSC, PAL, and SECAM and is often designated by the CVBS initialism, for color, video, blanking and sync, or simply as video. A composite video signal combines on one wire the video information required to recreate a picture, as well as line. The color video signal is a combination of the luminance of the picture, and a modulated subcarrier carries the chrominance or color information. Details of the process vary between the NTSC, PAL and SECAM systems. The burst signal is inverted in phase from the reference subcarrier, Composite video can easily be directed to any broadcast channel simply by modulating the proper RF carrier wave with it. On playback, these devices often give the user the option to output the signal or to modulate it onto a VHF or UHF frequency compatible with a TV tuner. In home applications, the video signal is typically connected using an RCA connector. It is often accompanied with red and white connectors for right, BNC connectors and higher quality coaxial cable are often used in professional television studios and post-production applications. BNC connectors were used for composite video connections on early home VCRs. The BNC connector, in turn post dated the PL-259 connector which featured on first generation VCRs. In Europe, SCART connections are used instead of RCA jacks, so where available, RGB is used instead of composite video with computers, video game consoles. Video cables are 75 ohm impedance, low in capacitance, typical values run from 52 pF/m for an HDPE-foamed dielectric precision video cable to 69 pF/m for a solid PE dielectric cable. Some devices that connect to a TV, such as VCRs, older video game consoles and home computers of the 1980s and this may then be converted to RF with an external box known as an RF modulator that generates the proper carrier. Sometimes this modulator was built into the product and sometimes it was a unit powered by the computer or with an independent power supply. In the United States, using an external RF modulator frees the manufacturer from obtaining FCC approval for each variation of a device, Video game consoles on the other hand were less of an issue with FCC approval because the circuitry was inexpensive enough to allow for channel 3/4 outputs. Modern day devices with analog outputs have typically omitted channel 3 and 4 outputs in favor of composite and S-video outputs as composite, in addition, many TV sets sold these days no longer have analog television tuners and cannot accept channel 3/4. The process of modulating RF with the video signal, and then demodulating the original signal again in the TV
19.
U-matic
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U-matic is an analogue recording videocassette format first shown by Sony in prototype in October 1969, and introduced to the market in September 1971. It was among the first video formats to contain the videotape inside a cassette, a locking mechanism integral to each cassette case secures the tape hubs during transportation to keep the tape wound tightly on the hubs. Once the cassette is taken off the case, the hubs are free to spin, accidental recording is prevented by the absence of a red plastic button fitted to a hole on the bottom surface of the tape, removal of the button disabled recording. As part of its development, in March 1970, Sony, victor Co. of Japan, and five non-Japanese companies reached agreement on unified standards. U-matic was named after the shape of the path when it was threaded around the helical scan video head drum. Betamax used a type of B-load as well. Recording time was limited to one hour, at the 1971 introduction of U-Matic, Sony originally intended it to be a videocassette format oriented at the consumer market. This proved to be something of a failure, because of the manufacturing cost. But the cost was affordable enough for industrial and institutional customers, as a result, Sony shifted U-Matics marketing to the industrial, professional, and educational sectors. This model ushered in the era of ENG, or Electronic News Gathering, film required developing which took time, compared to the instantly available playback of videotape, making faster breaking news possible. U-matic is also available in a smaller size, officially known as U-Matic S. To minimise weight and bulk in the field, portable recorders had an external AC power supply, the price point of the VO series was oriented toward educational, corporate and industrial fields, featured unbalanced audio connectors, and did not typically include SMPTE time code. The VO-3800 was largely metal, which made the unit heavy, the VO-4800 had the same functionality as the VO-3800, but at a greatly reduced weight and size, by replacing many components with plastic. The VO-6800 added the improvement of a long, thin battery standard that permitted storage of the batteries in a trouser pocket, common model numbers for these batteries were NP-1, NP-1A and NP-1B. The VO-8800 was the last of the portable VO series to be produced by Sony, the Sony BVU series added longitudinal and vertical interval SMPTE time code, balanced audio XLR connectors, and heavier-duty transport features. The BVU-50 enabled recording in the field but not playback, portable recorders were connected to the camera with a multi-conductor cable terminated with multi-pin connectors on each end. The cable carried bi-directional audio, video, synchronisation, record on/off control, early studio and all portable U-Matic VCRs had a drawer-type mechanism which required the tape to be inserted, followed by manual closure of the drawer. Later studio VCRs accepted the cassette from an opening and the cassette was pulled into
20.
