1.
Cobia
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The cobia is a species of perciform marine fish, the only representative of the genus Rachycentron and the family Rachycentridae. Other common names include black kingfish, black salmon, ling, lemonfish, crabeater, prodigal son, attaining a maximum length of 2 m and maximum weight of 78 kg, the cobia has an elongated fusiform body and a broad, flattened head. The eyes are small and the lower jaw projects slightly past the upper, fibrous villiform teeth line the jaws, the tongue, and the roof of the mouth. The body of the fish is smooth with small scales and it is dark brown in color, grading to white on the belly with two darker brown horizontal bands on the flanks. The stripes are more prominent during spawning, when they darken, the large pectoral fins are normally carried horizontally, perhaps helping the fish attain the profile of a shark. The first dorsal fin has six to 9 independent, short, stout, the family name Rachycentridae, from the Greek words rhachis and kentron, was inspired by these dorsal spines. The mature cobia has a forked, slightly lunated tail, which is dark brown. The fish lacks a swim bladder, the juvenile cobia is patterned with conspicuous bands of black and white and has a rounded tail. The largest cobia taken on rod and reel came from Shark Bay, Australia, the cobia resembles its close relatives, the remoras of the family Echeneidae. It lacks the dorsal sucker and has a stouter body. The cobia is normally solitary except for annual spawning aggregations, and sometimes it will congregate at reefs, wrecks, harbours, buoys and it is pelagic, but it may enter estuaries and mangroves in search of prey. It is found in warm-temperate to tropical waters of the West and East Atlantic Ocean, throughout the Caribbean and it is eurythermal, tolerating a wide range of temperatures, from 1.6 to 32.2 °C. It is also euryhaline, living at salinities of 5 to 44.5 ppt, the cobia feeds primarily on crabs, squid, and fish. It will follow larger animals such as sharks, turtles, and it is a very curious fish, showing little fear of boats. The predators of the cobia are not well documented, but the mahi-mahi is known to feed on juveniles, the cobia is frequently parasitized by nematodes, trematodes, cestodes, copepods, and acanthocephalans. The cobia is a pelagic spawner, releasing many tiny, buoyant eggs into the water, the eggs float freely with the currents until hatching. The larvae are planktonic, being more or less helpless during their first week until the eyes. The male matures at two years and the female at three years, both sexes lead moderately long lives of 15 years or more
2.
Groton, Connecticut
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Groton /ˈɡrɒtən/ is a town located on the Thames River in New London County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 40,115 at the 2010 census, Groton is the home of the Electric Boat Corporation, which is the major contractor for submarine work for the United States Navy. The Naval Submarine Base New London is located in Groton, the Avery Point section of Groton is home to a regional campus of the University of Connecticut. Groton was established in 1705 when it separated from New London, Groton is the home of General Dynamics Electric Boat which has been supplying the Navy with submarines since 1899, employing thousands in the Groton/New London area. The Old Mystic Baptist Church was founded in Groton, the first Baptist church in Connecticut, a hundred years before the town was established, the Nehantic people settled in the area between the Thames and Pawcatuck rivers. The Nehantics were brutally attacked by the Pequots and these invaders burned their wigwams, destroyed their cornfields and food supplies, and a few possessions were stolen. Many of the Nehantic warriors were tomahawked, the survivors fled to Misquamicut in what is now Rhode Island, United States. The newcomers to the land were the Pequots, a branch of the Mohawk people who moved eastward into the Connecticut River Valley, the Pequots finally rested and made their headquarters in what is now Groton. They built three villages at Groton Heights, Fort Hill, and Mystic, the Pequots made canoes from burning out the insides of straight tree trunks. The rivers in Groton were their transportation routes, on the west side was the deep Thames River, on the east is the Mystic River with shelving shores and a safe anchorage. Between the rivers, the land was undulating and rough, with the exception of Poquonnock Plains in the center, the summer of 1614 was the first time that the Pequots encountered white settlers. They started trading furs for the goods, such as steel knives, needles. In 1633, the Dutch bought land from the Pequots and opened a fur trading post, meanwhile, the English bought land for settlement from the local tribes. The Dutch had unintentionally killed the Pequots chief, and this prompted revenge by the Pequot tribe, soon after, Sassacus, the new leader of the Pequots, realized that they were in grave danger because both the English and the surrounding Indians hated them. The first settlers of Groton were subsistence farmers, trees had to be removed before they could work the ground. Livestock was also important to the settlers. Cattle provided dairy, pigs and sheep provided animal protein and wool, in 1660, gray wolves in the area had become such a problem that the settlers offered to give 20 shillings for each wolf that was killed. Though the land was poor, access to the regions waterways left room for commerce, Groton became a town of oceangoing settlers
3.
