1.
Cape Canaveral
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Cape Canaveral, from the Spanish Cabo Cañaveral, is a cape in Brevard County, Florida, United States, near the center of the states Atlantic coast. Known as Cape Kennedy from 1963 to 1973, it lies east of Merritt Island and it was discovered by the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León in 1513. It is part of a known as the Space Coast. Since many U. S. spacecraft have been launched both the station and the Kennedy Space Center on adjacent Merritt Island, the two are sometimes conflated with each other. In homage to its heritage, the Florida Public Service Commission allocated area code 321 to the Cape Canaveral area. Other features of the include the Cape Canaveral lighthouse and Port Canaveral. The city of Cape Canaveral lies just south of the Port Canaveral District, mosquito Lagoon, the Indian River, Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and Canaveral National Seashore are also features of this area. Humans have occupied the area for at least 12,000 years, during the middle Archaic period, from 5000 BC to 2000 BC, the Mount Taylor period culture region covered northeast Florida, including the area around Cape Canaveral. Late in the Archaic period, from 2000 BC to 500 BC, the Mount Taylor culture was succeeded by the Orange culture, the Orange culture was followed by the St. Johns culture, from 500 BC until after European contact. The area around the Indian River was in the Indian River variant of the St. Johns culture, the Surruque were allied with the Ais, but it is not clear whether the Surruque spoke a Timucua language, or a language related to the Ais language. In the early 16th century Cape Canaveral was noted on maps and it was named by Spanish explorers in the first half of the 16th century as Cabo Cañareal. The name Canaveral is the third oldest surviving European place name in the US, the first application of the name, according to the Smithsonian Institution, was from the 1521–1525 explorations of Spanish explorer Francisco Gordillo. A point of land jutting out into an area of the Atlantic Ocean with swift currents, an early alternative name was Cape of Currents. By at least 1564, the name appeared on maps, english privateer John Hawkins and his journalist John Sparke gave an account of their landing at Cape Canaveral in the 16th century. A Presbyterian missionary was wrecked here and lived among the Indians, other histories tell of French survivors from Jean Ribaults colony at Fort Caroline, whose ship the Trinité wrecked on the shores of Cape Canaveral in 1565, and built a fort from its timbers. In December 1571 Pedro Menéndez was wrecked off the Coast of Cape Canaveral, from 1605 to 1606, the Spanish Governor of Florida Pedro de Ibarra sent Alvaro Mexia on a diplomatic mission to the Ais Indian nation. The mission was a success, diplomatic ties were made and an agreement for the Ais to receive ransoms for all the sailors they returned. The first Cape Canaveral Lighthouse was built and completed in January 1848 to warn ships of the shoals off the coast
2.
Submarine-launched ballistic missile
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A submarine-launched ballistic missile is a ballistic missile capable of being launched from submarines. Modern variants usually deliver multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles each of which carries a nuclear warhead, submarine-launched ballistic missiles operate in a different way from submarine-launched cruise missiles. Modern submarine-launched ballistic missiles are closely related to ballistic missiles. The war ended before it could be tested, but the engineers who had worked on it went on to work for the USA and USSR on their SLBM programs. These and other early SLBM systems required vessels to be surfaced when they fired missiles, a converted Project 611 submarine launched the worlds first SLBM, an R-11FM on 16 September 1955. Five additional Project V611 and AV611 submarines became the worlds first operational ballistic missile submarines with two R-11FM missiles each, entering service in 1956–57. The United States Navy initially worked on a variant of the US Army Jupiter intermediate-range ballistic missile, projecting four of the large. Red Raborn headed a Special Project Office to develop Jupiter for the Navy, soon Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke concentrated all Navy strategic research on Polaris, still under Admiral Raborns Special Project Office. All US SLBMs have been solid-fueled while all Soviet and Russian SLBMs have been liquid-fueled except for the Russian RSM-56 Bulava, george Washington also conducted the first successful submerged SLBM launch with a Polaris A-1 on 20 July 1960. The Soviets were only a year behind the US with their first SSBN, however, the Hotel class carried only three R-13 missiles each and had to surface and raise the missile to launch. Submerged launch was not an operational capability for the Soviets until 1963, the Soviet Union was able to beat the U. S. The United States eventually conducted a similar test in the Pacific Ocean on 6 May 1962, the first Soviet SSBN with 16 missiles was the Project 667A, which first entered service in 1967 with 32 boats completed by 1974. By the time the first Yankee was commissioned the US had built 41 SSBNs, the short range of the early SLBMs dictated basing and deployment locations. By the late 1960s the Polaris A-3 was deployed on all US SSBNs with a range of 4,600 kilometres, the A-3 also had three warheads that landed in a pattern around a single target. The Yankee class was equipped with the R-27 Zyb missile with a range of 2,400 kilometres. The US was much more fortunate in its basing arrangements than the Soviets, the SSBN facilities at the Advanced Refit Sites were austere, with only a submarine tender and floating dry dock. Converted merchant ships designated T-AKs were provided to ferry missiles and supplies to the sites, with two rotating crews per boat, about one-third of the total US force could be in a patrol area at any time. These missiles were the R-29 Vysota series, equipped on Projects 667B, 667BD, 667BDR, the SS-N-8, with a range of 7,700 kilometres, entered service on the first Delta-I boat in 1972, before the Yankee class was even completed
3.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
4.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
5.
Lockheed Corporation
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The Lockheed Corporation was an American aerospace company. Lockheed was founded in 1912 and later merged with Martin Marietta to form Lockheed Martin in 1995, the Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company was established in San Francisco in 1912 by the brothers Allan and Malcolm Loughead. Following the Model F-1, the company invested heavily in the design, however, the asking price of $2500 could not compete in a market that was saturated with post World War 1 $350 Curtiss JN-4s and De Haviland trainers. The Loughead Aircraft Manufacturing Company closed its doors in 1921, in 1926, Allan Loughead, Jack Northrop, and Kenneth Jay secured funding to form the Lockheed Aircraft Company in Hollywood. This new company utilized some of the technology originally developed for the Model S-1 to design the Vega Model. In March 1928, the relocated to Burbank, California. From 1926-28 the company produced over 80 aircraft and employed more than 300 workers who by April 1929 were building five aircraft per week, in July 1929, majority shareholder Fred Keeler sold 87% of the Lockheed Aircraft Company to Detroit Aircraft Corporation. In August 1929, Allan Lockheed resigned, the Great Depression ruined the aircraft market, and Detroit Aircraft went bankrupt. A group of headed by brothers Robert and Courtland Gross. The syndicate bought the company for a mere $40,000, ironically, Allan Lockheed himself had planned to bid for his own company, but had raised only $50,000, which he felt was too small a sum for a serious bid. In 1934, Robert E. Gross was named chairman of the new company, the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation and his brother Courtlandt S. Gross was a co-founder and executive, succeeding Robert as Chairman following his death in 1961. The company was named the Lockheed Corporation in 1977, in the 1930s, Lockheed spent $139,400 to develop the Model 10 Electra, a small twin-engined transport. The company sold 40 in the first year of production, amelia Earhart and her navigator, Fred Noonan, flew it in their failed attempt to circumnavigate the world in 1937. Subsequent designs, the Lockheed Model 12 Electra Junior and the Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra expanded their market. The Lockheed Model 14 formed the basis for the Hudson bomber and its primary role was submarine hunting. The Model 14 Super Electra were sold abroad, and more than 100 were license-built in Japan for use by the Imperial Japanese Army, the P-38 was the only American fighter aircraft in production throughout American involvement in the war, from Pearl Harbor to Victory over Japan Day. It filled ground-attack, air-to-air, and even strategic bombing roles in all theaters of the war in which the United States operated, the Lockheed Vega factory was located next to Burbanks Union Airport which it had purchased in 1940. During the war, the area was camouflaged to fool enemy aerial reconnaissance
6.
Chevaline
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Chevaline was a system to improve the penetrability of the warheads used by the British Polaris nuclear weapons system. The project was secret, and survived in secrecy through four different governments before being revealed in 1980. The system was in service from 1982 to 1996, when the Polaris A3T missiles it was fitted to were replaced with the Trident D5 and that conclusion by successive British governments was the basis of their justification given to the British people for an independent nuclear retaliatory capability. For some time this deterrent force had been based on the Royal Air Forces V bomber force, another solution was the Blue Streak missile project, although this was running into continued delays. Blue Streak also had the problem of basing, the UK was small enough that it seemed possible for the USSR to spot the launch sites without much trouble. A better solution came along in the form of the USs AGM-48 Skybolt missile, the US bomber force was facing the same sorts of problems as the British V bombers, and were attempting to solve it in a similar fashion, with a long-range standoff missile. In this case, however, the missile in question had a long range of just under 2,000 km. Considering the distance from London to Moscow is about 2,500 km, Skybolt would allow the V-bomber force to attack Russia from sites not far off the British coast, Skybolt seemed like such a good solution that work on both Blue Steel II and Blue Streak were cancelled. Skybolt development was cancelled in early 1962, leading to a major political row. Having already put some effort into the Skybolt warhead, it was decided to adapt this design, based on the US W59, throughout this period both the US and USSR were working on anti-ballistic missile systems. This was a game the US was clearly willing to play, the Soviets were confirmed as working on an ABM system in 1961 when they made their first successful exo-atmospheric interception of an ICBM. An American response was to develop Antelope, a designed to overwhelm an ABM defence with decoys. In the end the US abandoned Antelope because they could achieve the same ends simply by throwing additional warheads and this development left the British in a particularly bad position. The three warheads from each missile remained fairly close together during atmospheric entry, and could theoretically all be attacked by a single ABM with a large warhead, something had to be done in order to maintain the relevance of the UKs nuclear deterrent. Although developments in the ABM field had been watched throughout the 1960s, in 1967 the US offered a newer version of the Polaris, the A3T design, which featured a hardened missile airframe intended to better protect it against ABMs. As the UK had not yet received their missiles, they agreed to use the A3T version as it required relatively few other changes, in 1970 serious efforts to explore the ABM problem started. By this point the US and USSR had agreed in the ABM Treaty to deploy up to 100 ABMs at only two sites. MIRVs had so seriously upset the balance between ABM and ICBM that both agreed to limit ABM deployment largely as a way of avoiding a massive buildup of new ICBMs
7.