Component video
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Component video is a video signal that has been split into two or more component channels. In popular use, it refers to a type of component analog video information that is transmitted or stored as three separate signals. Component video can be contrasted with composite video in all the video information is combined into a single line level signal that is used in analog television. Like composite, component-video cables do not carry audio and are paired with audio cables. When used without any qualifications the term component video usually refers to analog YPBPR component video with sync on luma. Reproducing a video signal on a device is a straightforward process complicated by the multitude of signal sources. DVD, VHS, computers and video game consoles all store, process and transmit video signals using different methods, one way of maintaining signal clarity is by separating the components of a video signal so that they do not interfere with each other. A signal separated in this way is called component video, S-Video, RGB and YPBPR signals comprise two or more separate signals, and thus are all component-video signals. In the past, for most consumer-level applications, analog component video was used, however, component video is capable of carrying various signals, such as 480i, 480p, 576i, 576p, 720p, 1080i, 1080p, 2160p and beyond. Many new high definition TVs support the use of component video up to their native resolution, most modern computers offer this signal via a VGA port. Many televisions, especially in Europe, utilize RGB via the SCART connector, all arcade games, other than early vector and black-and-white games, use RGB monitors. In addition to the red, green and blue color signals, sync on luma, where the Y signal from S-Video is used alongside the RGB signal only for the purposes of sync. Composite sync is common in the European SCART connection scheme, RGBS requires four wires – red, green, blue and sync. If separate cables are used, the cable is usually colored yellow or white. Separate sync is most common with VGA, used worldwide for analog computer monitors and this is sometimes known as RGBHV, as the horizontal and vertical synchronization pulses are sent in separate channels. If separate cables are used, the lines are usually yellow and white, yellow and black, or gray. Sync on Green is less common, and while some VGA monitors support it, sony is a big proponent of SoG, and most of their monitors use it. Like devices that use video or S-video, SoG devices require additional circuitry to remove the sync signal from the green line
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Betacam
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Betacam is a family of half-inch professional videocassette products developed by Sony in 1982. In colloquial use, Betacam singly is often used to refer to a Betacam camcorder, a Betacam tape, the cassettes are available in two sizes, S and L. The Betacam camcorder can only load S magnetic tapes, while television studio sized video tape recorders designed for video editing can play both S and L tapes, the cassette shell and case for each Betacam cassette is colored differently depending on the format, allowing for easy visual identification. There is also a key, that allows a video tape recorder to identify which format has been inserted. The smaller S cassettes use the form factor as Betamax. The format supplanted the three-quarter-inch U-Matic format, which Sony had introduced in 1971, in addition to improvements in video quality, the Betacam configuration of an integrated professional video camera/recorder led to its rapid adoption by electronic news gathering organizations. DigiBeta, the name for Digital Betacam, went on to become the single most successful professional broadcast digital recording video tape format in history. The original Betacam format was launched on August 7,1982, a blank Betamax-branded tape will work on a Betacam deck, and a Betacam-branded tape can be used to record in a Betamax deck. However, in later years Sony discouraged this practice, suggesting, in particular, the guide rollers tend to be noisy. Another common point between Betamax and Betacam is the placement of the linear audio tracks. Also, some Betacam and Betamax portables share the same batteries, Betacam was initially introduced as a camera line along with a video cassette player. The first cameras were the BVP-3, which utilized three saticon tubes, and the BVP1, which used a single tri-stripe Trinicon tube, both these cameras could be operated standalone, or with their docking companion VTR, the BVV-1, to form the BVW-1 integrated camcorder. The only transport controls on the deck were Eject and Rewind, the docked cameras VTR button started and paused the tape recorder. Later the Betacam SP docking decks had full transport controls but tapes could not be played back except in the viewfinder in black-and-white only. Sony then came out with the Play Adapter, a portable unit that connected via a multi-pin cable and had a composite video out jack for color playback. At first color playback required the studio source deck, the BVW-10 and it was primarily designed as a feeder deck for A/B roll edit systems, usually for editing to a one-inch Type C or three-quarter-inch U-matic cassette edit master tape. There was also the BVW-20 field playback deck, which was a unit with DC power and a handle. Unlike the BVW-10, it did not have a built in Time Base Corrector, or TBC, with the popular success of the Betacam system as a news acquisition format, the line was soon extended to include the BVW-15 studio player, and the BVW-40 Studio Edit Recorder
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MII (videocassette format)
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This article discusses the MII video tape format. It was technically similar to Betacam SP, using metal-formulated tape loaded in the cassette, MII is sometimes incorrectly referred to as M2, the official name uses Roman numerals, and is pronounced em two. Just as Betacam SP was a version of its predecessor Betacam with higher video and audio quality, MII was an enhanced development of its predecessor. Panasonic manufactured mains-powered MII editing and playback decks which accepted both the large and small tapes, as well as portable recorders which used only the small cassette and this resulted in MII not being nearly as successful as Betacam SP. Of the three, Thames and TV-am lost their licences in the 1991 ITV franchise auctions, depleting still further the already scant MII usage in the country. MII faded earlier than other video formats, in favor of digital tapes such as DV, DVCAM and DVCPro. A small number of specialist companies maintain old MII machines in order to offer a service for archive footage to modern formats. MII machines recorded six tracks, two by the heads and four by the stationary head. Starting from the top of the tape, the first two were stationary head audio channels two and one, below these were the two moving head tracks called C and Y, which are frequency modulated parts of the video signal. The C track also contained audio channels three and four, frequency modulated, going further down the tape, the last two stationary head tracks carried control and time code information, respectively. The control signal was used to synchronize the moving heads, for the video, luminance was simply frequency modulated and written to the Y track. The two chrominance signals, Pr and Pb, were combined into one signal by chrominance time compressed multiplexing, the resulting CTCM signal was frequency modulated and combined with the FM audio carriers before it was written to the C track. Sterling Encyclopedia of television, Volume 1, page 251, By Horace Newcomb The History of Television,1942 to 2000, page 214, By Albert Abramson, Christopher H. Sterling, NBC use
23.