Manitowoc, Wisconsin
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Manitowoc /ˈmænᵻtəwɔːk/ is a city in and the county seat of Manitowoc County, Wisconsin, United States. The city is located on Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Manitowoc River, according to the 2010 census, Manitowoc had a population of 33,736, with over 50,000 residents in the surrounding communities. The citys sister city is Kamogawa, Japan, purported to mean dwelling of the great spirit, Manitowoc derived its name from either the Anishinaabe language word manidoowaak, meaning spirit-spawn, or manidoowaak, meaning spirit-wood. In 1838, an act of the Territorial Legislature separated Manitowoc County from Brown County, in 1820, Matthew Stanley and his wife were the first to settle in the area. In 1835, President Andrew Jackson authorized land sales for the region, early immigrant groups included Germans, Norwegians, British, Irish, and Canadians. The first school in Manitowoc was held in the Jones warehouse, the first religious organization in the county, St. James Episcopal Church, first met in 1841. Manitowoc was chartered as a village on March 6,1851, in addition, landing craft, tankers and submarines became the local contributions to U. S. efforts in World War II. On September 5,1962, a 20-pound piece of the seven-ton Sputnik 4 crashed on North 8th Street, Sputnik 4 was a USSR satellite, part of the Sputnik program and a test-flight of the Vostok spacecraft that would be used for the first human spaceflight. It was launched on May 15,1960, a bug in the guidance system had pointed the capsule in the wrong direction, so instead of dropping into the atmosphere the satellite moved into a higher orbit. It re-entered the atmosphere on or about September 5,1962, a cast was made from the original piece before the Soviets claimed it, and the cast was displayed at the Rahr West Art Museum. A customer in an art gallery jokingly suggested that the city should hold a festival to celebrate the crash. The city held the first Sputnikfest in 2008, which was organized by the head of both museums. Manitowoc is home to the Wisconsin Maritime Museum, and is one endpoint of the route of the SS Badger. Since the late 1990s, several new shopping centers have opened in the city, mostly on the southwest side of the city along Interstate 43, the bulk of the redevelopment in the city has been undertaken by the public/private partnership the Manitowoc County Economic Development Corporation. President Obama visited Manitowoc on January 26,2011, the day after his first State of the Union speech and he spoke to workers at Orion Energy, a manufacturer of solar technology, and praised Manitowoc for reinventing itself after the departure of Mirro Aluminum Company in 2003. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 17.99 square miles. The city is located at 44°5′47″N 87°40′30″W, on Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Manitowoc River, the nearest other cities are Green Bay,40 miles away, Sheboygan 28 miles away, Appleton 47 miles away, and Milwaukee 80 miles away. Together with Two Rivers and the towns, the Manitowoc micropolitan area was, according to the 2000 census
4.
Gato-class submarine
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The Gato-class were a class of submarines built for the United States Navy and launched in 1941–1943, they were the first mass-production US submarine class of World War II. Together with their near-sisters the Balao and Tench classes, their design formed the majority of the United States Navys World War II submarine fleet, Gatos name comes from a species of small catshark. Like most other U. S. Navy submarines of the period, in some references, the Gatos are combined with their successors, especially the Balao class. The Gato-class boats were considered to be Fleet Submarines, the original rationale behind their design was that they were intended to operate as adjuncts to the main battle fleet, based on Standard-type battleships since World War I. This was a concept born from experience in World War I. In order to operate effectively in this role, a submarine had to have high speed, long range and endurance. Limitations in submarine design and construction in the 1920s and 1930s made this combination of very difficult to achieve. By 1931, the phase of fleet submarine development was over. By 1940, a better developed industrial base and experience gained from the Porpoise, Salmon. Finally, the USN had hit the right combination of factors, timing, however, conspired against the actual use of these boats in their assigned role. The attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 destroyed the Pacific Fleet battle line, the successful Pearl Harbor attack overturned 20 years of submarine strategic concept development and left the fleet submarine without a mission. The Gato-class design was a near-duplicate of the preceding Tambor and Gar-class boats, the Gatos, along with nearly all of the USN fleet-type submarines of World War II, were of partial double hull construction. The inner pressure-resisting hull was wrapped by an outer hydrodynamic hull, the voids between the two hulls provided space for fuel and ballast tanks. The outer hull merged with the hull at both ends in the area of the torpedo room bulkheads, hence the partial double hull. The Gatos were slow divers when compared to some German and British designs, acknowledging this limitation, the Bureau designers incorporated a negative tank into the design, which was flooded to provide a large amount of negative buoyancy at the start of the dive. Based on later wartime experience, the tank was normally kept full or nearly full at the surface, at the start of the war these boats could go from fully surfaced to periscope depth in approximately 45–50 seconds. The superstructure that sat atop the hull provided the main walking deck when the boat was surfaced and was free flooding. When the dive began the boat would hang for a few seconds while this superstructure filled with water
5.