Thermonuclear weapon
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A thermonuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon that uses the energy from a primary nuclear fission reaction to compress and ignite a secondary nuclear fusion reaction. The result is greatly increased power when compared to single-stage fission weapons. It is colloquially referred to as a bomb or an H-bomb because it employs the fusion of isotopes of hydrogen. The first full scale thermonuclear test was carried out by the United States in 1952, similar devices were developed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, China, and France. The radiation implosion mechanism is an engine that exploits the temperature difference between the secondary stages hot, surrounding radiation channel and its relatively cool interior. This temperature difference is maintained by a massive heat barrier called the pusher. If made of uranium, as is almost always the case, it can capture neutrons produced by the reaction and undergo fission itself. In many Teller–Ulam weapons, fission of the pusher dominates the explosion, detailed knowledge of fission and fusion weapons is classified to some degree in virtually every industrialized nation. Born secret is rarely invoked for cases of private speculation, in a small number of prior cases, the U. S. government has attempted to censor weapons information in the public press, with limited success. According to the New York Times, physicist Kenneth Ford defied government orders to remove classified information from his new book, Building the H Bomb, the state of public knowledge about the Teller–Ulam design has been mostly shaped from a few specific incidents outlined in a section below. At a bare minimum, this implies a primary section consists of an implosion-type fission bomb. The energy released by the primary compresses the secondary through a process called radiation implosion, at which point it is heated, surrounding the other components is a hohlraum or radiation case, a container that traps the first stage or primarys energy inside temporarily. The outside of this case, which is also normally the outside casing of the bomb, is the only direct visual evidence publicly available of any thermonuclear bomb components configuration. Numerous photographs of various thermonuclear bomb exteriors have been declassified, generally, a research program with the capacity to create a thermonuclear bomb has already mastered the ability to engineer boosted fission. The secondary is usually shown as a column of fusion fuel, around the column is first a pusher-tamper, a heavy layer of uranium-238 or lead that serves to help compress the fusion fuel. Inside this is the fuel itself, usually a form of lithium deuteride. This dry fuel, when bombarded by neutrons, produces tritium, inside the layer of fuel is the spark plug, a hollow column of fissile material that, when compressed, can itself undergo nuclear fission. The tertiary, if one is present, would be set below the secondary, separating the secondary from the primary is the interstage
8.
Aerojet General
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In 2013, Aerojet was merged by GenCorp with the former Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne to form Aerojet Rocketdyne. Aerojet developed from a 1936 meeting hosted by Theodore von Kármán at his home, the group continued to meet from time to time, but its activities were limited to discussions as opposed to experimentation. Their first design was tested on August 16,1941, consisting of a small cylindrical solid-fuel motor attached to the bottom of a plane, takeoff distance was shortened by half, and the USAAF placed an order for experimental production versions. I was President, Malina was Treasurer, and Haley was Secretary and we had three vice-presidents, Parsons, Summerfield, and Forman. We issued stock to ourselves, and for a brief time Haley seemed to own the entire corporation because, being the man in the group with cash. We opened offices on East Colorado Street in Pasadena, the world’s largest manufacturer of rockets and propellants. Kármán soon relinquished the presidency, Haley became Aerojet’s second president on August 26,1942 and he proved to be an incredible administrator. The company expanded and required new facilities, In October, fifteen employees were drawing paychecks, by December we had expanded to about one hundred and fifty employees and in January 1943 we moved to Azusa, California. In 1943 the Army Air Forces finally placed a full order, in the spring of 1944 the officers instructed Haley to seek out new sources of assistance. General Tire was one of his clients and that showed an interest in Aerojet. In January 1945 General Tire acquired half the stock for $75,000, Parsons and Forman also sold their shares, so that, by October, General Tire had control of the majority of Aerojet. Kármán resisted the offers presented to him, until in 1953 when a sizable scholarship fund was offered to be set up as a memorial to his sister Josephine de Karman. The company also invested in pure research, developing both a liquid-fueled design and a new solid-fueled design based on a rubber binding agent in partnership with General Tire. In the immediate post-war era, Aerojet downsized dramatically, but their JATO units continued to sell for commercial aircraft operating in hot-and-high conditions, by 1950, their research into the rubber binder had led to much larger engines and then to the development of the Aerobee sounding rocket. Aerobee was the first US-designed rocket to space and completed over 1,000 flights before it was retired in 1985. The newly formed US Air Force used Aerojet as the primary supplier on a number of their ICBM projects and they also delivered propulsion systems for the US Navys submarine-launched Polaris missile. A new plant was set up in Sacramento that took over most rocket construction, one of Azusas major projects was the development of the infra-red detectors for the Defense Support Program satellites, used to detect ICBM launches from space. The new research arm was formed as Aerojet Electro-Systems Corp. and after purchasing a number of ordnance companies, a new umbrella organization oversaw the three major divisions, Aerojet General
9.
Solid-fuel rocket
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A solid-propellant rocket or solid rocket is a rocket with a rocket engine that uses solid propellants. The earliest rockets were solid-fuel rockets powered by gunpowder, they were used in warfare by the Chinese, Indians, Mongols and Persians, all rockets used some form of solid or powdered propellant up until the 20th century, when liquid-propellant rockets offered more efficient and controllable alternatives. Solid rockets are used today in model rockets and on larger applications for their simplicity and reliability. Since solid-fuel rockets can remain in storage for periods, and then reliably launch on short notice. Solids are, however, frequently used as boosters to increase payload capacity or as spin-stabilized add-on upper stages when higher-than-normal velocities are required. Solid rockets are used as launch vehicles for low Earth orbit payloads under 2 tons or escape payloads up to 500 kilograms. A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing, nozzle, grain, the grain behaves like a solid mass, burning in a predictable fashion and producing exhaust gases. The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a design chamber pressure, once ignited, a simple solid rocket motor cannot be shut off, because it contains all the ingredients necessary for combustion within the chamber in which they are burned. More advanced solid rocket motors can not only be throttled but also be extinguished, also, pulsed rocket motors that burn in segments and that can be ignited upon command are available. Design begins with the total impulse required, which determines the fuel/oxidizer mass, grain geometry and chemistry are then chosen to satisfy the required motor characteristics. The following are chosen or solved simultaneously, the results are exact dimensions for grain, nozzle, and case geometries, The grain burns at a predictable rate, given its surface area and chamber pressure. The chamber pressure is determined by the orifice diameter and grain burn rate. Allowable chamber pressure is a function of casing design, the length of burn time is determined by the grain web thickness. The grain may or may not be bonded to the casing, case-bonded motors are more difficult to design, since the deformation of the case and the grain under flight must be compatible. Common modes of failure in rocket motors include fracture of the grain, failure of case bonding. All of these produce an increase in burn surface area and a corresponding increase in exhaust gas production rate and pressure. Another failure mode is casing seal failure, seals are required in casings that have to be opened to load the grain. Once a seal fails, hot gas will erode the escape path and this was the cause of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
10.
Hercules Inc.
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Hercules, Inc. was a chemical and munitions manufacturing company based in Wilmington, Delaware, which was formed as the Hercules Powder Company. This created the town of Hercules, California. Hercules Inc. was a manufacturer of chemicals and munitions based in Wilmington, the company was established in 1912 by T. W. Bacchus as the Hercules Powder Company. The Hercules Powder Company was one of the companies created from the break up of the E. I. du Pont de Nemours powder trust in 1911 as ruled by a U. S. Supreme Court decision. In its early years as a company, it continued to produce explosives. Hercules was spun off from DuPont as a result of U. S. federal government actions in the field of antitrusts, Hercules, Inc. operated under this name until 2008, when it was merged into Ashland Inc. Hercules, Inc. was one of the producers of smokeless powder for warfare in the United States during the 20th century. Hercules Inc. was founded as a result of a DuPont Anti-trust lawsuit, the first management team revolved around President H. Dunham, T. W. Bacchus, G. G. Rheuby, J. T Skelly, Norman Rood, Fred Stark, some of their products were used by the military in World War I. A school and a plant named after T. W. Bacchus in Bacchus, Hercules Powder Company ranked 65th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts. Richard F. Heck, recipient of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, by the 1960s, the community was experiencing the first signs of a suburban transition. The Hercules Powder Co. once a small manufacturing firm, had begun producing rocket motors at its Bacchus Works south of the Magna community. The growing availability of jobs was one factor encouraging subdivision development in the Magna, Kearns, Miller originally sued Brown directly, as it was the manufacturer of the equipment. Brown settled the suit for nearly $160,000 before it went to trial and it subsequently sued Hercules to recover the cost of the settlement with Miller, alleging that the original contract contained an indemnification clause. Brown prevailed against Hercules at trial, but Hercules successfully appealed, by the end of the 1990s, Hercules Inc. had sold off a significant number of its divisions that had not been profitable for the company. This has caused the price of shares of stock in Hercules to rise above 70 dollars. Also, several successful programs were implemented in addition of corporate buying its own shares. Also at that time, Hercules had a significant amount of available for possible purchases of other corporations
11.
Inertial navigation system
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It is used on vehicles such as ships, aircraft, submarines, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Other terms used to refer to inertial navigation systems or closely related devices include inertial guidance system, inertial instrument, inertial measurement units, older INS systems generally used an inertial platform as their mounting point to the vehicle, and the terms are sometimes considered synonymous. Inertial measurement units typically contain three orthogonal rate-gyroscopes and three accelerometers, measuring angular velocity and linear acceleration respectively. By processing signals from these devices it is possible to track the position and orientation of a device, Inertial navigation is used in a wide range of applications including the navigation of aircraft, tactical and strategic missiles, spacecraft, submarines and ships. Recent advances in the construction of systems have made it possible to manufacture small. These advances have widened the range of applications to include areas such as human. An inertial navigation system includes at least a computer and a platform or module containing accelerometers, gyroscopes, the advantage of an INS is that it requires no external references in order to determine its position, orientation, or velocity once it has been initialized. An INS can detect a change in its position, a change in its velocity. It does this by measuring the acceleration and angular velocity applied to the system. Since it requires no external reference, it is immune to jamming, Inertial navigation systems are used in many different moving objects, including vehicles—such as aircraft, submarines, spacecraft—and guided missiles. However, their cost and complexity place constraints on the environments in which they are practical for use, Gyroscopes measure the angular velocity of the sensor frame with respect to the inertial reference frame. By using the orientation of the system in the inertial reference frame as the initial condition and integrating the angular velocity. This can be thought of as the ability of a passenger in a car to feel the car turn left and right or tilt up. Based on this alone, the passenger knows what direction the car is facing but not how fast or slow it is moving. Accelerometers measure the acceleration of the moving vehicle in the sensor or body frame. Performing integration on the inertial accelerations using the correct kinematic equations yields the inertial velocities of the system, therefore, the position must be periodically corrected by input from some other type of navigation system. The inaccuracy of a good-quality navigational system is less than 0.6 nautical miles per hour in position and on the order of tenths of a degree per hour in orientation. Accordingly, inertial navigation is used to supplement other navigation systems
12.