Video production
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Video production is the process of creating video by capturing moving images, and creating combinations and reductions of parts of this video in live production and post-production. In most cases the captured video will be recorded on the most current electronic media such as SD cards, in the past footage was captured on video tape, hard disk, or solid state storage. Video tape capture is now obsolete and solid state storage is reserved for just that and it is now distributed digitally in formats such as the Moving Picture Experts Group format, QuickTime, Audio Video Interleave, Windows Media Video, and DivX. It is the equivalent of filmmaking, but with images recorded digitally instead of on film stock, practically, video production is the art and service of creating content and delivering a finished video product. This can include production of programs, television commercials, corporate videos, event videos, wedding videos. A video production can range in size, corporate video production covers a wide range of purposes from corporate Communication, Training and Education, videotaping conferences and conventions, products and services, and sales. An on-site editor then creates a video presentation that is shown before the close of the convention. Many associations take advantage of the venue to gather interviews of their principals. Video productions video tape or memory-based recording device or a version from a website video, optical disc, magnetic tape. Two styles of producing video are ENG - Electronic news-gathering and EFP - Electronic field production, Television broadcast productions include television commercials, infomercials, newscasts, entertainment shows, documentaries, news magazines, sitcom and reality shows. They may be distributed by broadcast syndication, Video production can be used at sporting, school, stage, wedding, church, and similar events to provide recordings of the events. Event video production can also be used to broadcast events live to viewers at home such as a conference or concert. Video of live events can be sent by microwave or a truck from the event location to a television studio in order to be broadcast. It differs from types of video production in three ways,1. It augments traditional teaching tools used in educational programs. It may incorporate motion video with sound, computer animations, stills, capture of content may include use of cell phone integrated cameras and extend to commercial high-definition Broadcast quality cameras. The primary purpose of using video in distance education is to improve understanding, webcasting is also being used in education for distance learning projects, one innovative use was the DiveLive programs. For the first time ever, live video and audio was broadcast from an archaeological site to the World Wide Web
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Television studio
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A television studio is an installation in which video productions take place, either for the recording of live television to video tape, or for the acquisition of raw footage for post-production. The design of a studio is similar to, and derived from, movie studios, a professional television studio generally has several rooms, which are kept separate for noise and practicality reasons. These rooms are connected via intercom, and personnel will be divided among these workplaces, the studio floor is the actual stage on which the actions that will be recorded and viewed take place. The on-screen talent themselves, and any guests - the subjects of the television show, a floor manager, who has overall charge of the studio area stage management, and who relays timing and other information from the television director. One or more camera operators who operate the video cameras. Master control is the hub of a broadcast operation common among most over-the-air television stations. Master control is distinct from a PCR in television studios where the such as switching from camera to camera are coordinated. A transmission control room is smaller in size and is a scaled-down version of centralcasting. The master control room houses equipment that is too noisy or runs too hot for the control room. It also makes sure that coax cable and other wire lengths and installation requirements keep within manageable lengths and this can include the actual circuitry and connections between The master control room in a US television station is the place where the on-air signal is controlled. The term studio usually refers to a place where a local program is originated. If the program is broadcast live, the signal goes from the PCR to MCR, a television studio usually has other rooms with no technical requirements beyond broadcast reference monitors and studio monitors for audio. Among them are, one or more make-up and changing rooms a reception area for crew, talent, and visitors, commonly called the green room
25.
DV
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DV is a format for storing digital video. It was launched in 1995 with joint efforts of leading producers of video camera recorders, the original DV specification, known as Blue Book, was standardized within the IEC61834 family of standards. These standards define common features such as physical videocassettes, recording modulation method, magnetization, part 2 describes the specifics of 525-60 and 625-50 systems. The IEC standards are available as publications sold by IEC and ANSI, in 2003, DV was joined by a successor format HDV, which used the same tape format with a different video codec. Some cameras at the time had the ability to switch between DV and HDV recording modes, DV uses lossy compression of video while audio is stored uncompressed. An intraframe video compression scheme is used to video on a frame-by-frame basis with the discrete cosine transform. Closely following ITU-R Rec.601 standard, DV video employs interlaced scanning with the sampling frequency of 13.5 MHz. This results in 480 scanlines per complete frame for the 60 Hz system, in both systems the active area contains 720 pixels per scanline, with 704 pixels used for content and 16 pixels on the sides left for digital blanking. The same frame size is used for 4,3 and 16,9 frame aspect ratios, prior to the DCT compression stage, chroma subsampling is applied to the source video in order to reduce the amount of data to be compressed. Baseline DV uses 4,1,1 subsampling in its 60 Hz variant and 4,2,0 subsampling in the 50 Hz variant. Audio can be stored in either of two forms, 16-bit Linear PCM stereo at 48 kHz sampling rate, or four nonlinear 12-bit PCM channels at 32 kHz sampling rate. In addition, the DV specification also supports 16-bit audio at 44.1 kHz, in practice, the 48 kHz stereo mode is used almost exclusively. The audio, video, and metadata are packaged into 80-byte Digital Interface Format blocks which are multiplexed into a 150-block sequence. DIF blocks are the units of DV streams and can be stored as computer files in raw form or wrapped in such file formats as Audio Video Interleave, QuickTime. One video frame is formed from either 10 or 12 such sequences, depending on scanning rate, which results in a rate of about 25 Mbit/s for video. When written to tape, each corresponds to one complete track. This means that the sound may be +/- ⅓ frame out of sync with the video, however, this is the maximum drift of the audio/video synchronization, it is not compounded throughout the recording. Sony and Panasonic created their versions of DV, which use the same compression scheme
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D-1 (Sony)
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D-1 or 4,2,2 Component Digital is a SMPTE digital recording video standard, introduced in 1986 through efforts by SMPTE engineering committees. It started as a Sony and Bosch - BTS product and was the first major professional digital video format, SMPTE standardized the format within ITU-R601, also known as Rec. 601, which was derived from SMPTE 125M and EBU 3246-E standards, D-1 or 4,2,2 D-1 was a major feat in real time, broadcast quality digital video recording. The uncompressed component video used enormous bandwidth,173 Mbit/sec, for its time, the maximum record time on a D-1 tape is 94 minutes. Hard drives in the 1980s that stored broadcast-quality video would only hold 30 seconds to a few minutes of space. By contrast, the D-1 machine allowed 94 minutes of recording on a $200 cassette, D-1 resolution is 720 ×486 for NTSC systems and 720 ×576 for PAL systems, these resolutions come from Rec. The D1 units are switchable between NTSC and PAL, luma is sampled at 13.5 MHz and Chroma at 6.75 MHz with an overall data rate of 27 MHz. Sampling at 13.5 MHz was used as it is a multiple of NTSC/PAL line rate. The first input/output interface was a 25 pin parallel cable and later updated to serial digital interface on coaxial cable, ancillary data can be put in H/V blanking intervals. Color space for Y’ B’-Y’ R’-Y’ is also defined in ITU Rec.601 or Rec.709 color space, panasonics D-5 format has similar specifications, but sampled at 10-bits as opposed to D-1s 8-bits. It had the advantage of development time as it was introduced later than Sonys D-1. The D-2 format system from Sony and Ampex soon followed two years later, using video in order to lower the bandwidth needed. This reduced D-2s price tag to half that of D-1, since D-2 was composite digital as opposed to component, it could easily be dropped into the space and infrastructure of composite analog machines presently used at the time. Since less information was recorded on D-2 than on D-1, tape speed could be reduced, however, D-2 was still a compromise, being composite video. As broadcasters would later convert from analog to digital wiring, component digital infrastructure became feasible, Sonys popular component Digital Betacam would usher the transition of keeping the colors separated in component digital space rather than combined together in composite space. Digital Betacam could play previous analog Betacam/Betacam SP tapes – which by now – had built an archive for broadcasters using its 1/2-inch tape format. 1/2-inch Digital Betacam thus became the de facto standard-definition broadcast editing, delivery, even as HD broadcasting and delivery became more commonplace in the U. S. after 2008-2010, networks would often require standard definition copies on Digital Betacam. Television shows such as CBS The Rachael Ray Show was still recorded and archived on Digital Betacam as late as 2012, early D-1 operations were plagued with difficulties, though the format quickly stabilized and is still renowned for its superb standard definition image quality
27.
