1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
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Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
4.
Berkeley, California
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Berkeley is a city on the east shore of San Francisco Bay in northern Alameda County, California. It is named after the 18th-century Anglo-Irish bishop and philosopher George Berkeley and it borders the cities of Oakland and Emeryville to the south and the city of Albany and the unincorporated community of Kensington to the north. Its eastern border with Contra Costa County generally follows the ridge of the Berkeley Hills, the 2010 census recorded a population of 112,580. It also has the Graduate Theological Union, one of the largest religious studies institutions in the world and it is one of the most politically liberal cities in the United States. The site of todays City of Berkeley was the territory of the Chochenyo/Huchiun band of the Ohlone people when the first Europeans arrived, other artifacts were discovered in the 1950s in the downtown area during remodeling of a commercial building, near the upper course of the creek. The first people of European descent arrived with the De Anza Expedition in 1776, today, this is noted by signage on Interstate 80, which runs along the San Francisco Bay shoreline of Berkeley. The De Anza Expedition led to establishment of the Spanish Presidio of San Francisco at the entrance to San Francisco Bay, luis Peralta was among the soldiers at the Presidio. For his services to the King of Spain, he was granted a vast stretch of land on the east shore of San Francisco Bay for a ranch, luis Peralta named his holding Rancho San Antonio. The primary activity of the ranch was raising cattle for meat and hides, eventually, Peralta gave portions of the ranch to each of his four sons. What is now Berkeley lies mostly in the portion that went to Peraltas son Domingo, with a little in the portion that went to another son, no artifact survives of the Domingo or Vicente ranches, but their names survive in Berkeley street names. However, legal title to all land in the City of Berkeley remains based on the original Peralta land grant, the Peraltas Rancho San Antonio continued after Alta California passed from Spanish to Mexican sovereignty after the Mexican War of Independence. The lands of the brothers Domingo and Vicente were quickly reduced to reservations close to their respective ranch homes, the rest of the land was surveyed and parceled out to various American claimants. Politically, the area that became Berkeley was initially part of a vast Contra Costa County, on March 25,1853, Alameda County was created from a division within Contra Costa County, as well as from a small portion of Santa Clara County. The area of Berkeley was at this period mostly a mix of land, farms and ranches. It was not yet Berkeley, but merely the part of the Oakland Township subdivision of Alameda County. In 1866, Oaklands private College of California looked for a new site, according to the Centennial Record of the University of California, In 1866…at Founders Rock, a group of College of California men watched two ships standing out to sea through the Golden Gate. Although the philosophers name is pronounced bark-lee, the pronunciation of the name has evolved to suit American English as burk-lee. The College of Californias College Homestead Association planned to raise funds for the new campus by selling off adjacent parcels of land, to this end, they laid out a plat and street grid that became the basis of Berkeleys modern street plan
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California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
6.
University of California, Berkeley
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The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
7.
Chemistry
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Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
8.
Chemical engineering
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A chemical engineer designs large-scale processes that convert chemicals, raw materials, living cells, microorganisms and energy into useful forms and products. A1996 British Journal for the History of Science article cites James F. Donnelly for mentioning an 1839 reference to chemical engineering in relation to the production of sulfuric acid. In the same however, George E. Davis, an English consultant, was credited for having coined the term. The History of Science in United States, An Encyclopedia puts this at around 1890, Chemical engineering, describing the use of mechanical equipment in the chemical industry, became common vocabulary in England after 1850. By 1910, the profession, chemical engineer, was already in use in Britain. Chemical engineering emerged upon the development of operations, a fundamental concept of the discipline of chemical engineering. Most authors agree that Davis invented the concept of operations if not substantially developed it. He gave a series of lectures on unit operations at the Manchester Technical School in 1887, three years before Davis lectures, Henry Edward Armstrong taught a degree course in chemical engineering at the City and Guilds of London Institute. Armstrongs course failed simply because its graduates, were not especially attractive to employers. Employers of the time would have rather hired chemists and mechanical engineers, starting from 1888, Lewis M. Norton taught at MIT the first chemical engineering course in the United States. Nortons course was contemporaneous and essentially similar with Armstrongs course, both courses, however, simply merged chemistry and engineering subjects. Its practitioners had difficulty convincing engineers that they were engineers and chemists that they were not simply chemists, unit operations was introduced into the course by William Hultz Walker in 1905. By the early 1920s, unit operations became an important aspect of engineering at MIT and other US universities. For instance, it defined chemical engineering to be a science of itself, unit operations in a 1922 report, and with which principle, it had published a list of academic institutions which offered satisfactory chemical engineering courses. Meanwhile, promoting chemical engineering as a science in Britain lead to the establishment of the Institution of Chemical Engineers in 1922. IChemE likewise helped make unit operations considered essential to the discipline, by the 1940s, it became clear that unit operations alone was insufficient in developing chemical reactors. While the predominance of unit operations in chemical engineering courses in Britain, along with other novel concepts, such process systems engineering, a second paradigm was defined. Transport phenomena gave an analytical approach to chemical engineering while PSE focused on its elements, such as control system
9.
Chemical Biology
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Chemical biology is a scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry, biology, and physics. It involves the application of techniques, tools, and analyses. Chemical biologists attempt to use chemical principles to modulate systems to investigate the underlying biology or create new function. Research done by chemical biologists is often related to that of cell biology than biochemistry. Some forms of chemical biology attempt to answer questions by directly probing living systems at the chemical level. In this sense, it is related to fields such as proteomics. Proteomics investigates the proteome, the set of expressed proteins at a time under defined conditions. Current goals in proteomics include determining protein sequences, abundance and any post-translational modifications, also of interest are protein–protein interactions, cellular distribution of proteins and understanding protein activity. Another important aspect of proteomics is the advancement of technology to achieve these goals, protein levels, modifications, locations, and interactions are complex and dynamic properties. With this complexity in mind, experiments need to be designed to answer specific questions especially in the face of the massive amounts of data that are generated by these analyses. The most valuable information comes from proteins that are expressed differently in a system being studied and these proteins can be compared relative to each other using quantitative proteomics, which allows a protein to be labeled with a mass tag. Proteomic technologies must be sensitive and robust, it is for these reasons, the high precision of mass spectrometry can distinguish between closely related species and species of interest can be isolated and fragmented within the instrument. Its applications to protein analysis was possible in the late 1980s with the development of protein. These breakthroughs were ESI and MALDI, mass spectrometry technologies are modular and can be chosen or optimized to the system of interest. Chemical biologists are poised to impact proteomics through the development of techniques, probes and these approaches include the development of enrichment strategies, chemical affinity tags and probes. Samples for Proteomics contain a myriad of peptide sequences, the sequence of interest may be represented or of low abundance. However, for successful MS analysis the peptide should be enriched within the sample, reduction of sample complexity is achieved through selective enrichment using affinity chromatography techniques. This involves targeting a peptide with a feature like a biotin label or a post translational modification
10.
US News and World Report
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U. S. News & World Report is an American media company that publishes news, opinion, consumer advice, rankings, and analysis. Founded as a magazine in 1933, U. S. News transitioned to primarily web-based publishing in 2010. The rankings are popular in North America but have drawn criticism from colleges, administrations, and students for their dubious, disparate. The ranking system by U. S. News is usually contrasted with the Washington Monthly, United States News was founded in 1933 by David Lawrence, who also started World Report in 1946. The two magazines covered national and international news separately, but Lawrence merged them into U. S. News & World Report in 1948 and subsequently sold the magazine to his employees. Historically, the magazine tended to be more conservative than its two primary competitors, Time and Newsweek, and focused more on economic, health. It also eschewed sports, entertainment, and celebrity news, important milestones in the early history of the magazine include the introduction of the Washington Whispers column in 1934 and the News You Can Use column in 1952. In 1958, the magazines circulation passed one million and reached two million by 1973. Since 1983, it has become known primarily for its influential ranking and annual reports of colleges and graduate schools, spanning across most fields and its print edition was consistently included in national bestseller lists, augmented by online subscriptions. Additional rankings published by U. S. News & World Report include hospitals, in October 1984, publisher and real estate developer Mortimer B. Zuckerman purchased U. S. News & World Report. Zuckerman is also the owner of the New York Daily News, in 1993, U. S. News & World Report entered the digital world by providing content to CompuServe and in 1995, the website usnews. com was launched. In 2001, the won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence Online. In 2007, U. S. News & World Report published its first list of the nations best high schools and its ranking methodology includes state test scores and the success of poor and minority students on these exams, and schools performance in Advanced Placement exams. Starting in June 2008, the magazine reduced its frequency in three steps. It switched in June 2008 from weekly to biweekly, in November 2008 it decreased to monthly. In November 2010, it was reported that U. S, moving forward, the publication expressed its plans to focus mainly on research and the provision of relevant information to students pursuing higher education. Its rankings and university guide books are available in print at the majority of bookstores and magazine vendors in the United States, selling millions of copies on an annual basis. In June 2008, citing the overall magazine circulation and advertising, U. S. News & World Report announced that it would become a biweekly publication
11.