Thrust vectoring
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In rocketry and ballistic missiles that fly outside the atmosphere, aerodynamic control surfaces are ineffective, so thrust vectoring is the primary means of attitude control. For aircraft, the method was originally envisaged to provide vertical thrust as a means to give aircraft vertical or short takeoff. Subsequently, it was realized that using vectored thrust in combat situations enabled aircraft to perform various maneuvers not available to conventional-engined planes, in missile literature originating from Russian sources, thrust vectoring is often referred as gas-dynamic steering or gas-dynamic control. Thrust vector control is used when the system is creating thrust. At other stages of flight, separate mechanisms are required for attitude and it is possible to generate pitch and yaw moments by deflecting the main rocket thrust vector so that it does not pass through the mass center. Thrust vectoring for many liquid rockets is achieved by gimbaling the rocket engine, the Saturn V and the Space Shuttle used gimballed engines. If the liquid is injected on only one side of the missile, it modifies that side of the exhaust plume, resulting in different thrust on that side and this was the control system used on the Minuteman II and the early SLBMs of the United States Navy. A later method developed for solid propellant ballistic missiles achieves thrust vectoring by deflecting the rocket nozzle using electric servomechanisms or hydraulic cylinders, the Trident C4 and D5 systems are controlled via hydraulically actuated nozzle. The Apollo Lunar Module had an engine in the ascent stage. Attitude control was achieved by using 16 auxiliary reaction control system engines in 4 clusters mounted on the ascent stage, the descent stage engine gimbaled, but this was computer-controlled to keep the thrust vector aligned with the center of mass and attitude control was by the ascent stage RCS. The V-2 used exhaust vanes and aerodynamic vanes, as did the Redstone, some smaller sized atmospheric tactical missiles, such as the AIM-9X Sidewinder, eschew flight control surfaces and instead use mechanical vanes to deflect motor exhaust to one side. Thrust vectoring is a way to reduce a missiles minimum range, for example, anti-tank missiles such as the ERYX and the PARS3 LR use thrust vectoring for this reason. 9M96E uses a control system enables maneuver at altitudes of up to 35 km at forces of over 20g. 9K720 Iskander is controlled during the flight with gas-dynamic and aerodynamic control surfaces. Most currently operational vectored thrust aircraft use turbofans with rotating nozzles or vanes to deflect the exhaust stream and this method can successfully deflect thrust through as much as 90 degrees, relative to the aircraft centerline. However, the engine must be sized for vertical lift, rather than normal flight, afterburning is difficult to incorporate and is impractical for take-off and landing thrust vectoring, because the very hot exhaust can damage runway surfaces. Without afterburning it is hard to reach flight speeds. A PCB engine, the Bristol Siddeley BS100, was cancelled in 1965, tiltrotor aircraft vector thrust via rotating turboprop engine nacelles
13.
Ballistic missile submarine
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A ballistic missile submarine is a submarine deploying submarine-launched ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads. These submarines became a weapon system in the Cold War because of their nuclear deterrence capability. Their deployment has been dominated by the United States and the Soviet Union / Russia, with numbers in service with France, the United Kingdom, China. This submarine launched the worlds first SLBM, an R-11FM on 16 September 1955, five additional Project V611 and AV611 submarines became the worlds first operational SSBs with two R-11FM missiles each, entering service in 1956-57. They were followed by a series of 23 specifically designed Project 629 SSBs completed 1958-62, the Polaris missile and the first US SSBNs were developed by a Special Project office under Rear Admiral W. F. Red Raborn, appointed by Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke, George Washington was redesigned and rebuilt early in construction from a Skipjack-class fast attack submarine, USS Scorpion, with a 130 ft missile compartment welded into the middle. Nuclear power was an advance, allowing a ballistic missile submarine to remain undetected at sea by remaining submerged or occasionally at periscope depth for an entire patrol. With more missiles on one US SSBN than on five Golf-class boats, the Soviets were only a year behind the US with their first SSBN, the ill-fated K-19 of Project 658, commissioned in November 1960. However, this carried the same three-missile armament as the Golfs. The first Soviet SSBN with 16 missiles was the Project 667A, the short range of the early SLBMs dictated basing and deployment locations. By the late 1960s the Polaris A-3 was deployed on all US SSBNs with a range of 4,600 kilometres, the A-3 also had three warheads that landed in a pattern around a single target. The Yankee class was equipped with the R-27 Zyb missile with a range of 2,400 kilometres. The US was much more fortunate in its basing arrangements than the Soviets, with two rotating crews per SSBN, about one-third of the total US force could be in a patrol area at any time. These missiles were the R-29 Vysota series, equipped on Projects 667B, 667BD, 667BDR, the SS-N-8, with a range of 7,700 kilometres, entered service on the first Delta-I boat in 1972, before the Yankee class was even completed. A total of 43 Delta-class boats of all entered service 1972-90, with the SS-N-18 on the Delta III class. The new missiles had increased range and eventually Multiple Independently-targeted Re-entry Vehicles, the Delta-I class had 12 missiles each, the others have 16 missiles each. All Deltas have a superstructure to accommodate their large liquid-fueled missiles. Although the US did not commission any new SSBNs from 1967 through 1981, thirty-one of the 41 original US SSBNs were built with larger diameter launch tubes with future missiles in mind
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Nuclear warhead
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
15.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
16.
Second strike
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In nuclear strategy, a second-strike capability is a countrys assured ability to respond to a nuclear attack with powerful nuclear retaliation against the attacker. The possession of second-strike capabilities counters a first-strike nuclear threat and can support a no first use nuclear strategy, reciprocal second-strike capabilities usually cause a mutual assured destruction defence strategy, though one side may have a lower level minimal deterrence response. Second-strike capabilities can be strengthened by implementing fail-deadly mechanisms. These mechanisms create a threshold and guaranteed consequences if that threshold is breached, for instance, a threshold may be for an allied nation not to be attacked. If a rival nation then breaches this threshold by attacking the allied nation and these predetermined consequences could include a wide range of responses, including a retaliatory nuclear second strike. The crucial goal in maintaining second-strike capabilities is preventing first-strike attacks from taking out a nuclear arsenal. In this manner, a country can carry out nuclear retaliation even after absorbing a nuclear attack, the United States and other countries have diversified their nuclear arsenals through the nuclear triad in order to better ensure second-strike capability. Using SLBMs as a second-strike capability has a problem, because in retaliation for a submarine-launched ICBM, the wrong country could be targeted. However, implementation of second strikes is crucial to deter a first strike, countries with nuclear weapons make it their primary purpose to convince their opponents that a first strike is not worth facing a second strike. Launch on warning is a strategy of nuclear retaliation that gained recognition during the Cold War between the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. In addition to the triad, nations deploy an early warning system that detects incoming nuclear missiles. This gives that nation the capability and option to launch a second strike before the incoming nuclear first strike hits any of its targets. This is another method of solidifying second-strike capabilities and deterring a first strike from another nuclear power, because of the low accuracy of early-generation intercontinental ballistic missiles, second strike was initially only possible against very large, undefended countervalue targets like cities. Later-generation missiles with much improved accuracy made counterforce attacks against the opponents hardened military facilities possible. Perimetr PTS dates back to 1974, in response to Soviet fears of devastating nuclear strikes from US Ballistic Missile submarines and it became operational in January 1985, with SS-17 launch silos in Vypolzovo and Kostroma, each 100 and 150 miles north-west of Moscow respectively. The system was built with layers of redundancy, in case multiple layers of communications were destroyed in the initial strike. Launch authorisation would be transmitted by UHF radio, by transmitters buried deep underground, development continued over the years with the system incorporating the new SS-27 ICBMs in December 1990, and further refinements in 1996. Russian leadership was concerned that the system could trigger an accidental launch, initially, both the Vyuga nuclear command link to Russian leadership and the secure Kazbek communications system must be interrupted
17.
