1.
Quasi-War
–
The Quasi-War was an undeclared war fought almost entirely at sea between the United States of America and the French Republic from 1798 to 1800. Louis XVI of France fell from power in 1792 during the French Revolution, the United States had already declared neutrality in the conflict between Great Britain and revolutionary France, and American legislation was being passed for a trade deal with Britain. When the U. S. refused to continue repaying its debt using the argument that the debt was owed to the government, not to the French First Republic. First, French privateers began seizing American ships trading with Britain, next, the French government refused to receive Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, the new U. S. Minister, when he arrived in Paris in December 1796. In April 1798, President Adams informed Congress of the XYZ Affair, meanwhile, French privateers inflicted substantial losses on American shipping. On 21 February 1797, Secretary of State Timothy Pickering told Congress that during the eleven months. French marauders cruised the length of the Atlantic seaboard virtually unopposed, the United States government had nothing to combat them, as the navy had been abolished at the end of the Revolutionary War and its last warship sold in 1785. The United States had only a flotilla of small revenue cutters, increased depredations by French privateers led to the rebirth of the United States Navy and the creation of the United States Marine Corps to defend the expanding American merchant fleet. Congress authorized the president to acquire, arm, and man not more than twelve ships of up to twenty two guns each, several merchantmen were immediately purchased and refitted as ships of war, and construction of the frigate Congress resumed. Congress rescinded the treaties with France on 7 July 1798 and that date is now considered the beginning of the Quasi-War. This was followed two days later with the passage of the Congressional authorization of attacks on French warships in American waters. The U. S. Navy operated with a fleet of about twenty five vessels. French privateers generally resisted, as did La Croyable, which was captured on 7 July 1798, by Delaware outside of Egg Harbor, enterprise captured eight privateers and freed eleven American merchant ships from captivity. Experiment captured the French privateers Deux Amis and Diane, numerous American merchantmen were recaptured by Experiment. Boston forced Le Berceau into submission, silas Talbot engineered an expedition to Puerto Plata harbor in the Colony of Santo Domingo, a possession of Frances ally Spain, on 11 May 1800. Sailors and Marines from Constitution under Lieutenant Isaac Hull captured the French privateer Sandwich in the harbor, the U. S. Navy lost only one ship to the French, Retaliation, which was later recaptured. She was the captured privateer La Croyable, recently purchased by the U. S. Navy, Retaliation departed Norfolk on 28 October 1798, with Montezuma and Norfolk, and cruised in the West Indies protecting American commerce. Montezuma and Norfolk escaped after Bainbridge convinced the senior French commander that those American warships were too powerful for his frigates, renamed Magicienne by the French, the schooner again came into American hands on 28 June, when a broadside from Merrimack forced her to haul down her colors
2.
Nevis
–
Nevis /ˈniːvɪs/ is a small island in the Caribbean Sea that forms part of the inner arc of the Leeward Islands chain of the West Indies. Nevis and the island of Saint Kitts constitute one country. Nevis is located near the end of the Lesser Antilles archipelago. Its area is 93 square kilometres and the capital is Charlestown, Saint Kitts and Nevis are separated by a shallow 3-kilometre channel known as The Narrows. Nevis is roughly conical in shape with a known as Nevis Peak at its centre. The gently-sloping coastal plain has natural springs as well as non-potable volcanic hot springs. The island was named Oualie by the Caribs and Dulcina by the early British settlers, the name, Nevis, is derived from the Spanish, Nuestra Señora de las Nieves, the name first appears on maps in the 16th century. Nevis is also known by the sobriquet Queen of the Caribees, which it earned in the 18th century, Nevis is of particular historical significance to Americans because it was the birthplace and early childhood home of Alexander Hamilton. For the British, Nevis is the place where Horatio Nelson was stationed as a sea captain, and is where he met and married a Nevisian, Frances Nisbet. The majority of the approximately 12,000 citizens of Nevis are of primarily African descent, English is the official language, and the literacy rate,98 percent, is one of the highest in the Western Hemisphere. In 1498, Christopher Columbus gave the island the name San Martin, the current name Nevis was derived from a Spanish name Nuestra Señora de las Nieves by a process of abbreviation and anglicisation. The Spanish name means Our Lady of the Snows and it is not known who chose this name for the island, but it is a reference to the story of a 4th-century Catholic miracle, a snowfall on the Esquiline Hill in Rome. Presumably the white clouds that cover the top of Nevis Peak reminded someone of this story of a miraculous snowfall in a hot climate. Nevis was part of the Spanish claim to the Caribbean islands, records indicate that the Spanish enslaved large numbers of the native inhabitants on the more accessible of the Leeward Islands and sent them to Cubagua, Venezuela to dive for pearls. Hubbard suggests that the reason the first European settlers found so few Caribs on Nevis is that they had already rounded up by the Spanish. Nevis was first sighted by Columbus in 1493, an island settled for more two thousand years by Amerindian people. It was not a name the Caribs called themselves, Carib Indians was the generic name used for all groups believed involved in cannibalistic war rituals, more particularly, the consumption of parts of a killed enemys body. The Amerindian name for Nevis was Oualie, land of beautiful waters, the structure of the Island Carib language has been linguistically identified as Arawakan