National Medal of Science
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The twelve member presidential Committee on the National Medal of Science is responsible for selecting award recipients and is administered by the National Science Foundation. The National Medal of Science was established on August 25,1959, the medal was originally to honor scientists in the fields of the physical, biological, mathematical, or engineering sciences. The Committee on the National Medal of Science was established on August 23,1961, on January 7,1979, the American Association for the Advancement of Science passed a resolution proposing that the medal be expanded to include the social and behavioral sciences. In response, Senator Ted Kennedy introduced the Science and Technology Equal Opportunities Act into the Senate on March 7,1979, President Jimmy Carters signature enacted this change as Public Law 96-516 on December 12,1980. The first National Medal of Science was awarded on February 18,1963, the first woman to receive a National Medal of Science was Barbara McClintock, who was awarded for her work on plant genetics in 1970. Although Public Law 86-209 provides for 20 recipients of the medal per year, it is typical for approximately 8–15 accomplished scientists, there have been a number of years where no National Medals of Science were awarded. Those years include,1985,1984,1980,1978,1977,1972 and 1971, the awards ceremony is organized by the Office of Science and Technology Policy. It takes place at the White House and is presided by the sitting United States president, each year the National Science Foundation sends out a call to the scientific community for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Science. Individuals are nominated by their peers with each nomination requiring three letters of support from individuals in science and technology, the nomination of a candidate is effective for three years, at the end of three years, the candidates peers are allowed to renominate the candidate. The Committee makes their recommendations to the President for the final awarding decision, the National Medal of Science depicts Man, surrounded by earth, sea, and sky, contemplating and struggling to understand Nature. The crystal in his hand represents the order and also suggests the basic unit of living things. The formula being outlined in the sand symbolizes scientific abstraction
12.
National Medal of Technology
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The award may be granted to a specific person, to a group of people or to an entire organization or corporation. It is the highest honor the United States can confer to a US citizen for achievements related to technological progress, the National Medal of Technology was created in 1980 by the United States Congress under the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act. It was an effort to foster technological innovation and the technological competitiveness of the United States in the international arena. The first National Medals of Technology were issued in 1985 by then-U. S, President Ronald Reagan to 12 individuals and one company. Among the first recipients were Steve Jobs and Stephen Wozniak, founders of Apple Computer, the medal has since been awarded annually. On August 9,2007, President George Bush signed the America COMPETES Act of 2007, the Act amended Section 16 of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980, changing the name of the Medal to the National Medal of Technology and Innovation. Each year the Technology Administration under the U. S. Department of Commerce calls for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Technology, candidates are nominated by their peers who have direct, first-hand knowledge of the candidates achievements. Candidates may be individuals, teams of individuals, organizations or corporations, individuals and all members of teams nominated must be U. S. citizens and organizations and corporations must be U. S. -owned. All nominations are referred to the National Medal of Technology Evaluation Committee which issues recommendations to the U. S. Secretary of Commerce, all nominees selected as finalists through the merit review process will be subject to an FBI security check. Information collected through the security check may be considered in the selection of winners. The Secretary of Commerce is then able to advise the President of the United States as to which candidates ought to receive the National Medal of Technology. The new National Medal of Technology laureates are announced by the U. S. President once the final selections have been made. As of 2005, there have more than 135 individuals and 12 companies recognized. Summarized here is a list of laureates and a summary of their accomplishments
13.
Presidential Medal of Freedom
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The Presidential Medal of Freedom is an award bestowed by the President of the United States and is—along with the comparable Congressional Gold Medal—the highest civilian award of the United States. The award is not limited to U. S. citizens and, while it is an award, it can also be awarded to military personnel. It was established in 1963 by President John F. Kennedy, President John F. Kennedy established the current decoration in 1963 through Executive Order 11085, with unique and distinctive insignia, vastly expanded purpose, and far higher prestige. It was the first U. S. civilian neck decoration and, in the grade of Awarded With Distinction, is the only U. S. sash and star decoration. The Executive Order calls for the medal to be awarded annually on or around July 4, and at other convenient times as chosen by the president, Recipients are selected by the president, either on his own initiative or based on recommendations. The order establishing the medal also expanded the size and the responsibilities of the Distinguished Civilian Service Awards Board so it could serve as a source of such recommendations. The medal may be awarded to a more than once. It may also be awarded posthumously, examples include John F, golden American bald eagles with spread wings stand between the points of the star. It is worn around the neck on a ribbon with white edge stripes. When the medal With Distinction is awarded, the star may be presented descending from a neck ribbon, the sash and medal of the Presidential Medal of Freedom with distinction has never been worn in public since its inception. Andrew Presidential Medal of Freedom, an article from jfklibrary. org, Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients, a list of recipients from May 5,1993, through August 19,2009, from senate. gov, the U. S. Senates official website. Hosted on georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov, a section of the U. S. National Archives, Medal of Freedom Ceremony, a news release, August 12,2009, from the White House Press Secretary at whitehouse. gov, the White Houses official website. War Figures Honored With Medal of Freedom, The New York Times, December 15,2004
14.
Nobel Prizes
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The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances. The will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895, the prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, between 1901 and 2016, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 579 times to 911 people and organisations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 23 organisations, the prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden. Each recipient, or laureate, receives a medal, a diploma. The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics. The prize is not awarded posthumously, however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden and he was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill and this invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite, Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous. In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, as it was Alfreds brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered and this inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million SEK, to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Because of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobels will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobels fortune, Nobels instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established and these were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded, and, in 1900, in 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved
15.
MIT
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
16.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
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It is managed and operated by the University of California. The laboratory overlooks the University of California, Berkeleys main campus, the laboratory was founded in August 26,1931 by Ernest Lawrence as the Radiation Laboratory of the University of California, Berkeley associated with the Physics Department. It centered physics research around his new instrument, the cyclotron, throughout the 1930s, Lawrence pushed to create larger and larger machines for physics research, courting private philanthropists for funding. The lab moved to its site atop the hill above campus in 1940 as its machines, specifically the 184-inch cyclotron, lawrences lab helped contribute to what has been judged to be the three most valuable technology developments of the war. The cyclotron was finished in November 1946, the Manhattan Project shut down two months later, after the war, Lawrence maintained strong government and military ties at his lab, which became incorporated into the new system of Atomic Energy Commission National Laboratories. For security purposes, classified weapons research was assigned to the isolated locations, the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico. Livermore, about an hours drive southeast of Berkeley, was established at a naval air station in 1952 by Lawrence. Weapons-related and collaborative research continued at Berkeley Lab until the 1970s, shortly after the death of Lawrence in August 1958, the UC Radiation Laboratory was renamed the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory. The Berkeley location became the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in 1971, although continued to call it the Rad Lab. Gradually, another shortened form came into common usage, LBL and its formal name was amended to Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 1995, when National was added to the names of all DOE labs. Ernest Orlando was later dropped to shorten the name, today, the lab is commonly referred to as Berkeley Lab. Over 1700 memos are available on-line, hosted by the Laboratory and it was Lawrence’s belief that scientific research is best done through teams of individuals with different fields of expertise, working together. His teamwork concept is a Berkeley Lab tradition that continues today, about 2,500 scientist-users carry out research at ALS every year. Berkeley Lab is proposing an upgrade of ALS which would increase the coherent flux of soft x-rays by two-three orders of magnitude, the Joint Genome Institute supports genomic research in support of the DOE missions in alternative energy, glocal carbon cycling, and environmental management. The JGIs partner laboratories are Berkeley Lab, Lawrence Livermore National Lab, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, approximately 1,200 scientist-users take advantage of JGIs capabilities for their research every year. The Molecular Foundry is a multidisciplinary nanoscience research facility that provides users access to cutting-edge instrumentation. Approximately 700 scientist-users make use of facilities in their research every year. The National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center is the computing facility that provides large-scale state-of-the-art computing for the DOEs unclassified research programs
17.