First strike
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In nuclear strategy, a first strike is a preemptive surprise attack employing overwhelming force. The preferred methodology is to attack the strategic nuclear weapon facilities, command and control sites. During the Cold War period, both superpowers, NATO and the Eastern Bloc, built massive nuclear arsenals, aimed, to a large extent, therefore, at times, both sides refrained from deploying systems capable of unanswerable nuclear strikes against either side. In addition, each side doubted the other sides commitment to not deploy first-strike weapons, or even in the event of their deployment, some first-strike weapons were deployed, however like most nuclear weapons, they were never used. Of the nuclear powers, only the Peoples Republic of China and India have declarative, unqualified, unconditional no-first-use policies. In 1982, at a session of the General Assembly of United Nations. This pledge was abandoned by post-Soviet Russia to compensate the overwhelming conventional weapon superiority enjoyed by NATO. The United States has a partial, qualified no-first-use policy, stating that they not use nuclear weapons against states that do not possess nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction. Large-scale missile defense systems are not first-strike weapons, but certain critics view them as first-strike enabling weapons and these proposed defense systems, intended to lessen the risk of devastating nuclear war, would lead to it, according to these critics. Indeed, according to theory, the side not building large-scale missile defenses would have an incentive to launch a pre-emptive first strike while such a strike could still get through. First-strike attack, the use of a nuclear first strike capability, was feared during the Cold War between NATO and the Soviet Bloc. At various points, fear of a first strike attack existed on both sides, misunderstood changes in posture and well understood changes in technology used by either side often led to speculation regarding the enemys intentions. The USSR countered by developing their own nuclear weapons, surprising the US with their first test in 1949. The 1960 U-2 incident, involving Francis Gary Powers, as well as the Berlin Crisis, along with the test of the Tsar Bomba and this escalating situation came to a head with the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. However harsh and terrible the solution, there would be no other, the Cuban Missile Crisis resulted in Khrushchev publicly agreeing to remove the missiles from Cuba, while Kennedy secretly agreed to remove his countrys missiles from Turkey. Both sides in the Cold War realized how close they came to war over Cuba. Nonetheless, this reduction of tensions only applied to the US, the Soviet Union, in response, sent experts to spell out for Castro the ecological consequences for Cuba of nuclear strikes on the United States. Castro, according to the General, quickly became convinced of the undesirability of such outcomes. S, president Ronald Reagans talk of limited nuclear war
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Counterforce
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The intent of a counterforce strategy is to disarm an adversary by destroying its nuclear weapons before they can be launched, thereby minimizing the impact of a retaliatory second strike. However, counterforce attacks are possible in a second strike. A counterforce target is distinguished from a target, which includes an adversarys population, knowledge, economic. In other words, a strike is against an adversarys military while a countervalue strike is against an adversarys cities. In nuclear warfare, enemy targets are divided into two types, counterforce and countervalue, a counterforce target is an element of the military infrastructure, usually either specific weapons or the bases which support them. A counterforce strike is an attack which targets these elements whilst leaving the civilian infrastructure – the countervalue targets – as undamaged as possible, countervalue refers to the targeting of an opponents cities and civilian populations. An ideal counterforce attack would kill no civilians, military attacks are prone to causing collateral damage however, and this is especially true when nuclear weapons are employed. Counterforce weapons could be seen to provide more credible deterrence in future conflict by providing options for leaders, one of those options considered by the Soviet Union in the 1970s is basing missiles in orbit. Counterforce is a type of attack which was proposed during the Cold War. Later generation missiles with much improved accuracy made counterforce attacks against the opponents hardened military facilities possible, both sides in the Cold War took steps to protect at least some of their nuclear forces from counter-force attacks. At one point the US kept B-52 Stratofortress bombers permanently in flight, other bombers were kept ready for launch on short notice, allowing them to escape their bases before intercontinental ballistic missiles could destroy them. Submarines themselves, however, are immune from counter-force strikes. A counter-force exchange was one scenario mooted for a limited nuclear war. Critics of this idea claimed that even a counter-force strike would kill millions of civilians it is unlikely that escalation to a full-scale counter-value war could be prevented. MIRVed land-based ICBMs are considered destabilizing because they tend to put a premium on striking first. In this case, the side that strikes first can reduce the enemy ICBM force from 100 missiles to about 5 by firing 40 missiles with 200 warheads, and keeping the rest of 60 missiles in reserve. For such an attack to be successful, the warheads would have to strike their targets prior to the launching a counter-attack. It is because of this that this type of weapon was banned under the START II agreement, deployed in 1976, this counterforce MIRV ICBM had single or 10 MIRV warheads, CEP250 m
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SSM-N-8 Regulus
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Its barrel-shaped fuselage resembled that of numerous fighter aircraft designs of the era, but without a cockpit. When the missiles was readied for launch, to give them Rocket Assisted Take Off they were fitted two large booster rockets on the aft end of the fuselage. In October 1943, Chance Vought Aircraft Company signed a contract for a 300-mile range missile to carry a 4. The project stalled for four years, however, until May 1947, when the United States Army Air Forces awarded Martin Aircraft Company a contract for a turbojet powered subsonic missile, the Matador. At its extreme range the missile had to hit within 2.5 nautical miles of its target 50% of the time. Regulus development was preceded by Navy experiments with the JB-2 Loon missile, submarine testing was performed from 1947 to 1953, with USS Cusk and USS Carbonero converted as test platforms, initially carrying the missile unprotected, thus unable to submerge until after launch. Regulus was designed to be 30 feet long,10 feet in wingspan,4 feet in diameter, after launch, it would be guided toward its target by two control stations, usually submarines with guidance equipment. Army-Navy competition complicated both the Matadors and the Regulus developments, the missiles looked alike and used the same engine. They had nearly identical performances, schedules, and costs, under pressure to reduce defense spending, the United States Department of Defense ordered the Navy to determine if Matador could be adapted for their use. The Navy concluded that the Navys Regulus could perform the Navy mission better, Regulus had some advantages over Matador. It required only two stations while Matador required three. It could also be launched quicker, as Matadors boosters had to be fitted while the missile was on the launcher while Regulus was stowed with its boosters attached. Finally, Chance Vought built a version of the missile, so that even though a Regulus test vehicle was more expensive to build. The Navy program continued, and the first Regulus flew in March 1951, the Regulus II missile was a completely new design with improved guidance and double the range, and was intended to replace the Regulus I missile. Regulus II-equipped submarines and ships would have fitted with the Ships Inertial Navigation System. Forty-eight test flights of Regulus II prototypes were carried out,30 of which were successful,14 partially successful, a production contract was signed in January 1958 and the only submarine launch was carried out from the USS Grayback in September 1958. Due to the high cost of the Regulus II, budgetary pressure, and the emergence of the UGM-27 Polaris SLBM, at the time of cancellation Vought had completed 20 Regulus II missiles with 27 more on the production line. Production of Regulus I missiles continued until January 1959 with delivery of the 514th missile, the first launch from a submarine occurred in July 1953 from the deck of USS Tunny, a World War II fleet boat modified to carry Regulus
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Cape Canaveral, Florida
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Cape Canaveral is a city in Brevard County, Florida. The population was 9,912 at the 2010 United States Census and it is part of the Palm Bay–Melbourne–Titusville Metropolitan Statistical Area. After the establishment of a lighthouse in 1848, a few families moved into the area, as the threat of Seminole Indian attacks became increasingly unlikely, other settlers began to move into the area around the Indian River. Post offices and small community stores with postal facilities were established at Canaveral, Canaveral Harbor and it is thought the Artesia post office was so named for the ground water of artesian springs that are prevalent in the area. In 1890 a group of Harvard Alumni students established a gun club called the Canaveral Harvard Club with a holding of over 18,000 acres. Their game hunts helped clear the wilderness for other settlers to move in, in the early 1920s, a group of Orlando journalists invested more than $150,000 in the beach acreage that now encompasses the area of presidentially-named streets in Cape Canaveral. They called their development Journalista in honor of their trade, a wooden bridge linking Merritt Island with the area had just been constructed. The developers anticipated a number of seasonal visitors. At that time, fishermen, retirees, and descendants of Captain Mills Burnham —the original official keeper of the Cape Canaveral Light—resided in the part of the present city. Due to the hardships caused by the Great Depression, many investors defaulted on their holdings. Much of this land was recovered by newspaper owner R. B. Brossier and his son, Dickson, after they sold their Orlando home and it was their dream that a port would be developed and a direct route to Orlando would be constructed. In the 1930s, archaeologists from Yale University surveyed various Native American sites in the area, in 1951, anthropologist Irvine Rouse of Yale University visited the area and performed research. By 1958 the workforce and the economy had grown with the space program, at that time, state statute allowed an adjacent city to annex an unincorporated area without a vote of the residents. Local property owners were concerned that Cocoa Beach might annex them, landowners felt that Cocoa Beach had more city debt and higher land taxes than they wished to support. The City of Cape Canaveral started in 1961 when a committee was formed to incorporate, due to paperwork delays the city charter was made into bill 167 and approved by the Florida State Legislature in Tallahassee on May 16,1963. In 1967, the annual Sun and Space Festival was started and it had flyovers and a parade that included a stop at the newly opened Museum of Sunken Treasure. This contained artifacts from the 1715 Treasure Fleet, an annual celebration was started on October 9,1990, The Patriots Day Parade in honor of the last naval battle of the American Revolution that was fought off the Cape Canaveral coast in 1783. In 2012, the city started celebrating its 50th year since incorporation, at a Heritage Day event in March 2013 part of the festivities included author Jay Barbreewho delivered an oral history of the early days
21.
Polaris Sales Agreement
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The Polaris Sales Agreement was an agreement between the United States and the United Kingdom which began the UK Polaris programme. The agreement formally arranged for the Polaris missile system to be provided to the UK, the arrangement had been set up in principle as a result of the Nassau Agreement. The agreement was amended in 1982 to provide the Trident missile system to the UK, the United Kingdom had been planning to buy the air-launched Skybolt missile but the USA decided to cancel the Skybolt program in 1962 as they no longer needed the missile. The British bought the Polaris submarine-launched ballistic missile instead, the Nassau Agreement was signed on December 18,1962 resulting in the signing of the Polaris Sales Agreement on April 6,1963. The United States would supply the United Kingdom with Polaris missiles, launch tubes, the UK would make the warheads and submarines. In return, the U. S. was given assurances by the United Kingdom regarding the use of the missile. The British Polaris submarines were the Resolution-class ballistic missile submarines, the first of which entered service in 1968, the Polaris system underwent a British-designed life extension programme called Chevaline that reduced the number of warheads and added defensive measures. The Polaris Sales Agreement was used as the model for the UKs purchase of the Trident weapon system to replace Polaris in British service. The arrangements were almost identical to that for Polaris, the United Kingdom procured the Trident system from America and fitted them to their own submarines, HMS Vanguard entered operational service in December 1994. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher had written to President Carter on July 10,1980 to request that he approve supply of Trident I missiles. However, in 1982 Thatcher wrote to President Reagan to request the United Kingdom be allowed to procure the Trident II system and this was agreed in March 1982. Under the Polaris Sales Agreement, the United Kingdom paid a 5% levy on the cost of equipment supplied in recognition of US research, the R&D contribution to Trident comprised payments amounting to $116M with no on-going R&D levy. U. S. suppliers are paid via the U. S. based Polaris Trust Fund, British replacement of the Trident system Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement
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Marina Militare
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The Italian Navy is the maritime defence force of the Italian Republic. It is one of the four branches of Italian Armed Forces and was formed in 1946 from what remained of the Regia Marina after World War II. As of August 2014, the Italian Navy had a strength of 30,923 active personnel with approximately 184 vessels in service, the Regia Marina was formed on March 17,1861, after the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy. The Italian Navy assumed its present name after the Italian monarchy was abolished following a referendum held on June 2,1946. At the end of its five years involvement in World War II, however, a large number of its naval units had survived the war, albeit in a low efficiency state, which was due to the conflict and the age of many vessels. A ban on owning Battleships, Aircraft carriers, Submarines and Amphibious Assault units, a ban on operating military installations on the islands of Pantelleria, Pianosa and on the archipelago of Pelagie Islands. The total displacement, battleships excluded, of the navy was not allowed to be greater than 67,500 tons. Some had already been dismantled in La Spezia between 1948 and 1955, including the aircraft carrier Aquila. However, the Soviet Union demanded the surrender of the battleship Giulio Cesare, the cruisers Attilio Regolo and Scipione Africano became the French Chateaurenault and Guichen, while Eugenio di Savoia became the Greek Helli. After break up and/or transfers, only a part of the fleet remained to be recommissioned into the Marina. With the new elections in 1946, the Kingdom of Italy became a Republic, the US government in Washington wished to keep its own installations on the Italian Peninsula and relaxed the Treaty restrictions by including Italy in the Mutual Defense Assistance Programme. Within NATO, the Marina Militare was assigned control of the Adriatic Sea and Strait of Otranto. This solution required a great effort to rebuild and transform the fleet. Progress was slow due to pressures on Italy and due to opposition from other European governments. These nations were concerned at seeing an Italian Navy capable of rivaling the Western naval forces, the ensign of the Italian Navy is the Italian tricolour defaced with the coat of arms of the Marina Militare. A further difference is that St, in 2012 the Navy began a restructuring process that will see a 21% decrease in personnel by 2025. A new structure was implemented in January 2014, the command structure is depicted below, Reporting to the Logistics Command is Maritime Command – divided into four areas who provide logistic support for their areas. The Corps of the Port Captaincies – Coast Guard is the coast guard of Italy and is part of the Italian Navy under the control of the Ministry of Infrastructures, in Italy, it is commonly known as simply the Guardia costiera
23.
