1.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
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London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
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United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
4.
Law school
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A law school is an institution specializing in legal education, usually involved as part of a process for becoming a lawyer within a given jurisdiction. Nowadays the legal education consists in a 5-year-long course in which, afterwards, the practice of law is conditioned upon admission to the bar of a particular state or other territorial jurisdiction. Public attorneys, public prossecutors and magistrates admission is made, mainly, through an entrance examination and a constitutional mandatory three years of legal experience. The postgraduation, stricto sensu, consists in a, a) master´s degree, which is usually a two-year degree, and a b) doctorate´s degree, which can take up another four years. The typical law degree required to practice law in Canada is now the Juris Doctor, there is some scholarly content in the coursework. The programs consist of three years, and have content in their mandatory first year courses. Some schools, however, have not switched from LL. B. to the J. D. – one notable university that still awards the LL. B is McGill University. Given that the Canadian legal system includes both the French civil law and the Anglo-American common law, some law schools offer both an LL. B. or J. D. and a B. C. L. LL. L. or LL. B. degree, such as McGill University, University of Ottawa, in particular, McGill University Faculty of Law offers a combined civil law and common law program, which has been called transsystemic. At other faculties, if a person completes a common law degree and this is also true for civil law graduates who wish to complete a common law degree. Despite changes in designation, schools opting for the J. D. have not altered their curricula, neither the J. D. or LL. B. and the École du Barreau du Québec. In France, the education is a three tier system. The student may study for a LLB, then a LLM and, for those interested in Law theory, many French universities offers Law courses in department labelled as Research and Education Units and/or Faculties of Law or Law Schools. Law Degree in Indonesia consists of three tier systems, the first tier is the Degree of which carries the title of Sarjana Hukum/S. H. This can be obtained in 4–7 years after they enter Law School straight from Senior High School, the second tier varies depending on the legal specialties taken after the first tier. The general title for this tier is Magister Hukum / M. H, although it is also common to see other title for secondary tier such as Magister Kenotariatan / M. Kn. for Notarial professionals line of work. The second tier can be obtained normally in 1-2 year, the third tier in Indonesian Law Degree is Doctor / DR. To work in legal professions of choice in Indonesia, a Bachelor Law Degree is obligatory, graduates can pursue their career as Legal in-house counsel, Judge profession, Public Prosecutor, other legal-related work and Advocate
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University College London
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University College London is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. It is the largest postgraduate institution in the UK by enrollment and is regarded as one of the worlds leading research universities. UCL also makes the claims of being the third-oldest university in England. In 1836 UCL became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London, which was granted a charter in the same year. UCL has its campus in the Bloomsbury area of central London, with a number of institutes and teaching hospitals elsewhere in central London. UCL is organised into 11 constituent faculties, within there are over 100 departments, institutes. In 2015/16, UCL had around 38,300 students and 12,000 staff and had an income of £1.36 billion. UCL ranks highly in national and international league tables and its graduates rank among the most employable in the world, UCL academics discovered five of the naturally occurring noble gases, co-discovered hormones, invented the vacuum tube, and made several foundational advances in modern statistics. There are at least 29 Nobel Prize winners and 3 Fields medalists amongst UCLs alumni and current, UCL was founded on 11 February 1826 under the name London University, as an alternative to the Anglican universities of Oxford and Cambridge. London Universitys first Warden was Leonard Horner, who was the first scientist to head a British university and this suggests that while his ideas may have been influential, he himself was less so. In 1827, the Chair of Political Economy at London University was created, with John Ramsay McCulloch as the first incumbent, in 1828 the university became the first in England to offer English as a subject and the teaching of Classics and medicine began. In 1830, London University founded the London University School, which would later become University College School, in 1833, the university appointed Alexander Maconochie, Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, as the first professor of geography in the UK. In 1834, University College Hospital opened as a hospital for the universitys medical school. In 1836, London University was incorporated by charter under the name University College. The Slade School of Fine Art was founded as part of University College in 1871, in 1878, the University of London gained a supplemental charter making it the first British university to be allowed to award degrees to women. The same year, UCL admitted women to the faculties of Arts and Law and of Science, although women remained barred from the faculties of Engineering and of Medicine. Armstrong College, an institution of Newcastle University, also allowed women to enter from its foundation in 1871. Women were finally admitted to medical studies during the First World War in 1917, in 1898, Sir William Ramsay discovered the elements krypton, neon and xenon whilst professor of chemistry at UCL
6.
Times Higher Education World University Rankings
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Times Higher Education World University Rankings is an annual publication of university rankings by Times Higher Education magazine. The publisher had collaborated with Quacquarelli Symonds to publish the joint THE–QS World University Rankings from 2004 to 2009 before it turned to Thomson Reuters for a new ranking system. It is considered as one of the most widely observed university measures together with Academic Ranking of World Universities and it is praised for having a new improved methodology but undermining non-English-instructing institutions and being commercialized are the major criticisms. Times Higher Education chose to partner with educational and careers advice company QS to supply the data, the publication developed a new rankings methodology in consultation with its readers, its editorial board and Thomson Reuters. Thomson Reuters will collect and analyse the data used to produce the rankings on behalf of Times Higher Education, the first ranking was published in September 2010. In fact, the surveys of reputation, which made up 40 percent of scores, and its clear that our research measures favored the sciences over the humanities. He went on to describe previous attempts at peer review as embarrassing in The Australian, The sample was too small. THE published its first rankings using its new methodology on 16 September 2010, the Globe and Mail in 2010 described the Times Higher Education World University Rankings to be arguably the most influential. The inaugural 2010-2011 methodology contained 13 separate indicators grouped under five categories, Teaching, research, citations, international mix, the number of indicators is up from the Times-QS rankings published between 2004 and 2009, which used six indicators. A draft of the methodology was released on 3 June 2010. The names of the categories and the weighting of each was modified in the final methodology, the overall ranking score was calculated by making Z-scores all datasets to standardize different data types on a common scale to better make comparisons among data. The reputational component of the came from an Academic Reputation Survey conducted by Thomson Reuters in spring 2010. The survey gathered 13,388 responses among scholars statistically representative of global higher educations geographical, the magazines category for industry income – innovation came from a sole indicator, institutions research income from industry scaled against the number of academic staff. The magazine stated that it used this data as proxy for high-quality knowledge transfer, the Times stated that articles published in 2009–2010 have not yet completely accumulated in the database. The magazine announced on 5 September 2011 that its 2011–2012 World University Rankings would be published on 6 October 2011, at the same time, the magazine revealed changes to the ranking formula that will be introduced with the new rankings. The methodology will continue to use 13 indicators across five categories and will keep its fundamental foundations. Teaching and research will each remain 30 percent of the overall score, however, a new international outlook – staff, students and research will be introduced and will make up 7.5 percent of the final score. One 2011–2012 indicator, the public research income, will be dropped
7.
Mahatma Gandhi
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Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was the preeminent leader of the Indian independence movement in British-ruled India. Employing nonviolent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights, the honorific Mahatma —applied to him first in 1914 in South Africa—is now used worldwide. In India, he is also called Bapu and Gandhiji and he is unofficially called the Father of the Nation. After his return to India in 1915, he set about organising peasants, farmers, Gandhi famously led Indians in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the 400 km Dandi Salt March in 1930, and later in calling for the British to Quit India in 1942. He was imprisoned for years, upon many occasions, in both South Africa and India. Gandhi attempted to practise nonviolence and truth in all situations, and he lived modestly in a self-sufficient residential community and wore the traditional Indian dhoti and shawl, woven with yarn hand-spun on a charkha. He ate simple food, and also undertook long fasts as a means of both self-purification and social protest. Eventually, in August 1947, Britain granted independence, but the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two dominions, a Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan. As many displaced Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs made their way to their new lands, religious violence broke out, especially in the Punjab, eschewing the official celebration of independence in Delhi, Gandhi visited the affected areas, attempting to provide solace. In the months following, he undertook several fasts unto death to promote religious harmony, the last of these, undertaken on 12 January 1948 when he was 78, also had the indirect goal of pressuring India to pay out some cash assets owed to Pakistan. Some Indians thought Gandhi was too accommodating, among them was Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, who assassinated Gandhi on 30 January 1948 by firing three bullets into his chest. Mahatma Gandhis birthday,2 October, is commemorated in India as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday and his father, Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi, served as the diwan of Porbandar state. The Gandhi family originated from the village of Kutiana in what was then Junagadh State, in the late 17th or early 18th century, one Lalji Gandhi moved to Porbandar and entered the service of its ruler, the Rana. In 1831, Rana Khimojiraji died suddenly and was succeeded by his 12-year-old only son, as a result, Rana Khimojirajjis widow, Rani Rupaliba, became regent for her son. She soon fell out with Uttamchand and forced him to return to his village in Junagadh. While in Junagadh, Uttamchand appeared before its Nawab and saluted him with his hand instead of his right. In 1841, Vikmatji assumed the throne and reinstated Uttamchand as his diwan, in 1847, Rana Vikmatji appointed Uttamchands son, Karamchand, as diwan after disagreeing with Uttamchand over the states maintenance of a British garrison. Although he only had an education and had previously been a clerk in the state administration
8.