Berkelium
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Berkelium is a transuranic radioactive chemical element with symbol Bk and atomic number 97. It is a member of the actinide and transuranium element series and it is named after the city of Berkeley, California, the location of the University of California Radiation Laboratory where it was discovered in December 1949. This was the fifth transuranium element discovered after neptunium, plutonium, curium and americium, the production of the second-most important isotope 247Bk involves the irradiation of the rare isotope 244Cm with high-energy alpha particles. Just over one gram of berkelium has been produced in the United States since 1967, there is no practical application of berkelium outside of scientific research which is mostly directed at the synthesis of heavier transuranic elements and transactinides. A22 milligram batch of berkelium-249 was prepared during a 250-day irradiation period and this sample was used to synthesize the element tennessine for the first time in 2009 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Russia, after it was bombarded with calcium-48 ions for 150 days. This was the culmination of the Russia–US collaboration on the synthesis of elements 113 to 118, berkelium is a soft, silvery-white, radioactive metal. The berkelium-249 isotope emits low-energy electrons and thus is relatively safe to handle and it decays with a half-life of 330 days to californium-249, which is a strong emitter of ionizing alpha particles. Berkelium is a soft, silvery-white, radioactive actinide metal and its density of 14.78 g/cm3 lies between those of curium and californium, as does its melting point of 986 °C, below that of curium but higher than that of californium. Berkelium is relatively soft and has one of the lowest bulk moduli among the actinides, berkelium ions shows two sharp fluorescence peaks at 652 nanometers and 742 nanometers due to internal transitions at the f-electron shell. The relative intensity of these depends on the excitation power. This emission can be observed, for example, after dispersing berkelium ions in a silicate glass, between 70 K and room temperature, berkelium behaves as a Curie–Weiss paramagnetic material with an effective magnetic moment of 9.69 Bohr magnetons and a Curie temperature of 101 K. This magnetic moment is almost equal to the value of 9.72 µB calculated within the simple atomic L-S coupling model. Upon cooling to about 34 K, berkelium undergoes a transition to an antiferromagnetic state, enthalpy of dissolution in hydrochloric acid at standard conditions is −600 kJ/mol−1, from which the standard enthalpy change of formation of aqueous Bk3+ ions is obtained as −601 kJ/mol−1. The standard potential Bk3+/Bk0 is −2.01 V, the ionization potential of a neutral berkelium atom is 6.23 eV. At ambient conditions, berkelium assumes its most stable α form which has a symmetry, space group P63/mmc. The crystal has a close packing structure with the layer sequence ABAC and so is isotypic with α-lanthanum. This crystal structure changes with pressure and temperature, when compressed at room temperature to 7 GPa, α-berkelium transforms to the beta modification, which has a face-centered cubic symmetry and space group Fm3m. This transition occurs without change in volume, but the enthalpy increases by 3.66 kJ/mol, upon further compression to 25 GPa, berkelium transforms to an orthorhombic γ-berkelium structure similar to that of α-uranium
18.
Seaborgium
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Seaborgium is a chemical element with symbol Sg and atomic number 106. It is named after the American nuclear chemist Glenn T. Seaborg and it is a synthetic element and radioactive, the most stable known isotope, 269Sg, has a half-life of approximately 3.1 minutes. In the periodic table of the elements, it is a transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and belongs to the group 6 elements as the member of the 6d series of transition metals. Chemistry experiments have confirmed that seaborgium behaves as the homologue to tungsten in group 6. The chemical properties of seaborgium are characterized only partly, but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group 6 elements, in 1974, a few atoms of seaborgium were produced in laboratories in the former Soviet Union and in the United States. It is one of two elements named after a living person at the time of naming, the other being oganesson. Two groups claimed discovery of the element, in total, fifty-one spontaneous fission events were observed with a half-life between four and ten milliseconds. The isotope in question was first suggested to be seaborgium-259, but was corrected to seaborgium-260. 208 82Pb +54 24Cr →260 106Sg +2 n 207 82Pb +54 24Cr →260 106Sg + n A few months later in 1974, researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, including Glenn T. 9±0.2 seconds. The cross-section of the observed,0.3 nanobarns. These bolstered the assignment of the decay events to seaborgium-263m. As such, the TWG recognised the Berkeley team as discoverers in their 1993 report. However, due to the relations between the competing teams after the publication of the TWG report, this proposal was dropped from consideration by the Berkeley team. However, IUPAC resolved in August 1994 that an element could not be named after a living person, at first, IUPAC defended itself, with an American member of its committee writing, Discoverers dont have a right to name an element. They have a right to suggest a name, and, of course, we didnt infringe on that at all. This list was finally accepted by the American Chemical Society, which wrote, Seaborg commented regarding the naming, Seaborg died a year, super-heavy elements such as seaborgium are produced by bombarding lighter elements in particle accelerators that induces fusion reactions. Whereas most of the isotopes of seaborgium can be synthesized directly this way, depending on the energies involved, the former are separated into hot and cold
19.
Glenn Seaborg
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Glenn Theodore Seaborg was an American chemist whose involvement in the synthesis, discovery and investigation of ten transuranium elements earned him a share of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. His work in this also led to his development of the actinide concept. He advised ten US Presidents – from Harry S, throughout his career, Seaborg worked for arms control. He was a signatory to the Franck Report and contributed to the Limited Test Ban Treaty, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and he was a well-known advocate of science education and federal funding for pure research. After sharing the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Edwin McMillan, he received approximately 50 honorary doctorates and numerous other awards, the list of things named after Seaborg ranges from his atomic element to an asteroid. He was an author, penning numerous books and 500 journal articles. He was once listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the person with the longest entry in Whos Who in America, Glenn Theodore Seaborg was born in Ishpeming, Michigan, on April 19,1912, the son of Herman Theodore and Selma Olivia Erickson Seaborg. He had one sister, Jeanette, who was two years younger and his family spoke Swedish at home. When Glenn Seaborg was a boy, the moved to Los Angeles County, California, settling in a subdivision called Home Gardens, later annexed to the City of South Gate. About this time he changed the spelling of his first name from Glen to Glenn, Seaborg kept a daily journal from 1927 until he suffered a stroke in 1998. As a youth, Seaborg was both a sports fan and an avid movie buff. His mother encouraged him to become a bookkeeper as she felt his interests were impractical. He did not take an interest in science until his year when he was inspired by Dwight Logan Reid. Seaborg graduated from Jordan in 1929 at the top of his class and received a bachelor of degree in chemistry at the University of California, Los Angeles. He worked his way through school as a stevedore and an assistant at Firestone. Seaborg was a member of the chemistry fraternity Alpha Chi Sigma. As a graduate student in the 1930s Seaborg performed wet chemistry research for his advisor Gilbert Newton Lewis, and published three papers with him on the theory of acids and bases. Seaborg studied the text Applied Radiochemistry by Otto Hahn, of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin, for several years, Seaborg conducted important research in artificial radioactivity using the Lawrence cyclotron at UC Berkeley
20.
John Maxson Stillman
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John Maxson Stillman was a pioneer of the history of science in the United States. He was also the first head of the department at Stanford University. His most enduring work was the published book The Story of Early Chemistry, decades later republished as The Story of Alchemy. At Stanford, Stillman focused mostly on teaching and administration and he retired in 1917, and concentrated on writing thereafter. A 39-page in memoriam volume was published in the year by five colleagues at Stanford. They had three daughters, Cara, Minna and Dorothy, Cara Stillman was a victim of the 1903 Iroquois Theatre fire in Chicago. Stillmans most significant work is The Story of Early Chemistry, a book published posthumously in 1924, a 1925 review in the Journal of Chemical Education by Edgar Fahs Smith found the book excellent but rather impersonal. The book was republished in 1960 by Courier Dover with the modified title The Story of Alchemy. The editor of the Ambix journal remarked in 1994 that the Dover edition of Stillmans book was still in print, of those publications, seven papers and his book on the history of alchemy were the product of his retirement years. Yet, slender as Stillman’s output may seem by modern standards, what he did write was marked by scholarship of a high quality
21.