Italian cruiser Giuseppe Garibaldi (1936)
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Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian Duca degli Abruzzi-class light cruiser, that served in the Regia Marina during World War II. After the war she was retained by the Marina Militare and upgraded and she was built by CRDA, in Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard Trieste and named after the Italian general Giuseppe Garibaldi. Decommissioned in 1953, Giuseppe Garibaldi was converted between 1957 and 1961, at the La Spezia shipyards, into a missile cruiser. The Duca degli Abruzzi-class cruisers were the final version of the Condottieri-class and were larger and better protected than their predecessors, the armament was also increased by two extra 152 mm guns, triple turrets replaced twins in the A and Y positions. The machinery was also revised which led to these ships having a slower maximum speed than their predecessors. On 9 July at the Battle of Calabria Giuseppe Garibaldi along with her sister, Duca degli Abruzzi, during the engagement, splinters from a 6-inch round fired by Giuseppe Garibaldi hit the British cruiser HMS Neptune, damaging her catapult and the reconnaissance aircraft beyond repair. On 11 November, Giuseppe Garibaldi was anchored at Taranto when British aircraft attacked the Italian fleet in the harbour, on 27 March, Giuseppe Garibaldi participated in the Battle of Cape Matapan. The commander of the ship at the time was Captain Stanislao Caraciotti, on 8 May she was part of the Tiger convoy. On 28 July the cruiser was torpedoed and damaged by the British submarine HMS Upholder, on 3 January, the cruiser escorted Italian convoy M43. On 7 March, Giuseppe Garibaldi took part in Operation V5, escorting large convoy to Libya along with another Condottieri-class cuiser, on 14 June the ship participated in the action against convoy Vigorous, an attempt to resupply Malta by the Royal Navy. After the armistice, she operated in the South Atlantic together with Allied ships against potential German raiders, after the war she was retained by the Marina Militare and modernized with minor changes of the armament and a radar. She was decommissioned in 1953 and reconstructed as a missile cruiser. The new ship was rebuilt in the La Spezia Arsenal starting from 1957, the reconstruction included a complete overhauling of the superstructure, while the hull kept its original dimensions. Apart from some minor changes, much of the latters rebuilding included four launchers for the U. S. designed UGM-27 Polaris nuclear ballistic missiles, despite the successful launching tests, the US never provided the missiles, due to political convenience. The propulsion system remained the same, the rest of the armament was radically altered, a RIM-2 Terrier missile launcher made Giuseppe Garibaldi the first missile cruiser in Europe. The previous artillery was replaced by four 135/45 mm guns in two turrets and eight Oto Melara 76/62mm Type MMI AA guns. Electronics included several radars and fire control systems and she was decommissioned in 1971 and scrapped the following year. Gardiner, Robert, Chumbley, Stephen & Budzbon, Przemysław, conways All the Worlds Fighting Ships 1947-1995
24.
Alfa (rocket)
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Alfa was the designation of an Italian solid propellant intermediate-range ballistic missile program that started in 1971 under the control of the GRS. Starting as a development effort for a study on efficient solid-propellant rockets, test launches with an upper stage mockup took place between 1973 and 1975, from Salto di Quirra. The Alfa was 6.5 metres long and had a diameter of 1.37 metres, the first stage of the Alfa was 3.85 metres long and contained 6 t of solid rocket fuel. It supplied a thrust of 232 kN for a duration of 57 seconds, italy has been active in the space sector since 1957, conducting launch and control operations from the Luigi Broglio Space Centre. The advanced Scout and Vega launchers currently used by the European Space Agency derive their technological basis partially from Alfa studies, an Alfa rocket is currently displayed at the Cameri Air Base Museum in Novara Province
25.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
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Opened for signature in 1968, the treaty entered into force in 1970. As required by the text, after years, NPT Parties met in May 1995. More countries have adhered to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement, four UN member states have never accepted the NPT, three of which are thought to possess nuclear weapons, India, Israel, and Pakistan. In addition, South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined, the treaty effectively recognizes five states as nuclear-weapon states, the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China. The treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences of the Parties to the Treaty of Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. S, government efforts led by Ambassador Thomas Graham Jr. At the time the NPT was proposed, there were predictions of 25–30 nuclear weapon states within 20 years, instead, over forty years later, five states are not parties to the NPT, and they include the only four additional states believed to possess nuclear weapons. Critics argue that the NPT cannot stop the proliferation of weapons or the motivation to acquire them. Several high-ranking officials within the United Nations have said that they can do little to stop states using nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons, the NPT consists of a preamble and eleven articles. These pillars are interrelated and mutually reinforcing, with the right to access the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology comes the responsibility of nonproliferation. Progress on disarmament reinforces efforts to strengthen the regime and to enforce compliance with obligations. Under Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes. Five states are recognized by NPT as nuclear weapon states, China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and these five nations are also the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. These five NWS agree not to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not in any way to assist, encourage. NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to receive, manufacture, however, these undertakings have not been incorporated formally into the treaty, and the exact details have varied over time. The U. S. also had nuclear warheads targeted at North Korea, Article VI of the NPT represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon states. Under this interpretation, Article VI does not strictly require all signatories to conclude a disarmament treaty. Rather, it requires them to negotiate in good faith. On the other hand, some governments, especially non-nuclear-weapon states belonging to the Non-Aligned Movement, have interpreted Article VIs language as being anything, the ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament
26.
MIRV
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A multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle is a ballistic missile payload containing several warheads, each capable of being aimed to hit one of a group of targets. By contrast a unitary warhead is a single warhead on a single missile, an intermediate case is the multiple reentry vehicle missile which carries several warheads which are dispersed but not individually aimed. Only the United States, United Kingdom, Russia, France, the military purpose of a MIRV is fourfold, Enhance first-strike proficiency for strategic forces. Providing greater target damage for a given thermonuclear weapon payload, several small warheads cause much more target damage area than a single warhead alone. This in turn reduces the number of missiles and launch facilities required for a destruction level - much the same as the purpose of a cluster munition. With single warhead missiles, one missile must be launched for each target, by contrast with a MIRV warhead, the post-boost stage can dispense the warheads against multiple targets across a broad area. Reduces the effectiveness of a missile system that relies on intercepting individual warheads. While a MIRV attacking missile can have multiple warheads, interceptors may have only one warhead per missile, decoy reentry vehicles can be used alongside actual warheads to minimize the chances of the actual warheads being intercepted before they reach their targets. A system that destroys the missile earlier in its trajectory is not affected by this but is more difficult, MIRV land-based ICBMs were considered destabilizing because they tended to put a premium on striking first. Later on the US feared the Soviets MIRVs because Soviet missiles had a greater throw-weight, for example, the US MIRVs might have increased their warhead per missile count by a factor of 6 while the Soviets increased theirs by a factor of 10. Furthermore, the US had a smaller proportion of its nuclear arsenal in ICBMs than the Soviets. Bombers could not be outfitted with MIRVs so their capacity would not be multiplied, thus the US did not seem to have as much potential for MIRV usage as the Soviets. However, the US had a number of Submarine-launched ballistic missiles, which could be outfitted with MIRVs. It is because of their first-strike capability that land-based MIRVs were banned under the START II agreement, START II was ratified by the Russian Duma on 14 April 2000, but Russia withdrew from the treaty in 2002 after the US withdrew from the ABM treaty. In a MIRV, the rocket motor pushes a bus into a free-flight suborbital ballistic flight path. After the boost phase the bus maneuvers using small on-board rocket motors and it takes up a ballistic trajectory that will deliver a reentry vehicle containing a warhead to a target, and then releases a warhead on that trajectory. It then maneuvers to a different trajectory, releasing another warhead, the precise technical details are closely guarded military secrets, to hinder any development of enemy counter-measures. The bus on-board propellant limits the distances between targets of individual warheads to perhaps a few hundred kilometers, some warheads may use small hypersonic airfoils during the descent to gain additional cross-range distance
27.
UGM-73 Poseidon
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The UGM-73 Poseidon missile was the second US Navy nuclear-armed submarine-launched ballistic missile system, powered by a two-stage solid-fuel rocket. It succeeded the UGM-27 Polaris beginning in 1972, bringing major advances in warheads and it was followed by Trident I in 1979, and Trident II in 1990. A development study for a longer version of the Polaris missile achieved by enlarging it to the maximum possible size allowed by existing launch tubes started in 1963. Tests had already shown that Polaris missiles could be operated without problems in launch tubes that had their fiberglass liners, the project was given the title Polaris B3 in November, but the missile was eventually named Poseidon C3 to emphasize the technical advances over its predecessor. The C3 was the version of the missile produced. MIRV capacity has been given as up to ten or fourteen W68 thermonuclear warheads contained in Mark 3 reentry vehicles to multiple targets. As with Polaris, starting a motor when the missile was still in the submarine was considered very dangerous. Therefore, the missile was ejected from its launch tube using high pressure produced by a solid-fueled boiler. The main rocket motor ignited automatically when the missile had risen approximately 10 metres above the submarine, the weapon officially entered service on 31 March 1971. It eventually equipped 31 Lafayette-, James Madison-, and Benjamin Franklin-class submarines, the Royal Navy also considered adopting Poseidon in the 1970s as an upgrade to its Polaris A3T boats, and like the US this would have kept the existing hulls. Beginning in 1979,12 Poseidon-equipped SSBNs were refitted with Trident I, United States United States Navy List of missiles
28.
