1.
Cobia
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The cobia is a species of perciform marine fish, the only representative of the genus Rachycentron and the family Rachycentridae. Other common names include black kingfish, black salmon, ling, lemonfish, crabeater, prodigal son, attaining a maximum length of 2 m and maximum weight of 78 kg, the cobia has an elongated fusiform body and a broad, flattened head. The eyes are small and the lower jaw projects slightly past the upper, fibrous villiform teeth line the jaws, the tongue, and the roof of the mouth. The body of the fish is smooth with small scales and it is dark brown in color, grading to white on the belly with two darker brown horizontal bands on the flanks. The stripes are more prominent during spawning, when they darken, the large pectoral fins are normally carried horizontally, perhaps helping the fish attain the profile of a shark. The first dorsal fin has six to 9 independent, short, stout, the family name Rachycentridae, from the Greek words rhachis and kentron, was inspired by these dorsal spines. The mature cobia has a forked, slightly lunated tail, which is dark brown. The fish lacks a swim bladder, the juvenile cobia is patterned with conspicuous bands of black and white and has a rounded tail. The largest cobia taken on rod and reel came from Shark Bay, Australia, the cobia resembles its close relatives, the remoras of the family Echeneidae. It lacks the dorsal sucker and has a stouter body. The cobia is normally solitary except for annual spawning aggregations, and sometimes it will congregate at reefs, wrecks, harbours, buoys and it is pelagic, but it may enter estuaries and mangroves in search of prey. It is found in warm-temperate to tropical waters of the West and East Atlantic Ocean, throughout the Caribbean and it is eurythermal, tolerating a wide range of temperatures, from 1.6 to 32.2 °C. It is also euryhaline, living at salinities of 5 to 44.5 ppt, the cobia feeds primarily on crabs, squid, and fish. It will follow larger animals such as sharks, turtles, and it is a very curious fish, showing little fear of boats. The predators of the cobia are not well documented, but the mahi-mahi is known to feed on juveniles, the cobia is frequently parasitized by nematodes, trematodes, cestodes, copepods, and acanthocephalans. The cobia is a pelagic spawner, releasing many tiny, buoyant eggs into the water, the eggs float freely with the currents until hatching. The larvae are planktonic, being more or less helpless during their first week until the eyes. The male matures at two years and the female at three years, both sexes lead moderately long lives of 15 years or more
Cobia
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Cobia fingerlings in at the University of Miami (Photo D. Benetti)
Cobia
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Cobia
Cobia
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Female broodstock, about 8 kg, prior to transport to broodstock holding tanks at the University of Miami (photo D. Benetti)
Cobia
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Cobia on ice at Open Blue Sea Farms (photo Brian O'Hanlon)
2.
Electric Boat Company
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General Dynamics Electric Boat is a subsidiary of General Dynamics Corporation. It has been the builder of submarines for the United States Navy for more than 100 years. Holland VI was the first submarine that this shipyard built, later renamed USS Holland, on 11 April 1900, it became the first modern submarine to be purchased and commissioned into the United States Navy. The success of Holland VI created a demand for follow-up models that began with the prototype submersible Fulton built at Electric Boat, after the war, the US Navy did not order another submarine from the company until Cuttlefish in 1931. During World War II, the company built 74 submarines, while Elco built nearly 400 PT boats, Electric Boat ranked 77th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts. In 1952, Electric Boat was reorganized as General Dynamics Corporation under John Jay Hopkins, General Dynamics acquired Convair the following year, and the holding company assumed the General Dynamics name, with the submarine building operation reverting to the Electric Boat name. Electric Boat built the first nuclear submarine USS Nautilus which was launched in January 1954, submarines of the Ohio-, Los Angeles-, Seawolf-, and Virginia-classes were also constructed by Electric Boat. Electric Boats first submarine Holland was scrapped in 1932, in some cases, the repairs resulted in practically dismantling and then rebuilding what had been a nearly completed submarine. The Navy eventually settled with General Dynamics in 1981, paying out $634 million of $843 million in Los Angeles class submarine cost-overrun, as it happened, the United States Navy was also the yards insurer, liable to compensate the yard for losses and other mishaps. Veliotis was subsequently indicted by a grand jury under racketeering. He nonetheless eventually escaped into exile and a life of luxury in his native Greece, Electric Boat overhauls and undertakes repair work on fast attack class boats. The company built the Ohio-class ballistic missile submarines and Seawolf-class submarines, however, most of the work done in the shipyard today is focused on construction of the Virginia-class, notably the new Block III evolution. In April 2014, General Dynamics Electric Boat was awarded a $17.8 billion contract with U. S. Naval Sea Systems Command for ten Block IV Virginia-class attack submarines and it is the largest single shipbuilding contract in the service’s history. The Company builds the submarine along with Huntington Ingalls Industries Newport News Shipbuilding, the boats of Block IV Virginia will cost less than Block III. Electric Boat decided to reduce the cost of the submarines by increasing efficiency in the construction process, the submarines of this type will build on the improvements to allow the boats to spend less time in the yard. Gardiner, Robert, Conways all the fighting ships 1906–1921 Conway Maritime Press,1985. The Defender, The Story of General Dynamics, by Roger Franklin, published by Harper and Row 1986. Brotherhood of Arms, General Dynamics and The Business of Defending America, the Legend of Electric Boat, Serving The Silent Service
Electric Boat Company
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General Dynamics Electric Boat
3.