Stanford University
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Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a private research university in Stanford, California, adjacent to Palo Alto and between San Jose and San Francisco. Its 8, 180-acre campus is one of the largest in the United States, Stanford also has land and facilities elsewhere. The university was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford in memory of their only child, Stanford was a former Governor of California and U. S. Senator, he made his fortune as a railroad tycoon. The school admitted its first students 125 years ago on October 1,1891, Stanford University struggled financially after Leland Stanfords death in 1893 and again after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II, Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would later be known as Silicon Valley. The university is one of the top fundraising institutions in the country. There are three schools that have both undergraduate and graduate students and another four professional schools. Students compete in 36 varsity sports, and the university is one of two institutions in the Division I FBS Pac-12 Conference. Stanford faculty and alumni have founded a number of companies that produce more than $2.7 trillion in annual revenue. It is the alma mater of 30 living billionaires,17 astronauts and it is also one of the leading producers of members of the United States Congress. Sixty Nobel laureates and seven Fields Medalists have been affiliated with Stanford as students, alumni, Stanford University was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford, dedicated to Leland Stanford Jr, their only child. The institution opened in 1891 on Stanfords previous Palo Alto farm, despite being impacted by earthquakes in both 1906 and 1989, the campus was rebuilt each time. In 1919, The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace was started by Herbert Hoover to preserve artifacts related to World War I, the Stanford Medical Center, completed in 1959, is a teaching hospital with over 800 beds. The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, which was established in 1962, in 2008, 60% of this land remained undeveloped. Besides the central campus described below, the university also operates at more remote locations, some elsewhere on the main campus. Stanfords main campus includes a place within unincorporated Santa Clara County. The campus also includes land in unincorporated San Mateo County, as well as in the city limits of Menlo Park, Woodside. The academic central campus is adjacent to Palo Alto, bounded by El Camino Real, Stanford Avenue, Junipero Serra Boulevard, the United States Postal Service has assigned it two ZIP codes,94305 for campus mail and 94309 for P. O. box mail
22.
UC Berkeley College of Letters and Science
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The College of Letters and Science is the largest of the 14 colleges at the University of California, Berkeley and encompasses the liberal arts. The college was established in its present state in 1915 with the merger of the College of Letters, the College of Social Science, as of the 2013-14 academic year, there were about 19,000 undergraduates and 2,763 graduate students enrolled in the college. L&S is organized into five divisions, Arts and Humanities, Biological Science, Mathematical and Physical Sciences, Social Sciences, of the graduate divisions, Social Sciences is the most popular, followed by Mathematical and Physical Sciences, Arts and Humanities, and Biological Science. The Undergraduate Division serves the 19,000 undergraduate students in L&S, each division has its own administration, including a dean, associate dean, and assistant deans. Mark Richards, dean of the Division of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, serves as the Colleges executive dean, L&S has about 800 faculty members, including 13 Nobel laureates,3 Pulitzer Prize winners, and 12 MacArthur Fellows. The majority of undergraduates at the University are enrolled in the College of Letters, although freshman applicants indicate an area of interest on their applications, all freshmen in L&S enter as undeclared majors. This contrasts with other colleges at UC Berkeley, such as the College of Engineering. L&S undergraduates must declare a major before they begin their junior year, capped majors are impacted and have more stringent declaration policies. All undergraduates in L&S must complete classes in reading & composition, quantitative reasoning, foreign language, L&S offers a wide variety of graduate programs, including masters and doctorate programs. Many of these programs are ranked within the top five in their field by U. S. News, two programs, Jewish Studies and Near Eastern Religions, are joint programs with the Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley. One program, Medical Anthropology, is a joint program with UCSF, the L&S graduate division serves 87 masters/first professional students and 2,676 doctoral students as of Fall 2013
23.
UC Berkeley College of Engineering
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The College of Engineering is one of 14 schools and colleges at the University of California, Berkeley. Ranked third in the world, after the programs at MIT and Stanford, according to U. S. News & World Report. The college was established in 1931 from a merger of the Colleges of Mechanics, the College of Mining was integrated into the college in 1942. The college is situated in 14 buildings on the northeast side of the central campus. There are over 57,000 living graduates of the College of Engineering, living in all 50 states and nearly 100 countries, berkeleys chemical engineering department is under the College of Chemistry. There are approximately 3,200 undergraduates in the College of Engineering, representing all departments, undergraduate admissions to the College of Engineering is the most selective in the university as a whole. For the 2016-2017 application cycle, the rate has continued to stay at a low 8. 4%. The campus as a whole had a 17. 5% acceptance rate that year, applicants apply directly to one of the departments and enter as declared majors within their department. It is also possible to apply as Engineering Undeclared and enter the college, once within the college, it is possible to change majors with the approval of Engineering Student Services. It is extremely difficult for undergraduates in colleges at UC Berkeley to change college into Engineering. The College of Engineering accepts junior transfer applications for those who have completed at least 60 semester units at another college or university, preference is given to students at California Community Colleges. Only 9. 2% of the over 2,300 junior transfer applicants were admitted for the 2015-16 academic year. Dean Shankar Sastry has stated that the disparity between the colleges and the universitys acceptance rates is due to the failure to respond to the rise in demand for engineering degrees. 85% of undergraduates admitted to the college graduate from the college, the college has a 4-year graduation policy, with extra semesters approved only in certain cases. Engineering Student Services provides academic advising, peer tutoring, and career services to engineering students, various student organizations are run in conjunction with the college, including Pioneers in Engineering, Hackers @ Berkeley, Berkeley Engineers and Mentors, and the Open Computing Facility. Many students belong to the student chapters of their corresponding professional organizations, graduate admissions in the College of Engineering is administered by department. In Fall 2015, there were 492.5 masters and 1,337 doctorate students in the college, the colleges enrollment is approximately 26% women. Although the proportion of women has increased over time, issues of gender disparity in the college remain, according to a 2011 survey, female engineers reported a high number of instances of passive harassment, discrimination, and judgment
24.
National Academy of Sciences
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The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
25.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Dædalus, the Academys quarterly journal, is widely regarded as one of the worlds leading intellectual journals. The Academy is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Academy was established by the Massachusetts legislature on May 4th,1780. Its purpose, as described in its charter, is to cultivate every art and science which may tend to advance the interest, honor, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The sixty-two incorporating fellows represented varying interests and high standing in the political, professional, the first class of new members, chosen by the Academy in 1781, included Benjamin Franklin and George Washington as well as several foreign honorary members. The initial volume of Academy Memoirs appeared in 1785, and the Proceedings followed in 1846, in the 1950s the Academy launched its journal Daedalus, reflecting its commitment to a broader intellectual and socially-oriented program. The Academy has sponsored a number of awards throughout its history and its first award, established in 1796 by Benjamin Thompson, honored distinguished work on heat and light and provided support for research activities. Additional prizes recognized important contributions in the sciences, social sciences, since the second half of the twentieth century, policy research has become a central focus of the Academy. In the late 1950s, arms control emerged as a concern of the Academy. The Academy also served as the catalyst in establishing the National Humanities Center in North Carolina, in 2002, the Academy established a visiting scholars program in association with Harvard University. More than 60 academic institutions from across the country have become Affiliates of the Academy to support this program, robert Oppenheimer, Willa Cather, T. S. Eliot, Edward R. Murrow, Jonas Salk, Eudora Welty, and Duke Ellington. Astronomer Maria Mitchell was the first woman to be elected to the Academy, the current membership encompasses over 4,900 Fellows and 600 Foreign Honorary Members on the roster, including more than 250 Nobel laureates and more than 60 Pulitzer Prize winners. The current membership is divided into five classes and twenty-four sections, Class I – Mathematical and Physical Sciences Section 1. Applied Mathematics and Statistics Section 2, astronomy and Earth Science Section 5. Engineering Sciences and Technologies Section 6, computer Sciences Class II – Biological Sciences Section 1. Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology Section 2, cellular and Developmental Biology, Microbiology and Immunology Section 3. Neurosciences, Cognitive Sciences, and Behavioral Biology Section 4, evolutionary and Population Biology and Ecology Section 5. Medical Sciences, Clinical Medicine, and Public Health Class III – Social Sciences Section 1, Social and Developmental Psychology and Education Section 2. Political Science, International Relations, and Public Policy Section 4, archaeology, Anthropology, Sociology, Geography and Demography Class IV – Arts and Humanities Section 1
26.