3.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
French First Republic
–
In the history of France, the First Republic, officially the French Republic, was founded on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The First Republic lasted until the declaration of the First Empire in 1804 under Napoleon, under the Legislative Assembly, which was in power before the proclamation of the First Republic, France was engaged in war with Prussia and Austria. The foreign threat exacerbated Frances political turmoil amid the French Revolution and deepened the passion, in the violence of 10 August 1792, citizens stormed the Tuileries Palace, killing six hundred of the Kings Swiss guards and insisting on the removal of the king. A renewed fear of action prompted further violence, and in the first week of September 1792, mobs of Parisians broke into the citys prisons. This included nobles, clergymen, and political prisoners, but also numerous common criminals, such as prostitutes and petty thieves, many murdered in their cells—raped, stabbed and this became known as the September Massacres. The resulting Convention was founded with the purpose of abolishing the monarchy. The Conventions first act, on 10 August 1792, was to establish the French First Republic, the King, by then a private citizen bearing his family name of Capet, was subsequently put on trial for crimes of high treason starting in December 1792. On 16 January 1793 he was convicted, and on 21 January, throughout the winter of 1792 and spring of 1793, Paris was plagued by food riots and mass hunger. The new Convention did little to remedy the problem until late spring of 1793, despite growing discontent with the National Convention as a ruling body, in June the Convention drafted the Constitution of 1793, which was ratified by popular vote in early August. The Committees laws and policies took the revolution to unprecedented heights, after the arrest and execution of Robespierre in July 1794, the Jacobin club was closed, and the surviving Girondins were reinstated. A year later, the National Convention adopted the Constitution of the Year III and they reestablished freedom of worship, began releasing large numbers of prisoners, and most importantly, initiated elections for a new legislative body. On 3 November 1795, the Directory was established, the period known as the French Consulate began with the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799. Members of the Directory itself planned the coup, indicating clearly the failing power of the Directory, Napoleon Bonaparte was a co-conspirator in the coup, and became head of the government as the First Consul. He would later proclaim himself Emperor of the French, ending the First French Republic and ushering in the French First Empire
5.
Thomas Truxtun
–
He was one of the first six commanders appointed to the new US Navy by President Washington. During his naval career he commanded a number of famous U. S. naval ships, including USS Constellation, later in civilian life he became involved with politics and was also elected as a sheriff. Truxtun was born near Hempstead, New York, on Long Island and he lost his father at a young age and was taken to Jamaica on Long Island with relatives and placed under the care of a close friend, John Troup. Having little chance for an education, he joined the crew of the British merchant ship Pitt at the age of 12. Because of his skills, by the time he was twenty, Truxtun had garnered command of his own vessel, before the Revolution he was impressed into the Royal Navy and was offered a midshipmans warrant, which he turned down. He operated as a U. S. privateer during the American Revolutionary War, commanding ships, Congress, Independence, Mars. Truxtun was highly successful in capturing enemy ships during this period, after the war he returned to the merchant marine, where he remained for 12 years. In 1786 he commanded Canton, operating from Philadelphia, one of the first American ships to engage in trade with China, in 1794 and the war with France looming, Truxtun was one of the first six captains appointed by President Washington in the newly formed US Navy. During the Quasi-War with France, Truxtun commanded USS Constellation, for his first assignment he had previously overseen her construction in Baltimore, Maryland, with Silas Talbot. After a rank dispute with captains Dale and Talbot, Truxtun was placed in charge of the ship by President Washington and he commanded her with considerable success. Also on board was the young and later famous John Rodgers, after chasing the French ship through a storm, Constellation was able to force LInsurgente into an engagement that lasted an hour and fourteen minutes. Barreau did not strike his colors until his ship was almost a complete wreck, French losses were 29 killed and 44 wounded, while Truxtuns crew only suffered one killed and two wounded. It was the first battle engagement since the Revolutionary War that an American ship had encountered an enemy ship, on 31 January 1800, Constellation engaged La Vengeance, a larger vessel with a broadside of 559 pounds compared to Constellations 372 pounds. Constellation had sailed under Truxtun from Saint Kitts on 30 January, La Vengeance was bound for France under Capitaine de Vaisseau François Pitot, carrying passengers and specie, and initially attempted to outrun Constellation. During the battle Constellation was partially dismasted and was forced to make her way to Jamaica, thirty six hours after the engagement with La Vengeance, while passing the eastern end of Puerto Rico, Enterprise, commanded by Lieutenant Commander Shaw, arrived and fell in with Truxtun. After a short fall in Truxtun sent Enterprise to Philadelphia with important dispatches, USS President was launched on 10 April 1800 and, at the time, was considered Americas fastest sailing ship. She was the last of the six frigates launched. After the vessel was fitted out for sea duty, she set sail for Guadeloupe on 5 August with Captain Truxtun in command, relieving Stephen Decatur
6.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
7.