UGM-96 Trident I
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The UGM-96 Trident I, or Trident C4, was an American submarine-launched ballistic missile, built by Lockheed Martin Space Systems in Sunnyvale, California. First deployed in 1979, the Trident I replaced the Poseidon missile and it was retired in 2005, having been replaced by the Trident II. In 1980, the Royal Navy requested Trident I missiles under the Polaris Sales Agreement, in 1982 and it was the first Trident missile to enter service. The Trident I is a three-stage, solid-fuelled missile, the first eight Ohio-class submarines were armed with Trident I missiles. Twelve James Madison- and Benjamin Franklin-class submarines were also retrofitted with Trident I missiles, which replaced older Poseidon missiles
29.
George Washington-class submarine
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The George Washington class was a class of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines deployed by the United States Navy. These two were joined by a pair of purpose built diesel boats, and a nuclear powered boat. Additionally, the submarine had to surface to launch a missile, to over come these limitations, the Navy turned to ballistic missiles. The Navy initially worked on a variant of the US Army Jupiter intermediate-range ballistic missile, projecting four of the large. Red Raborn was appointed by Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke to head a Special Project Office to develop Jupiter for the Navy, soon Admiral Burke concentrated all Navy strategic research on Polaris, still under Admiral Raborns Special Project Office. The problems of submerged launch, designing a submarine for 16 missiles, precise navigation for accurate missile targeting, on 12 February 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorized funding for three ballistic missile submarines. The George Washingtons were essentially Skipjacks with a 130 foot missile compartment, then Electric Boat and Mare Island Naval Shipyard began construction of one other boat each from extended plans. President Eisenhower authorized construction of two submarines on 29 July 1958. Newport News Shipbuilding and Portsmouth Naval Shipyard began work immediately, the George Washingtons carried the Polaris A1 missile on their patrols until 2 June 1964, when the George Washington changed out her missiles for Polaris A3s. The last member of class, USS Abraham Lincoln swapped out her A1s for A3s on 14 October 1965. George Washingtons sail is preserved at the Submarine Force Library and Museum at Groton and this article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
30.
Ethan Allen-class submarine
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The Ethan Allen class of fleet ballistic missile submarine was an evolutionary development from the George Washington class. They were functionally similar to the George Washingtons, but longer and more streamlined, in the early and mid-1970s, they were upgraded to Polaris A3s. Because their missile tubes could not be modified to carry the larger diameter Poseidon missile, to comply with SALT II treaty limitations as the Ohio-class ballistic missile submarines entered service, in the early 1980s the Ethan Allens were refitted as SSNs nicknamed slow attacks. Their missile fire control systems were removed and the tubes were filled with concrete. The Ethan Allen-class submarines were decommissioned between 1983 and 1992, all were disposed of through the nuclear Ship-Submarine Recycling Program 1992-1999. NavSource. org SSBN photo gallery index Federation of American Scientists SSBN608 at Navysite. de
31.
USS Ohio (SSBN-726)
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USS Ohio, the lead boat of her class of nuclear-powered fleet ballistic missile submarines, was the fourth vessel of the United States Navy to be named for the 17th state. She was commissioned with the designation of SSBN-726, and with her conversion to a guided missile submarine she was re-designated SSGN-726. Original plans called for Ohio to be retired in 2002, instead, Ohio and three sister ships were modified and remain in service as conventional missile submarines. In November 2003 Ohio entered drydock, beginning a 36-month refueling, electric Boat announced on 9 January 2006 that the conversion had been completed. On 2 February 1978, the Precommissioning Unit was formed with Commander A. K. Thompson as its Commanding Officer, Ohio was launched on 7 April 1979 sponsored by Mrs. Annie Glenn, wife of Senator John H. Glenn. In the summer of 1981, sea trials were held to test the equipment and systems, on 11 November 1981, Ohio was commissioned. On that day, command of the two crews of Ohio was assumed by Captain A. K. Thompson and Captain A. F. Campbell, during August and September 1982, the first loadout of Trident C-4 missiles and a predeployment refit were conducted. Ohio and her Blue Crew departed on the first Trident Submarine Strategic Deterrent Patrol in October 1982, from June 1993 to June 1994 Ohio underwent overhaul at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington, receiving extensive upgrades to sonar, fire control, and navigation systems. Ohio resumed strategic deterrent patrols in January 1995 as part of Submarine Squadron Seventeen, Submarine Group Nine, following her conversion to a SSGN, Ohio rejoined the fleet on 7 February 2006. On 21 January 2007, the Gold Crew departed Naval Base Kitsap for Hawaii to conduct a forward-deployed crew exchange, ballistic submarines of Ohios class employ two crews, Blue and Gold, in order to facilitate continuous operation at sea, called forward-presence in USN parlance. Ohio left for her first mission as an SSGN on 15 October 2007, the Blue crew underwent several tests and inspections before completing a mission some time in December. Ohio was also the first one of the class to complete a mission, on 28 June 2010, Ohio was one of three Ohio-class submarines involved in a US response to Chinese missile testing in the contested East China Sea. Ohio, Michigan, and Florida all surfaced simultaneously in the waters of the Philippines, South Korea, in November 2011, Lt. Britta Christianson became the first woman to qualify for service on a US Navy submarine being assigned to Ohios Gold Crew. Pirie, Jr. announced the 2001 winners of the Navy Captain Edward F. Ney Memorial Awards, hill Memorial Awards for outstanding food service in the Navy and Marine Corps. The formal presentation of the awards was made during the International Food Service Executives Association conference on Saturday,3 March 2001, in Anaheim, the afloat galley first place winner in the Pacific fleet was Ohio. This award was before her conversion from SSBN to SSGN and this article includes information collected from the Naval Vessel Register, which, as a U. S. government publication, is in the public domain. The entries can be here and here. Tricked-out sub stops at Pearl Harbor
32.
Attack submarine
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An attack submarine or hunter-killer submarine is a submarine specifically designed for the purpose of attacking and sinking other submarines, surface combatants and merchant vessels. In the Soviet and Russian navies they were and are called multi-purpose submarines and they are also used to protect friendly surface combatants and missile submarines. Some attack subs are also armed with missiles mounted in vertical launch tubes. Attack submarines may be either nuclear-powered or diesel-electric powered, in the United States Navy naming system, and in the equivalent NATO system, nuclear-powered attack submarines are known as SSNs and their diesel-electric predecessors were SSKs. In the US Navy, SSNs are unofficially called fast attacks, in the action of 9 February 1945, HMS Venturer sank U-864 while both were at periscope depth. This was the first and so far only intentional sinking of a submarine by a submerged submarine. Following World War II, advanced German submarines, especially the Type XXI U-boat, became available to the Allies, particularly the United States Navy and the Soviet Navy. In the US Navy, the Greater Underwater Propulsion Power Program was developed to modernize World War II submarines along the lines of the Type XXI. It was realized that the Soviet Union had acquired Type XXI and other advanced U-boats, the projected US SSK force levels for these scenarios were 250 for the former and 970 for the latter. Additional anti-surface, guided missile, and radar picket submarines would also be needed, by comparison, the total US submarine force at the end of World War II, excluding obsolescent training submarines, was just over 200 boats. A small submarine suitable for production was designed to meet the SSK requirement. This resulted in the three submarines of the K-1 class, which entered service in 1951, at 750 long tons surfaced, they were considerably smaller than the 1,650 long tons boats produced in World War II. They were equipped with a passive sonar, the bow-mounted BQR-4. Initially, a sonar located around the tower was considered. While developing the purpose-built SSKs, consideration was given to converting World War II submarines into SSKs, the less-capable Gato class was chosen for this, as some of the deeper-diving Balao- and Tench-class boats were being upgraded as GUPPYs. Seven Gato-class boats were converted to SSKs in 1951-53 and these had the bow-mounted BQR-4 sonar of the other SSKs, with four of the six bow torpedo tubes removed to make room for the sonar and its electronics. The four stern tubes were retained. Two diesel engines were removed, and the machinery was relocated in their place
33.
SALT II
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The two rounds of talks and agreements were SALT I and SALT II. Negotiations commenced in Helsinki, Finland, in November 1969, SALT I led to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement between the two countries. Although SALT II resulted in an agreement in 1979, the United States Senate chose not to ratify the treaty in response to the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the Soviet legislature also did not ratify it. The agreement expired on December 31,1985 and was not renewed, a successor to START I, New START, was proposed and was eventually ratified in February 2011. SALT I is the name for the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Agreement signed on May 26,1972. SALT I also limited land-based ICBMs that were in range from the border of the continental United States to the northwestern border of the continental USSR. In addition to that, SALT I limited the number of SLBM capable submarines that NATO, if the United States or NATO were to increase that number, the USSR could respond with increasing their arsenal by the same amount. The strategic nuclear forces of the Soviet Union and the United States were changing in character in 1968, MIRVs carried multiple nuclear warheads, often with dummies, to confuse ABM systems, making MIRV defense by ABM systems increasingly difficult and expensive. One clause of the treaty required both countries to limit the number of sites protected by a missile system to two each. The Soviet Union had deployed such a system around Moscow in 1966, a modified two-tier Moscow ABM system is still used. The United States built only one ABM site to protect a Minuteman base in North Dakota where the Safeguard Program was deployed, due to the systems expense and limited effectiveness, the Pentagon disbanded Safeguard in 1975. Negotiations lasted from November 17,1969, until May 1972 in a series of meetings beginning in Helsinki, Smith, director of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. Subsequent sessions alternated between Vienna and Helsinki, after a long deadlock, the first results of SALT I came in May 1971, when an agreement was reached over ABM systems. A number of agreed statements were also made and this helped improve relations between the United States and the USSR. SALT II was a series of talks between United States and Soviet negotiators from 1972 to 1979 which sought to curtail the manufacture of nuclear weapons. It was a continuation of the SALT I talks and was led by representatives from both countries, SALT II was the first nuclear arms treaty which assumed real reductions in strategic forces to 2,250 of all categories of delivery vehicles on both sides. SALT II helped the United States to discourage the Soviets from arming their third-generation ICBMs of SS-17, SS-19, in the late 1970s the USSRs missile design bureaus had developed experimental versions of these missiles equipped with anywhere from 10 to 38 warheads each. Additionally, the Soviets secretly agreed to reduce Tu-22M production to thirty aircraft per year and it was particularly important for the United States to limit Soviet efforts in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces rearmament area
34.