D-2 (video)
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D-2 is a professional digital videocassette format created by Ampex and introduced at the 1988 NAB convention as a composite video alternative to the component video D-1 format. It garnered Ampex a technical Emmy in 1989, like D-1, D-2 stores uncompressed digital video on a tape cassette, however, it stores a composite video signal, rather than component video as with D-1. While component video is superior for advanced editing, especially when chroma key effects are used and this was because D-2 machines accepted standard analog video and audio inputs and outputs. D-2 machines are capable of interfacing through either serial digital video or analog video connections, four PCM audio channels are available for editing as well as an analog cue channel and timecode, also with digital or analog connections. Like D-1, D-2 uses 19 mm tape loaded into three different sized videocassettes to support commercial spot playback as well as long-form programming such as movies. Although D-2 videocassette housings are nearly identical to their D-1 counterparts, they are not interchangeable due to D-2s metal particle tape formula, Ampex D-2 tape transports are extremely fast. A high speed search at 60 times playback speed with a color picture allowed three hours of videotape to be searched through in approximately three minutes. The D-2 offered read before write or preread functionality, which allowed simultaneous playback and this eliminated the need for an additional recorder and saved considerable time in video editing. Steven Fuiten was the first PreRead Editor to composite video using a full D2 digital system, during its early stages, finished episodes of South Park were hastily recorded to D-2 to be sent to Comedy Central for airing in just a few days time. D-2 had a brief heyday, as the computer-based video server became available soon after its release. In 2003, only a handful of broadcasters continued to use the D-2 format, and even then only to access materials recorded when the format was more popular
28.
LaserDisc
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LaserDisc is a home video format and the first commercial optical disc storage medium, initially licensed, sold and marketed as MCA DiscoVision in North America in 1978. It was not a format in Europe and Australia when first released but was popular in the 1990s. Its superior video and audio quality made it a choice among videophiles. The technologies and concepts behind LaserDisc were the foundation for later optical disc formats including Compact Disc, DVD, Optical video recording technology, using a transparent disc, was invented by David Paul Gregg and James Russell in 1958. The Gregg patents were purchased by MCA in 1968, by 1969, Philips had developed a videodisc in reflective mode, which has advantages over the transparent mode. MCA and Philips then decided to combine their efforts and first publicly demonstrated the video disc in 1972. LaserDisc was first available on the market, in Atlanta, Georgia, on December 15,1978, Philips produced the players while MCA produced the discs. The Philips-MCA cooperation was not successful, and discontinued after a few years, several of the scientists responsible for the early research founded Optical Disc Corporation. In 1979, the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago opened its Newspaper exhibit which used interactive LaserDiscs to allow visitors to search for the front page of any Chicago Tribune newspaper and this was a very early example of public access to electronically stored information in a museum. The first LaserDisc title marketed in North America was the MCA DiscoVision release of Jaws in 1978, the last title released in North America was Paramounts Bringing Out the Dead in 2000. The last Japanese released movie was the Hong Kong film Tokyo Raiders from Golden Harvest, a dozen or so more titles continued to be released in Japan, until the end of 2001. Production of LaserDisc players continued until January 14,2009, when Pioneer stopped making them and it was estimated that in 1998, LaserDisc players were in approximately 2% of U. S. households. By comparison, in 1999, players were in 10% of Japanese households, LaserDisc was released on June 10,1981 in Japan, and a total of 3.6 million LaserDisc players were sold there. A total of 16.8 million LaserDisc players were sold worldwide, by the early 2000s, LaserDisc was completely replaced by DVD in the North American retail marketplace, as neither players nor software were then produced. Players were still exported to North America from Japan until the end of 2001, the format has retained some popularity among American collectors, and to a greater degree in Japan, where the format was better supported and more prevalent during its life. In Europe, LaserDisc always remained an obscure format and it was chosen by the British Broadcasting Corporation for the BBC Domesday Project in the mid-1980s, a school-based project to commemorate 900 years since the original Domesday Book in England. From 1991 up until the early 2000s, the BBC also used LaserDisc technology to play out the channel idents, the standard home video LaserDisc was 30 cm in diameter and made up of two single-sided aluminum discs layered in plastic. Although appearing similar to compact discs or DVDs, LaserDiscs used analog video stored in the domain with analog FM stereo sound
29.