Surrender (military)
–
Surrender, in military terms, is the relinquishment of control over territory, combatants, fortifications, ships or armament to another power. A surrender may be accomplished peacefully, without fighting, or it may be the result of defeat in battle, a sovereign state may surrender following defeat in a war, usually by signing a peace treaty or capitulation agreement. A battlefield surrender, either by individuals or when ordered by officers, normally, a surrender will involve the handing over of weapons, the commanding officer of a surrendering force symbolically offers his sword to the victorious commander. Flags and ensigns are hauled down or furled, and ships colors are struck or the raising of a flag to the masts signals a surrender. When the parties agree to terms, the surrender may be conditional, that is, the leaders of the surrendering group negotiate privileges or compensation for the time, expense and loss of life saved by the victor through the stopping of resistance. Alternatively, in a surrender at discretion, the victor makes no promises of treatment, an early example of a military surrender is the defeat of Carthage by the Roman Empire at the end of the Second Punic War. Over time, generally accepted laws and customs of war have developed for such a situation, most of which are laid out in the Hague Convention of 1907. Normally, a belligerent will agree to surrender only if completely incapable of continuing hostilities. Traditionally, a ceremony was accompanied by the honors of war. The Third Geneva Convention states that prisoners of war should not be mistreated or abused, US Army policy, for example, requires that surrendered persons should be secured and safeguarded while being evacuated from the battlefield. While not a military law, the Code of the US Fighting Force disallows surrender unless all reasonable means of resistance exhausted. Certain death the only alternative, the Code states, I will never surrender of my own free will, if in command, I will never surrender the members of my command while they still have the means to resist. False surrender is a type of perfidy in the context of war and it is a war crime under Protocol I of the Geneva Convention. False surrenders are usually used to draw the enemy out of cover to attack them off guard, accounts of false surrender can be found relatively frequently throughout history. One of the more infamous examples was the false surrender of British troops at Kilmichael. Capitulation, an agreement in time of war for the surrender to an armed force of a particular body of troops. Debellatio occurs when a war ends because of the destruction of a belligerent state. No quarter occurs when a victor shows no clemency or mercy, under the laws of war, it is especially forbidden
8.
Frigate
–
A frigate /ˈfrɪɡᵻt/ is any of several types of warship, the term having been used for ships of various sizes and roles over the last few centuries. In the 17th century, this term was used for any warship built for speed and maneuverability and these could be warships carrying their principal batteries of carriage-mounted guns on a single deck or on two decks. The term was used for ships too small to stand in the line of battle. In the late 19th century, the frigate was a type of ironclad warship that for a time was the most powerful type of vessel afloat. The term frigate was used because such ships still mounted their principal armaments on a continuous upper deck. Ship classes dubbed frigates have more closely resembled corvettes, destroyers, cruisers. The rank frigate captain derives from the name of type of ship. The term frigate originated in the Mediterranean in the late 15th century, referring to a lighter galleass type ship with oars, sails and a light armament, built for speed and maneuverability. The etymology of the word is unknown, although it may have originated as a corruption of aphractus, aphractus was, in turn, derived from the Ancient Greek phrase ἄφρακτος ναῦς, or undefended ship. In 1583, during the Eighty Years War, Habsburg Spain recovered the Southern Netherlands from the rebellious Dutch and this soon led to the occupied ports being used as bases for privateers, the Dunkirkers, to attack the shipping of the Dutch and their allies. To achieve this they developed small, maneuverable, sailing vessels that came to be referred to as frigates, in French, the term frigate became a verb, meaning to build long and low, and an adjective, adding further confusion. Even the huge English Sovereign of the Seas could be described as a frigate by a contemporary after her upper decks were reduced in 1651. The navy of the Dutch Republic was the first navy to build the larger ocean-going frigates, the first two tasks required speed, shallowness of draft for the shallow waters around the Netherlands, and the ability to carry sufficient supplies to maintain a blockade. The third task required heavy armament, sufficient to fight against the Spanish fleet, the first of these larger battle-capable frigates were built around 1600 at Hoorn in Holland. The effectiveness of the Dutch frigates became most visible in the Battle of the Downs in 1639, encouraging most other navies, especially the English, to adopt similar designs. The fleets built by the Commonwealth of England in the 1650s generally consisted of ships described as frigates, the largest of which were two-decker great frigates of the third rate. Carrying 60 guns, these vessels were as big and capable as great ships of the time, however, most other frigates at the time were used as cruisers, independent fast ships. The term frigate implied a long hull design, which relates directly to speed and also, in turn, in Danish, the word fregat is often applied to warships carrying as few as 16 guns, such as HMS Falcon which the British classified as a sloop
9.