Program Evaluation and Review Technique
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First developed by the United States Navy in the 1950s, it is commonly used in conjunction with the critical path method. The new technique takes recognition of three factors that influence successful achievement of research and development program objectives, time, resources, PERT employs time as the variable that reflects planned resource-applications and performance specifications. Such time expectations include estimates of most likely time, optimistic time, PERT was developed primarily to simplify the planning and scheduling of large and complex projects. It was developed for the U. S. Navy Special Projects Office in 1957 to support the U. S. Navys Polaris nuclear submarine project. It was able to incorporate uncertainty by making it possible to schedule a project while not knowing precisely the details and it is more of an event-oriented technique rather than start- and completion-oriented, and is used more in projects where time is the major factor rather than cost. It is applied to very large-scale, one-time, complex, non-routine infrastructure and Research, an example of this was for the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble which applied PERT from 1965 until the opening of the 1968 Games. This project model was the first of its kind, a revival for scientific management, founded by Frederick Taylor, duPonts critical path method was invented at roughly the same time as PERT. PERT event, a point that marks the start or completion of one or more activities and it consumes no time and uses no resources. When it marks the completion of one or more activities, it is not reached until all of the leading to that event have been completed. Predecessor event, an event that immediately precedes some other event without any other events intervening, an event can have multiple predecessor events and can be the predecessor of multiple events. Successor event, an event that follows some other event without any other intervening events. An event can have multiple successor events and can be the successor of multiple events, PERT activity, the actual performance of a task which consumes time and requires resources. It can be understood as representing the time, effort, a PERT activity cannot be performed until the predecessor event has occurred. PERT sub-activity, a PERT activity can be decomposed into a set of sub-activities. For example, activity A1 can be decomposed into A1.1, A1.2, sub-activities have all the properties of activities, in particular, a sub-activity has predecessor or successor events just like an activity. A sub-activity can be decomposed again into finer-grained sub-activities, most likely time, the best estimate of the time required to accomplish an activity or a path, assuming everything proceeds as normal. Expected time, the best estimate of the required to accomplish an activity or a path. It is the amount of time that a task can be delayed without causing a delay in any subsequent tasks or the whole project
35.
Gantt chart
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A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart, devised by Henry Gantt in the 1910s, that illustrates a project schedule. Gantt charts illustrate the start and finish dates of the terminal elements, terminal elements and summary elements comprise the work breakdown structure of the project. Modern Gantt charts also show the relationships between activities. Gantt charts can be used to show current schedule status using percent-complete shadings, although now regarded as a common charting technique, Gantt charts were considered revolutionary when first introduced. This chart is used in information technology to represent data that has been collected. The first known tool of this type was developed in 1896 by Karol Adamiecki, Adamiecki did not publish his chart until 1931, however, and only in Polish, which limited both its adoption and recognition of his authorship. The chart is named after Henry Gantt, who designed his chart around the years 1910–1915, one of the first major applications of Gantt charts was by the United States during World War I, at the instigation of General William Crozier. In the 1980s, personal computers allowed widespread creation of complex, the first desktop applications were intended mainly for project managers and project schedulers. With the advent of the Internet and increased collaboration over networks at the end of the 1990s, Gantt charts became a feature of web-based applications. In the following table there are seven tasks, labeled A through G, some tasks can be done concurrently while others cannot be done until their predecessor task is complete. Additionally, each task has three time estimates, the optimistic time estimate, the most likely or normal time estimate, the expected time is estimated using the beta probability distribution for the time estimates, using the formula ÷6. Once this step is complete, one can draw a Gantt chart or a network diagram, Gantt charts can be used for scheduling generic resources as well as project management. They can also be used for scheduling production processes and employee rostering, in the latter context, they may also be known as timebar schedules. Gantt charts can be used to track shifts or tasks and also vacations or other types of out-of-office time, specialized employee scheduling software may output schedules as a Gantt chart, or they may be created through popular desktop publishing software. Critical path method Float Henry Gantt List of project management software, program Evaluation and Review Technique Long-running discussion regarding limitations of the Gantt chart format, and alternatives, on Edward Tuftes website
36.
United States Army
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The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States Armed Forces and performs land-based military operations. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, the United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. As a uniformed service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army. As a branch of the forces, the mission of the U. S. The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States, the United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U. S. Section 3062 of Title 10, U. S, the army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, French aid, resources, a number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught Prussian Army tactics and organizational skills. The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South in 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the British were weakest, to wear down their forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles in the New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776, with a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly given land certificates, State militias became the new nations sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Points arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The War of 1812, the second and last war between the United States and Great Britain, had mixed results. After taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the U. S. Army seized parts of western Upper Canada, burned York and defeated Tecumseh, which caused his Western Confederacy to collapse. Following U. S. victories in the Canadian province of Upper Canada, British troops, were able to capture and burn Washington, which was defended by militia, in 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and Siege of Fort St. Philip, U. S. troops and sailors captured HMS Cyane, Levant, and Penguin in the final engagements of the war. Per the treaty, both sides, the United States and Great Britain, returned to the status quo. Both navies kept the warships they had seized during the conflict, the armys major campaign against the Indians was fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars to defeat the Seminoles and move them to Oklahoma
37.
PGM-19 Jupiter
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The PGM-19 Jupiter was the first nuclear tipped, medium-range ballistic missile of the United States Air Force. It was a liquid-propellant rocket using RP-1 fuel and LOX oxidizer and it was armed with the 1.1 megaton W49 nuclear warhead. The prime contractor was the Chrysler Corporation, the Navy also expressed an interest in the design as an SLBM, but left the collaboration to work on their Polaris. Jupiter retained the short, squat shape intended to fit in naval submarines, a presidential report suggested this made it the most valuable missile then being developed. This led to continual inter-service fighting between the Army and Air Force, and ultimately to Charles Erwin Wilsons decision to give the Jupiter missiles to the U. S. Air Force. The Air Force was never interested in supporting Jupiter, they saw no need for its accuracy in their battle plans and had their own Thor with longer range. Production went ahead and the nuclear tipped missiles were deployed in both Italy and Turkey in 1961 due to NATOs Cold War deterrence against the Soviet Union. All were then removed by the United States as part of a secret agreement with the Soviet Union during the Cuban Missile Crisis. They were considered to be outdated and it was also used as the basis for a satellite launcher known as Juno II, but had a short and unsuccessful career in this role. It is unclear as to what happened to the missiles in Italy, in the aftermath of World War II, a number of German rocket scientists and engineers were moved to the United States as part of Operation Paperclip. Rocketry was at that time considered to be a sort of long-range artillery, the group was settled at Fort Bliss, Texas - where they aided General Electrics Project Hermes efforts to build and test a variety of V-2-derived designs at the nearby White Sands Proving Ground. Around the same time, North American Aviation won the contract to build a cruise missile that became the SM-64 Navaho. This used ramjet power and needed to be boosted up to speed by a of rocket. Their Propulsion Division was given two V-2 engines to work with to meet this requirement, along with a wealth of research papers from the original V-2 engine team, attacking this task, NAA successfully solved the problems and began using this new injector. This became the XLR-41 Phase III engine, which provided 75,000 pounds-force of thrust, one greater than the Model 39. The fastest solution was to provide the German team with anything they needed to achieve this goal by adapting the V-2 design, the team, under the leadership of Wernher von Braun, began work on the problem at Fort Bliss. In 1951 they moved to the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, initially known as the Ordnance Guided Missile Center, then the Guided Missile Development Division, in 1956 they finally became the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, or ABMA. Taking the XLR-41, renamed as the NA-75-110 in Army use, they wrapped it in the largest airframe it could lift, increasing fuel load, the result was essentially a larger version of the V-2
38.
Intermediate-range ballistic missile
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An intermediate-range ballistic missile is a ballistic missile with a range of 3, 000–5,500 km, between a medium-range ballistic missile and an intercontinental ballistic missile. Classifying ballistic missiles by range is mostly for convenience, in principle there is very little difference between a low-performance ICBM and a high-performance IRBM. The range definition used here is used within the U. S, some other sources include an additional category, the long-range ballistic missile, to describe missiles with a range between IRBMs and true ICBMs. The more modern term theater ballistic missile encompasses MRBMs and SRBMs, IRBMs are currently operated by the Peoples Republic of China, India, Israel, and possibly North Korea. The United States, USSR, United Kingdom, and France were former operators, the A4b was the prototype for the upper stage of the A9/A10 rocket. The goal of the program was to build a capable of bombarding New York when launched in France or Spain. A4b rockets were tested a few times in December 1944 and January and February 1945, all of these rockets used liquid propellant. The A4b used an inertial system, while the A9 would have been controlled by a pilot. They started from a launch pad
39.
Chief of Naval Operations
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The Chief of Naval Operations is a statutory office held by a four-star admiral in the United States Navy, and is the most senior naval officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Navy. The office is an adviser and deputy to the Secretary of the Navy. The current Chief of Naval Operations is Admiral John M. Richardson, under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, the CNO also designates naval personnel and naval resources to the commanders of Unified Combatant Commands. The CNO also performs all other functions prescribed under 10 U. S. C. §5033, the CNO is typically the highest-ranking officer on active duty in the Navy unless the Chairman and/or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are naval officers. Like the other joint chiefs, the CNO is a position and has no operational command authority over United States naval forces. The Chief of Naval Operations is nominated by the President for appointment, however, the president may waive those requirements if he determines that appointing the officer is necessary for the national interest. By statute, the CNO is appointed as a four-star admiral, number One Observatory Circle, located on the northeast grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, DC, was built in 1893 for its superintendent. The Chief of Naval Operations liked the house so much that in 1923 he took over the house as his own official residence and it remained the residence of the CNO until 1974, when Congress authorized its transformation to an official residence for the Vice President. The Chief of Naval Operations currently resides in Quarters A in the Washington Naval Yard, the position of CNO replaced the position of Aide for Naval Operations, which was a position established by regulation rather than statutory law. Lists of Commanding Officers and Senior Officials of the US Navy, archived from the original on 18 December 2007
40.