Submarine
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A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability, the term most commonly refers to a large, crewed vessel. It is also used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget submarine. The noun submarine evolved as a form of submarine boat, by naval tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than as ships. Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, Submarines were first widely used during World War I, and now figure in many navies large and small. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection, Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology, most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the sail in American usage, a conning tower was a feature of earlier designs, a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins, smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines use diving planes and also change the amount of water, Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers, modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from the diving bell. In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in his book Inventions or Devises one of the first plans for an underwater navigation vehicle and its unclear whether he ever carried out his idea. The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was designed and built in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel and it was propelled by means of oars. By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England, in 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft, a mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemens Magazine reported that a design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion. The first military submarine was the Turtle, a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person and it was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion
6.
Electro-Motive Diesel
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Electro-Motive Diesel is an American manufacturer of diesel-electric locomotives, locomotive products and diesel engines for the rail industry. The company is owned by Caterpillar through its subsidiary Progress Rail Services Corporation, in 1930, General Motors purchased Electro-Motive Company and the Winton Engine Co. combining the two to form its Electro-Motive Division in 1941. In 2005, GM sold EMD to Greenbriar Equity Group and Berkshire Partners, in 2010, Progress Rail Services completed the purchase of Electro-Motive Diesel from Greenbriar, Berkshire, and others. EMDs headquarters, engineering facilities and parts manufacturing operations are based in McCook, Illinois, while its final assembly line is located in Muncie. EMD also operates a traction motor maintenance, rebuild and overhaul facility in San Luis Potosí, as of 2008, EMD employed approximately 3,260 people, and in 2010 it held approximately 30 percent of the market for diesel-electric locomotives in North America. Harold L. Hamilton and Paul Turner founded the Electro-Motive Engineering Corporation in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1922, the company developed and marketed self-propelled railcars using General Electrics newly developed internal combustion-electric propulsion and control systems. Hamilton started his career as a fireman, then locomotive engineer, on the Southern Pacific Railroad. Financing himself, he quit his sales position and set up shop in a hotel with his partner. In 1923 EMC sold two gasoline-powered rail motor cars, one to the Chicago Great Western and the other to the Northern Pacific, EMC subcontracted the body construction to St. Louis Car Company, electrical components to General Electric, and the prime mover to Winton Engine Company. The motorcars were delivered in 1924 and worked well, fortunate for the fledgling company, in 1925, EMC entered full-scale production, selling 27 railcars. In 1930 General Motors was seeking to improve their Diesel technology and they purchased the Winton Engine Company who, in addition to their Diesel products, sold non-Diesel engines for EMC-developed rail motorcars. The combined resources of GM and their new Winton subsidiary were focused on developing Diesel engines with improved power-to-weight ratios, GM saw EMCs role in marketing and applications development as fitting their objectives and purchased the company shortly after the Winton acquisition, renaming it Electro-Motive Corporation. In 1933 EMC designed the power setups for the Zephyr and M-10000 streamliners, the Zephyr used the first major product of the new GM-Winton venture, the 600 hp Winton 201A 2-stroke Diesel engine. Encouraged by the success of the new streamliners, EMC invested in a new locomotive factory. The new headquarters on 55th Street in McCook, Illinois, west of Chicago, in 1938 EMC started production of locomotives using GMs new 567 engine, which upgraded the horsepower to 2000 per locomotive unit and increased reliability. The 567, named for its displacement-per-cylinder of 567.45 in³, was a two-cycle Roots-blown, Uniflow-scavenged, Unit-injected engine with overhead camshafts and it was built as a V-6, V-8, V-12 and V-16. Charles F. Kettering and the General Motors Research Corporation were in charge of its development and their nearest competitor was the American Locomotive Company, who started production of less-developed Diesel locomotives to compete with the E-units in 1939. Baldwins response to the challenge of the E-units was to develop a steam locomotive design that pushed beyond the limits of practicality, passenger trains made little money for the railroads, but replacement of steam engines with reliable Diesel units could provide railroads with a crucial difference for profitability
7.