USS Delaware vs La Croyable
–
USS Delaware vs La Croyable, or the Action of July 7,1798, was a single ship action fought between the French schooner La Croyable and the sloop-of-war USS Delaware. The engagement resulted in the first capture of any ship by the United States Navy, originally a merchant ship called Hamburgh Packet, USS Delaware was purchased by the United States Navy on May 5,1798. With a complement of 180 men and twenty mounted long guns – sixteen 9-pounders and four 6-pounders, she was given to Captain Stephen Decatur, Sr. to command. Delaware set sail from Delaware Bay on July 6 with instructions to join USS United States and USS Ganges and she was reduced to limping across the Great Egg Harbor Bay. When Captain Decatur heard these reports from Alexander Hamiltons crew, he began scouting the bay for a potentially culpable French vessel, an attack by a French privateer on an American merchantman was not unheard of at the time. Tensions between the United States and France had been rising in the months before the battle, the United States Congress had instructed all American warships in the newly-formed United States Navy to capture any French vessel found near the coast preying upon American commerce. Congress had also commissioned one thousand privateers to combat against the French hostilities of the day, Captain Decatur, who had distinguished himself as a privateer during the American Revolutionary War, was now looking to make the most of the opportunity to command Delaware. In the midst of her search for the French privateers, Delaware spotted four sails on the horizon, under Decaturs orders, the sloops crew had her pretend to be a merchant vessel. The act was convincing enough to draw the attention and pursuit of the French privateer schooner La Croyable and it was not long before the captain of the French vessel discovered that Delaware was a warship and tried to reverse course. After a lengthy chase, La Croyable found herself pinned against the shore of Great Egg Harbor Bay and she surrendered after only a few cannon shots. On July 8 Delaware made her way back up the Delaware River with her prize, after executing the US Navys first victory of the Quasi-War, Decatur became a hero. He boasted of his catch to several people, including Captain John Barry of USS United States, La Croyable was deemed a lawful capture by the U. S. government and renamed USS Retaliation. She was given to the command of Lieutenant William Bainbridge, Bainbridge would join a fleet of American ships in the Caribbean on October 15. Later in November however, the French frigates Volontaire and Insurgente attacked USS Retaliation and this was the only American naval vessel to be captured during the entire Quasi-War. Footner, Geoffrey M. Tidewater Triumph, The Development and Worldwide Success of the Chesapeake Bay Pilot Schooner, American Naval History, An Illustrated Chronology of the U. S. Navy and Marine Corps, 1775-present. The Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Early American Republic, 1783–1812, A Political, Social, and Military History
10.
Action of 1 January 1800
–
The Action of 1 January 1800 was a naval battle of the Quasi-War that took place off the coast of present-day Haiti, near the island of Gonâve in the Bight of Léogâne. A French-aligned Haitian general, André Rigaud, had instructed his forces to all foreign shipping within their range of operations. Accordingly, once Experiment and her convoy of merchant ships neared Gonâve, Experiment managed to save the other two ships in her convoy, and escorted them to a friendly port. On the American side, only the captain of the schooner Mary was killed, though the picaroons took heavy losses during this engagement, they remained strong enough to continue wreaking havoc among American shipping in the region. Only after Rigaud was forced out of power by the forces of Toussaint LOuverture, leader of the 1791 Haitian Revolution, did the picaroon attacks cease. With the dawn of the Haitian Revolution in 1791, a slave rebellion on the French colony, then known as Saint-Domingue. Despite their success in removing the French colonial authorities, the political factions that had seized control of the colony were fractious. By 1800, the War of Knives between the pro-French André Rigaud and the pro-autonomy Toussaint LOuverture was in full swing and Saint-Domingue was divided in two, Rigaud controlled part of the southern portion of Saint-Domingue while LOuverture controlled the rest of the French colony. In need of supplies and materiel, Rigauds forces attacked any non-French ship that passed them, concurrently with the War of Knives, the United States and France were engaged in a bout of limited naval warfare in the Caribbean as part of the Quasi-War. On 1 January 1800, the convoy was caught in a dead calm off the side of the present-day Haitian island of Gonâve. Seeing the convoy becalmed, Rigaud sent eleven armed barges out to attack, the crews of the American merchant vessels possessed only small arms, but their escort, Experiment, was a much more powerful vessel. Commanded by William Maley, the 135-ton Experiment was armed with 12 six-pounder guns and had a complement of 70 men. In comparison, Rigauds initial attack force consisted of eleven barges crewed by 40 to 50 men each in the smaller ones and these barges were primarily propelled by oars, with 26 per vessel. The Haitian craft were equipped with a mix of swivel guns and four-pounder cannon. In addition to the vessels that set out to attack the convoy, there were more barges, in total some 37 barges and 1500 men were at Rigauds immediate disposal, though the Americans did not know this during the attack. Individually the Haitian barges presented only a threat to the convoy. Experiment kept her gunports closed and passed herself off as a merchantman, once the Haitians were in musket range of the American vessels they opened fire on them, and Experiment returned the fire. Grapeshot from the Americans wreaked havoc among the Haitian barges and they were forced to withdraw and they stood off the American convoy for thirty minutes before beaching at the nearby island of Gonâve to land their wounded and gather reinforcements
11.