Indian independence movement
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The Indian independence movement encompassed all activities and ideas aiming to end the East India Company rule and the British Indian Empire in the Indian subcontinent. The movement spanned a total of 190 years, the early part of the 20th century saw a more radical approach towards political self-rule proposed by leaders such as the Lal, Bal, Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai. The last stages of the struggle from the 1920s onwards saw Congress adopt Mohandas Karamchand Gandhis policy of nonviolence and civil resistance. Nationalist like Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh and Vinayak Damodar Sawarkar preached armed revolution to achieve self-rule, feminists such as Sarojini Naidu and Begum Rokeya promoted the emancipation of Indian women and their participation in national politics. Babasaheb Ambedkar championed the cause of the sections of Indian society within the larger self-rule movement. The period of the Second World War saw the peak of the campaigns by the Quit India Movement led by Congress, the Indian self-rule movement was a mass-based movement that encompassed various sections of society. It also underwent a process of constant ideological evolution, in 1971, East Pakistan declared independence as the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. European traders first reached Indian shores with the arrival of the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498 AD at the port of Calicut, in search of the lucrative spice trade. Just over a century later, the Dutch and English established trading outposts on the subcontinent, the decline of the Mughal empire in the first half of the eighteenth century provided the British with the opportunity to establish a firm foothold in Indian politics. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan, most of South India came either under the Companys direct rule, the Company subsequently gained control of regions ruled by the Maratha Empire, after defeating them in a series of wars. The Punjab was annexed in 1849, after the defeat of the Sikh armies in the First, in 1835, English was made the medium of instruction in Indias schools and many Indians increasingly disliked British rule. With the British now dominating most of the subcontinent, many British increasingly disregarded local customs, Puli Thevan was one of the opponents of the British rule in India. He was in conflict with the Nawab of Arcot who was supported by the British and his prominent exploits were his confrontations with Marudhanayagam, who later rebelled against the British in the late 1750s and early 1760s. Nelkatumseval the present Tirunelveli Dist of Tamil Nadu state of India was the headquarters of Puli Thevan, kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja was one of the earliest freedom fighters in India. He was the regent of the princely state of Kottiyur or Cotiote in North Malabar, near Kannur. He fought a war with tribal people from Wynad supporting him. He was caught by the British and his fort was razed to the ground, Rani Velu Nachiyar, was a queen of Indian Sivaganga in 1760–1790. She was the first queen to fight against the British in India, Rani Nachiyar was trained in war match weapons usage, martial arts like Valari, Silambam, horse riding and archery
9.
Chaim Herzog
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Major-General Chaim Herzog was an Israeli politician, general, lawyer and author who served as the sixth President of Israel between 1983 and 1993. In the British Army during World War II, latterly as an officer and he retired from the Israel Defence Forces in 1962 with the rank of Major-General. After leaving the military, Herzog practised law, in 1972 he was a co-founder of Herzog, Fox & Neeman, which would become one of Israels largest law firms. Herzog entered politics in the 1981 elections, winning a Knesset seat as a member of the Alignment, two years later, in March 1983, he was elected to the largely ceremonial role of President. He served for two terms before retiring in 1993. He died four years later and was buried on Mount Herzl and his son Isaac Herzog has led the Israeli Labour Party and the parliamentary Opposition in the Knesset since 2013. Herzog was born on 17 September 1918 in Cliftonpark Avenue in Belfast, Ireland, the son of Rabbi Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog, who was Chief Rabbi of Ireland from 1919 to 1937, and his wife Sara. His father was born in Łomża, Poland, and his mother in Latvia, the family home from 1919 was at 33 Bloomfield Avenue, Portobello, Dublin. Herzogs father, a fluent speaker of the Irish language, was known as the Sinn Féin Rabbi for his support of the First Dáil and the Irish Republican cause during the Irish War of Independence. Herzog studied at Wesley College, Dublin and was involved with the Federation of Zionist Youth and Habonim Dror, the family emigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1935, Herzog subsequently served in the Jewish paramilitary group Haganah during the 1936–39 Arab revolt. He went on to earn a degree in law at University College London, Herzog joined the British Army during World War II, operating primarily in Germany as a tank commander in the Armoured Corps. There, he was given his nickname of Vivian because the British could not pronounce the name. A Jewish soldier had volunteered that Vivian was the English equivalent of Chaim and he was commissioned into the Intelligence Corps in 1943 and participated in the liberation of several Nazi concentration camps as well as identifying a captured German soldier as Heinrich Himmler. He left the army in 1947 with the rank of Major, immediately following the war, he returned to Palestine. After the establishment of the State of Israel, he fought in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, from 1950 to 1954, he served as defence attaché at the Israeli Embassy in the United States. He retired from the IDF in 1962 with the rank of Major-General, after leaving the army, Herzog opened a private law practice. He returned to life in 1967, when the Six-Day War broke out. Following the capture of the West Bank, he was appointed Military Governor of East Jerusalem, in 1972, he went into partnership with Michael Fox and Yaakov Neeman, and established the law firm of Herzog, Fox & Neeman, one of the largest law firms in Israel
10.
President of Israel
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The President of the State of Israel is the head of state of Israel. The position is largely a figurehead role, with executive power effectively being exercised by the prime minister. The current president is Reuven Rivlin, who took office on 24 July 2014, presidents are elected by the Knesset for a seven-year term and are limited to a single term. The president is elected by an majority in the Knesset. If no candidate has received a majority of votes by the first round of voting. When electing the president, Knesset members vote by secret ballot, the president is elected to a term of seven years, and cannot be re-elected. Until 2000, the president was elected for a five-year term, any Israeli citizen who is a resident of the State is eligible to run for president. The office falls vacant upon completion of a term, resignation, presidential tenure is not keyed to that of the Knesset in order to assure continuity in government and the nonpartisan character of the office. There is no vice president in the Israeli governmental system, if the president is temporarily incapacitated or leaves office, the speaker of the Knesset becomes acting president. The first presidential election took place on 16 February 1949, the second took place in 1951, as at the time presidential terms were linked to the length of the Knesset term. Another election took place the year after Weizmanns death. Since then, elections have been held in 1957,1962,1963,1968,1973,1978,1983,1988,1993,1998,2000,2007 and 2014, six elections have taken place with no opposition candidate, although a vote was still held. The Basic Law, The Government also includes sections on the powers of the president with reference to the government, the president signs every law and international or bilateral treaties approved by the Knesset. Presidential powers are usually exercised based on the recommendation of appropriate government ministers, the presidents most important role, in practice, is to help lead the process of forming a government. The president awards the Israel Prize on Yom Haatzmaut and the Wolf Prize, the president also serves as the main speaker at the opening ceremonies of the half-yearly Knesset conference, as well as at the annual official ceremonies for Yom Hazikaron and Yom HaShoah. Most Israeli presidents were involved in politics or Zionist activities before taking office. The first Israeli presidents were born in the former Russian Empire, the first native-born president, as well as the first with a Sephardi background, was Yitzhak Navon. The first president with a Western European background was Chaim Herzog, the first president with a Mizrahi background was Moshe Katsav, who was born in Iran
11.