Groton, Connecticut
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Groton /ˈɡrɒtən/ is a town located on the Thames River in New London County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 40,115 at the 2010 census, Groton is the home of the Electric Boat Corporation, which is the major contractor for submarine work for the United States Navy. The Naval Submarine Base New London is located in Groton, the Avery Point section of Groton is home to a regional campus of the University of Connecticut. Groton was established in 1705 when it separated from New London, Groton is the home of General Dynamics Electric Boat which has been supplying the Navy with submarines since 1899, employing thousands in the Groton/New London area. The Old Mystic Baptist Church was founded in Groton, the first Baptist church in Connecticut, a hundred years before the town was established, the Nehantic people settled in the area between the Thames and Pawcatuck rivers. The Nehantics were brutally attacked by the Pequots and these invaders burned their wigwams, destroyed their cornfields and food supplies, and a few possessions were stolen. Many of the Nehantic warriors were tomahawked, the survivors fled to Misquamicut in what is now Rhode Island, United States. The newcomers to the land were the Pequots, a branch of the Mohawk people who moved eastward into the Connecticut River Valley, the Pequots finally rested and made their headquarters in what is now Groton. They built three villages at Groton Heights, Fort Hill, and Mystic, the Pequots made canoes from burning out the insides of straight tree trunks. The rivers in Groton were their transportation routes, on the west side was the deep Thames River, on the east is the Mystic River with shelving shores and a safe anchorage. Between the rivers, the land was undulating and rough, with the exception of Poquonnock Plains in the center, the summer of 1614 was the first time that the Pequots encountered white settlers. They started trading furs for the goods, such as steel knives, needles. In 1633, the Dutch bought land from the Pequots and opened a fur trading post, meanwhile, the English bought land for settlement from the local tribes. The Dutch had unintentionally killed the Pequots chief, and this prompted revenge by the Pequot tribe, soon after, Sassacus, the new leader of the Pequots, realized that they were in grave danger because both the English and the surrounding Indians hated them. The first settlers of Groton were subsistence farmers, trees had to be removed before they could work the ground. Livestock was also important to the settlers. Cattle provided dairy, pigs and sheep provided animal protein and wool, in 1660, gray wolves in the area had become such a problem that the settlers offered to give 20 shillings for each wolf that was killed. Though the land was poor, access to the regions waterways left room for commerce, Groton became a town of oceangoing settlers
Groton, Connecticut
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USS Nautilus moored in Groton at the Submarine Force Museum
Groton, Connecticut
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Seal
Groton, Connecticut
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Groton Monument and Fort Griswold, a sketch by
John Warner Barber for his Historical Collections of Connecticut (1836)
Groton, Connecticut
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Monument, erected in 1830, commemorates the American troops massacred by the British following the surrender of Fort Griswold in the
Battle of Groton Heights during the
American Revolution.
4.
Manitowoc, Wisconsin
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Manitowoc /ˈmænᵻtəwɔːk/ is a city in and the county seat of Manitowoc County, Wisconsin, United States. The city is located on Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Manitowoc River, according to the 2010 census, Manitowoc had a population of 33,736, with over 50,000 residents in the surrounding communities. The citys sister city is Kamogawa, Japan, purported to mean dwelling of the great spirit, Manitowoc derived its name from either the Anishinaabe language word manidoowaak, meaning spirit-spawn, or manidoowaak, meaning spirit-wood. In 1838, an act of the Territorial Legislature separated Manitowoc County from Brown County, in 1820, Matthew Stanley and his wife were the first to settle in the area. In 1835, President Andrew Jackson authorized land sales for the region, early immigrant groups included Germans, Norwegians, British, Irish, and Canadians. The first school in Manitowoc was held in the Jones warehouse, the first religious organization in the county, St. James Episcopal Church, first met in 1841. Manitowoc was chartered as a village on March 6,1851, in addition, landing craft, tankers and submarines became the local contributions to U. S. efforts in World War II. On September 5,1962, a 20-pound piece of the seven-ton Sputnik 4 crashed on North 8th Street, Sputnik 4 was a USSR satellite, part of the Sputnik program and a test-flight of the Vostok spacecraft that would be used for the first human spaceflight. It was launched on May 15,1960, a bug in the guidance system had pointed the capsule in the wrong direction, so instead of dropping into the atmosphere the satellite moved into a higher orbit. It re-entered the atmosphere on or about September 5,1962, a cast was made from the original piece before the Soviets claimed it, and the cast was displayed at the Rahr West Art Museum. A customer in an art gallery jokingly suggested that the city should hold a festival to celebrate the crash. The city held the first Sputnikfest in 2008, which was organized by the head of both museums. Manitowoc is home to the Wisconsin Maritime Museum, and is one endpoint of the route of the SS Badger. Since the late 1990s, several new shopping centers have opened in the city, mostly on the southwest side of the city along Interstate 43, the bulk of the redevelopment in the city has been undertaken by the public/private partnership the Manitowoc County Economic Development Corporation. President Obama visited Manitowoc on January 26,2011, the day after his first State of the Union speech and he spoke to workers at Orion Energy, a manufacturer of solar technology, and praised Manitowoc for reinventing itself after the departure of Mirro Aluminum Company in 2003. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 17.99 square miles. The city is located at 44°5′47″N 87°40′30″W, on Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Manitowoc River, the nearest other cities are Green Bay,40 miles away, Sheboygan 28 miles away, Appleton 47 miles away, and Milwaukee 80 miles away. Together with Two Rivers and the towns, the Manitowoc micropolitan area was, according to the 2000 census
Manitowoc, Wisconsin
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Manitowoc
Manitowoc, Wisconsin
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Seal
Manitowoc, Wisconsin
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A metal ring marks the location of the
Sputnik 4 impact
Manitowoc, Wisconsin
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The
Manitowoc River empties into Lake Michigan.
5.
Gato class submarine
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The Gato-class were a class of submarines built for the United States Navy and launched in 1941–1943, they were the first mass-production US submarine class of World War II. Together with their near-sisters the Balao and Tench classes, their design formed the majority of the United States Navys World War II submarine fleet, Gatos name comes from a species of small catshark. Like most other U. S. Navy submarines of the period, in some references, the Gatos are combined with their successors, especially the Balao class. The Gato-class boats were considered to be Fleet Submarines, the original rationale behind their design was that they were intended to operate as adjuncts to the main battle fleet, based on Standard-type battleships since World War I. This was a concept born from experience in World War I. In order to operate effectively in this role, a submarine had to have high speed, long range and endurance. Limitations in submarine design and construction in the 1920s and 1930s made this combination of very difficult to achieve. By 1931, the phase of fleet submarine development was over. By 1940, a better developed industrial base and experience gained from the Porpoise, Salmon. Finally, the USN had hit the right combination of factors, timing, however, conspired against the actual use of these boats in their assigned role. The attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 destroyed the Pacific Fleet battle line, the successful Pearl Harbor attack overturned 20 years of submarine strategic concept development and left the fleet submarine without a mission. The Gato-class design was a near-duplicate of the preceding Tambor and Gar-class boats, the Gatos, along with nearly all of the USN fleet-type submarines of World War II, were of partial double hull construction. The inner pressure-resisting hull was wrapped by an outer hydrodynamic hull, the voids between the two hulls provided space for fuel and ballast tanks. The outer hull merged with the hull at both ends in the area of the torpedo room bulkheads, hence the partial double hull. The Gatos were slow divers when compared to some German and British designs, acknowledging this limitation, the Bureau designers incorporated a negative tank into the design, which was flooded to provide a large amount of negative buoyancy at the start of the dive. Based on later wartime experience, the tank was normally kept full or nearly full at the surface, at the start of the war these boats could go from fully surfaced to periscope depth in approximately 45–50 seconds. The superstructure that sat atop the hull provided the main walking deck when the boat was surfaced and was free flooding. When the dive began the boat would hang for a few seconds while this superstructure filled with water
Gato class submarine
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USS Gato off Mare Island Navy Yard on 29 November 1944
Gato class submarine
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Periscope photo of Japanese
Patrol Boat No. 39 sinking after being torpedoed by USS Seawolf.