USS Constellation vs La Vengeance
–
The USS Constellation vs La Vengeance, or the Action of 1 February 1800, was a single-ship action fought between frigates of the French Navy and the United States Navy during the Quasi-War. In the battle the American frigate USS Constellation tried to take the French frigate La Vengeance as a prize, although the French frigate struck her colors twice, she managed to flee after the main mast of her opponent had fallen. In 1798, a war had begun between the United States and France due to French seizures of American merchantmen. As part of an American effort to deter French attacks, Commodore Thomas Truxton led an American naval squadron that was dispatched to the Lesser Antilles. Learning that regular French naval forces were in the region, Truxton set out in his flagship Constellation, on 1 February 1800, while nearing the French colony, Constellation met François Marie Pitots frigate La Vengeance of the French Navy. Despite Pitots attempts to flee, his frigate was drawn into an engagement with Constellation. Although the French frigate struck her colors twice, Constellation was unable to take La Vengeance as a prize, eventually Pitot was able to escape with his frigate to Curaçao, though only after sustaining severe casualties and damage to his vessel. Truxtons ship sustained light damage and sailed to Jamaica for repairs before returning home to a heros welcome, in 1800, the Quasi-War between the United States and France was in full force. In order to prevent French attacks against American merchantmen in the Caribbean, one such squadron was commanded by Commodore Thomas Truxton, and tasked with patrolling the Lesser Antilles. Taking command on 19 January 1800 after arriving at Saint Kitts in his flagship USS Constellation, Truxtons squadron consisted of four frigates, both vessels had arrived at Guadeloupe on 10 December 1799 escorting the new administrators of the French colony. Once at Saint Kitts Truxton dispersed his squadron, giving each ship orders to cruise independently and he then set sail for Guadeloupe on 30 January 1800 with his flagship Constellation, intending to challenge the French frigate and corvette there. The same day, Pitot in La Vengeance left Guadaloupes capital of Basse-Terre for France, by this point in the Quasi-War, the 1, 265-ton Constellation carried 38 cannon despite officially being classified by the United States Navy as a 36-gun frigate. Truxton and his crew were hardened veterans and were prepared for a fight. Their French counterparts were not as ready for an engagement, Pitots frigate was carrying a large quantity of specie as well as 36 American prisoners of war and 80 passengers, two of whom were generals. The French also had an advantage in the event of a boarding action. On 1 February 1800 at 07,00, Truxtons crew spotted what appeared to be a 54-gun frigate flying British colors two leagues off the Basse-Terre roadstead, in an effort to communicate with the mysterious frigate, Constellation flew British colors. Pitot had sighted the American ship by 07,45, thinking the vessel chasing him was a superior 55-gun warship, he sought to avoid conflict, and continued to sail with the wind rather than head north as he had originally intended. In an effort to increase her speed, the French frigates crew put out studding sails to catch more wind, the behavior of Pitots frigate signaled to Truxton that she was really a French warship, so he ordered Constellation cleared for action and gave chase
12.
Jacmel
–
Jacmel, is a commune in southern Haiti founded by the Spanish in 1504 and repopulated by the French in 1698. It is the capital of the department of Sud-Est and has an population of 40,000. The towns name is derived from its indigenous Taíno name of Yaquimel, in 1925, Jacmel was dubbed as the City of Light, becoming the first in the Caribbean to have electricity. The city has well-preserved historical French colonial architecture that dates back from the nineteenth century and has little changed. The town has been accepted as a World Heritage site. The town was founded by the Compagnie de Saint-Domingue in 1698 as the capital of the part of the French colony Saint-Domingue. The area now called Jacmel was Taíno territory, part of the Xaragua chiefdom ruled by cacique Bohechio, with the arrival of the French, and the later establishment of the town, the French renamed Yaquimel as Jacmel. The city was developed to boost sugar production and trade, in 1896 it suffered a major fire that destroyed most of the buildings in the city. The city was rebuilt, often using prefabricated cast-iron pillars and balconies shipped from France, the mansions of Jacmel, with their cast-iron pillars and balconies, would later influence the homes in much of New Orleans. Today, many of these homes are now artisan shops that sell vibrant handicrafts, papier-mâché masks, in recent years, efforts have been made to revitalize the once flourishing cigar and coffee industries. The town is a popular tourist destination in Haiti due to its relative tranquility, over the years, this rather small town experienced a number of noted historical events. This war began in June 1799, by November the rebels were pushed back to this strategic southern port, the defence of which was commanded by Alexandre Pétion. Jacmel fell to Toussaints troops in February 1800, during which the American warship USS General Greene bombarded the city, after which the rebellion was effectively over. Pétion and other mulatto leaders went into exile in France. Anchored in the Bay of Jacmel, he first raised the flag on March 12,1806 and this day is still celebrated as Venezuelan Flag Day. This flag is referred to as the bandera madre due to its role as inspiration and resemblance to the flags of Colombia. Then-president of Haiti Nissage Saget supported Betancess ideals of a pan-Antillean union, the port town is internationally known for its very vibrant art scene and elegant townhouses dating from the 19th century. Among the wealth of art and crafts available in Jacmel are the papier-mâché, done by nearly 200 artisans and the renowned Atelier created by Moro Baruk
13.