Ellis Clarke
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Sir Ellis Emmanuel Innocent Clarke, TC, GCMG was the second and last Governor-General of Trinidad and Tobago and the first President of Trinidad and Tobago. He was one of the architects of Trinidad and Tobagos 1962 Independence constitution. Clarke attended Saint Marys College, winning an Island Scholarship in Mathematics in 1938, Ellis Clarke attended University College London of the University of London, where he received a Bachelor of Law degree and was called to the bar at Grays Inn. He returned to Port of Spain in 1941, taking up practice there. He served as Solicitor-General from 1954 to 1956, Deputy Colonial Secretary 1956–57, after Independence in 1962 he served as Ambassador to the United States, Canada and Mexico, and Permanent Representative to the United Nations. In 1972 he succeeded Sir Solomon Hochoy as Governor General and he was re-elected by the PNM-controlled electoral college and completed his second term in 1987. Disagreements with the new National Alliance for Reconstruction government resulted in Clarkes decision not to seek a third term and he was succeeded by Noor Hassanali. Ellis Clarke was invested as a Companion of St Michael and St George by Queen Elizabeth II in 1960 and was awarded a knighthood as a Knight Grand Cross of that Order in 1972 and he was married to Lady Ermyntrude Clarke for almost fifty years. They had three children, Peter Ellis Clarke, Margaret-Ann and Richard, Sir Ellis also has four grandsons, John, Michael, Alexander and David, and one granddaughter, Katrina. John, Michael and David all carry Ellis as their middle name, on 24 November 2010, Clarke suffered a massive stroke. He died on 30 December 2010, two days after his 93rd birthday, Sir Ellis was laid to rest on 7 January 2011. A private funeral was held at the Church of the Assumption on Maraval Road in Port of Spain, both his living children as well as his four grandsons gave tributes. Following the private funeral, a State Funeral was held at the National Academy for the Performing Arts Building situated at the Queens Park Savannah and it was an Inter-Religious Celebration at which the President, Prime Minister and Chief Justice paid fitting tributes. In attendance were Members of Parliament, Senators, members of the Diplomatic Corp. and Foreign Heads of State, a procession through Port of Spain followed the service. Sir Ellis coffin, draped in a Trinidad and Tobago flag, was set atop a cannon, the procession concluded at Laperouse Cemetery, where he was buried at the Clarke Family Plot, which was attended by all his family and friends. Biography Biography of Sir Ellis Clarke, Trinidad and Tobago Newsday,31 December 2010
12.
President of Trinidad and Tobago
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The President of Trinidad and Tobago is the head of state of Trinidad and Tobago and the commander-in-chief of the Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force. The office was established when the became a republic in 1976. The last Governor-General, Sir Ellis Clarke, was sworn in as the first President on August 1,1976, under a transitional arrangement. He was formally chosen as President by a college consisting of members of both houses of Parliament on September 24,1976, which is now celebrated as Republic Day. Under the 1976 Constitution, the President is the source of executive power. Like the British Sovereign, he or she reigns but does not rule, in practice, executive authority is exercised by the Prime Minister and his or her Cabinet, on behalf of the President. The President must be at least 35 years old, a citizen of Trinidad and Tobago, the current President of Trinidad and Tobago is Anthony Carmona. The official residence of the President is Presidents House, previously used by the Governors-General of the islands
13.
Lord Woolf
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Harry Kenneth Woolf, Baron Woolf CH PC FBA FMedSci, was Master of the Rolls from 1996 until 2000 and Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales from 2000 until 2005. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 made him the first Lord Chief Justice to be President of the Courts of England and he was a Non-Permanent Judge of the Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong from 2003 to 2012. He now sits in the House of Lords as a crossbencher, Woolf was born in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England, on 2 May 1933, to Alexander Susman Woolf and his wife Leah. His grandfather Harry was a naturalised Briton of Polish or Russian Jewish origins and his father had been a fine art dealer, but was persuaded to run his own building business instead by his wife. They had four children, but their first child died, Woolf formed much of his sense of justice and fairness from his experiences at Fettes College. On one occasion while combing his hair, Woolf leaned into a neighbouring dormitory cubicle to use the mirror and he appealed for fairness, but his housemaster, who had been in the army, increased Woolfs punishment from six strikes of the cane to eight. Woolf had read books about lawyers and wanted to be a barrister and his housemaster told him that this was not a suitable career-choice for him because he had a stutter, but this only made Woolf more determined in his vocation. His A level results gained him a place at the University of Cambridge, however, Woolf chose to be a barrister in 1955 and started working on the Oxford circuit. He became Junior Counsel to the Inland Revenue from 1973–74, and was First Junior Treasury Counsel from 1974–79, in 1979, aged 45, he was appointed as a Queens Bench Division High Court judge. He was promoted to Lord Justice of Appeal and was made a member of Her Majestys Most Honourable Privy Council in 1986 and his inquiry sent letters to every prisoner and prison officer in the country. Woolf recommended major reform of the Prison Service, and made 12 key recommendations with 204 accompanying proposals and he subsequently became patron of the Rehabilitation for Addicted Prisoners Trust and an Ambassador for the Prison Advice and Care Trust. Woolf LJ was appointed a Law Lord on 1 October 1992, being created a peer as Baron Woolf. In 2003 he was appointed a Non-Permanent Judge of the Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong and he delayed his retirement as Lord Chief Justice until these issues had been resolved. Woolf was also the head of the committee that modernised civil procedure, the Civil Procedure Rules 1998 are a direct result of this work. On his retirement as Lord Chief Justice on 1 October 2005, from September to December 2005 he conducted a review of the working methods of the European Court of Human Rights, and he is chairman of the Bank of England Financial Markets Law Committee. Among other work, Woolf has been serving as Chancellor of the Open University of Israel since 2004 and he is Chairman of the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies, Chairman of the Council of University College, London and a visiting Professor of Law. He is a member of the House of Lords Constitution Committee, in 2006 he was chairman of the Judging Panel of the FIRST Responsible Capitalism Awards. On 25 February 2007, Woolf was inaugurated as the first President of the Qatar Financial Centre Civil and Commercial Court, in Doha Qatar
14.
Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales
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The Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales is the head of the judiciary and President of the Courts of England and Wales. The Lord Chief Justice is also the nominal President of the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal and Head of Criminal Justice, but can appoint another judge to these positions under the 2005 Act. The Lord Chief Justices equivalent in Scotland is the Lord President of the Court of Session, there is also a Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland, successor to the Lord Chief Justice of Ireland of the pre-Partition era. The current Lord Chief Justice is Lord Thomas of Cwmgiedd, who took over the role on 1 October 2013, although the Court of the Kings Bench had existed since 1234, the title of chief justice was not used until 1268. In the intermediary period, one of the justices would be considered the senior judge, the suffix and Wales, now found in statutes and elsewhere, was unilaterally appended by Lord Bingham of Cornhill between 1996 and 2000. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 made the Lord Chief Justice the President of the Courts of England and Wales, vesting the office with many of the powers formerly held by the Lord Chancellor. While the Lord Chief Justice retains the role of President of the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal, the first Lord Chief Justice to act as head of the judiciary under the provisions of the CRA was Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers. The CRA also provides that the Lord Chief Justice is chosen by a specially appointed committee convened by the Judicial Appointments Commission
15.
Peter Goldsmith, Baron Goldsmith
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Peter Henry Goldsmith, Baron Goldsmith PC QC is a British barrister and a former Attorney General for England and Wales and for Northern Ireland. On 22 June 2007, Goldsmith announced his resignation took effect on 27 June 2007. Goldsmith was the longest serving Labour Attorney General and he is currently head of European litigation practice at US law firm Debevoise & Plimpton and Vice Chairperson of the Hong Kong International Arbitration Centre. Goldsmith was born in Liverpool, Lancashire, and is of Jewish descent, he was educated at Quarry Bank School before reading law at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge and he was called to the Bar at Grays Inn in 1972, practising from Fountain Court Chambers in London. He took silk in 1987 and became a Deputy High Court Judge in 1994 and he was elected the youngest ever chairman of the Bar of England and Wales in 1995. He was raised to the peerage as a Labour peer in 1999, as Baron Goldsmith and he was appointed Her Majestys Attorney General in June 2001. One of his first acts was to discuss breaches of the injunction against publishing the whereabouts of the offenders in the murder of James Bulger and he was sworn of the Privy Council in 2002. Goldsmith has also held a number of posts in international organisations, including Council Member of the International Bar Association. From 1998 until his appointment as Attorney General he was co-Chairman of the IBAs Human Rights Institute, between 1997 and 2000 he was Chairman of the Financial Reporting Review Panel, a non-departmental public body responsible for enforcing financial reporting standards. In 1997 he was elected to membership of the American Law Institute, in 1996 he founded the Bar Pro bono Unit of which he was chairman until 2000 and remains President. He was the Prime Ministers Personal Representative to the Convention for the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, in November 2006, he visited a number of pro bono legal and criminal justice charities in Kenya, including Philemon Ministries. In 2006, Goldsmith gave a speech at the Royal United Services Institute, Goldsmith called it a symbol of injustice, and said that it did not respect the rights of liberty or freedom. On 17 February 2007, the Mail on Sunday reported that Goldsmith, the nature of Goldsmiths legal advice to the Government over the legality of the 2003 invasion of Iraq was a significant political issue at the time. The Government turned down repeated calls to break tradition and have the advice made public. A subsequent memo written on 7 March 2003 was eventually leaked to the press, Goldsmith concluded that a reasonable case can be made that resolution 1441 is capable in principle of reviving the authorisation in Resolution 678 without a further resolution. However, Goldsmith did concede that a court might well conclude that operative paragraphs 4 and 12 do require a further Council decision to revive the authorisation, in other words, we would need to be able to demonstrate hard evidence of non-compliance and non-cooperation. In his final advice to the Government, written on 17 March 2003 and this advice stated Goldsmiths preferred view in more unequivocal terms than his earlier memo, without reference to the doubts expressed therein. This has led to allegations that Goldsmith succumbed to pressure to find legal justification for the use of force against Iraq
16.