V16 engine
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A V16 engine is a V engine with 16 cylinders. Engines of this number of cylinders are uncommon in automotive use, in addition V angles of 45° and 135° give an impulse every 45°, so are optimal solutions, for even-firing and non-split bearing crankshaft journals. V16 engines are used in automobiles because V8s or V12s of the same displacement typically produce just as much power. The few V16s that have produced were used in high-end luxury. Today, the most common applications for V16 engines are railroad locomotives, marine craft, howard Marmon had begun working on the worlds first automotive V16 engine in 1927, but was unable to complete the production Sixteen model until 1931. By that time, Cadillac had already introduced their V16, designed by ex-Marmon engineer Owen Nacker, peerless, too, was developing a V16 with help from another ex-Marmon engineer, James Bohannon. The Cadillac Series 452 was the most exclusive model of the marque from January 1930 until 1940, from 1930 to 1937, Cadillac used a 452 CID, OHV motor with a 45° V. For 1938, a new 431 CID design was introduced for the Series 90, with a flathead valvetrain and an angle of 135°, however, it was never as popular or highly regarded as its 452 CID predecessor. By contrast, the Marmon Sixteen was a 45° engine made almost entirely of aluminium, like modern engines, it used pressed steel cylinder liners. Just 400 Marmon Sixteens were produced between 1931 and 1933 and it began production in 1991 but only a few cars were produced before the company closed its doors for good. Cadillac revived the V16 concept in 2003 with a General Motors concept car and this car used a 1,000 hp OHV V16. BMW also experimented with a V16, eventually showing a 9-litre version in the Rolls-Royce 100EX concept car, however, one of the Rolls-Royce Phantom Coupés which featured in the film Johnny English Reborn is powered by this V16 engine. That was not BMWs first foray into V16, BMW had conceived the Project Goldfish, the BMW Goldfish V16 motor had the displacement of 6. 7-litre, putting out about 408 hp and 637 N·m. That motor was also trialled in the new Bentley Mulsanne in the early 1990s, the first known use of a V16 in auto racing was by Maserati with their 1929 Tipo V4. Harry Miller installed a custom-built V16 that he had built for a Cord supercar he had working on into a chassis that he had built for the 1931 Indianapolis 500 driven by Shorty Cantlon. The car was competitive, charging from 26th on the grid to 3rd, bryan Saulpaugh qualified the car third for the 1932 Indianapolis 500, but the car suffered a broken oil line on lap 55 and their race was over. Shortly after the race the V16 was removed and replaced with a conventional Miller four-cylinder, the car was re-assembled and rebuilt with an exact replica V16 in 1993. The V16 was used in Grand Prix by the mid-engined Auto Union racing cars that rivalled the Mercedes from 1933 to 1938, alfa Romeo made two cars with V16 engine the Tipo 162 and Tipo 316
8.
Diesel engine
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Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a degree that it ignites atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as an engine or gas engine. In diesel engines, glow plugs may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, the original diesel engine operates on the constant pressure cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock. Low-speed diesel engines can have an efficiency that exceeds 50%. Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles and they were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later, in the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased. According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK. The worlds largest diesel engine is currently a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel, the definition of a Diesel engine to many has become an engine that uses compression ignition. To some it may be an engine that uses heavy fuel oil, to others an engine that does not use spark ignition. However the original cycle proposed by Rudolf Diesel in 1892 was a constant temperature cycle which would require higher compression than what is needed for compression ignition. Diesels idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion, to make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres. In later years Diesel realized his original cycle would not work, Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion, now all that is mentioned is the compression must be high enough for ignition. In 1806 Claude and Nicéphore Niépce developed the first known internal combustion engine, the Pyréolophore fuel system used a blast of air provided by a bellows to atomize Lycopodium
9.
Electric generator
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In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, the first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was built in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday. Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids, the reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be driven to generate electricity and frequently make acceptable manual generators. Electromagnetic generators fall into one of two categories, dynamos and alternators. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either wire windings called field coils or permanent magnets, a generator using permanent magnets is sometimes called a magneto. Armature, The power-producing component of an electrical machine, in a generator, alternator, or dynamo the armature windings generate the electric current, which provides power to an external circuit. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator, depending on the design, before the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, electrostatic generators were invented. They operated on electrostatic principles, by using moving electrically charged belts, plates, the charge was generated using either of two mechanisms, electrostatic induction or the triboelectric effect. Such generators generated very high voltage and low current and their only practical applications were to power early X-ray tubes, and later in some atomic particle accelerators. The operating principle of electromagnetic generators was discovered in the years of 1831–1832 by Michael Faraday, the principle later called Faradays law, is that an electromotive force is generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux. He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk and it produced a small DC voltage. This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions of the disk that were not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the influence of the magnetic field and this counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires, and induced waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged around the perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow direction. Another disadvantage was that the voltage was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could produce higher, since the output voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns. Wire windings became a feature of all subsequent generator designs
United States