Battle of Puerto Plata Harbor
–
In early May 1800, Captain Silas Talbot organized a naval expedition to Puerto Plata, Santo Domingo. His object was to harass French shipping around the colony of their Spanish ally, after capturing the small French sloop Sally, USS Constitution arrived at Puerto Plata. A French corvette was seen at anchor in the harbor, unwilling to take fire from Spanish defenses, USS Constitution sailed around to a beach, out of the Spanish forts range. There she off loaded a landing force of about 100 marines, the landing party then marched on Sandwich while the prize sloop Sally was sent in to attack by way of sea. No doubt shocked at the approaching American force, the French hardly put up a fight, then the Americans turned their attention on Spains Fortaleza San Felipe. After another brief fight, the Spanish defenses were overrun and the marines spiked the forts cannons, with the capture of Sandwich, and the assault on the Spanish fort, U. S. forces returned to their ships, and sailed home. The Battle of Puerto Plata Harbor was one of the few battles during the Quasi-War. Detailed casualties of the engagement are unknown, what is known is not many people became casualties that day. The Naval History of the United States, commanding Officers of Constitution Constitution and Grebe in Houston,1932 Maritimequest Constitution Photo Gallery USS Constitution Museum USS Constitution Official homepage
14.
USS Boston vs Berceau
–
The Action between the USS Boston and Berceau, was a single ship action off Guadeloupe, during the Quasi-War with France. USS Boston, Capt. George Little, captured the French corvette Berceau, pursuing the latter, Boston gained steadily before catching her in the late afternoon. The crews then spent the several hours repairing their damage so that they could rejoin the fight. Well after dusk, the two were able to engage, which they did for more than an hour. The action was terminated when, losing her fore and main mast and already having had boarding attempts repulsed. Following several days spent immobile, repairing spars, sails and rigging, on arrival, it was discovered that the action had actually been fought two weeks after a peace agreement had formally ended hostilities. As a consequence Berceau was repaired at American expense and returned to France, acquitted in a resulting court martial proceeding, most of Bostons officers were nonetheless dismissed from the Navy. James Truslow Adams, Dictionary of American History, Charles Scribners Sons, leiner, Millions for Defense, The Subscription Warships of 1798, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis,1999
15.
USS Enterprise vs Flambeau
–
The USS Enterprise vs Flambeau was a single ship action fought in October 1800 during the Quasi-War. During the action the USS Enterprise defeated the French privateer brig Flambeau off the side of the island of Dominica in the Caribbean Sea. Although Enterprise was outgunned by Flambeau, she was able to take her as a prize after a short battle. The battle helped bring to fame Enterprises commanding officer, Lieutenant John Shaw, during the Quasi-War American merchant ships often became the target of French privateers who seized them in large quantities. In an effort to stem these depredations against American shipping several United States Navy warships were dispatched to hunt down French privateers, one such vessel was USS Enterprise, an American naval schooner under the command of Lieutenant John Shaw. Enterprise had been sent out to the Caribbean Sea in March 1800 with orders to cruise against French shipping in the region, Enterprise had already previously engaged and defeated several French privateers when on the night of 24 October she sighted the privateer Flambeau off the leeward side of Dominica. The French letter of marque Flambeau was a brig that was more powerful than Enterprise. The French privateer also had more crew than the American vessel,110 opposed to Enterprises 83, with a broadside of 48 pounds to Enterprises 36 pounds and with a larger crew, Flambeau had an advantage over Enterprise. Nonetheless, Shaw decided to engage Flambeau, Enterprise could not catch up to Flambeau but when morning came Flambeau found herself becalmed. Her captain then used sweeps to close with Enterprise, eventually a wind came and the two ships managed to maneuver towards each other until they were within musket range. After engaging with small arms for a while, Lieutenant Shaw eventually veered his schooner away, Enterprise replied with her own broadside and the two vessels engaged each other with cannon for twenty minutes. Flambeau was beginning to receive heavy damage when her captain decided to disengage, however, Enterprise pursued the French brig and continued to engage her. Flambeaus foretopmast was in danger of being dismasted from damage it had received from Enterprise, however after a sudden gust of wind the mast flew off the ship carrying six French sailors with it. Enterprise ceased her attacks upon Flambeau and sent out a boat to rescue the French sailors adrift on the topmast, after rescuing the French topmen, Enterprise caught up with the French brig and came alongside. Before the action could continue the French captain struck her colours as Flambeaus medicine chest had been destroyed, the entire action lasted about forty minutes. The French were much worse off than the Americans in terms of casualties, a prize crew from Enterprise was sent aboard Flambeau and sailed her to Saint Kitts where she was condemned. The proceeds from the sale of Flambeau were adjudicated to the crew of Enterprise, the capture of Flambeau brought further acclaim to Shaw, who had already defeated several other French privateers and taken them as prizes. Enterprise continued her cruise, next chasing down and capturing Pauline, shortly afterward, chronic illness forced Shaw to transfer command of the vessel to Lieutenant Andrew Sterett
16.