Attorney General for England and Wales
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Her Majestys Attorney General for England and Wales, usually known simply as the Attorney General, is one of the Law Officers of the Crown. Along with the subordinate Solicitor General for England and Wales, the Attorney General serves as the legal adviser of the Crown and its government in England. The current Attorney General is Jeremy Wright, MP, the position of Attorney General existed since at least 1243, when records show a professional attorney was hired to represent the Kings interests in court. The position first took on a role in 1461 when the holder of the office was summoned to the House of Lords to advise the government there on legal matters. In 1673 the Attorney General officially became the Crowns adviser and representative in legal matters, the beginning of the twentieth century saw a shift away from litigation and more towards legal advice. The job of the Attorney General is a one. Duties include superintending the Crown Prosecution Service, the Serious Fraud Office, since the passing of the Law Officers Act 1997 duties can be delegated to the Solicitor General, and any actions are treated as if they came from the Attorney General. During the early days of the office the holder was largely concerned with representing the Crown in litigation, the office first took on a political element in 1461, when the holder was summoned by writ to the House of Lords to advise the government on legal matters. This was also the first time that the office was referred to as the office of the Attorney General, during the constitutional struggle centred on the Royal Declaration of Indulgence in 1672 and 1673 the Attorney General officially became the Crowns representative in legal matters. In 1890 the ability of an Attorney General to continue practising privately was formally taken away, despite this change, until the passing of the Homicide Act 1957 the Attorney General was bound to prosecute any and all poisoning cases. The Attorney General is a minister who leads the Attorney Generals Office. As a government minister, the Attorney General is directly answerable to Parliament, as well as the government as a whole, he also advises individual departments. By convention, he represents the government in case in front of the International Court of Justice. The Attorney General also superintends the Crown Prosecution Service and appoints its head, an example of a consent case is the Campbell Case, which led to the fall of the first Labour government in 1924. The Attorney General also superintends the Government Legal Department, the Serious Fraud Office, and he or she is also officially the leader of the Bar of England and Wales, although this is merely custom and has no duties or rights attached to it. The Attorney Generals duties have long been considered strenuous, with Sir Patrick Hastings saying that to be a law officer is to be in hell, list of Attorneys General for England and Wales Solicitor General for England and Wales Attorney Generals Office. The governance of Britain, a consultation on the role of the Attorney General, predecessors of the Federal Attorney General, The Attorney General in England and the American Colonies. The American Journal of Legal History, media related to Attorneys General for England and Wales at Wikimedia Commons Texts on Wikisource, Attorney-General
17.
Secretary General of the Council of Europe
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The Secretary General of the Council of Europe is appointed by the Parliamentary Assembly on the recommendation of the Committee of Ministers for a period of five years. Coincidentally, both candidates were Prime Ministers at the time and both are social democrats. On June 23, the Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly decided to postpone the election at least until its September session, on 11 September 2009, reporting on the election controversy, Le Monde reported that the future Secretary General would inherit an institution that was in crisis. On September 30,2009, Thorbjørn Jagland was elected as Secretary-General, on June 24,2014 he was re-elected to a second, five-year term to start on October 1,2014. The Council of Europe Secretary General
18.
Taslim Olawale Elias
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Taslim Olawale Elias was a Nigerian jurist. He was Attorney-General and Chief Justice of Nigeria and a judge and he was a scholar who modernised and extensively revised the laws of Nigeria. Elias was born into the aristocracy of Lagos, then the capital of Nigeria. He received his education at the Church Missionary Society Grammar School. He married Ganiat Yetunde Fowosere, and the couple would have five children together, after passing the Cambridge School Certificate examination, he worked as an assistant in the Government Audit Department. In 1935 he joined the Nigerian Railway and served in the Chief Accountants Office for nine years, while working at the Nigerian Railway Elias became an external student of London University, and later he passed the intermediate examinations for the B. A. and LL. B degrees. He left Nigeria for the United Kingdom in 1944 and was admitted to University College London, as this was during World War II, with London the target of frequent bomb attacks, he spent some time at Cambridges Trinity College. He graduated with a B. A. the year he entered University College London, in 1947 he was called to the bar at the Inner Temple, where he was a Yarborough Anderson Scholar, and in the same year received his LL. M degree. He continued his education and became the first African to earn a PhD in law from the University of London in 1949. In 1951 Elias was awarded a UNESCO Fellowship to undertake research into the legal, economic, later that year he had his first academic appointment, the Simon Senior Research Fellow at Manchester University. There he was an instructor in law and social anthropology and it was also in 1951 that he published his first book, Nigerian Land Law and Custom. Elias moved from Manchester to Oxford in 1954 when he became the Oppenheimer Research Fellow at the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, Nuffield College and he continued his research into Nigerian law and published Groundwork of Nigerian Law in the same year. In 1956 he was visiting professor of science at the University of Delhi. He was instrumental in organising courses in government, law, and social anthropology, Elias also lectured at the universities of Aligarh, Allahabad, Bombay, and Calcutta. In that year he published two books, Makers of Nigerian Law and The Nature of African Customary Law. He returned to London in 1957 and was appointed a Governor of the School of Oriental, as the constitutional and legal adviser to the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons, he participated in the 1958 Nigerian Constitutional Conference in London. He was one of the architects of Nigerias independence constitution In 1960 Elias was invited to become Nigerias Attorney-General and he served in this capacity through the whole of the first republic. Although later dismissed after the coup détat in January 1966, he was reinstated in November of that year, in addition to contributing to Nigerian and African law, Elias had long been active in field of international law
19.
International Court of Justice
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The International Court of Justice is the primary judicial branch of the United Nations. Established in 1945 by the UN Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice, the Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court. The Courts workload covers a range of judicial activity. Chapter XIV of the United Nations Charter authorizes the UN Security Council to enforce Court rulings, however, such enforcement is subject to the veto power of the five permanent members of the Council, which the United States used in the Nicaragua case. The election process is set out in Articles 4–19 of the ICJ statute, elections are staggered, with five judges elected every three years to ensure continuity within the court. Should a judge die in office, the practice has generally been to elect a judge in an election to complete the term. No two judges may be nationals of the same country, according to Article 9, the membership of the Court is supposed to represent the main forms of civilization and of the principal legal systems of the world. Essentially, that has meant common law, civil law and socialist law, the exception was China, which did not have a judge on the Court from 1967 to 1985 because it did not put forward a candidate. Judicial independence is dealt with specifically in Articles 16–18, judges of the ICJ are not able to hold any other post or act as counsel. A judge can be dismissed only by a vote of the other members of the Court. Despite these provisions, the independence of ICJ judges has been questioned, judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate opinions. Judges may also deliver separate dissenting opinions, Article 31 of the statute sets out a procedure whereby ad hoc judges sit on contentious cases before the Court. The system allows any party to a case if it otherwise does not have one of that partys nationals sitting on the Court to select one additional person to sit as a judge on that case only. It is thus possible that as many as seventeen judges may sit on one case, the system may seem strange when compared with domestic court processes, but its purpose is to encourage states to submit cases. Although this system does not sit well with the nature of the body. Ad hoc judges usually vote in favor of the state that appointed them, generally, the Court sits as full bench, but in the last fifteen years, it has on occasion sat as a chamber. Articles 26–29 of the statute allow the Court to form smaller chambers, usually 3 or 5 judges, Two types of chambers are contemplated by Article 26, firstly, chambers for special categories of cases, and second, the formation of ad hoc chambers to hear particular disputes. In 1993, a chamber was established, under Article 26 of the ICJ statute
20.