Gato class submarine
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Tunny fires a Regulus I missile
Gato class submarine
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Grouper after conversion to a sonar test submarine.
6.
Diesel-electric
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Diesel-electric transmission, or diesel-electric powertrain is used by a number of vehicle and ship types for providing locomotion. A diesel-electric transmission system includes a diesel engine connected to an electrical generator, before diesel engines came into widespread use, a similar system, using a petrol engine and called petrol-electric or gas-electric, was sometimes used. Diesel-electric transmission is used on railways by diesel locomotives and diesel electric multiple units. Diesel-electric systems are used in submarines and surface ships and some land vehicles. In some high-efficiency applications, electrical energy may be stored in rechargeable batteries, the first diesel motorship was also the first diesel-electric ship, the Russian tanker Vandal from Branobel, which was launched in 1903. Steam turbine-electric propulsion has been in use since the 1920s, using diesel-electric powerplants in surface ships has increased lately, the Finnish coastal defence ships Ilmarinen and Väinämöinen laid down in 1928–1929, were among the first surface ships to use diesel-electric transmission. Later, the technology was used in diesel powered icebreakers, in World War II the United States built diesel-electric surface warships. Due to machinery shortages destroyer escorts of the Evarts and Cannon classes were diesel-electric, the Wind-class icebreakers, on the other hand, were designed for diesel-electric propulsion because of its flexibility and resistance to damage. An example of this is Harmony of the Seas, the largest passenger ship as of 2016 and this provides a relatively simple way to use the high-speed, low-torque output of a turbine to drive a low-speed propeller, without the need for excessive reduction gearing. Early submarines used a mechanical connection between the engine and propeller, switching between diesel engines for surface running, and electric motors for submerged propulsion. This was effectively a type of hybrid, since the motor. On the surface, the motor was used as a generator to recharge the batteries, the engine would be disconnected for submerged operation, with batteries powering the electric motor and supplying all other power as well. The concept was pioneered in 1929 in the S-class submarines S-3, S-6, the first production submarines with this system were the Porpoise-class, and it was used on most subsequent US diesel submarines through the 1960s. This mechanically isolates the engine compartment from the outer pressure hull. Some nuclear submarines also use a similar propulsion system, with propulsion turbo generators driven by reactor plant steam. During World War I, there was a strategic need for rail engines without plumes of smoke above them, diesel technology was not yet sufficiently developed but a few precursor attempts were made, especially for petrol-electric transmissions by the French and British. About 300 of these locomotives, only 96 being standard gauge, were in use at various points in the conflict, even before the war, the GE 57-ton gas-electric boxcab had been produced in the USA. In the 1920s, diesel-electric technology first saw limited use in switchers, locomotives used for moving trains around in railroad yards, an early company offering Oil-Electric locomotives was the American Locomotive Company
Diesel-electric
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This
Metra EMD F40PH locomotive uses a diesel-electric transmission designed by
Electro-Motive Diesel
Diesel-electric
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Siemens Schottel
azimuth thrusters
Diesel-electric
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The diesel-electric powered Liebherr T282 dumper
Diesel-electric
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New Flyer DE60LF diesel-electric bus with rooftop batteries
7.
Submarine
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A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability, the term most commonly refers to a large, crewed vessel. It is also used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget submarine. The noun submarine evolved as a form of submarine boat, by naval tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than as ships. Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, Submarines were first widely used during World War I, and now figure in many navies large and small. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection, Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology, most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the sail in American usage, a conning tower was a feature of earlier designs, a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins, smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines use diving planes and also change the amount of water, Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers, modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from the diving bell. In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in his book Inventions or Devises one of the first plans for an underwater navigation vehicle and its unclear whether he ever carried out his idea. The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was designed and built in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel and it was propelled by means of oars. By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England, in 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft, a mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemens Magazine reported that a design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion. The first military submarine was the Turtle, a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person and it was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion
Submarine
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A
Russian Navy Typhoon-class submarine underway. Also known as "Project 941".
Submarine
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Drebbel, the first navigable submarine
Submarine
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The French submarine Plongeur
Submarine
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The
Nordenfelt -designed,
Ottoman submarine
Abdül Hamid
8.
Electro-Motive Diesel
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Electro-Motive Diesel is an American manufacturer of diesel-electric locomotives, locomotive products and diesel engines for the rail industry. The company is owned by Caterpillar through its subsidiary Progress Rail Services Corporation, in 1930, General Motors purchased Electro-Motive Company and the Winton Engine Co. combining the two to form its Electro-Motive Division in 1941. In 2005, GM sold EMD to Greenbriar Equity Group and Berkshire Partners, in 2010, Progress Rail Services completed the purchase of Electro-Motive Diesel from Greenbriar, Berkshire, and others. EMDs headquarters, engineering facilities and parts manufacturing operations are based in McCook, Illinois, while its final assembly line is located in Muncie. EMD also operates a traction motor maintenance, rebuild and overhaul facility in San Luis Potosí, as of 2008, EMD employed approximately 3,260 people, and in 2010 it held approximately 30 percent of the market for diesel-electric locomotives in North America. Harold L. Hamilton and Paul Turner founded the Electro-Motive Engineering Corporation in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1922, the company developed and marketed self-propelled railcars using General Electrics newly developed internal combustion-electric propulsion and control systems. Hamilton started his career as a fireman, then locomotive engineer, on the Southern Pacific Railroad. Financing himself, he quit his sales position and set up shop in a hotel with his partner. In 1923 EMC sold two gasoline-powered rail motor cars, one to the Chicago Great Western and the other to the Northern Pacific, EMC subcontracted the body construction to St. Louis Car Company, electrical components to General Electric, and the prime mover to Winton Engine Company. The motorcars were delivered in 1924 and worked well, fortunate for the fledgling company, in 1925, EMC entered full-scale production, selling 27 railcars. In 1930 General Motors was seeking to improve their Diesel technology and they purchased the Winton Engine Company who, in addition to their Diesel products, sold non-Diesel engines for EMC-developed rail motorcars. The combined resources of GM and their new Winton subsidiary were focused on developing Diesel engines with improved power-to-weight ratios, GM saw EMCs role in marketing and applications development as fitting their objectives and purchased the company shortly after the Winton acquisition, renaming it Electro-Motive Corporation. In 1933 EMC designed the power setups for the Zephyr and M-10000 streamliners, the Zephyr used the first major product of the new GM-Winton venture, the 600 hp Winton 201A 2-stroke Diesel engine. Encouraged by the success of the new streamliners, EMC invested in a new locomotive factory. The new headquarters on 55th Street in McCook, Illinois, west of Chicago, in 1938 EMC started production of locomotives using GMs new 567 engine, which upgraded the horsepower to 2000 per locomotive unit and increased reliability. The 567, named for its displacement-per-cylinder of 567.45 in³, was a two-cycle Roots-blown, Uniflow-scavenged, Unit-injected engine with overhead camshafts and it was built as a V-6, V-8, V-12 and V-16. Charles F. Kettering and the General Motors Research Corporation were in charge of its development and their nearest competitor was the American Locomotive Company, who started production of less-developed Diesel locomotives to compete with the E-units in 1939. Baldwins response to the challenge of the E-units was to develop a steam locomotive design that pushed beyond the limits of practicality, passenger trains made little money for the railroads, but replacement of steam engines with reliable Diesel units could provide railroads with a crucial difference for profitability
Electro-Motive Diesel
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EMD
builder's plate
Electro-Motive Diesel
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Burlington Northern EMD F3
Electro-Motive Diesel
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EMD GP7 (left) and E9A (right)
Electro-Motive Diesel
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EMD SD40-2
9.