Nagra
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Nagra is a series of mostly battery-operated portable professional audio recorders produced by Kudelski SA, based in Cheseaux-sur-Lausanne, Switzerland. The machines were designed by Polish inventor Stefan Kudelski, and his company won numerous technical awards for their precision. Nagra means will record in Polish, Kudelskis mother language, nagra-brand tape recorders were the de facto standard sound recording systems for motion picture and single-camera television production from the 1960s until the 1990s. Nagra recorders are identified by a number indicates their technological generation and features, NAGRA I - The very first prototype with clockwork motor and miniature tubes. Two were sold to Radio Genève, NAGRA II - The first production model, miniature tubes equipped, clockwork motor, which appeared in 1953. In 1953, in a new facility, Nagra began the production of the Nagra II (a Nagra I with the option to have an external modulometer in the sidewall, later the Nagra II was improved to the Nagra II b and in 1955, to the Nagra II c. NAGRA II CI - The second generation fitted with printed circuit boards replacing chassis wiring, appearing in 1955, Nagra III NP - The first Nagra usable for film work, appearing in 1958. This was a recorder, with the NP denoting the Neopilot sync. Nagra IV-L - Monaural, Neopilot sync, featuring two microphone inputs and a built-in audio limiter, Nagra 4.2 - Same as the IV-L, but added powering for microphones and built-in equalizers. In the 80s one could upgrade a 4.2 to record SMPTE timecode, Nagra IV-S - Stereo Nagra, recording two-track stereo. It had dual level pots, limiters, and equalizer presets and it originally employed a 14 kHz sync signal that is not compatible with the earlier Neopilot sync. This signal is recorded employing FM modulation on a third or center track that could simultaneously be employed as an additional, Nagra IV-STC - In 1984 Nagra introduced timecode support. With timecode support an IV-S became an STC with a pull out tray, Nagra IV-SJ - Stereo Nagra for instrumentation and logging. Nagra IS - In 1974 the Nagra IS was introduced, the Nagra IS was a small-bodied recorder, to be used in both film- and broadcast applications. Focus was on simple operation and lower weight than the IV/4-series recorders and it only supported 5 inch reels. Special versions of the IS called ISN and ISS could play back the 3,81 mm wide tape used with Nagra SN recorders, the IS is the only model derived from the original Nagra III to use three motors for tape transport. Supply and take up spools have their own motors, NAGRA E - A simple, single-speed, mono recorder aimed at radio reporters was introduced in 1976. In addition to these field recorders, Kudelski S. A. produced a studio called the Nagra T-Audio
30.
Pulse-code modulation
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Pulse-code modulation is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog signals. It is the form of digital audio in computers, compact discs, digital telephony. In a PCM stream, the amplitude of the signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals. Linear pulse-code modulation is a type of PCM where the quantization levels are linearly uniform. This is in contrast to PCM encodings where quantization levels vary as a function of amplitude, though PCM is a more general term, it is often used to describe data encoded as LPCM. Early electrical communications started to sample signals in order to interlace samples from multiple telegraphy sources, the American inventor Moses G. Farmer conveyed telegraph time-division multiplexing as early as 1853. Electrical engineer W. M. Miner, in 1903, used an electro-mechanical commutator for time-division multiplexing multiple telegraph signals and he obtained intelligible speech from channels sampled at a rate above 3500–4300 Hz, lower rates proved unsatisfactory. This was TDM, but pulse-amplitude modulation rather than PCM, in 1920 the Bartlane cable picture transmission system, named after its inventors Harry G. Bartholomew and Maynard D. In 1926, Paul M. Rainey of Western Electric patented a machine which transmitted its signal using 5-bit PCM. The machine did not go into production, british engineer Alec Reeves, unaware of previous work, conceived the use of PCM for voice communication in 1937 while working for International Telephone and Telegraph in France. He described the theory and advantages, but no practical application resulted, Reeves filed for a French patent in 1938, and his US patent was granted in 1943. By this time Reeves had started working at the Telecommunications Research Establishment, the first transmission of speech by digital techniques, the SIGSALY encryption equipment, conveyed high-level Allied communications during World War II. In 1943 the Bell Labs researchers who designed the SIGSALY system became aware of the use of PCM binary coding as already proposed by Alec Reeves. In 1949 for the Canadian Navys DATAR system, Ferranti Canada built a working PCM radio system that was able to transmit digitized radar data over long distances, PCM in the late 1940s and early 1950s used a cathode-ray coding tube with a plate electrode having encoding perforations. The plate collected or passed the beam, producing current variations in binary code, rather than natural binary, the grid of Goodalls later tube was perforated to produce a glitch-free Gray code, and produced all bits simultaneously by using a fan beam instead of a scanning beam. Patent 2,801,281 filed in 1946 and 1952, another patent by the same title was filed by John R. Pierce in 1945, and issued in 1948, U. S. The three of them published The Philosophy of PCM in 1948, PCM is the method of encoding generally used for uncompressed audio, although there are other methods such as pulse-density modulation. The 4ESS switch introduced time-division switching into the US telephone system in 1976, LPCM is used for the lossless encoding of audio data in the Compact disc Red Book standard, introduced in 1982
31.
Sound recording and reproduction
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Sound recording and reproduction is an electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording, prior to the development of analog recording, there were mechanical systems for reproducing instrumental music, such as wind-up music boxes and later, in the late 19th century, player pianos. Analog sound reproduction is the process, with a bigger loudspeaker diaphragm causing changes to atmospheric pressure to form acoustic sound waves. Digital recording and reproduction converts the sound signal picked up by the microphone to a digital form by the process of digitization. This lets the audio data be stored and transmitted by a variety of media. Whereas successive copies of an analog recording tend to degrade in quality, as noise is added. A digital audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback before it is amplified and connected to a loudspeaker to produce sound, long before sound was first recorded on cylinders or records, music was recorded—first by written music notation, then also by mechanical devices. Fowler, this. cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century. The Banu Musa brothers also invented an automatic flute player, which appears to have been the first programmable machine, according to Fowler, the automata were a robot band that performed. more than fifty facial and body actions during each musical selection. In the 14th century, Flanders introduced a mechanical bell-ringer controlled by a rotating cylinder, similar designs appeared in barrel organs, musical clocks, barrel pianos, and musical boxes. A music box is a musical instrument that produces sounds by the use of a set of pins placed on a revolving cylinder or disc so as to pluck the tuned teeth of a steel comb. They were developed from musical snuff boxes of the 18th century, some of the more complex boxes also have a tiny drum and/or bells, in addition to the metal comb. The fairground organ, developed in 1892, used a system of accordion-folded punched cardboard books, the player piano, first demonstrated in 1876, used a punched paper scroll that could store an long piece of music. The most sophisticated of the rolls were hand-played, meaning that the roll represented the actual performance of an individual. This technology to record a live performance onto a piano roll was not developed until 1904, piano rolls were in continuous mass production from 1896 to 2008. A1908 U. S. Supreme Court copyright case noted that, in 1902 alone, the use of piano rolls began to decline in the 1920s although one type is still being made today. The first device that could record actual sounds as they passed through the air was the phonautograph, the earliest known recordings of the human voice are phonautograph recordings, called phonautograms, made in 1857. They consist of sheets of paper with sound-wave-modulated white lines created by a stylus that cut through a coating of soot as the paper was passed under it
32.