John Austin (legal philosopher)
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John Austin was a noted English legal theorist who strongly influenced British and American law with his analytical approach to jurisprudence and his theory of legal positivism. In opposing traditional natural-law approaches, Austin argued against any necessary connections between law and morality, human legal systems, he claimed, can and should be studied in an empirical, value-free way. Austin was born on March 3,1790, the eldest son of a well-to-do Suffolk miller, after spending five years in the army during the Napoleonic Wars, Austin turned to law and spent seven unhappy years practising at the Chancery bar. In 1819, Austin married Sarah Taylor and became neighbours and close friends with Jeremy Bentham and James, largely through Benthams influence, Austin was appointed professor of jurisprudence at the newly founded University of London in 1826. Austins lectures were not well-attended, and he resigned his university post in 1834, thereafter, aside from two stints on government commissions, Austin lived largely on his wifes earnings as a writer and translator. Plagued by ill health, depression and self-doubt, Austin wrote little after the publication of his major work and this work was largely ignored during Austins lifetime. It became influential only after his death when his wife, Sarah Austin, a second book, Lectures on Jurisprudence, was put together by Sarah from Austins notes and published in 1863. Austin’s goal was to transform law into a true science, to do this, he believed it was necessary to purge human law of all moralistic notions and to define key legal concepts in strictly empirical terms. Law, according to Austin, is a fact and reflects relations of power. This twofold view, that law and morality are separate and that all human-made laws can be traced back to human lawmakers, is known as legal positivism. Drawing heavily on the thought of Jeremy Bentham, Austin was the first legal thinker to work out a full-blown positivistic theory of law, Austin argues that laws are rules, which he defines as a type of command. The sovereign in any system is that person, or group of persons, habitually obeyed by the bulk of the population. A command is a wish that something should be done, issued by a superior. Such commands give rise to legal duties to obey, note that all the key concepts in this account are defined in terms of empirically verifiable social facts. No moral judgment, according to Austin, is necessary to determine what the law is — though of course morality must be consulted in determining what the law should be. As a utilitarian, Austin believed that laws should promote the greatest happiness of society, though Austins brand of legal positivism was greatly influential in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it is widely seen as overly simplistic today. In many modern systems, such as that of the United States, lawmaking power is dispersed. Defining legal duties in terms of habits of obedience to a determinate sovereign makes it hard to explain why laws remain in force when one government replaces another, mere threats do not give rise to obligations
21.
Andrew Amos (lawyer)
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Andrew Amos was a British lawyer and professor of law. The family was Scottish, and took its name in the time of the Covenanters, Andrew Amos was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow, after graduating as fifth wrangler in 1813. On 1 August 1826, he married Margaret, daughter of the Rev. William Lax, Lowndean Professor of Astronomy at the University of Cambridge. Within the next eight years Amos became auditor of Trinity College, Cambridge, recorder of Oxford, Nottingham, and Banbury, fellow of the new University of London, and criminal law commissioner. The first criminal law commission on which Amos sat consisted of Mr. Thomas Starkie, Mr. Henry Bellenden Ker, Mr. William Wightman, Mr. John Austin, the commission was renewed at intervals between 1834 and 1843, Amos being always a member of it. Seven reports were issued, the report, of 1843, containing a complete criminal code, systematically arranged into chapters, sections. The historical and constitutional aspects of the subject received minute attention at every point, on the foundation of London University, Amos was first professor of English law, with Austin, professor of jurisprudence, as his colleague. Between 1829 and 1837 Amoss lectures attained great celebrity and it was the first time that lectures on law at convenient hours had been made accessible to both barristers and solicitors, and Amoss class sometimes included as many as 150 students. He repeatedly received testimonials from his pupils, and his bust was presented to University College and he also took a part as a member of the law commission in drafting the report on slavery in India which resulted in the adoption of measures for its gradual extinction. Amos, with two commissioners, differed from the two as to the remedies to be proposed. The majority inclined to leave untouched the lawful status of slavery and they thought this power necessary as a check to the propensity to idleness which the situation of the slave naturally produces. It was a lasting political misfortune for Amos that by this misadventure his political adversaries won the day in a debate of the first importance. On Amoss return to England in 1843 he was nominated one of the first county judges, his circuit being that of Marylebone, Brentford. In 1848 he was elected Downing Professor of the Laws of England at Cambridge, Amos was throughout life a persistent student, and published various books of importance on legal, constitutional, and literary subjects. His first book was an examination into certain trials in the courts in Canada relative to the destruction of the Earl of Selkirks settlement on the Red River. It had been alleged that in June 1816 the servants of the North West Company had destroyed that settlement and murdered Governor Temple, a few accused persons were brought to trial before the courts of law in Upper Canada, and they were all acquitted. These notes are full of research into the history of English law. In the same year he dedicated to his friend, William Whewell, Four Lectures on the Advantages of a Classical Education
22.
UCL Main Building
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The Main Building at University College London, includes the Octagon, Quad, Cloisters, Main Library, Flaxman Gallery and the Wilkins Building. The North Wing, South Wing, Chadwick Building and Pearson Building are also considered part of the main UCL building, in 1827, a year after the founding of UCL, construction of the Main Building began on the site of the old Carmarthen Square. The Octagon Building is a used for the whole of the Main Building. At the centrepiece of the building is a dome, which is visible throughout the immediate area. The Octagon was designed by the Architect William Wilkins, who designed the National Gallery. The original plans by Wilkins called for a U-shaped enclosure around the Quad, funds, however, ran out in 1829 with only the Portico and Dome finished. The Wilkins Building is a used for the whole of the Main Building. Facing Gower Street, the Quadrangle, abbrievated as the Quad, is a square of paths, grass. There are a number of benches as well as two decommissioned astronomy observatories. The enclosed north and south connect the Octagon dome to the north and south wings of the quad respectively. They are one of the thoroughfares of the College, and accommodate a series of exhibitions. To the north of the cloisters is the Housman Room. To the south of the cloisters is the auto-icon of Jeremy Bentham. The Wilkins Building refers specifically to the part of the building built during the lifetime of the architect William Wilkins and it does not include the later, U-shaped extensions around the Quad. Although these were designed by Wilkins they were not finished until 1985, the Wilkins Building is grade I listed. The Main Library contains UCLs collections relating to arts and humanities, history, economics, public policy, the Flaxman Gallery, a collection of sculptures and paintings by artist John Flaxman is located inside the Main Library in the Octagon Building under UCLs central dome
23.
Jeremy Bentham
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Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer. He is regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism, Bentham defined as the fundamental axiom of his philosophy the principle that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong. He became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and he advocated individual and economic freedom, the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to divorce, and the decriminalising of homosexual acts. He called for the abolition of slavery, the abolition of the penalty. He has also known in recent years as an early advocate of animal rights. Though strongly in favour of the extension of legal rights, he opposed the idea of natural law and natural rights. On his death in 1832, Bentham left instructions for his body to be first dissected, and then to be preserved as an auto-icon. This was done, and the auto-icon is now on display at University College London. Because of his arguments in favour of the availability of education. However, he played only a direct part in its foundation. Bentham was born in Houndsditch, London, to a family that supported the Tory party. He was reportedly a child prodigy, he was found as a sitting at his fathers desk reading a multi-volume history of England. He had one surviving sibling, Samuel Bentham, with whom he was close. He attended Westminster School and, in 1760, at age 12, was sent by his father to The Queens College, Oxford and he trained as a lawyer and, though he never practised, was called to the bar in 1769. He became deeply frustrated with the complexity of the English legal code, among his many proposals for legal and social reform was a design for a prison building he called the Panopticon. Although the prison was never built, the concept had an important influence on generations of thinkers. Twentieth-century French philosopher Michel Foucault argued that the Panopticon was paradigmatic of several 19th-century disciplinary institutions, Bentham became convinced that his plans for the Panopticon had been thwarted by the King and an aristocratic elite acting in their own interests. More successful was his cooperation with Patrick Colquhoun in tackling the corruption in the Pool of London and this resulted in the Thames Police Bill of 1798, which was passed in 1800
24.