V16 engine
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A V16 engine is a V engine with 16 cylinders. Engines of this number of cylinders are uncommon in automotive use, in addition V angles of 45° and 135° give an impulse every 45°, so are optimal solutions, for even-firing and non-split bearing crankshaft journals. V16 engines are used in automobiles because V8s or V12s of the same displacement typically produce just as much power. The few V16s that have produced were used in high-end luxury. Today, the most common applications for V16 engines are railroad locomotives, marine craft, howard Marmon had begun working on the worlds first automotive V16 engine in 1927, but was unable to complete the production Sixteen model until 1931. By that time, Cadillac had already introduced their V16, designed by ex-Marmon engineer Owen Nacker, peerless, too, was developing a V16 with help from another ex-Marmon engineer, James Bohannon. The Cadillac Series 452 was the most exclusive model of the marque from January 1930 until 1940, from 1930 to 1937, Cadillac used a 452 CID, OHV motor with a 45° V. For 1938, a new 431 CID design was introduced for the Series 90, with a flathead valvetrain and an angle of 135°, however, it was never as popular or highly regarded as its 452 CID predecessor. By contrast, the Marmon Sixteen was a 45° engine made almost entirely of aluminium, like modern engines, it used pressed steel cylinder liners. Just 400 Marmon Sixteens were produced between 1931 and 1933 and it began production in 1991 but only a few cars were produced before the company closed its doors for good. Cadillac revived the V16 concept in 2003 with a General Motors concept car and this car used a 1,000 hp OHV V16. BMW also experimented with a V16, eventually showing a 9-litre version in the Rolls-Royce 100EX concept car, however, one of the Rolls-Royce Phantom Coupés which featured in the film Johnny English Reborn is powered by this V16 engine. That was not BMWs first foray into V16, BMW had conceived the Project Goldfish, the BMW Goldfish V16 motor had the displacement of 6. 7-litre, putting out about 408 hp and 637 N·m. That motor was also trialled in the new Bentley Mulsanne in the early 1990s, the first known use of a V16 in auto racing was by Maserati with their 1929 Tipo V4. Harry Miller installed a custom-built V16 that he had built for a Cord supercar he had working on into a chassis that he had built for the 1931 Indianapolis 500 driven by Shorty Cantlon. The car was competitive, charging from 26th on the grid to 3rd, bryan Saulpaugh qualified the car third for the 1932 Indianapolis 500, but the car suffered a broken oil line on lap 55 and their race was over. Shortly after the race the V16 was removed and replaced with a conventional Miller four-cylinder, the car was re-assembled and rebuilt with an exact replica V16 in 1993. The V16 was used in Grand Prix by the mid-engined Auto Union racing cars that rivalled the Mercedes from 1933 to 1938, alfa Romeo made two cars with V16 engine the Tipo 162 and Tipo 316
V16 engine
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1933 Marmon V16 engine.
V16 engine
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Early 1930s Cadillac 452 cui,
OHV 16-cylinder 45-degree vee engine
V16 engine
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Auto Union V16 engine
V16 engine
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72-litre MGO V16 BSHR-diesel engine on Finnish Dv12-class locomotive.
10.
Diesel engine
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Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a degree that it ignites atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as an engine or gas engine. In diesel engines, glow plugs may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, the original diesel engine operates on the constant pressure cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock. Low-speed diesel engines can have an efficiency that exceeds 50%. Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles and they were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later, in the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased. According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK. The worlds largest diesel engine is currently a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel, the definition of a Diesel engine to many has become an engine that uses compression ignition. To some it may be an engine that uses heavy fuel oil, to others an engine that does not use spark ignition. However the original cycle proposed by Rudolf Diesel in 1892 was a constant temperature cycle which would require higher compression than what is needed for compression ignition. Diesels idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion, to make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres. In later years Diesel realized his original cycle would not work, Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion, now all that is mentioned is the compression must be high enough for ignition. In 1806 Claude and Nicéphore Niépce developed the first known internal combustion engine, the Pyréolophore fuel system used a blast of air provided by a bellows to atomize Lycopodium
Diesel engine
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Diesel generator on an oil tanker
Diesel engine
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A Diesel engine built by
MAN AG in 1906
Diesel engine
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A
Hornsby-Akroyd oil engine working at the
Great Dorset Steam Fair
Diesel engine
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Diesel's original 1897 engine on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Germany
11.
Electrical generator
–
In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, the first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was built in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday. Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids, the reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be driven to generate electricity and frequently make acceptable manual generators. Electromagnetic generators fall into one of two categories, dynamos and alternators. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either wire windings called field coils or permanent magnets, a generator using permanent magnets is sometimes called a magneto. Armature, The power-producing component of an electrical machine, in a generator, alternator, or dynamo the armature windings generate the electric current, which provides power to an external circuit. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator, depending on the design, before the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, electrostatic generators were invented. They operated on electrostatic principles, by using moving electrically charged belts, plates, the charge was generated using either of two mechanisms, electrostatic induction or the triboelectric effect. Such generators generated very high voltage and low current and their only practical applications were to power early X-ray tubes, and later in some atomic particle accelerators. The operating principle of electromagnetic generators was discovered in the years of 1831–1832 by Michael Faraday, the principle later called Faradays law, is that an electromotive force is generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux. He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk and it produced a small DC voltage. This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions of the disk that were not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the influence of the magnetic field and this counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires, and induced waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged around the perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow direction. Another disadvantage was that the voltage was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could produce higher, since the output voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns. Wire windings became a feature of all subsequent generator designs
Electrical generator
–
U.S.
NRC image of a modern steam turbine generator (STG).