Gilman Hall
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Gilman Hall is a building on the campus of the University of California, Berkeley. Room 307 was where Glenn T. Seaborg and his coworkers identified plutonium as a new element on February 23,1941, the building itself is designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark, recognizing the two Nobel Prizes in Chemistry that have resulted from research done in the building. Gilman Hall was built from 1916 to 1917 to accommodate an expanded College of Chemistry under the leadership of Gilbert N. Lewis, designed by John Galen Howard, the building provided research and teaching facilities for faculty and students specializing in physical, inorganic and nuclear chemistry. It was named for Daniel Coit Gilman, president of the University of California from 1872 to 1875, in 1942, the Berkeley campus became quite involved in the war effort of World War II. The top floor, or attic, of Gilman Hall was fenced off for classified work in nuclear chemistry, half of the rooms in the attic had small balconies that could be used as outdoor fume hoods, but the actual hoods in Gilman Hall were not equipped with fans. They operated only as chimneys, with a flame that produced a draft. For the war work, electrically powered fans were installed to vent the hoods. Plutonium research in Gilman Hall was part of the Manhattan Project to develop the atomic bomb, in 1942, Seaborg left Berkeley to join the Manhattan Project in Chicago. He returned to Berkeley after the war and directed the nuclear chemistry research. Two Nobel Prizes in Chemistry have been awarded for research done in the building, the first was to William Giauque in 1949 for his studies in the properties of matter at temperatures close to absolute zero. Seaborg received the one in 1951 for discoveries in the transuranium elements. Four other individuals who did research here received Nobel Prizes for later work as well, Gilman Hall has been used continuously by the College of Chemistry for 80 years, today it is occupied by the Department of Chemical Engineering. Following the FUSRAP remediation work, Gillman Hall has been certified as safe to current radiologic standards, the University of California is responsible for maintenance and monitoring of the shielded contamination. Room 307, Gilman Hall, University of California, World War II in the San Francisco Bay Area. Gilman Hall on the UC Berkeley campus is now an official National Historic Chemical Landmark, heathcock, Clayton H. Lewis, Gilbert N. Looking Ahead, Welcome to Harris and on to QB3, archived from the original on 2007-02-07. Room 307 Gilman Hall, University of California and this article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Park Service
27.
Neil Bartlett (chemist)
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Neil Bartlett was a chemist who specialized in fluorine and compounds containing fluorine, and became famous for creating the first noble gas compounds. He taught chemistry at the University of British Columbia and the University of California, Neil Bartlett was born on 15 September 1932 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England. He explored chemistry by constructing a makeshift lab in his home using chemicals. He went on to attend Kings College, University of Durham in the United Kingdom where he obtained a Bachelor of Science and then a doctorate. In 1958, Bartletts career began upon being appointed a lecturer in chemistry at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, BC, during his time at the university he made his seminal discovery that noble gases were indeed reactive enough to form bonds. He remained there until 1966, when he moved to Princeton University as a professor of chemistry and he then went on to join the chemistry department at the University of California, Berkeley in 1969 as a professor of chemistry until his retirement in 1993. He was also a staff scientist at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory from 1969 to 1999, in 2000, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. He died on August 5,2008 of an aortic aneurysm. He lived with his wife Christina Bartlett until his death, Bartletts main specialty was the chemistry of fluorine and of compounds containing fluorine. In 1962, Bartlett prepared the first noble gas compound, xenon hexafluoroplatinate and this contradicted established models of the nature of valency, as it was believed that all noble gases were entirely inert to chemical combination. He subsequently produced and reproduced several other fluorides of xenon, XeF2, XeF4, by exploiting the solvent and basic properties of XeF6, he was able to prepare the first quinquevalent gold compound, Xe2F11+AuF6− In 1968 he was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal. In 1973, he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society, in 1976 he received the Welch Award in Chemistry for his synthesis of chemical compounds of noble gases and the consequent opening of broad new fields of research in the inorganic chemistry. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, in 1979, he was honored as a Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences. He was awarded the prestigious Davy Medal in 2002 for his discovery that the gases were not that noble after all. In January 1963, Bartlett and his student, P. R. Rao, were hospitalized after an explosion in the laboratory. As they looked at what they thought might be the first crystals of XeF2, according to Bartlett, he thought that the compound may have contained water molecules, and he and Rao took off their glasses to get a better look. They were both taken to the hospital for four weeks, and Bartlett was left blind in one eye, the last piece of glass from this accident was removed 27 years later. Christe, Karl O. Obituary, Neil Bartlett, MSU Gallery of Chemists Photo-Portraits and Mini-Biographies, Neil Bartlett
28.
Melvin Calvin
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Melvin Ellis Calvin was an American biochemist most famed for discovering the Calvin cycle along with Andrew Benson and James Bassham, for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He spent most of his career at the University of California. Calvin was born in St. Paul, Minnesota, the son of Elias Calvin and Rose Herwitz, as a small child Calvins family moved to Detroit, he graduated from Central High School in 1928. Melvin Calvin earned his Bachelor of Science from the Michigan College of Mining and Technology in 1931 and he then spent the next four years doing postdoctoral work at the University of Manchester. He married Marie Genevieve Jemtegaard in 1942, and they had three children, two daughters and a son, Calvin joined the faculty at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1937 and was promoted to Professor of Chemistry in 1947. Calvin was the recipient of the 1961 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for what is sometimes known as the Calvin–Benson–Bassham Cycle. Calvin wrote an autobiography three decades later titled Following the Trail of Light, A Scientific Odyssey, during the 1950s he was among the first members of the Society for General Systems Research. In 1963 he was given the title of Professor of Molecular Biology. In his final years of research, he studied the use of oil-producing plants as renewable sources of energy. He also spent many years testing the chemical evolution of life, Benson himself has also mentioned being fired by Calvin, and has complained about not being mentioned in his autobiography. Calvin was elected a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts. Calvin was featured on the 2011 volume of the American Scientists collection of US postage stamps, along with Asa Gray, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, and Severo Ochoa
29.
William F. Giauque
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William Francis Giauque was an American chemist and Nobel laureate recognized in 1949 for his studies in the properties of matter at temperatures close to absolute zero. He spent virtually all of his educational and professional career at the University of California, william Francis Giauque was born in Niagara Falls, Ontario, on May 12,1895. As his parents were U. S. citizens, they returned to the U. S. where he attended public schools primarily in Michigan. Following the death of his father in 1908, the returned to Niagara Falls. After graduation, he looked for work in power plants at Niagara Falls both for financial reasons and to pursue a career in electrical engineering. Eventually, however, his application was accepted by the Hooker Electro-Chemical Company in Niagara Falls, New York and he enjoyed the work, and decided to become a chemical engineer. After two years of employment, he entered the College of Chemistry of the University of California, Berkeley and he entered graduate school at Berkeley, becoming a University Fellow and a James M. Goewey Fellow. He received the Ph. D. degree in chemistry with a minor in physics in 1922, although he began university study with an interest in becoming an engineer, he soon developed an interest in research under the influence of Professor Gilbert N. Lewis. The principal objective of his researches was to demonstrate through range of tests that the third law of thermodynamics is a basic natural law. In 1926, he proposed a method for observing temperatures considerably below one kelvin, macDougall between 1933 and 1935 successfully employed them. He developed a magnetic refrigeration device of his own design in order to achieve this outcome and this trailblazing work, apart from proving one of the fundamental laws of nature led to stronger steel, better gasoline and more efficient processes in a range of industries. His researches and that of his students included a number of entropy determinations from low temperature measurements. The entropies and other properties of many gases were also determined from quantum statistics. His correlated investigations of the entropy of oxygen with Dr. Herrick L, in 1932, Giauque married Dr. Muriel Frances Ashley and they had two sons. He died on March 28,1982 in Berkeley, California, Shampo, Marc A, Kyle, Robert A, Steensma, David P. Stamp vignette on medical science. William F. Giauque—Nobel Prize for low-temperature research, M. A. Shampo, R. A. Kyle, D. P. Steensma. William F. Giauque—Nobel Prize for Low-Temperature Research
30.