GMB (trade union)
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GMB is a general trade union in the United Kingdom which has more than 631,000 members. GMB members work in all industrial sectors, in retail, security, schools, distribution and the utilities, social care. Although the new union was one of the largest in the country, it grew slowly over the following decades. This changed in the 1970s, when David Basnett created new sections for staff, and hotel and catering workers, GMB is the result of mergers with many others, although until the 1980s, most unions merging in were small. For several years following the highly contested merger boilermaker members retained an identity in GMBs Craft Section. Trading as TCU Money, it began life as GMB Lancashire Region Credit Union and was rolled out nationwide in 2000. TCU is named after Will Thorne, founder of NUGW forerunner, the credit union is authorised by the Prudential Regulation Authority and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority and the PRA. Ultimately, like the banks and building societies, members’ savings are protected against business failure by the Financial Services Compensation Scheme, full-time workers will pay £13.00 a month to be a member of the GMB. This does entitle you to free insurance as well as benefits of membership. Two Uber drivers had brought the case to the employment tribunal with the assistance of the GMB Union on 20 July 2016, as a consequence, The Pensions Regulator is considering if the ruling obliges Uber to create a workplace pension scheme. The ruling could have implications wider than just Uber, throughout the gig economy. On 10 February 2017 a similar case involving Pimlico Plumbers was confirmed at the Court of Appeal, a worker who had suffered a heart attack was found to have been unfairly or wrongfully dismissed. GMB is one of the three largest affiliates to the Labour Party and it is a significant financial contributor to the Partys national and local organisation. GMB gives Labour invests up to £2m a year in fees and other funds. Despite this the Congress opposed disaffiliation from the party, in 2013, GMB announced it was cutting its affiliation fund from £1. 2m to £150,000 by reducing the number of members it affiliates from 420,000 to 50,000. In 2013, GMB Congress, the lay member ruling body, adopted a 14-point plan to encourage GMB members to active in the Labour Party. GMB has two representatives on the National Executive Committee of the Labour Party, Mary Turner and Cath Speight, in Ireland, GMB is affiliated to the Irish Labour Party. Under Jeremy Corbyns leadership of the Labour Party, the GMB has clashed with the party over the issues of Trident renewal and fracking, GMB is led by a General Secretary and Treasurer
25.
Relief
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Relief is a sculptural technique where the sculpted elements remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term relief is from the Latin verb relevo, to raise, to create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane. What is actually performed when a relief is cut in from a surface of stone or wood is a lowering of the field. The technique involves considerable chiselling away of the background, which is a time-consuming exercise. In other materials such as metal, clay, plaster stucco, ceramics or papier-mâché the form can be just added to or raised up from the background, and monumental bronze reliefs are made by casting. There are different degrees of relief depending on the degree of projection of the form from the field. There is also sunk relief, which was restricted to Ancient Egypt. However the distinction between high relief and low relief is the clearest and most important, and these two are generally the only used to discuss most work. Hyphens may or may not be used in all these terms, works in the technique are described as in relief, and, especially in monumental sculpture, the work itself is a relief. Reliefs are common throughout the world on the walls of buildings and a variety of settings. Relief is more suitable for depicting complicated subjects with figures and very active poses, such as battles. Most ancient architectural reliefs were painted, which helped to define forms in low relief. Rock reliefs are carved into solid rock in the open air. This type is found in cultures, in particular those of the Ancient Near East and Buddhist countries. A stele is a standing stone, many of these carry reliefs. The distinction between high and low relief is somewhat subjective, and the two are often combined in a single work. In particular, most later high reliefs contain sections in low relief, a low relief or bas-relief is a projecting image with a shallow overall depth, for example used on coins, on which all images are in low relief. Other versions distort depth much less and it is a technique which requires less work, and is therefore cheaper to produce, as less of the background needs to be removed in a carving, or less modelling is required
26.
B'nai B'rith
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Bnai Brith International is the oldest Jewish service organization in the world. Bnai Brith states that it is committed to the security and continuity of the Jewish people, the membership pattern became more common to other contemporary organizations of members affiliated by contribution in addition to formal dues paying members. In recent years, the organization reported hundreds of thousands of members and supporters in countries around the world, nearly 95% of the membership is in the United States. Bnai Brith International is affiliated with the World Jewish Congress, Bnai Brith was founded in Aaron Sinsheimers café in New York Citys Lower East Side on October 13,1843, by 12 recent German Jewish immigrants led by Henry Jones. Its founders had hoped that it soon would encompass all Jews in the United States, although early meetings were conducted in Yiddish, after a short time English emerged as the language of choice and the name was changed to Bnai Brith. In the late 20th century, the translation was changed to the more contemporary, in 1851, for example, it circulated petitions urging Secretary of State Daniel Webster to demand the end of Jewish disabilities in Switzerland, during on-going trade negotiations. Bnai Brith also played a role in transnational Jewish politics. The later spread of the organization around the world made it a center of intra-Jewish communication. The organizations activities during the 19th and 20th centuries were dominated by mutual aid, social service, to aid their children, each child would also receive a stipend and, for male children, the assurance he would be taught a trade. One year later, Bnai Brith established the Maimonides Library, immediately following the Civil War—when Jews on both sides of the battle were left homeless—Bnai Brith founded the 200-bed Cleveland Jewish Orphan Home. Over the next years, the organization would establish numerous hospitals. In 1868, when a devastating flood crippled Baltimore, Bnai Brith responded with a relief campaign. This act preceded the founding of the American Red Cross by 13 years and was to be the first of many domestic relief programs. That same year, Bnai Brith sponsored its first overseas philanthropic project raising $4,522 to aid the victims of an epidemic in Ottoman Palestine. In 1875, a lodge was established in Toronto, followed soon after by another in Montreal, membership outside of the United States grew rapidly. Soon, lodges were formed in Cairo and in Jerusalem, the Jerusalem lodge became the first public organization to hold all of its meetings in Hebrew. After 1881, with the immigration of Eastern European Jews to the United States, Bnai Brith sponsored Americanization classes, trade schools. This began a period of membership growth, a change in the system of representation
27.
Hillel International
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Hillel, The Foundation for Jewish Campus Life is the largest Jewish campus organization in the world, working with thousands of college students globally. Hillels stated mission is to enrich the lives of Jewish undergraduate and graduate students so that they may enrich the Jewish people, in practical terms, campus Hillel foundations engage Jewish students in religious, cultural, artistic, and community-service activities. Hillel is represented at more than 550 colleges and communities throughout North America and globally, including 30 communities in the former Soviet Union, nine in Israel, and five in South America. The organization is named for Hillel the Elder, a Jewish sage who moved from Babylonia to Judea in the 1st century and is known for his formulation of the Golden Rule. Later the same year, members of the local Jewish and university communities met in a loft over a dry cleaner in Champaign, Illinois. In 1925, Bnai Brith pledged to sponsor Hillels activities with a budget of approximately $12,000 that year, by then, it encompassed 120 Hillel foundations and affiliates at an additional 400 campuses. The campus foundations seek to create an environment for Jewish students on their respective campuses. Beginning in 1988, under Director Richard M. Joel, Hillel underwent a shift in mission. An integral part of this shift was the institution of a Board of Governors, Bronfmans involvement began in 1994 during a visit by Richard Joel to the Seagram building, when Bronfman pledged his support to Hillel. When Bronfman agreed to serve as chairman, Hillel gained legitimacy among other philanthropists, the subsequent revitalization of the organization resulted in increased donor support, updated programming, and broad international recognition. Part of the increased donor support came as a result of Bronfmans well-known campus visits, beginning in 1994, Hillel has been described as the largest Jewish campus organization in the world. Hillel foundations are found in Israel, South America, and the Post-Soviet States, and affiliated organizations are found in Australia, Canada, although the foundation was not organized nationally until 1923, Texas A&M Hillel was founded in 1920. At the time of its founding, Texas A&M University was named the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, adam Lehman was appointed chief operating officer in October 2015. Lehman had been vice president at AOL. However, as set by International Hillel Policy, there are restrictions on the services, topics of discussions, and events that can be held. These restrictions focus mainly on Zionism, where Hillel takes a stance in not promoting certain types of views on Israel, such as the Boycott, Divestment. Hillels strategy, as redefined in 2006, explicitly set a goal to inspire every Jewish student to make a commitment to Jewish life. To be effective, Hillel activities vary from campus to campus, to reach a larger audience, campus Hillel foundations struggle to create a pluralistic, inclusive environment that still remains distinctively Jewish
28.