Electrical generator
–
Early
Ganz Generator in
Zwevegem,
West Flanders,
Belgium
Electrical generator
–
The
Faraday disk was the first electric generator. The horseshoe-shaped magnet (A) created a magnetic field through the disk (D). When the disk was turned, this induced an electric current radially outward from the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through the sliding spring contact m, through the external circuit, and back into the center of the disk through the axle.
Electrical generator
–
This large belt-driven high-current
dynamo produced 310 amperes at 7 volts. Dynamos are no longer used due to the size and complexity of the
commutator needed for high power applications.
12.
Electrochemical cell
–
An electrochemical cell is a device capable of either generating electrical energy from chemical reactions or facilitating chemical reactions through the introduction of electrical energy. A common example of a cell is a standard 1.5 - volt cell meant for consumer use. This type of device is known as a galvanic cell. A battery consists of one or more cells, connected in parallel or series pattern. An electrochemical cell consists of two half-cells, each half-cell consists of an electrode and an electrolyte. The two half-cells may use the same electrolyte, or they may use different electrolytes, the chemical reactions in the cell may involve the electrolyte, the electrodes, or an external substance. In a full electrochemical cell, species from one half-cell lose electrons to their electrode while species from the other half-cell gain electrons from their electrode. A salt bridge is employed to provide ionic contact between two half-cells with different electrolytes, yet prevent the solutions from mixing and causing unwanted side reactions. An alternative to a bridge is to allow direct contact between the two half-cells, for example in simple electrolysis of water. As electrons flow from one half-cell to the other through an external circuit, if no ionic contact were provided, this charge difference would quickly prevent the further flow of electrons. A salt bridge allows the flow of negative or positive ions to maintain a charge distribution between the oxidation and reduction vessels, while keeping the contents otherwise separate. Other devices for achieving separation of solutions are porous pots and gelled solutions, a porous pot is used in the Bunsen cell. Each half-cell has a characteristic voltage, various choices of substances for each half-cell give different potential differences. Each reaction is undergoing an equilibrium reaction between different oxidation states of the ions, When equilibrium is reached, the cell cannot provide further voltage. In the half-cell that is undergoing oxidation, the closer the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more positive oxidation state the potential this reaction will provide. Likewise, in the reaction, the closer the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more negative oxidation state the higher the potential. The cell potential can be predicted through the use of electrode potentials and these half-cell potentials are defined relative to the assignment of 0 volts to the standard hydrogen electrode. The difference in voltage between electrode potentials gives a prediction for the potential measured, when calculating the difference in voltage, one must first rewrite the half-cell reaction equations to obtain a balanced oxidation-reduction equation
Electrochemical cell
–
The
Bunsen cell, invented by
Robert Bunsen.
Electrochemical cell
–
A demonstration electrochemical cell setup resembling the
Daniell cell. The two half-cells are linked by a salt bridge carrying ions between them. Electrons flow in the external circuit.
13.
USS Sargo (SS-188)
–
USS Sargo, the lead ship of her class of submarine, was the first ship of the United States Navy to be named for the sargo. Her keel was laid on 12 May 1937 by the Electric Boat Company in Groton, Connecticut. She was launched on 6 June 1938 sponsored by Mrs. Catherine V. Nimitz, wife of Captain Chester W. Nimitz and it quickly became known as the Sargo battery. Instead of a hard rubber case, it had two concentric hard rubber cases with a layer of soft rubber between them. This was to prevent sulfuric acid leakage in the event one case cracked during depth-charging and this remained the standard battery design until replaced with Sargo II and GUPPY batteries in submarines upgraded under the Greater Underwater Propulsion Power Program after World War II. After shakedown along the seaboard of South America, Sargo departed Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Transiting the Panama Canal, she arrived at San Diego, California and she operated in the eastern and mid-Pacific for the next two years, including a practice 40-day war patrol between Midway Island and the Marshall Islands in the fall of 1941. She departed Pearl Harbor on 23 October 1941, arrived in Manila on 10 November, the next day, the submarine got underway for her first war patrol, which took her along the coast of French Indochina and to the Netherlands East Indies. Off the major Japanese base at Cam Ranh Bay, ULTRA directed her to three cruisers on 14 December, which Sargo was unable to position to attack when they appeared as scheduled. Expecting a convoy, she went in closer, and that night detected a freighter, firing one torpedo, confidence in the Mark VI shaken, she switched to contact pistol afterward. On 24 December, she found two freighters, firing two torpedoes at one, one at the other, from about 1,000 yards, scoring no hits. Temporarily losing depth control, she broached, and the target turned away, the next day, she sighted a pair of merchantmen, but was unable to gain firing position. Some time afterward, she came on two more merchantmen and fired two torpedoes at the rearmost of them, from closer yet,900 yards, both again missed. Then weather intervened, and the ships escaped, a few days afterward, a big, slow tanker gave Sargo another opportunity, and again, the approach was meticulous, firing one torpedo at a close 1,200 yards. In exasperation, Sargo signaled headquarters, questioning the Mark 14s reliability on a radio circuit. On 20 January 1942, she assisted in the rescue of the crew of S-36 after she ran aground on Taku Reef in the Makassar Strait, Sargo remained surfaced, relaying distress messages to friendly aircraft and surface ships. After the rescue by the Dutch merchant ship Siberote, Sargo headed for Java, here, she offloaded all her reload torpedoes and three-inch ammunition, and took on one million rounds of. 30-caliber ammunition desperately needed by Allied forces in the Philippines. She sortied 5 February, avoiding the traffic lanes
USS Sargo (SS-188)
–
Sargo making 18.8 knots (35 km/h) during sea trials off
Provincetown, Massachusetts, 1 November 1938
USS Sargo (SS-188)
–
Sargo moored at
Mare Island Naval Shipyard, 28 April 1943. Raised metal "188" is seen in faint relief on port bow. White outlines mark recent alterations
14.
Battery (electricity)
–
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to a circuit will flow. It is the movement of ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work. Historically the term specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells. Primary batteries are used once and discarded, the materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket, examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones. According to a 2005 estimate, the battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year. Batteries have much lower energy than common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work. The usage of battery to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800. This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. Although early batteries were of value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated. It consisted of a pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid. These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly, many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances, near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical. Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy, a battery consists of some number of voltaic cells
Battery (electricity)
–
Various cells and batteries (top-left to bottom-right): two
AA, one
D, one handheld
ham radio battery, two
9-volt (PP3), two
AAA, one
C, one
camcorder battery, one
cordless phone battery.
Battery (electricity)
–
A
voltaic pile, the first battery
Battery (electricity)
–
From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt (3R12) battery, a
D Cell, a
C cell, an
AA cell, an
AAA cell, an
AAAA cell, an
A23 battery, a 9-volt
PP3 battery, and a pair of
button cells (CR2032 and LR44).