Single-ship action
–
A single-ship action is a naval engagement fought between two warships of opposing sides, excluding submarine engagements, called so because there is a single ship on each side. The following is a list of notable single-ship actions,1579 March 1 - Golden Hind captures the Spanish galleon Nuestra Señora de la Concepción. 1720 October 20 - British sloop Snow-Tyger under Jonathan Barnet captures the pirate sloop William,1779 May 7 USS Providence captures HMS Diligent 1779 September 10 - USS Morris defeats HMS West Florida in the Battle of Lake Pontchartrain. 1779 September 14 - HMS Pearl defeats the Spanish frigate Santa Mónica,1779 November 11 - HMS Tartar captures the Spanish frigate Santa Margarita. 1780 June 1 - USS Trumbull engages the British privateer Watt,1781 March 23 - British privateer Tarleton, of 14 guns, captures American letter of marque Tom Lee, of 12 guns. 1781 May 1 - HMS Canada captures the Spanish frigate Santa Leocadia,1781 September 6 - American privateer Congress captures the British sloop HMS Savage. 1782 April 8 - Pennsylvania Privateer Hyder Ally captures HMS General Monk,1783 January 22 - HMS Hussar captures the French frigate Sybille. 1793 June 18 - HMS Nymphe captures the French frigate Cléopâtre 1793 December 1 - The British packet ship Antelope captures the French privateer Atlante,1796 June 6 - HMS Unicorn captures French frigate Tribune 1797 March 13 - HMS Viper captures Nuestra Señora de la Piedad. 1798 March 1 - HMS Sybille captures French frigate Forte,1799 March 18 - HM hired brig Telegraph captures French privateer Hirondelle 1799 April 13 - HMS Amaranthe captures the French letter of marque Vengeur. 1803 July 16 - HMS Racoon captures French brig-corvette Lodi,1803 August 13 - French privateer Bellone captures the East Indiaman Lord Nelson 1803 August 17 - HMS Racoon destroys French naval brig Mutine. 1803 August 27 - HMS Seagull recaptures the East Indiaman Lord Nelson,1804 February 5 - HMS Eclair engages the 22-gun French privateer Grande Decide. 1804 March 21 - French privateer Blonde captures and sinks HMS Wolverine,1804 March 25 or 28 - HMS Hippomenes captures French privateer Egyptienne 1804 June 21 - HMS Hippomenes unsuccessfully engages the Guadeloupe privateer Buonaparte. 1807 April 25 - French privateer Dame Villaret captures Wanstead 1807 August 19 - HMS Comus captures the Danish frigate Fredericksvaern,1807 October 1 - British packet ship Windsor Castle captures the French privateer Jeune Richard. 1807 October 17 - HMS Superieure captures the French privateer schooner Tape a L’Oeil,1836 March 6 - Texas schooner Liberty captures the Mexican schooner Pelicano 1836 April 3 - Texas schooner Invincible sinks the Mexican schooner Montezuma. 1941 May 8 - the British heavy cruiser HMS Cornwall sinks German auxiliary cruiser Pinguin,1942 June 6 - German auxiliary cruiser Stier sinks the tanker SS Stanvac Calcutta in the South Atlantic. 1942 September 27 - German auxiliary cruiser Stier and American Liberty ship SS Stephen Hopkins sink each other in the South Atlantic,1943 October 31-November 1 - USS Borie and U-405 engage in a pitched battle ending with Borie ramming the submarine. 28 January 2011 - INS Cankarso sinks Somali pirate trawler Prantalay 14 off Minicoy Island,12 May 2011 - USS Stephen W. Groves sinks Somali pirate longliner Jih Chun Tsai 68 in the Indian Ocean off Somalia. List of naval battles List of submarine actions Bibliography of early American naval history
17.
French Navy
–
The French Navy, informally La Royale, is the maritime arm of the French Armed Forces. As of June 2014, the French Navy employed a total of 36,776 personnel, the reserve element of the French Navy consisted of 4,827 personnel of the Operational Reserve. The French naval fleet includes more than a hundred vessels and nuclear type submarines, the history of the French Navy dates back to the History of the French Navy of Antiquity to the Renaissance, part of the History of the French Navy. The French Royal Navy was quasi inexistent prior 1624, the Ordre de Saint-Jean de Jérusalem, which was both a religious and military order, had its own respective international war fleet which assured the policing of the seas in the Mediterranean. The members which had satisfied obligations for periods in service at sea fulfilling their service, were granted the rank of Knights Hospitaller, however, many considered the naval service formation to integrate later, while being well formed, their respective navy. The Ordre de Saint-Jean de Jérusalem was one of the ancestors of the French naval schools and in principal, the Order accordingly formed most of the ships Captains, Officers of the French Royal Navy and Admirals of the Marine française de guerre de la Méditerranée. During the Revolution, the French Navy succeeded to the French Royal Navy, under the First French Empire and the Second French Empire, the navy was designated as the Imperial French Navy. The French Navy is still designated today familiarly as La Royale and this expression was used by commercial sailors due to their military service at the corps of the navy by the institution of maritime inscription. The implementation then of the Ministère de la Marine later the de la Marine de guerre française at rue Royale. The symbol of the French Navy, which was since origin a golden anchor » and this symbol featured on all naval vessels, the arms, uniforms, the couriers, equipment, and general arms of the navy. This symbol was replaced in 1990 by a logo featuring a bow section of a warship with two ascending red and blue spray foams, and the inscription Marine nationale. The Chief of Staff of the French Navy was Admiral Bernard Louzeau, the navy became a consistent instrument of national power around the seventeenth century with Richelieus efforts under Louis XIII, and Colberts under Louis XIV. Under the tutelage of the Sun King, the French Navy was well-financed and -equipped, managing to score several victories in the Nine Years War against the Royal Navy. Financial troubles, however, forced the navy back to port and allowed the English, before the Nine Years War, in the Franco-Dutch War, it managed to score a decisive victory over a combined Spanish-Dutch fleet at the Battle of Palermo. The French Navy scored various successes, as in the campaigns led in the Atlantic by Picquet de la Motte, in 1766, Bougainville led the first French circumnavigation. During the American Revolutionary War the French Navy played a role in supporting the Americans. French warships participated in the battle by bombarding British ground forces, in India, Suffren waged campaigns against the British, successfully contending for supremacy against Vice-Admiral Sir Edward Hughes. In the Mediterranean, the French Navy waged a campaign during a 1798 French invasion of Egypt
18.