Moot court
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The term moot traces its origins to Anglo-Saxon times, when a moot was a gathering of prominent men in a locality to discuss matters of local importance. In most countries, the moot court may be shortened to simply moot or mooting. Participants are either referred to as mooters or mooties, Moot court and law review are the two key extracurricular activities in many law schools. Procedural issues pertaining to jurisdiction, standing, and choice of law are also occasionally engaged, in most moot competitions, each side is represented by two speakers and a third member, sometimes known as of counsel, may be seated with the speakers or in the audience. Each speaker usually speaks between 10 and 25 minutes, covering one to three issues, after the main submissions are completed, there will usually be a short round of rebuttal and even surebuttal. Depending on the format of the moot, there may be one or two rounds of rebuttal and surebuttal, in larger competitions, teams have to participate in up to ten rounds. The knockout/elimination stages are usually preceded by a number of rounds to determine seeding. Teams almost always must switch sides throughout a competition, and, depending on the format of the moot, the scores of the written submissions are taken into consideration for most competitions to determine qualification and seeding, and sometimes even up to a particular knockout stage. International moot competitions are generally targeted at students and only allow participants who have not qualified to practice law in any jurisdiction. The first table lists some of the more notable international moot competitions for students, while the second table lists the champions. Some moot court organizations accept a group of people for membership. Other schools accept a number of members, and each member is matched with one competition. A few schools conduct moot court entirely intramurally, Moot court competitions are typically sponsored by organizations with interest in one particular area of law, and the moot court problems address an issue in that field. Competitions are often judged by legal practitioners with expertise in the area of law. The basic structure of a moot court competition roughly parallels what would happen in actual appellate practice. Participants will typically receive a problem ahead of time, which includes the facts of the underlying case, students must then research and prepare for that case as if they were lawyers or advocates for one or sometimes both of the parties. Depending on the competition, participants will be required to submit briefs, participate in oral argument. The case or problem is one of current interest, sometimes mimicking an actual case
29.
Levitt Bernstein
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Levitt Bernstein is an architecture, landscape architecture and urban design practice established in 1968 by David Levitt and David Bernstein with studios in London and Manchester. The practice is proud to have won many awards, the work builds on Lifetime Homes, Lifetime Neighbourhoods, a national strategy for housing in an ageing society. A 13-member panel was supported by Levitt Bernstein and PTEa, working with Design for Homes, David Levitt, Housing Design Handbook, Routledge. Higher Density Housing for Families, A Design and Specification Guide, A guide developed by Helen Cope and Levitt Bernstein, with cost advisors Walker Management
30.
GCE Advanced Level
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A number of countries, including Singapore, Kenya, Mauritius and Zimbabwe have developed qualifications with the same name as and a similar format to the British A Levels. Obtaining A Level or equivalent qualifications is generally required for university entrance, a Levels are generally worked towards over two years and split into two parts, with one part studied in each year. The first part is known as the Advanced Subsidiary Level, A1 Level or AS Level, the second part is known as the A2 Level and is more in depth and academically rigorous than the A1 Level. Up to June 2009 a third Special/Advanced Extension Award level was available for the brightest candidates, a number of countries use A Levels as a school-leaving qualification. The A Levels taken by students in some countries often differ significantly from the A Levels taken in the United Kingdom, a Levels are the secondary school leaving qualification offered in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. These are not compulsory, unlike GCSEs, in Scotland, A Levels are also offered by selected schools as an alternative school-leaving qualification in place of the Scottish Advanced Higher. The British variant of A/AS levels are taken in many Commonwealth and former Commonwealth countries. British international schools in foreign countries generally offer the British A Levels as offered through Edexcel or Cambridge International Examinations, at select examination centres, the British A Level exams may also be available to private candidates. A-level has become a choice for a number of students in Nepal. A-levels offered in Pakistan by non-governmental, private institutions, along with International Baccalaureate, Examinations are handled by international British boards and the program is equivalent to Higher Secondary School Certificate. Academies are established all around the country which prepare the students to take the examinations as a private candidate, in Brunei, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations. Some subjects are unique to Brunei or have a format, curriculum, in Malaysia, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations. Some subjects are unique to Malaysia or have a format, curriculum, for instance, there are two types of A Level in Malaysia, Cambridge A Level and Edexcel International Advanced Level. A number of papers for offered, such as French, are customised to support the national educational standards. Additionally, International A Level qualifications from Edexcel are available, for which exams may be registered through the Mauritius Examinations Syndicate, in Seychelles, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations. Some subjects are unique to Seychelles or have a format, curriculum, in Sri Lanka, A Level is offered by governmental and non governmental schools. The qualifications are awarded upon completion of examinations called Local A Levels while most of the private schools award them upon London A Levels. Local GCE Advanced Level qualification is offered by the Department of Examinations, passing A Levels is the major requirement for applying local universities
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UCAS
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The Universities and Colleges Admissions Service is a UK-based organisation whose main role is to operate the application process for British universities. It is situated just inside the parish of Prestbury, Gloucestershire, UCAS was formed in 1992 by the merger of Universities Central Council on Admissions and Polytechnics Central Admissions System and the name UCAS is a contraction of the former acronyms UCCA and PCAS. An early proposal was made for the new merged body to be called PUCCA, UCCA was the older of the two bodies, having being formed in 1961 to provide a clearing house for university applications in the United Kingdom. Its First and Second Reports had already made a number of recommendations aimed at harmonising admissions procedures across different universities, the name UCCA referred originally to the management board overseeing the new process, but soon came to refer to the organisation responsible for its day-to-day operation. This was based initially in London, and moved to Cheltenham, the new scheme had a pilot year handling a subset of applications for entry in 1963, and its first full year of operation handled admissions for 1964. The scheme was essentially a collaborative venture between independent universities, and membership was voluntary, most English universities joined from the start. Oxford and Cambridge joined for the 1966 entry, the London medical and dental schools, as well as Belfast, in 1965 UCCA handled 80,033 applicants, rising to 114,2891969. The acceptance rate of UCCA applicants by universities in 1969 stood at just over 50%, initially, processing of applications was carried out using punched card technology. In 1964, UCCA started using the services of a computer bureau with a Univac machine, despite this the Polytechnics were involved as early as 1972 in discussions with UCCA and the Central Register and Clearing House about the possible future shape of one or more admissions systems. At this stage applicants dealt directly with each individual polytechnic and the polytechnics themselves were strongly regional or local in their appeal. A grant of £210,000, from the British Department for Education and Science, was awarded to set up a new unified admissions system, provisionally called PUCCA. However, instead of a system for both the universities and polytechnics a separate system for polytechnics emerged from the negotiations, modelled on UCCA. Applicants to courses were given the option to apply separately for universities or polytechnics, the PCAS system came into effect in 1985. It was led by its first Chief Executive, Tony Higgins, although many polytechnics offered art and design programmes, and some also offered teacher training courses, these admissions systems remained outside PCAS. In 1992, following the change of status and name of most polytechnics to universities, initially the application form was branded jointly UCCA/PCAS, but in 1994 the new merged body was officially renamed UCAS. In order to apply to university, students must submit an application via UCAS online Apply service. They must then pay a fee and obtain a reference before submitting their application online by the appropriate deadline. The application is then forwarded by UCAS to the universities and colleges that the students have applied to, for applications to universities in the UK, entry requirements for individual courses can either be based on grades of qualifications or in UCAS points
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Master of Laws