Battery (electricity)
–
A device to check battery voltage
15.
General Electric
–
General Electric, often abbreviated as GE, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation incorporated in New York and headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2011, GE ranked among the Fortune 500 as the 68th-largest firm in the U. S. by gross revenue, as of 2012, the company was listed the fourth-largest in the world among the Forbes Global 2000, further metrics being taken into account. The Nobel Prize has twice been awarded to employees of General Electric, Irving Langmuir in 1932, on January 13,2016, it was announced that GE will be moving its corporate headquarters from Fairfield, Connecticut to the South Boston Waterfront neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. The first group of workers arrived in the summer of 2016, morgan and the Vanderbilt family for Edisons lighting experiments. The new company also acquired Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company in the same year, both plants continue to operate under the GE banner to this day. The company was incorporated in New York, with the Schenectady plant used as headquarters for years thereafter. Around the same time, General Electrics Canadian counterpart, Canadian General Electric, was formed, in 1896, General Electric was one of the original 12 companies listed on the newly formed Dow Jones Industrial Average. After 120 years, it is the one of the original companies still listed on the Dow index. In 1911, General Electric absorbed the National Electric Lamp Association into its lighting business, GE established its lighting division headquarters at Nela Park in East Cleveland, Ohio. Nela Park is still the headquarters for GEs lighting business, owen D. Young, through GE, founded the Radio Corporation of America in 1919 to further international radio. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, in 1927, Ernst Alexanderson of GE made the first demonstration of his television broadcasts at his General Electric Realty Plot home at 1132 Adams Rd, Schenectady, NY. The sound was broadcast on GEs WGY, experimental television station W2XAD evolved into station WRGB which—along with WGY and WGFM —was owned and operated by General Electric until 1983. GEs history of working with turbines in the field gave them the engineering know-how to move into the new field of aircraft turbosuperchargers. Led by Sanford Alexander Moss, GE introduced the first superchargers during World War I, superchargers became indispensable in the years immediately prior to World War II, and GE was the world leader in exhaust-driven supercharging when the war started. This experience, in turn, made GE a natural selection to develop the Whittle W.1 jet engine that was demonstrated in the United States in 1941, GE ranked ninth among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. In 2002, GE acquired the assets of Enron during its bankruptcy proceedings. Some consumers boycotted GE light bulbs, refrigerators and other products in the 1980s and 1990s to protest GEs role in weapons production. With IBM, Burroughs, NCR, Control Data Corporation, Honeywell, RCA and UNIVAC, GE had a line of general purpose and special purpose computers
General Electric
–
General Electric in Schenectady, NY, aerial view, 1896
General Electric
–
General Electric Company
General Electric
–
Plan of Schenectady plant, 1896
General Electric
–
A 23-ton
diesel-electric locomotive made at the General Electric Corp. plant in
Schenectady, New York
16.
Electric motor
–
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
Electric motor
–
Various electric motors, compared to 9 V battery.
Electric motor
–
Cutaway view through stator of induction motor.
Electric motor
–
Faraday's electromagnetic experiment, 1821
Electric motor
–
Jedlik 's "electromagnetic self-rotor", 1827 (Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest). The historic motor still works perfectly today.
17.
Reduction drive
–
A reduction drive is a mechanical device to shift rotational speed. A planetary reduction drive is a scale version using ball bearings in an epicyclic arrangement instead of toothed gears. Reduction drives are used in engines of all kinds to increase the amount of torque per revolution of a shaft, common household uses are washing machines, food blenders and window-winders. Planetary drives are used in this situation to avoid backlash, which makes tuning easier, if the capacitor drive has backlash, when one attempts to tune in a station, the tuning knob will feel sloppy and it will be hard to perform small adjustments. Gear-drives can be made to have no backlash by using split gears and spring tension, piston-engined light aircraft may have direct-drive to the propeller or may use a reduction drive. The advantages of direct-drive are simplicity, lightness and reliability, but an engine may never achieve full output. For instance, an aero engine has a nominal maximum output of 64 kW at 3,300 RPM, but if the propeller cannot exceed 2,600 rpm. By contrast, a Rotax 912 has a capacity of only 56% of the Jabiru 2200. The Midwest twin-rotor wankel engine has a shaft that spins up to 7,800 rpm
Reduction drive
–
Reduction drive (also with a transformation of the direction of rotation)
Reduction drive
–
Rotax 582 pusher installation on a
Quad City Challenger II.
18.
Horsepower
–
Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
Horsepower
–
A team of six horses mowing hay in
Lancaster County, Pennsylvania
19.
Knot (unit)
–
The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
Knot (unit)
–
Graphic scale from a Mercator projection world map, showing the change with latitude
20.
Torpedo
–
Historically, it was called an automotive, automobile, locomotive or fish torpedo, colloquially called a fish. The term torpedo was originally employed for a variety of devices, from about 1900, torpedo has been used strictly to designate an underwater self-propelled weapon. Todays torpedoes can be divided into lightweight and heavyweight classes, and into straight-running, autonomous homers and they can be launched from a variety of platforms. The word torpedo comes from the name of a genus of rays in the order Torpediniformes. In naval usage, the American Robert Fulton introduced the name to refer to a gunpowder charge used by his French submarine Nautilus to demonstrate that it could sink warships. The concept of a torpedo existed many centuries before it was successfully developed. In 1275, Hasan al-Rammah described. an egg which moves itself, in modern language, a torpedo is an underwater self-propelled explosive, —but historically, the term also applied to primitive naval mines. These were used on an ad hoc basis during the modern period up to the late 19th century. An early submarine, the Turtle, attempted to lay a bomb with a fuse on the hull of HMS Eagle during the American Revolutionary War. In the early 1800s, the American inventor Robert Fulton, while in France and he coined the term torpedo in reference to the explosive charges he outfitted his submarine Nautilus. However, both the French and the Dutch governments were uninterested in the submarine, Fulton then concentrated on developing the torpedo independent of a submarine deployment. However, the British government refused to purchase the invention, stating they did not wish to introduce into naval warfare a system that would give advantage to weaker maritime nations. Fulton carried out a demonstration for the US government on 20 July 1807. Further development languished as Fulton focused on his steam-boat matters, during the War of 1812, torpedoes were employed in attempts to destroy British vessels and protect American harbors. In fact a submarine deployed torpedo was used in an attempt to destroy HMS Ramillies while in New Londons harbor. Hardy to warn the Americans to cease efforts with the use of any boat in this cruel and unheard-of warfare. Torpedoes were used by the Russian Empire during the Crimean War in 1855 against British warships in the Gulf of Finland and they used an early form of chemical detonator. During the American Civil War, the torpedo was used for what is today called a contact mine
Torpedo
–
Bliss–Leavitt Mark 8 torpedo
Torpedo
–
Fulton's torpedo
Torpedo
–
Confederates laying torpedoes in Charleston Harbor
Torpedo
–
Whitehead torpedo's general profile: A. war-head B. air-flask. B'. immersion chamber CC'. after-body C. engine room DDDD. drain holes E. shaft tube F. steering-engine G. bevel gear box H. depth index I. tail K. charging and stop-valves L. locking-gear M. engine bed-plate P. primer case R. rudder S. steering-rod tube T. guide stud UU. propellers V. valve-group W. war nose [
clarification needed] Z. strengthening band
21.