Type C videotape
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1 inch Type C is a professional reel-to-reel analog recording helical scan videotape format co-developed and introduced by Ampex and Sony in 1976. 1 inch type C required less maintenance downtime than Quadruplex videotape,1 inch Type C is capable of trick-play functions such as still, shuttle, and variable-speed playback, including slow motion. 2 inch Quadruplex videotape machines lacked these capabilities, due to the manner in which it recorded video tracks onto the magnetic tape. Also,1 inch Type C VTRs required much less maintenance than did 2 inch machines, both analog component formats were notoriously fussy and trouble-prone, so in practice Type C gave a stable, more reliable picture than the broadcast quality analog cassette-based videotape formats. Because television was broadcast as a signal, there was no real downside to Type C in television broadcasting. 1 inch Type C was also used for the mastering of early LaserDisc titles. It was replaced in that role by the digital D-2 videocassette format in the late 1980s, tH-200A was a re-badged Sony BVH-1100A. TR-800 was an RCA engineered and built VTR, likely why it has the TR- designation, while the TH-800 was developed by RCA, the scanner assembly and upper drum could be replaced with Sony BVH-1100A parts. In 1983, RCA turned to Ampex for supply of Helical VTRs
33.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
34.
Digital signal processing
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Digital signal processing is the use of digital processing, such as by computers, to perform a wide variety of signal processing operations. The signals processed in this manner are a sequence of numbers that represent samples of a variable in a domain such as time, space. Digital signal processing and analog signal processing are subfields of signal processing, digital signal processing can involve linear or nonlinear operations. Nonlinear signal processing is closely related to system identification and can be implemented in the time, frequency. DSP is applicable to both streaming data and static data, the increasing use of computers has resulted in the increased use of, and need for, digital signal processing. To digitally analyze and manipulate an analog signal, it must be digitized with an analog-to-digital converter, sampling is usually carried out in two stages, discretization and quantization. Discretization means that the signal is divided into equal intervals of time, quantization means each amplitude measurement is approximated by a value from a finite set. Rounding real numbers to integers is an example, the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem states that a signal can be exactly reconstructed from its samples if the sampling frequency is greater than twice the highest frequency of the signal. In practice, the frequency is often significantly higher than twice that required by the signals limited bandwidth. Theoretical DSP analyses and derivations are typically performed on discrete-time signal models with no amplitude inaccuracies, numerical methods require a quantized signal, such as those produced by an analog-to-digital converter. The processed result might be a frequency spectrum or a set of statistics, but often it is another quantized signal that is converted back to analog form by a digital-to-analog converter. In DSP, engineers usually study digital signals in one of the domains, time domain, spatial domain, frequency domain. They choose the domain in which to process a signal by making an assumption as to which domain best represents the essential characteristics of the signal. The most common processing approach in the time or space domain is enhancement of the signal through a method called filtering. Digital filtering generally consists of linear transformation of a number of surrounding samples around the current sample of the input or output signal. There are various ways to characterize filters, for example, A linear filter is a transformation of input samples. A causal filter uses only samples of the input or output signals. A non-causal filter can usually be changed into a filter by adding a delay to it
35.
Type A videotape
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It was capable of 350 lines. Type A was developed as mainly an industrial and institutional format, the Type A format received broad use by the White House Communications Agency from 1966 to 1969. The WHCA, under U. S. President Lyndon B, Johnson, used the format to videotape television broadcasts off the air or from direct White House feeds. The WHCA recorded programs and events including appearances by President Johnson, special news broadcasts. Beginning on April 1,1968, the WHCA taping system was expanded to include daily morning and evening news programs. Early VTRs were black-and-white only, later VTRs supported color television, still later units had time base correction playback, like the VPR-1 that could be used at television station and post-production houses. The VPR-1 had several problems, it did not record the vertical blanking interval, the video quality was not as good as other broadcast VTRs. Thus Sony and Ampex agreed to make a SMPTE approved type C format VTR, hitachi also later made a C format VTR. VP-4900 B/W Player only, no record option, vR-5000 B/W Record-player, very popular, many made. VR-5100 B/W3 MHz with horizontal resolution of 300 lines, noise ratio of 42 dB, VR-5200 VR-5100 B/W with TV Tuner. VPR-5200 VR-5200 with professional connectors VR-5800 Low and high band, vPR-5800 VR-5800 with professional connectors XVR-5800 Medical certified 1 Type A VTR. VR-5803 PAL VR-5800 TVR VR-6000 Low band VTR, With stop motion mode added, vR-6003 PAL VR-6000 VR-6050 Low band VTR, very basic, low cost. VR-6275 Wood cabinet with a two TV Tuners, load speakers, vR-6300 VR-6275 without the TV Tuner. VR-7000 Microphone input add, playback RF modulator, low and high band, VR-7100 With roll around cart, self-contained, with TV tuner, small monitor and B&W camera. VR-7300 Color option with external color stabilizer, up to 38 hours with 9-3/4 reel of 30001 tape. $5,900 VR-7450 VR-7500 Rec/play B&W and color, xVR-7500 higher record band, better color pictures. Professional connectors VR-7503 PAL VR-7500 VR-7800 Editing added, Color option, 1st with removable electronic cards for servicing. $9,500 in 1968. VR-7803 PAL VR-7800 VP-4500C A VR-7800 VTR, but a Player only, no record option, VR-7900 Is a VPR-7800 with an extra modulation standard added is very high, same quality as quad high band
36.