Arleigh Burke
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USS Arleigh Burke, the lead ship of her class of Aegis-equipped guided missile destroyers, was commissioned in his honor in 1991, during his lifetime. Burke was born in Boulder, Colorado, on October 19,1901, to Oscar Burke and his grandfather, August Björkgren, was a Swedish immigrant to the US and changed his surname to Burke to sound more American. Due to the 1918 influenza outbreak, schools were closed in Boulder and he won an alternate appointment to the Naval Academy given by his local congressman. He graduated from the United States Naval Academy in June 1923 and he married Miss Roberta Gorsuch of Washington, D. C. Over the next 18 years, Burke served aboard battleships and destroyers, when World War II came, he found himself, to his great disappointment, in a shore billet at the Naval Gun Factory in Washington, D. C. After persistent efforts on his part, he received orders to join the fighting in the South Pacific, Burke would spend the remainder of the war in the South Pacific. He successively commanded Destroyer Division 43, Destroyer Division 44, Destroyer Squadron 12, desRon 23, known as the Little Beavers, covered the initial landings in Bougainville in November 1943, and fought in 22 separate engagements during the next four months. During this time, the Little Beavers were credited with destroying one Japanese cruiser, nine destroyers, one submarine, several smaller ships, Burkes standing orders to his task force were, Destroyers to attack on enemy contact WITHOUT ORDERS from the task force commander. After reviewing the Navys early unsuccessful engagements with the Japanese, he had concluded that uncertainty, the lesson was driven home to him at the Battle of Blackett Strait, when his radar operator made first contact with a ship near the shore but Burke hesitated to fire. A battle soon unfolded which ended in a US victory, a victory which only Burke was unhappy with, reflecting on the events Burke asked a nearby ensign what the difference was between a good officer and a poor one. After listening to the response, Burke offered his own. Thereafter, his nickname was 31-knot Burke, originally a taunt, in March 1944, Burke was promoted to Chief of Staff to the Commander of Task Force 58, the Fifth Fleets Fast Carrier Task Force, which was commanded by Admiral Marc Mitscher. Burke was promoted to the rank of Commodore, and participated in all the forces naval engagements until June 1945. He was aboard both USS Bunker Hill and USS Enterprise when they were hit by Japanese kamikaze aircraft during the Okinawa campaign, Burke then took command of USS Huntington for a cruise down the east coast of Africa. He was promoted to Rear Admiral in 1949 and served as Navy Secretary on the Defense Research and Development Board. At the outbreak of the Korean War, Admiral Forrest Sherman, then Chief of Naval Operations, ordered Burke to duty as Deputy Chief of Staff to Commander Naval Forces, Far East. After six months in the tents, he returned to the Office of Chief of Naval Operations where he served as Director of Strategic Plans Division until 1954. In April 1954, he took command of Cruiser Division Six, in August 1955, Burke succeeded Admiral Robert B. Carney as Chief of Naval Operations
41.
Rear Admiral
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Rear admiral is a naval commissioned officer rank above that of a commodore and captain, and below that of a vice admiral. It is generally regarded as the lowest of the admiral ranks, in many navies it is referred to as a two-star rank. It originated from the days of naval sailing squadrons and can trace its origins to the Royal Navy, each naval squadron would be assigned an admiral as its head, who would command from the centre vessel and direct the activities of the squadron. The admiral would in turn be assisted by a vice admiral and this has survived into the modern age, with the rank of rear admiral the most-junior of the admiralty ranks of many navies. In some European navies, and in the Canadian Forces French rank translations, in the German Navy the rank is known as Konteradmiral, superior to the flotilla admiral. In the Royal Netherlands Navy, this rank is known as schout-bij-nacht, denoting the role junior to the squadron admiral, the Royal Australian Navy maintains a rank of rear admiral, refer to Australian Defence Force ranks and insignia. Since the mid-1990s, the insignia of a Royal Australian Navy rear admiral is the Crown of St. Edward above a crossed sword and baton, like the Royal Navy version, the sword is a traditional naval cutlass. The stars have eight points, unlike the four pointed Order of the Bath stars used by the army, prior to 1995, the RAN shoulder board was identical to the Royal Navy shoulder board. The Royal Navy shoulder board changed again in 2001 and the Australian, rear Admiral Robyn Walker AM, RAN became the first female admiral in the Royal Australian Navy when she was appointed Surgeon-General of the Australian Defence Force on 16 December 2011. In the Royal Canadian Navy, the rank of rear-admiral is the Navy rank equivalent to major-general of the Army, a rear-admiral is a flag officer, the naval equivalent of a general officer. A rear-admiral is senior to a commodore and brigadier-general, and junior to a vice-admiral and lieutenant-general, the service dress features a wide strip of gold braid around the cuff and, since June 2010, above it a narrower strip of gold braid embellished with the executive curl. On the visor of the cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Konteradmiral is an OF-7 two-star rank equivalent to the Generalmajor in the German Army, see also The Guyana Defence Force Coast Guard is the naval component of the Military of Guyana. As such, the ranks of the Coast Guard are naval ranks similar to the practice in the respective Coast Guards of Jamaica and Trinidad, the rank of rear admiral was first awarded to chief of staff commodore Gary Best on August 19,2013. The rank insignia consists of two silver pips with green highlights, beneath a crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by the gold-colored Caciques crown with red, the Indian Navy also maintains a rear admiral rank senior to commodore and captain ranks and junior to vice admiral ranks. The rank insignia for a rear-admiral is two stars beneath crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by Emblem of India, worn on shoulder boards, before Islamic Revolution The Iranian Imperial Navy. After Islamic Revolution The Islamic Republic of Iran Navy, also known as the Iranian Navy, a rear admiral in the Pakistani Navy is a senior and two-star rank naval officer, appointed in higher naval commands. Like most Commonwealth navies, the rear admiral rank is superior to commodore, however, the rank is junior to the three-star rank vice-admiral and four-star rank admiral, who is generally a Chief of Naval Staff of the Navy
42.
William Raborn
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Born in Decatur, Texas, he graduated from the U. S. Naval Academy in 1928. During World War II he directed the Gunnery Training Section at the Bureau of Aeronautics and he also served in the Pacific on aircraft carriers, Raborn was the executive officer of the carrier USS Hancock when her deck was damaged by a kamikaze attack. He had the deck repaired in four hours, allowing the aircraft to land safely - for this Raborn was awarded the Silver Star. He later commanded the carriers USS Bairoko and USS Bennington, Raborn was a rear admiral when he was appointed, on November 8,1955, as Director of Special Projects at the Bureau of Weapons. His task was to develop a submarine-launched ballistic missile and he reported directly to Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke and the Secretary of the Navy Charles Thomas. Raborn was told the new system had to achieve interim capability by early 1963, Raborn received the Distinguished Service Medal and was appointed Vice Admiral in 1960. The same year he was awarded the Collier Trophy for his work on Polaris, Raborn had delivered Polaris three years ahead of schedule, due in part to his application of the PERT methodology. He became Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Development in 1962, as DCI, one of his primary responsibilities was to direct the Central Intelligence Agency. Raborn resigned on June 30,1966, having served for fourteen months as DCI. He was replaced by his deputy, Richard Helms and he was involved, during his time at the CIA, in its early activities against Ramparts magazine and its editors. Raborn is buried in the United States Naval Academy Cemetery in Annapolis, Maryland
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Nuclear physicist
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Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions. Other forms of matter are also studied. Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic physics, which studies the atom as a whole, discoveries in nuclear physics have led to applications in many fields. Such applications are studied in the field of nuclear engineering, Particle physics evolved out of nuclear physics and the two fields are typically taught in close association. Nuclear astrophysics, the application of physics to astrophysics, is crucial in explaining the inner workings of stars. The discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson a year later was an indication that the atom had internal structure, in the years that followed, radioactivity was extensively investigated, notably by Marie and Pierre Curie as well as by Ernest Rutherford and his collaborators. By the turn of the physicists had also discovered three types of radiation emanating from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments by Otto Hahn in 1911 and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energy that were observed in gamma. This was a problem for physics at the time, because it seemed to indicate that energy was not conserved in these decays. The 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded jointly to Becquerel for his discovery and to Marie, Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements and the chemistry of radioactive substances. In 1905 Albert Einstein formulated the idea of mass–energy equivalence, in 1906 Ernest Rutherford published Retardation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through matter. Hans Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society with experiments he and Rutherford had done, passing alpha particles through air, aluminum foil and gold leaf. More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Ernest Marsden, in 1911–1912 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it. The plum pudding model had predicted that the particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. But Rutherford instructed his team to look for something that shocked him to observe and he likened it to firing a bullet at tissue paper and having it bounce off. As an example, in this model consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons. The Rutherford model worked well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the California Institute of Technology in 1929
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Inertial Navigation System
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It is used on vehicles such as ships, aircraft, submarines, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Other terms used to refer to inertial navigation systems or closely related devices include inertial guidance system, inertial instrument, inertial measurement units, older INS systems generally used an inertial platform as their mounting point to the vehicle, and the terms are sometimes considered synonymous. Inertial measurement units typically contain three orthogonal rate-gyroscopes and three accelerometers, measuring angular velocity and linear acceleration respectively. By processing signals from these devices it is possible to track the position and orientation of a device, Inertial navigation is used in a wide range of applications including the navigation of aircraft, tactical and strategic missiles, spacecraft, submarines and ships. Recent advances in the construction of systems have made it possible to manufacture small. These advances have widened the range of applications to include areas such as human. An inertial navigation system includes at least a computer and a platform or module containing accelerometers, gyroscopes, the advantage of an INS is that it requires no external references in order to determine its position, orientation, or velocity once it has been initialized. An INS can detect a change in its position, a change in its velocity. It does this by measuring the acceleration and angular velocity applied to the system. Since it requires no external reference, it is immune to jamming, Inertial navigation systems are used in many different moving objects, including vehicles—such as aircraft, submarines, spacecraft—and guided missiles. However, their cost and complexity place constraints on the environments in which they are practical for use, Gyroscopes measure the angular velocity of the sensor frame with respect to the inertial reference frame. By using the orientation of the system in the inertial reference frame as the initial condition and integrating the angular velocity. This can be thought of as the ability of a passenger in a car to feel the car turn left and right or tilt up. Based on this alone, the passenger knows what direction the car is facing but not how fast or slow it is moving. Accelerometers measure the acceleration of the moving vehicle in the sensor or body frame. Performing integration on the inertial accelerations using the correct kinematic equations yields the inertial velocities of the system, therefore, the position must be periodically corrected by input from some other type of navigation system. The inaccuracy of a good-quality navigational system is less than 0.6 nautical miles per hour in position and on the order of tenths of a degree per hour in orientation. Accordingly, inertial navigation is used to supplement other navigation systems