Dudley R. Herschbach
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Dudley Robert Herschbach is an American chemist at Harvard University. He won the 1986 Nobel Prize in Chemistry jointly with Yuan T. Lee, polanyi for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes. Herschbach and Lee specifically worked with molecular beams, performing crossed molecular beam experiments that enabled a detailed understanding of many elementary reaction processes. Herschbach is a member of the Board of Sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Herschbach was born in San Jose, California on June 18,1932. The eldest of six children, he grew up in a rural area and he graduated from Campbell High School, where he played football. Offered both athletic and academic scholarships to Stanford University, Herschbach chose the academic and his freshman advisor, Harold S. Johnston, hired him as a summer research assistant, and taught him chemical kinetics in his senior year. His masters research involved calculating Arrhenius A-factors for gas-phase reactions, Herschbach received a B. S. in mathematics in 1954 and an M. S. in chemistry in 1955 from Stanford University. Herschbach then attended Harvard University where he earned a A. M. in physics in 1956, at Harvard, Herschbach examined tunnel splitting in molecules, using microwave spectroscopy. He was awarded a three-year Junior Fellowship in the Society of Fellows at Harvard, in 1959, Herschbach joined the University of California at Berkeley, where he was appointed an Assistant Professor of Chemistry and became an Associate Professor in 1961. At Berkeley, he and graduate students George Kwei and James Norris constructed a cross-beam instrument large enough for reactive scattering experiments involve alkali and his interest in studying elementary chemical processes in molecular-beam reactive collisions challenged an often-accepted belief that collisions do not occur in crossed molecular beams. As the research continued, it possible to correlate the electronic structure of reactants and products with the reaction dynamics. In 1963, Herschbach returned to Harvard University as a professor of chemistry, there he continued his work on molecular-beam reactive dynamics, working with graduate students Sanford Safron and Walter Miller on the reactions of alkali atoms with alkali halides. His most acclaimed work, for which he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1986 with Yuan T. Lee, polanyi, was his collaboration with Yuan T. Lee on crossed molecular beam experiments. For their contributions to dynamics, Herschbach and Lee are considered to have helped create a new field of research in chemistry. Herschbach is a pioneer in molecular stereodynamics, measuring and theoretically interpreting the role of angular momentum, in the course of his lifes work in research, Herschbach has published over 400 scientific papers. Herschbach has applied his expertise in both the theory and practice of chemistry and physics to diverse problems in chemical physics, including theoretical work on dimensional scaling. His recent work includes a collaboration with Steven Brams studying approval voting. Herschbach has also lent his voice to the television show The Simpsons for the episode Treehouse of Horror XIV where he is seen presenting the Nobel Prize in Physics to Professor Frink
31.
Darleane Hoffman
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Darleane C. Hoffman is an American nuclear chemist who was among the researchers who confirmed the existence of Seaborgium, element 106. She is a faculty senior scientist in the Nuclear Science Division of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Darleane Christian was born at home in the small town of Terril, Iowa, daughter of Carl B. and Elverna Clute Christian. Her father was a teacher and superintendent of schools, her mother wrote. When Darleane Christian was a freshman in college at Iowa State University, she took a chemistry course taught by Nellie May Naylor. She received her B. S. and Ph. D. degrees in chemistry from Iowa State University. Darleane C. Hoffman was a chemist at Oak Ridge National Laboratory for a year and she became Division Leader of the Chemistry and Nuclear Chemistry Division in 1979. She left Los Alamos in 1984 to accept appointments as tenured professor in the Department of Chemistry at UC-Berkeley, right after finishing her doctoral work, Darleane Christian married Marvin M. Hoffman, a physicist. The Hoffmans had two children, Maureane and Daryl, both born at Los Alamos, priestley Medal,2000 National Medal of Science,1997 Garvan-Olin Medal,1990 ACS Award for Nuclear Chemistry,1983 Guggenheim Fellowship,1978 Member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. Darleane Hoffman, Harold Johnston to Receive National Medal of Science
32.
Yuan T. Lee
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Yuan Tseh Lee is a Taiwanese chemist. He was the first Taiwanese Nobel Prize laureate, who, along with the Hungarian-Canadian John C, polanyi and American Dudley R. Herschbach, won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1986 for their contributions to the dynamics of chemical elementary processes. Lees particular physical chemistry work was related to the use of advanced chemical kinetics techniques to investigate and manipulate the behavior of reactions using crossed molecular beams. From January 15,1994 to October 19,2006, Lee served as the President of the Academia Sinica of Taiwan, in 2011, he was elected head of the International Council for Science. Lees ancestors were Hokkiens from Quanzhou, Fujian, in the village where the Ming Dynasty philosopher Li Zhi was born. Lee played on the baseball and ping-pong teams of Hsinchu Elementary School, and later studied at the Hsinchu Senior High School, due to his achievements in high school, he entered National Taiwan University without taking the entrance examination and earned a B. Sc. in 1959. He earned an M. S. at National Tsing Hua University in 1961 and Ph. D. at the University of California and he was a member of the Chemistry International Board from 1977 to 1984. After the postdoctoral year with Herschbach he joined the University of Chicago faculty in 1968, in 1974, he returned to Berkeley as professor of chemistry and principal investigator at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, becoming a U. S. citizen the same year. Lee is a University Professor Emeritus of the University of California system, one of the major goals of chemistry is the study of material transformations where chemical kinetics plays an important role. Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius studied this phenomenon during the late 1880s, other scientists at the time also stated a chemical reaction is fundamentally a mechanical event, involving the rearrangement of atoms and molecules during a collision. Although these initial studies were only qualitative, they heralded a new era in the field of chemical kinetics. In the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, with the development of many sophisticated experimental techniques, such as the analysis of the threshold operating conditions of a chemical laser or the spectra obtained using various linear or non-linear laser spectroscopic techniques. During his tenure, Lee has worked to create new research institutes, advance scientific research within Taiwan, and to recruit and cultivate top scholars for the Academic Sinica. This would take more than a few slogans, turning off the lights for one hour, or cutting meat consumption, noting, without such efforts, he said, Taiwanese will be unable to survive long into the future. He has been involved with the Malta Conferences, a designed to bring together Middle Eastern scientists. As part of the initiative, he offered six fellowships to work on the synchrotron in Taiwan, lees father was a well-known painter in Taiwan. Besides, his brother, Yuan-Pern Lee, also awarded ths honor. Lees sister, Chi-Mei Lee has served as a professor in National Chung Hsing University, Lee married Bernice Wu Chin-li, whom he has known since elementary school
33.
Gilbert Newton Lewis
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Lewis successfully contributed to thermodynamics, photochemistry, and isotope separation, and is also known for his concept of acids and bases. G. N. Lewis was born in 1875 in Weymouth, several years later, he became the Dean of the college of Chemistry at Berkeley, where he spent the rest of his life. As a professor, he incorporated thermodynamic principles into the chemistry curriculum and he began measuring the free energy values related to several chemical processes, both organic and inorganic. In 1916, he proposed his theory of bonding and added information about electrons in the periodic table of the chemical elements. In 1933, he started his research on isotope separation, Lewis worked with hydrogen and managed to purify a sample of heavy water. He then came up with his theory of acids and bases, in 1926, Lewis coined the term photon for the smallest unit of radiant energy. He was a brother in Alpha Chi Sigma, the chemistry fraternity. Though he was nominated 41 times, G. N. Lewis never won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. On March 23,1946, Lewis was found dead in his Berkeley laboratory where he had working with hydrogen cyanide. After Lewis death, his children followed their fathers career in chemistry, Lewis was born in 1875 and raised in Weymouth, Massachusetts, where there exists a street named for him, G. N. Additionally, the wing of the new Weymouth High School Chemistry department has named in his honor. Lewis received his education at home from his parents, Frank Wesley Lewis, a lawyer of independent character. He read at age three and was intellectually precocious, in 1884 his family moved to Lincoln, Nebraska, and in 1889 he received his first formal education at the university preparatory school. In 1893, after two years at the University of Nebraska, Lewis transferred to Harvard University, where he obtained his B. S. in 1896. After a year of teaching at Harvard, Lewis took a fellowship to Germany, the center of physical chemistry. While working in Nernsts lab, Nernst and Lewis apparently developed a lifelong enmity, in the following years, Lewis started to criticize and denounce his former teacher on many occasions, calling Nernsts work on his heat theorem a regrettable episode in the history of chemistry. A friend of Nernsts, Wilhelm Palmær, was a member of the Nobel Chemistry Committee, after his stay in Nernsts lab, Lewis returned to Harvard in 1901 as an instructor for three more years. He was appointed instructor in thermodynamics and electrochemistry, in 1904 Lewis was granted a leave of absence and became Superintendent of Weights and Measures for the Bureau of Science in Manila, Philippines
34.