Caliber (artillery)
–
In artillery, caliber or calibre is the internal diameter of a gun barrel, or by extension a relative measure of the length. Rifled barrels introduce ambiguity to measurement of caliber, a rifled bore consists of alternating grooves and lands. The distance across the bore from groove to groove is greater than the distance from land to land, the depth of rifling grooves increases in larger calibers. United States Navy guns typically used rifling depth between one-half and one percent of caliber, projectile bourrelet diameter specification was 0.015 inches less than land to land diameter with a minus manufacturing tolerance so average clearance was about 0.012 inches. Driving band diameter was groove to groove diameter plus 0.02 inches, the length of the barrel is often quoted in calibers. For example, US Naval Rifles 3 in or larger, the effective length of the barrel is divided by the barrel diameter to give a dimensionless quantity.81 As an example, the main guns of the Iowa-class battleships can be referred to as 16/50 caliber. They are 16 inches in diameter and the barrel is 800 inches long, the bore to barrel length ratio is called caliber in naval gunnery,81 but is called length in army artillery. Before World War II, the US Navy used 5/51 caliber as surface-to-surface guns, by the end of World War II, the dual purpose 5/38 caliber was standard naval armament against surface and air targets. All three had a diameter of 5 inches. At sea, a weapon had to perform, without fail, there was no ready replacement, nor one that could be readily supplied. Over time, the terms of pound and bore became confused and blurred, eventually, when the technology existed, the bore came to be the standard measure. For naval rifles, the change was to actual bore. They then began to measure the length of the weapon in calibers. These were a measure of the bore of the barrel versus the rifled bore of the barrel. In other words, a 12/45 is 12×45= the length of the bore of that gun in inches. This explains the differences in both penetration and long range performance of naval rifles over the years. In addition to the improvements in overall performance, the increase in barrel length also allowed, in some circumstances. For example, the American 14/45, as introduced in the New York-class battleships, later improvements to the design, lengthening the rifle itself and also altering the breech, allowed a 1400 lb. projectile and, overall, a greater barrel life
Caliber (artillery)
–
Relationship of caliber in bore and length of gun.
22.
Bofors 40 mm
–
The Bofors 40 mm gun, often referred to simply as the Bofors gun, is an anti-aircraft/multi-purpose autocannon designed in the 1930s by the Swedish arms manufacturer AB Bofors. It was one of the most popular medium-weight anti-aircraft systems during World War II, a small number of these weapons remain in service to this day, and saw action as late as the Gulf War. In the post-war era the original design was not suitable for action against jet powered aircraft, so Bofors introduced a new model of more power. In spite of sharing almost nothing with the design other than the calibre and the distinctive conical flash hider. Although not as popular as the original L/60 model, the L/70 remains in service to this day, especially as a weapon for light armored vehicles. Bofors itself has been part of BAE Systems AB since March 2005, the Swedish Navy purchased a number of 2 pounder Pom-Poms from Vickers as anti-aircraft guns in 1922. The Navy approached Bofors about the development of a capable replacement. Bofors signed a contract in late 1928, Bofors produced a gun that was a smaller version of a 57 mm semi-automatic gun developed as an anti-torpedo boat weapon in the late 19th century by Finspong. Their first test gun was a re-barreled Nordenfelt version of the Finspong gun, testing of this gun in 1929 demonstrated that a problem existed feeding the weapon in order to maintain a reasonable rate of fire. A mechanism that was enough to handle the stresses of moving the large round was too heavy to move quickly enough to fire rapidly. One attempt to solve this problem used zinc shell cases that burned up when fired and this proved to leave heavy zinc deposits in the barrel, and had to be abandoned. This seemed to be the solution they needed, improving firing rates to a level. During this period Krupp purchased a share of Bofors. Krupp engineers started the process of updating the Bofors factories to use equipment and metallurgy. The prototype was completed and fired in November 1931, and by the middle of the month it was firing strings of two and three rounds. Changes to the mechanism were all that remained, and by the end of the year it was operating at 130 rounds per minute. Continued development was needed to turn it into a suitable for production. Since acceptance trials had been passed the year before, this known as the 40 mm akan M/32
Bofors 40 mm
–
Bofors 40 mm/L60. This example includes the British-designed Stiffkey Sight, being operated by the aimer standing to the right of the loader (turned sideways). It operates the trapeze seen above the sights, moving the sights to adjust for lead.
Bofors 40 mm
–
Finnish Bofors 40 mm. This gun mounts the original reflector sights, and lacks the armor found on British examples.
Bofors 40 mm
–
Polish-made Bofors gun after the
Battle of the Bzura. This gun also mounts the reflector sight that equipped the original Bofors versions.
Bofors 40 mm
–
Q.F. 40 mm Mk. 1 displayed at
CFB Borden. This example mounts a Stiffkey Sight, and displays the additional armor protecting the gunners.
23.