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The Master of Laws is a postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in a related subject. In some jurisdictions the Master of Laws is the professional degree for admission into legal practice. To become a lawyer and practice law in most states and countries, while in most common law countries a Bachelor of Laws is required, the U. S. and Canada generally require a professional doctorate, or Juris Doctor, to practice law. The Juris Doctor is a doctorate and first professional graduate degree in law. The degree is earned by completing law school in the United States, Canada, Australia, the majority of individuals holding a J. D. must pass an examination in order to be licensed to practice law within their respective jurisdictions. If a person wishes to gain specialized knowledge through research in a area of law. The word legum is the plural form of the Latin word lex. When used in the plural, it signifies a body of laws, as opposed to the general collective concept embodied in the word jus, from which the words juris. The highest research degree in law is the S. J. D. and it is equivalent to the Doctor of Philosophy in Law, Doctorat en Droit, or the Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften in Germany. There are also variant doctoral degrees, such as the D. C. L. degree bestowed by McGill University in Canada, most schools require an LL. M. before admission to a SJD or a PhD in law degree program. Like the PhD, the SJD degree generally requires a dissertation that is graded, orally defended, the Doctor of Laws degree in the United States of America is usually an honorary degree. Historically, the LL. M. degree is an element particular to the system of English speaking countries. Over the past years, however, specialized LL. M, Programs have been introduced in many European countries, even where the Bologna process has not yet been fully implemented. Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Cyprus, Italy and Switzerland require a Masters with a two to five years to become a lawyer. As of 2014, Spain requires a degree in addition to a 4 years degree to become a lawyer. In Finland, an LL. M. is the graduate degree required to practice law. To be allowed to practice law in the Netherlands, one needs an LL. M. degree with a course in litigation law. The Dutch Order of Lawyers require these courses for every potential candidate lawyer who wants to be written in the district court for three years
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Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
34.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
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The Sunday Times
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The Sunday Times is the largest-selling British national newspaper in the quality press market category. It is published by Times Newspapers Ltd, a subsidiary of News UK, Times Newspapers also publishes The Times. The two papers were founded independently and have been under common ownership only since 1966 and they were bought by News International in 1981. The Sunday Times occupies a dominant position in the quality Sunday market, its circulation of just under one million equals that of its rivals, The Sunday Telegraph and The Observer. While some other national newspapers moved to a format in the early 2000s. It sells more than twice as many copies as its sister paper, The Times, the Sunday Times has acquired a reputation for the strength of its investigative reporting – much of it by its award-winning Insight team – and also for its wide-ranging foreign coverage. It has a number of writers, columnists and commentators including Jeremy Clarkson. It was Britains first multi-section newspaper and remains substantially larger than its rivals, a typical edition contains the equivalent of 450 to 500 tabloid pages. Besides the main section, it has standalone News Review, Business, Sport, Money. There are three magazines and two tabloid supplements and it publishes The Sunday Times Bestseller List of books in Britain, and a list of the 100 Best Companies to Work For, focusing on UK companies. It also organises The Sunday Times Oxford Literary Festival, held annually, and The Sunday Times Festival of Education, the paper began publication on 18 February 1821 as The New Observer, but from 21 April its title was changed to the Independent Observer. On 20 October 1822 it was reborn as The Sunday Times, in January 1823, White sold the paper to Daniel Whittle Harvey, a radical politician. The paper was bought in 1887 by Alice Cornwell, whose father George Cornwell made a fortune in mining in Australia and she then sold it in 1893 to Frederick Beer, who already owned Observer. Beer appointed his wife, Rachel Sassoon Beer, as editor and she was already editor of Observer – the first woman to run a national newspaper – and continued to edit both titles until 1901. There was a change of ownership in 1903, and then in 1915 the paper was bought by William Berry and his brother, Gomer Berry, later ennobled as Lord Camrose. In 1943, the Kemsley Newspapers Group was established, with The Sunday Times becoming its flagship paper, at this time, Kemsley was the largest newspaper group in Britain. On 12 November 1945, Ian Fleming, who later created James Bond, joined the paper as foreign manager, the following month, circulation reached 500,000. On 28 September 1958 the paper launched a separate Review section, in 1959 the Kemsley group was bought by Lord Thomson, and in October 1960 circulation reached one million for the first time
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Faculty of Law, University of Oxford
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The Faculty of Law, Oxford is the law school of the University of Oxford which has a history of over 800 years of teaching and writing law. It offers the largest doctoral programme in Law in the English-speaking world, generally considered one of the most prestigious in the world, Oxfords law school is currently ranked second in the 2017 QS World University Rankings, behind only Harvard Law School. Oxford has produced a significant number of luminaries in law and politics, there were faculties of Civil Law and Canon Law in the medieval University. During the Reformation, Henry VIII prohibited the teaching of Canon Law, instead founding the Regius Chair of Civil Law, from then until the 19th century, the University awarded the Bachelor of Civil Law and the Doctor of Civil Law, through the Faculty of Civil Law. His lectures formed the basis for his Commentaries on the Laws of England and it was not until the 1870s that Oxford offered a degree in English law, the BA in Jurisprudence. Not long after, Cornelia Sorabji was the first woman to read Law at Oxford in 1889, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, there were prominent professors in Oxford such as Frederick Pollock, William Anson, and Albert Dicey. In the twentieth century, the BCL became a masters level degree and it has been claimed that the BCL at Oxford is the most highly regarded taught masters-level qualification in the common law world. In 2010 the MSc in Law and Finance was introduced and is taught jointly by the Faculty of Law, the MLF programme involves a combination of finance and economic courses combined with BCL law courses. Like the BCL taught at Oxford, entry into the MLF is highly competitive with on average less than fifteen per cent of applicants being accepted, the BA in Jurisprudence is Oxfords regular three year undergraduate law degree, equivalent to what in some universities would be called an LLB. It is also a law degree for the purpose of practice as a solicitor or barrister in England. Oxfords graduate law programme is unique, the BCL and MJur are the graduate law degrees in the world which are taught through tutorials as well as seminars. Oxfords graduate law students have contact with their teachers than on any LLM. Research students play a role in the intellectual life of the Faculty, collaborating in numerous discussion groups. Oxfords Law Faculty is considered one of the very best in the world and its acceptance rate was less than 15% in the 2014-15 academic cycle. Oxfords BCL programme has been described as the most highly regarded taught masters-level qualification in the common law world, a first-class in undergraduate degree in Law or equivalent is a prerequisite, with the same applying for the Oxford Magister Juris. It is very rare for a candidate to be admitted without having completed a degree in Law, except in socio-legal studies and criminology. The Law Faculty offices are situated in the St Cross Building, the St Cross Building is also home to the Bodleian Law Library. The Bodleian Law Library was opened in 1964 and holds over 450,000 volumes and it is a Legal Deposit Library, allowing it to claim a copy of any printed legal material published in the United Kingdom or Ireland
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University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
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London School of Economics
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The London School of Economics is a public research university located in London, England and a constituent college of the federal University of London. LSE is located in Westminster, central London, near the boundary between Covent Garden and Holborn, the area is historically known as Clare Market. The LSE has more than 10,000 students and 3,300 staff and it had a total income of £340.7 million in 2015/16, of which £30.3 million was from research grants. 155 nationalities are represented amongst LSEs student body and the school has the highest percentage of students of all British universities. Despite its name, the school is organised into 25 academic departments and institutes which conduct teaching and research across a range of legal studies, in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework, the School had the highest proportion of world-leading research among research submitted of any British non-specialist university. The LSE is usually considered part of the triangle of highly research-intensive universities in southeast England. It is a member of organisations such as the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the European University Association. LSE has produced notable alumni in the fields of law, history, economics, philosophy, business, literature, media. Alumni and staff include 52 past or present heads of state or government and 20 members of the current British House of Commons. To 2016, 27% of all the Nobel Prizes in Economics have been awarded or jointly awarded to LSE alumni, current staff or former staff, LSE alumni and staff have also won 3 Nobel Peace Prizes, and 2 Nobel Prizes in Literature. Out of all European universities, LSE has educated the most billionaires according to a 2014 global census of U. S dollar billionaires, LSE graduates earn higher incomes on average than those of any other British university. The London School of Economics was founded in 1895 by Beatrice and Sidney Webb, Hutchinson, a lawyer and member of the Fabian Society, left the money in trust, to be put towards advancing its objects in any way they deem advisable. The five trustees were Sidney Webb, Edward Pease, Constance Hutchinson, William de Mattos, LSE records that the proposal to establish the school was conceived during a breakfast meeting on 4 August 1894, between the Webbs, Graham Wallas and George Bernard Shaw. The proposal was accepted by the trustees in February 1895 and LSE held its first classes in October of that year, in rooms at 9 John Street, Adelphi, in the City of Westminster. The School joined the federal University of London in 1900, and was recognised as a Faculty of Economics of the university, the University of London degrees of BSc and DSc were established in 1901, the first university degrees dedicated to the social sciences. Expanding rapidly over the years, the school moved initially to the nearby 10 Adelphi Terrace, then to Clare Market. The foundation stone of the Old Building, on Houghton Street, was laid by King George V in 1920, the 1930s economic debate between LSE and Cambridge is well known in academic circles. The dispute also concerned the question of the role
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