Willard F. Libby
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Willard Frank Libby was an American physical chemist noted for his role in the 1949 development of radiocarbon dating, a process which revolutionized archaeology and palaeontology. For his contributions to the team that developed this process, Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1960, during World War II he worked in the Manhattan Projects Substitute Alloy Materials Laboratories at Columbia University, developing the gaseous diffusion process for uranium enrichment. After the war, Libby accepted professorship at the University of Chicagos Institute for Nuclear Studies and he also discovered that tritium similarly could be used for dating water, and therefore wine. In 1950, he became a member of the General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission and he was appointed a commissioner in 1954, becoming its sole scientist. He sided with Edward Teller on pursuing a program to develop the hydrogen bomb, participated in the Atoms for Peace program. Libby resigned from the AEC in 1959 to become Professor of Chemistry at University of California, Los Angeles, in 1962, he became the Director of the University of California statewide Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics. He started the first Environmental Engineering program at UCLA in 1972, Willard Frank Libby was born in Grand Valley, Colorado, on December 17,1908, the son of farmers Ora Edward Libby and his wife Eva May. He had two brothers, Elmer and Raymond, and two sisters, Eva and Evelyn, Libby began his education in a two-room Colorado schoolhouse. When he was five, Libbys parents moved to Santa Rosa and he attended Analy High School, in Sebastopol, from which he graduated in 1926. Libby, who grew to be 6 feet 2 inches tall, independently of the work of George de Hevesy and Max Pahl, he discovered that the natural long-lived isotopes of samarium primarily decay by emission of alpha particles. Libby was appointed Instructor in the Department of Chemistry at the University of California and he became an assistant professor of Chemistry there in 1938. He spent the 1930s building sensitive Geiger counters to measure weak natural and artificial radioactivity, in 1940, Libby married Leonor Hickey, a physical education teacher. They had twin daughters, Janet Eva and Susan Charlotte, who were born in 1945 and he joined Berkeleys chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma in 1941. That year he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship, and elected to work at Princeton University, on December 8,1941, the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into World War II, Libby volunteered his services to Nobel Prize laureate Harold Urey. During his time in the New York City area, Libby was a resident of Leonia, over the next three years, Libby worked on the gaseous diffusion process for uranium enrichment. An atomic bomb required fissile material, and the fissile uranium-235 made up only 0.7 percent of natural uranium, the SAM Laboratories therefore had to find a way of separating kilograms of it from the more abundant uranium-238. Gaseous diffusion worked on the principle that a lighter gas diffuses through a faster than a heavier one at a rate inversely proportional to its molecular weight. But the only known gas containing uranium was the highly corrosive uranium hexafluoride, through 1942, Libby and his team studied different barriers and the means to protect them from corrosion from the uranium hexafluoride
35.
Kenneth Pitzer
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Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer was an American physical and theoretical chemist, educator, and university president. He received his B. S. in 1935 from the California Institute of Technology and his Ph. D. from the University of California, upon graduation, he was appointed to the faculty of UC Berkeleys Chemistry Department and was eventually elevated to professor. From 1951 to 1960, he served as dean of the College of Chemistry and he was the third president of Rice University from 1961 until 1968 and sixth president of Stanford University from 1969 until 1971. His tenure at Stanford was turbulent due to student protests, worn out by the confrontations, he announced his resignation in 1970 after a 19-month tenure. He returned to UC Berkeley in 1971 and he retired in 1984, but continued research until his death. He was Director of Research for the U. S, atomic Energy Commission from 1949 to 1951 and a member of the National Academy of Sciences. As a scientist he was known for his work on the properties of molecules. While still a student he discovered that hydrocarbon molecules do not rotate unhindered around their C-C bonds. There is in fact a barrier to rotation, an important discovery upsetting the conventional wisdom. Some of his work is summed up in the Pitzer equations describing the behavior of ions dissolved in water, during his long career he won many awards, most notably the National Medal of Science and the Priestley Medal. His father, Russell K. Pitzer, founded Pitzer College and his son, Russell M. Pitzer is also a notable chemist who is currently retired from the faculty at The Ohio State University. Pitzer equations Pitzer Strain Rossini, Frederick D. Pitzer, Kenneth S. Arnett, Raymond L. Braun, Rita M. Pimentel, George C. With acknowledgment to Gilbert Newton Lewis and Merle Randall, authors of the first edition, guide to the Kenneth S. Pitzer Papers at The Bancroft Library
36.
Rice University
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William Marsh Rice University, commonly referred to as Rice University or Rice, is a private research university located on a 295-acre campus in Houston, Texas, United States. The university is situated near the Houston Museum District and is adjacent to the Texas Medical Center, Rice is generally considered the top university and the most selective institute of higher education in the state of Texas. Opened in 1912 after the murder of its namesake William Marsh Rice, Rice is now a university with an undergraduate focus. Its emphasis on education is demonstrated by a student body and 6,1 student-faculty ratio. The university has a high level of research activity for its size. Rice is noted for its science programs in the fields of artificial heart research, structural chemical analysis, signal processing, space science. It was ranked first in the world in materials science research by the Times Higher Education in 2010, Rice is a member of the Association of American Universities. Graduate programs are offered through the Jesse H. Jones Graduate School of Business, School of Architecture, Shepherd School of Music, Rice students are bound by the strict Honor Code, which is enforced by a student-run Honor Council. Rice competes in 14 NCAA Division I varsity sports and is a part of Conference USA, intramural and club sports are offered in a wide variety of activities such as jiu jitsu, water polo, and crew. In 1891, Rice decided to charter a free-tuition educational institute in Houston, bearing his name, to be created upon his death, Rices will specified the institution was to be a competitive institution of the highest grade and that only white students would be permitted to attend. On the morning of September 23,1900, Rice, age 84, was dead by his valet. Shortly thereafter, a large check made out to Rices New York City lawyer. The lawyer, Albert T. Patrick, then announced that Rice had changed his will to leave the bulk of his fortune to Patrick, rather than to the creation of Rices educational institute. Rices friend and personal lawyer in Houston, James A. Baker, Jones was not prosecuted since he cooperated with the district attorney, and testified against Patrick. Patrick was found guilty of conspiring to steal Rices fortune and convicted of murder in 1901, Baker helped Rices estate direct the fortune, worth $4.6 million in 1904, towards the founding of what was to be called the Rice Institute. The board took control of the assets on April 29 of that year and he came recommended by Princetons president, Woodrow Wilson. In 1908, Lovett accepted the challenge, and was inaugurated as the Institutes first president on October 12,1912. Lovett undertook extensive research before formalizing plans for the new Institute, Lovett called for the establishment of a university of the highest grade, an institution of liberal and technical learning devoted quite as much to investigation as to instruction
37.
Glenn T. Seaborg
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Glenn Theodore Seaborg was an American chemist whose involvement in the synthesis, discovery and investigation of ten transuranium elements earned him a share of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. His work in this also led to his development of the actinide concept. He advised ten US Presidents – from Harry S, throughout his career, Seaborg worked for arms control. He was a signatory to the Franck Report and contributed to the Limited Test Ban Treaty, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and he was a well-known advocate of science education and federal funding for pure research. After sharing the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Edwin McMillan, he received approximately 50 honorary doctorates and numerous other awards, the list of things named after Seaborg ranges from his atomic element to an asteroid. He was an author, penning numerous books and 500 journal articles. He was once listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the person with the longest entry in Whos Who in America, Glenn Theodore Seaborg was born in Ishpeming, Michigan, on April 19,1912, the son of Herman Theodore and Selma Olivia Erickson Seaborg. He had one sister, Jeanette, who was two years younger and his family spoke Swedish at home. When Glenn Seaborg was a boy, the moved to Los Angeles County, California, settling in a subdivision called Home Gardens, later annexed to the City of South Gate. About this time he changed the spelling of his first name from Glen to Glenn, Seaborg kept a daily journal from 1927 until he suffered a stroke in 1998. As a youth, Seaborg was both a sports fan and an avid movie buff. His mother encouraged him to become a bookkeeper as she felt his interests were impractical. He did not take an interest in science until his year when he was inspired by Dwight Logan Reid. Seaborg graduated from Jordan in 1929 at the top of his class and received a bachelor of degree in chemistry at the University of California, Los Angeles. He worked his way through school as a stevedore and an assistant at Firestone. Seaborg was a member of the chemistry fraternity Alpha Chi Sigma. As a graduate student in the 1930s Seaborg performed wet chemistry research for his advisor Gilbert Newton Lewis, and published three papers with him on the theory of acids and bases. Seaborg studied the text Applied Radiochemistry by Otto Hahn, of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin, for several years, Seaborg conducted important research in artificial radioactivity using the Lawrence cyclotron at UC Berkeley
38.