Type B videotape
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1 inch type B VTR is a reel-to-reel analog recording video tape format developed by the Bosch Fernseh division of Bosch in Germany in 1976. Video is recorded on an FM signal with a bandwidth of 5.5 MHz, three longitudinal audio tracks are recorded on the tape as well, two audio and one Linear timecode track. BCN50 VTRs were used at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, the picture quality was excellent, and standard R/P machines, digital frame store machines, reel-to-reel portables, random access cart machines, and portable cart versions were marketed. Echo Science Corporation, a United States company, made units like a BCN1 for the U. S. military for a time in the 1970s. Echo Science models were Pilot 1, Echo 460, Pilot 260. BCR was a pre BCN VTR, made with Philips, the large scanner made it not useful, BCN40 BCN50 BCN20 BCWQ Effects control option for digital framestore, for freeze frame, quad split and mirror effects. BNC51 BCN5 BCN100 BCN52 BCN21 BCN53 HR-400, RCA also sold the BCN50 as an HR-400, Ruxton Video in Burbank used modified BCNs for 24 Frame playback to TVs used on movie studio sets. Thus the TVs had no flicker when seen on film, due to the frame rate. Bill Hogan of Ruxton Ltd received in 1981 an Academy Award for Technical Achievement for his 24frame TV work, Image Transform in Universal City, co-founded by Ken Holland, in 1970, used specially modified BCNs to record 24-frame video also, but for their Image Vision system. The BCN would record and play back 24-frame video at 10 MHz bandwidth, with twice the standard 525-line NTSC resolution, to record this the headwheel and capstan ran at twice normal speed. Modified 24 frame/s 10 MHz Bosch Fernseh KCK-40 professional video cameras were used on the set and this was a custom pre-HDTV video system. This Image Vision recording could then be recorded to film on a modified 3M Electron Beam film recorder, Image Transform had modified other gear for this process. At its peak, this system was used to make Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl in 1982 and this was the first major use of early electronic cinema technology using a film recorder for Film out. Electronovision was also a pre-process like Image Vision, merlin Engineering also worked on the BCNs Wide bandwidth,10 MHZ, BCN modification. Bell and Howell used special BCNs for mass VHS duplication and these specially-modified BCN VTRs could play back movies at two times the normal speed. In addition, the signals were also were at two times speed as well. For proper playback, the headwheel and capstan ran at twice normal speed. Specially modified VHS recorders could record this video, in doing this, the duplication plant could output twice the product than normal videocassette duplicating systems
37.
YouTube
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YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. The service was created by three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—in February 2005, Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65 billion, YouTube now operates as one of Googles subsidiaries. Unregistered users can watch videos on the site, while registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos. Videos deemed potentially offensive are available only to registered users affirming themselves to be at least 18 years old, YouTube earns advertising revenue from Google AdSense, a program which targets ads according to site content and audience. YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim, Hurley had studied design at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Chen and Karim studied computer science together at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Karim could not easily find video clips of either event online, Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an online dating service, and had been influenced by the website Hot or Not. YouTube began as a venture capital-funded technology startup, primarily from an $11.5 million investment by Sequoia Capital between November 2005 and April 2006, YouTubes early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and Japanese restaurant in San Mateo, California. The domain name www. youtube. com was activated on February 14,2005, the first YouTube video, titled Me at the zoo, shows co-founder Jawed Karim at the San Diego Zoo. The video was uploaded on April 23,2005, and can still be viewed on the site, YouTube offered the public a beta test of the site in May 2005. The first video to reach one million views was a Nike advertisement featuring Ronaldinho in November 2005. Following a $3.5 million investment from Sequoia Capital in November, the site grew rapidly, and in July 2006 the company announced that more than 65,000 new videos were being uploaded every day, and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day. The site has 800 million unique users a month and it is estimated that in 2007 YouTube consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet in 2000. The choice of the name www. youtube. com led to problems for a similarly named website, the sites owner, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment, filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006 after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube. Universal Tube has since changed the name of its website to www. utubeonline. com, in October 2006, Google Inc. announced that it had acquired YouTube for $1.65 billion in Google stock, and the deal was finalized on November 13,2006. In March 2010, YouTube began free streaming of certain content, according to YouTube, this was the first worldwide free online broadcast of a major sporting event. On March 31,2010, the YouTube website launched a new design, with the aim of simplifying the interface, Google product manager Shiva Rajaraman commented, We really felt like we needed to step back and remove the clutter. In May 2010, YouTube videos were watched more than two times per day. This increased to three billion in May 2011, and four billion in January 2012, in February 2017, one billion hours of YouTube was watched every day
38.