Oerlikon 20 mm cannon
–
The Oerlikon 20 mm cannon is a series of autocannons, based on an original German 20 mm Becker design that appeared very early in World War I. It was widely produced by Oerlikon Contraves and others, with various models employed by both Allied and Axis forces during World War II, and many still in use today. During World War I, the German Reinhold Becker developed a 20 mm caliber cannon and this used a 20x70 RB cartridge and had a cyclic rate of fire of 300 rpm. It was used on a scale as an aircraft gun on Luftstreitkräfte warplanes. Because the Treaty of Versailles banned further production of weapons in Germany. SEMAG continued development of the weapon, and in 1924 had produced the SEMAG L, the Oerlikon firm, named after the Zürich suburb where it was based, then acquired all rights to the weapon, plus the manufacturing equipment and the employees of SEMAG. In 1927 the Oerlikon S was added to the product line. This fired a larger cartridge to achieve a muzzle velocity of 830 m/s, at the cost of increased weight. The purpose of development was to improve the performance of the gun as an anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapon. An improved version known as the 1S followed in 1930, three sizes of gun with their different ammunition and barrel length, but very similar mechanisms, continued to be developed in parallel. In 1930 Oerlikon reconsidered the application of its gun in aircraft and introduced the AF and AL, designed to be used in flexible mounts, the 15-round box magazine used by earlier versions of the gun was replaced by drum magazine holding 15 or 30 rounds. In 1935 it made an important step by introducing a series of guns designed to be mounted in or on the wings of fighter aircraft, designated with FF for Flügelfest meaning wing-mounted, these weapons were again available in the three sizes, with designations FF, FFL and FFS. The FF fired a larger cartridge than the AF, 20x72RB. The FF weighed 24 kg and achieved a velocity of 550 to 600 m/s with a rate of fire of 520 rpm. The FFL of 30 kg fired a projectile at a velocity of 675 m/s with a rate of fire of 500 rpm. And the FFS, which weighed 39 kg, delivered a high velocity of 830 m/s at a rate of fire of 470 rpm. Apart from changes to the design of the guns for wing-mounting and remote control, for the FF series drum sizes of 45,60,75 and 100 rounds were available, but most users chose the 60-round drum. The 1930s were a period of global re-armament, and a number of foreign firms took licenses for the Oerlikon family of aircraft cannon
Oerlikon 20 mm cannon
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A modern Oerlikon cannon (Oerlikon 20mm/85 KAA) on a Royal Navy warship
Oerlikon 20 mm cannon
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1942, a
Royal Navy Oerlikon gunner at his gun mount aboard the
Dido-class cruiser HMS Dido
Oerlikon 20 mm cannon
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Diagrams showing basic design and colour-coding of British HE/Incendiary, Tracer and HE/Incendiary/Tracer shells for the 20 mm Oerlikon gun
Oerlikon 20 mm cannon
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1945, a row of 20 mm Oerlikon guns aboard the
Essex-class aircraft carrier USS Hornet
24.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
National Register of Historic Places
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Logo used for the NRHP.
National Register of Historic Places
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Old Slater Mill, a historic district in
Pawtucket, Rhode Island, was the first property listed in the National Register on November 13, 1966.
National Register of Historic Places
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The
Loren Andrus Octagon House in
Washington, Michigan has been on the NRHP since September 3, 1971.
National Register of Historic Places
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Built in 1800 by
Samuel McIntire in
Salem, the
Stephen Phillips House is operated as a
historic house museum by
Historic New England and open for public tours.
25.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
National Historic Landmark
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USS Constitution
National Historic Landmark
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Frank Lloyd Wright 's
Taliesin is a National Historic Landmark
National Historic Landmark
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The
American Legation in Tangiers, Morocco, was the first National Historic Landmark on foreign soil.
National Historic Landmark
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Navajo Nation Council Chamber, the seat of government for the
Navajo Nation,
Window Rock, Arizona.
26.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
27.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
United States Navy
United States Navy
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United States Navy portal
United States Navy
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USS Constellation vs L'Insurgente during the
Quasi-War
United States Navy
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USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere during the
War of 1812
28.
Keel laying
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Laying the keel or laying down is the formal recognition of the start of a ships construction. It is often marked with a ceremony attended by dignitaries from the shipbuilding company, keel laying is one of the four specially-celebrated events in the life of a ship, the others are launching, commissioning, and decommissioning. In earlier times, the event recognized as the keel laying was the placement of the central timber making up the backbone of a vessel. As steel ships replaced wooden ones, the central timber gave way to a steel beam. Modern ships are now built in a series of pre-fabricated. The event recognized as the keel laying is the first joining of modular components and it is now often called keel authentication, and is the ceremonial beginning of the ships life, although modules may have been started months before that stage of construction. Keel-related traditions from the times of wooden ships are said to bring luck to the ship during construction and to the captain, the first milestone in the history of a ship is the generally simple ceremony that marks the laying of the keel. Invitations to the ceremony are issued by officials, and the ceremony is conducted by them. The builder may be the commander of a shipyard or the president of a private company. The ships prospective name, without the USS, is mentioned in the invitation, if known, otherwise her type and number are given, e. g. DD2217
Keel laying
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Driving the first or "golden" rivet during USS Missouri's keel laying, 1941
Keel laying
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Laying of the keel of
USCGC Mariposa (WLB-397) in 1943
Keel laying
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Keel laying ceremony for USS Freedom (LCS-1), 2005. Note the pre-fabricated module in the background.
Keel laying
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Dignitaries at the keel laying ceremony for
USS George H.W. Bush in 2003
29.
Ship naming and launching
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Ceremonial ship launching is the process of transferring a vessel to the water. It is a tradition in many cultures, dating back thousands of years. It has been observed as a celebration and a solemn blessing. The process also involves many traditions intended to invite good luck, such as christening by breaking a bottle of champagne over the bow as the ship is named aloud. There are three methods of conveying a new ship from building site to water, only two of which are called launching. The oldest, most familiar, and most widely used is the launch, in which the vessel slides down an inclined slipway. With the side launch, the ship enters the water broadside and this method came into use in the 19th-century on inland waters, rivers, and lakes, and was more widely adopted during World War II. The third method is float-out, used for ships that are built in basins or dry docks and then floated by admitting water into the dock. In all cases, heavy chains are attached to the ship, normally, ways are arranged perpendicular to the shore line and the ship is built with its stern facing the water. The barricades support the two launch ways, the vessel is built upon temporary cribbing that is arranged to give access to the hulls outer bottom and to allow the launchways to be erected under the complete hull. When it is time to prepare for launching, a pair of standing ways is erected under the hull, the surface of the ways is greased. A pair of sliding ways is placed on top, under the hull, the weight of the hull is then transferred from the build cribbing onto the launch cradle. On launching, the vessel slides backwards down the slipway on the ways until it floats by itself, some slipways are built so that the vessel is side-on to the water and is launched sideways. This is done where the limitations of the channel would not allow lengthwise launching. The Great Eastern designed by Brunel was built this way as were many landing craft during World War II and this method requires many more sets of ways to support the weight of the ship. Sometimes ships are launched using a series of inflated tubes underneath the hull and this procedure has the advantages of requiring less permanent infrastructure, risk, and cost. The airbags provide support to the hull of the ship and aid its launching motion into the water and these airbags are usually cylindrical in shape with hemispherical heads at both ends. The Xiao Qinghe shipyard launched a tank barge with marine airbags on January 20,1981, egyptians, Greeks, and Romans called on their gods to protect seamen
Ship naming and launching
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1908 launch of the Brazilian battleship
Minas Geraes
Ship naming and launching
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Stern-first launch of the battleship
USS Arizona in 1915 at the
Brooklyn Navy Yard
Ship naming and launching
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Sideways launch of
lake freighter Frank J. Hecker,
St. Clair, Michigan. 1905
Ship naming and launching
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Launch of the
Friedland on 4 March 1840, sliding stern first