Gabor Somorjai
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Most recently, in April 2015, Somorjai was awarded the American Chemical Societys William H. Nichols Medal Award. Somorjai was born in Budapest in 1935 to Jewish parents, while Somorjais father ended up in the camp system, he was fortunate to survive but many of Somorjais extended family ended up in the camp system. He was studying engineering at the Budapest University of Technology. As a participant in the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, Somorjai left Hungary to go to the US after the Soviet invasion, along with other Hungarian immigrants, Somorjai enrolled in post-graduate study at Berkeley and obtained his doctorate in 1960. He joined IBMs research staff in Yorktown Heights, New York for a few years, the introduction of new technology such as low-energy electron diffraction revolutionised the study of surfaces in the 1950s and 1960s. However, early studies were limited to such as silicon. In contrast, Somorjai was interested in such as platinum known for its chemical properties. Somorjai discovered that the defects on surfaces are where catalytic reactions take place, when these defects break, new bonds are formed between atoms leading to complex organic compounds such as naphtha to be converted into gasoline as an example. These findings led to greater understanding of such as adhesion, lubrication, friction and adsorption. His research also has important implications such as nanotechnology and he is also studying surface reactions in nanotechnology at the atomic and molecular level using atomic force microscopy and scanning tunnelling microscopy, both of which can be used without vacuum. Somorjais expertise in surfaces was used as a consultant to the 2002 Winter Olympics where he gave advice on how to make ice-skating surfaces as fast as possible, during his career, Somorjai has published more than one thousand papers and three textbooks on surface chemistry and heterogeneous catalysis. He is now the most-often cited person in the fields of surface chemistry, Somorjai was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1979 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1983. He was awarded the Wolf Foundation Prize in Chemistry in 1998 for his contribution to chemistry, Somorjai was awarded the National Medal of Science for his contribution as a chemist in 2002. The American Chemical Society has also awarded him the Peter Debye Award in Physical Chemistry, in 2002, he was awarded the status of University Professor across the University of California network, an honor he shares with two dozen other academics. Cotton Medal for Excellence in Chemical Research of the American Chemical Society, in 2008 he received the Priestley Medal, the highest award of the American Chemical Society, for his extraordinarily creative and original contributions to surface science and catalysis. In 2009 he was named a Miller Senior Fellow of the Miller Institute at the University of California Berkeley and he was awarded the prestigious 2010 BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in Basic Science. In addition he was awarded in 2010 the ENI New Frontiers of Hydrocarbons Prize. In 2009 Somorjai was recipient of the Reed M. Izatt, in 2013 Somorjai was awarded the National Academy of Sciences NAS Award in Chemical Sciences
39.
Roger Y. Tsien
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Roger Yonchien Tsien was an American biochemist. Tsien was also a pioneer of calcium imaging, Tsien was born in New York, in 1952. He grew up in Livingston, New Jersey and attended Livingston High School there, Tsien suffered from asthma as a child, and as a result, he was often indoors. He spent hours conducting chemistry experiments in his basement laboratory, when he was 16, he won first prize in the nationwide Westinghouse Talent Search with a project investigating how metals bind to thiocyanate. Tsien attended Harvard College on a National Merit Scholarship, where he was elected to Phi Beta Kappa as a junior and he graduated summa cum laude with a Bachelor of Science in chemistry and physics in 1972. According to his roommate, economist and Iowa politician Herman Quirmbach. Nd I have met a lot of brilliant people, Tsien was a Research Fellow at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge from 1977 to 1981. He was appointed to the faculty at the University of California, Berkeley and he also developed fluorescent indicators of calcium ions and other ions important in biological processes. In 2008, Tsien shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Osamu Shimomura and Martin Chalfie for the fluorescent protein, discovery, expression. The multicolored fluorescent proteins developed in Tsiens lab are used by scientists to track where and this is such a popular technique that it has added a new dimension to the fields of molecular biology, cell biology, and biochemistry. Since the discovery of the wild type GFP, numerous different mutants of GFP have been engineered and tested, the first significant leap forward was a single point mutation reported by Tsien in 1995 in Nature. This mutation dramatically improved the fluorescent and spectral characteristics of GFP, all these then largely amplified the practicality of using GFP by scientists in their research. Tsien mainly contributed to much of our understanding of how GFP works and for developing new techniques, former trainees include Atsushi Miyawaki and Alice Y. Ting. Timelines of GFP-development involved by Tsien,1994, Tsien showed the mechanism that GFP chromophore is formed in a reaction which requires oxygen. 1994–1998, Tsien and collaborators made various GFP mutants by genetic modification, newly created variants of GFP can shine more brightly and show different colours, such as yellow, cyan, and blue. 2000–2002, Tsien produced monomeric variants of DsRED, which can glow in shades of red, pink, remarkably, since then complicated marcromolecular networks of living organisms can be labelled or marked by using all the colours of the rainbow. Other detailed highlights involved by Tsien,2002, The critical structural difference between GFP and DsRed was revealed, one extra double-bond in the chromophore of DsRed extends its conjugation thus causes the red-shift. 2002, Monomeric DsRed was first developed,2004, New fruit FPs were generated
40.
Harold C. Urey
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Harold Clayton Urey was an American physical chemist whose pioneering work on isotopes earned him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1934 for the discovery of deuterium. He played a significant role in the development of the atom bomb, born in Walkerton, Indiana, Urey studied thermodynamics under Gilbert N. Lewis at the University of California. After he received his PhD in 1923, he was awarded a fellowship by the American-Scandinavian Foundation to study at the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen and he was a research associate at Johns Hopkins University before becoming an associate professor of Chemistry at Columbia University. In 1931, he work with the separation of isotopes that resulted in the discovery of deuterium. During World War II Urey turned his knowledge of isotope separation to the problem of uranium enrichment and he headed the group located at Columbia University that developed isotope separation using gaseous diffusion. The method was developed, becoming the sole method used in the early post-war period. After the war, Urey became professor of chemistry at the Institute for Nuclear Studies, Urey speculated that the early terrestrial atmosphere was probably composed of ammonia, methane, and hydrogen. One of his Chicago graduate students was Stanley L, work with isotopes of oxygen led to pioneering the new field of paleoclimatic research. In 1958, he accepted a post as a professor at large at the new University of California, San Diego and he was one of the founding members of UCSDs school of chemistry, which was created in 1960. He became increasingly interested in science, and when Apollo 11 returned moon rock samples from the moon. He had a brother, Clarence, and a younger sister. The family moved to Glendora, California, but moved back to Indiana to live with Coras widowed mother when Samuel became seriously ill with tuberculosis and he died when Urey was six years old. Urey was educated in an Amish grade school, which he graduated from at the age of 14 and he then attended high school in Kendallville, Indiana. After graduating in 1911, he obtained a certificate from Earlham College. He later moved to Montana, where his mother was then living, Urey entered the University of Montana in Missoula in the autumn of 1914, where he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in zoology in 1917. After the United States entry into World War I that year, Urey took a job with the Barrett Chemical Company in Philadelphia. After the war ended, he returned to the University of Montana as an instructor in Chemistry, an academic career required a doctorate, so in 1921 Urey enrolled in a PhD program at the University of California, Berkeley, where he studied thermodynamics under Gilbert N. Lewis. His initial attempt at a thesis was on the ionization of cesium vapor and he ran into difficulties, and an Indian physicist published a better paper on the same subject