CV-2000
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CV-2000 was one of the worlds first home video tape recorders, introduced by Sony in August,1965. The CV in the name stood for Consumer Video. This was Sonys domestic format throughout the 1960s, the CV-2000 was developed by Sony engineer Nobutoshi Kihara. On its release, each machine cost US$695 and it used 1⁄2-inch-wide video tape in a reel-to-reel format, meaning the tape had to be manually threaded around the helical scan video head drum. The CV-2000 was one-tenth the weight and price of other analog video recording products of its era and it recorded television programs in black and white using the skip field process, which produced a maximum 200-lines resolution. The tape moved at a speed of 7.5 inches per second, each reel of video tape cost US$40, and could hold one hour of video. Although CV-2000 was aimed at the market, it was mainly used in business. Ten models were developed in the CV series, CV-2000, TCV-2010, TCV-2020, CV-2100, TCV-2110, TCV-2120, Sony also sold an optional Video Camera Ensemble, known as the VCK-2000. This add-on kit contained a video camera, a microphone. One of its shortcomings as a format was the omission of the ability to adjust tracking and this made interchangeability of tapes between different machines almost impossible. Sonys later AV series machines included this feature, the CV video recorders fell into disuse with the arrival of the EIAJ type 1 standard that was used by many companies, including Sony with their AV series machines
39.
Akai videotape format
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The 1/4 inch Akai is a portable helical scan EIA and CCIR analog recording video tape recorder with two video record heads on the scanning drum. The units were available with an optional RF modulator to play back through a TV set, VTR plant was in Tokyo, Japan.25 inches per second /23.85 cm/s VTR Weight,11 lb. The model shown here, X500VT, was only in Japan and the United States. Akai model VTS-150 was introduced in 1974 and it recorded composite video on 1/4 inch reel-to-reel videotape and could record and play back B&W or color. It came with a hand-held two-tube camera with a zoom lens, the system was very small and lightweight for its time. The VTR with the video camera weighed only 22 pounds, a single cable was used to connect the ENG camera to the VTR for power, video and the microphone audio. This model was available in NTSC, PAL and SECAM television formats
40.
EIAJ-1
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EIAJ-1 was a standard for video tape recorders developed by the Electronic Industries Association of Japan with the cooperation and assistance of several Japanese electronics manufacturers in 1969. It was the first standardized format for industrial/non-broadcast VTRs using a Helical scan system employing open reel tape, as a result, video tapes recorded on one make and/or model of VTR could only be interchanged with other machines using that specific format, hampering compatibility. For example, a reel of tape recorded on a Panasonic machine would not play on a Sony machine, the EIAJ-1 standard ended this incompatibility, giving those manufacturers a standardized format, interchangeable with almost all VTRs subsequently brought to market around that time. The format offered black-and-white video recording and playback on 1/2 magnetic tape on a 7 diameter open reel, some of the first public-access television cable stations that started up around that time used EIAJ-1 equipment extensively, due to its portability, low cost, and versatility. The original Sony Portapak, model CV-2000, used a format, but was later superseded by an EIAJ-1 compatible version. When EIAJ-1 was standardized, no Videocassette recorders had yet been introduced, if the user made any errors in doing this, the machine would malfunction and the tape could become damaged. So, another version, EIAJ-2, was released later on that used a cartridge instead of an open take up reel. Otherwise, the specifications were exactly the same. By 1971, Sony introduced the first successful videocassette system, the U-matic format, the U-Matic system offered many advantages over EIAJ-1, including color recording as standard, stereo sound, and automatic tape threading. It wasnt until the mid 1970s that portable U-Matic machines and compatible portable color cameras were introduced, neither the EIAJ-1 nor the U-Matic format were ever used in a Camcorder camera recorder unit, because of the size and weight of the mechanism involved. The recorder and camera were always separate units, connected by a multi conductor cable, the advent of the camcorder did not occur until the introduction of smaller, lighter cassette formats, such as Betamax and VHS
41.
Video Cassette Recording
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Video Cassette Recording is an early domestic analog recording format designed by Philips. It was the first successful consumer-level home videocassette recorder system, later variants included the VCR-LP and Super Video formats. The VCR format was introduced in 1972, just after the Sony U-matic format in 1971, although at first glance the two might appear to have been competing formats, they were aimed at very different markets. After failing as a format, U-matic was marketed as a professional television production format, whilst VCR was targeted particularly at educational. Unlike some other formats such as Cartrivision, the VCR format does record a high-quality video signal without resorting to Skip field. Home video systems had previously been available, but they were open-reel systems and were expensive to buy and operate. They were also unreliable and often recorded in black and white such as the EIAJ-1. The VCR system was easy to use and recorded in colour but was still expensive, by comparison, a small car could be purchased for just over £600. The VCR format used large square cassettes with 2 co-axial reels, one on top of the other, three playing times were available,30,45 and 60 minutes. The 60-minute videocassettes proved very unreliable, suffering numerous snags and breakages due to the very thin 17μm video tape, tapes of 45 minutes or less contained 20 μm thickness tape. The mechanically complicated recorders themselves also proved somewhat unreliable, the cassette would then completely jam and require dismantling to clear the problem, and the tape would then be creased and damaged. The system predated the development of the slant azimuth technique to prevent crosstalk between adjacent video tracks, so it had to use a guard band between tracks. This required the system to run at a tape speed of 11.26 inches per second. The Philips VCR system was groundbreaking and brought many advances in video recording technology to produce the first truly practical home video cassette system. A tuner for recording off-air television programmes, a clock with timer for unattended recordings. A modulator to allow connection to a television receiver without audio. The Philips VCR system was marketed in the U. K. mainland Europe. In mid-1977, Philips announced they were considering distribution of the format in North America, because the format was initially designed only for use with the 625-line 50 Hz PAL system, VCR units had to be modified in order to work with the 60 Hz NTSC system
42.
VX (videocassette format)
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VX was a short-lived and unsuccessful consumer analog recording videocassette format developed by Matsushita and launched in 1975 in Japan. In Japan, the VX-100 model was launched in 1975, with the VX-2000 following in 1976, the first and only model sold in North America was the Quasar VR-1000, with the VT-100 timer. The tape in this opening was pre-formed in a loop to go around the drum, eliminating the need for the tape to be pulled out of the cassette. The video head drum itself of a VX machine also has the distinction of being completely removable and replaceable without any special tools or equipment. The drum has a nut on top, which can be adjusted by hand. To this date, the VX machines have been the only VCR designed with this feature