United States Navy
–
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
19.
USS Constellation (1797)
–
USS Constellation was a 38-gun frigate, one of the Six Original Frigates authorized for construction by the Naval Act of 1794. She was distinguished as the first U. S. Navy vessel to put to sea, constructed in 1797, she was modified several times in succeeding decades, and finally rebuilt beginning in 1853 as the sloop of war USS Constellation. Congress responded with the Naval Act of 1794, by the time of the conclusion in 1815, of the later War of 1812 with Great Britain, the United States had fought a series of three brief, but savage naval and amphibious wars. Joshua Humphreys design was long on keel and narrow of beam to allow the mounting of heavy guns. The design incorporated a diagonal scantling scheme to limit hogging and included extremely heavy planking and this gave the hull greater strength than those of more lightly built frigates. Humphreys developed his design after realizing that the fledgling United States could not match for size the navies of the European states and he therefore designed his frigates to be able to overpower other frigates, but with the speed to escape from a ship of the line. It was situated east of Fells Point and south of where modern-day Patterson Park, the ratings by number of guns were meant only as an approximation, as Constellation could and did often carry up to 48 guns. U. S. Navy ships of this era had no permanent battery of guns such as modern Navy ships carry, the guns were designed to be completely portable and often were exchanged between ships as situations warranted. Each commanding officer outfitted armaments to his liking, taking into consideration such as the overall tonnage of cargo, complement of personnel aboard. Consequently, the armaments on ships changed often during their careers, on 9 February 1799, under the command of Captain Thomas Truxtun, Constellation fought and captured the frigate LInsurgente of 36 guns, the fastest ship in the French Navy. The battle started about 18 miles NE of the island of Nevis about midday when Constellation spotted LInsurgente, LInsurgente had recently captured Retaliation, a schooner, in November 1798 and three weeks previous had been chased by the Constitution and had escaped. L’Insurgentes job was that of commerce raiding, she wanted nothing to do with another warship, within an hour of hauling in chase Truxtun was close enough to make private signals to identify if the ship he was pursuing was British or not. With no answer, he proceeded to chase LInsurgente down, clearing for action, Truxtun made private signals for the US Navy and again received no answer. Constellation crowded on all sail despite a rising squall that threatened to tear a sail or throw a spar. Reefing sail just long enough to weather the short squall, Constellation hardly paused, Captain Barreaut ordered LInsurgente to lay up and prepared to fight. Constellation was outfitted with 24 pounder guns that caused her to lean too much to lee due to topweight and she was refitted with 18-pounder long guns in her next refit. LInsurgente raised the French Tricolor and Captain Barreaut tried to ask for parley, Captain Truxtun refused to answer as his orders were to attack any French warship or privateer and answered when his last gun could be brought to bear. American warships of this period fired for the hull as did the British, LInsurgente fired as per her training at the Constellations masts and rigging
20.
USS Insurgent
–
The Insurgente was a 40-gun Sémillante-class frigate of the French Navy, launched in 1791. USS Constellation, Captain Thomas Truxtun in command, captured her off the island of Nevis during the Quasi-War, after her capture she served in the US Navy, patrolling the waters in the West Indies. In September 1800 she was caught up in a storm and was presumed lost at sea. Insurgente was built by Pierre-Joseph Pénétreau at Lorient and launched on 27 April 1793, in January or February 1794, Insurgente captured the Ann off Cape Clear Island as Ann was sailing from Newfoundland to Bristol. Insurgente put a crew aboard Ann, but left her mate. When Ann was in sight of the French coast, the British sailors succeeded in recapturing her from the prize crew, on 16 January 1794 Insurgente captured the American ship John and James, of 335 tons, and brought her into Brest. John and James had been built at Philadelphia for George Morrison of Petersburg and she had left Petersburg with 450 hogsheads of tobacco and 12,000 staves. On 27 December 1794 the Tribunal of Commerce ordered John and James released to Captain James Johnson, on 25 April Insurgente captured the Freundschaft Lourentz, Colandt, master, as Freundschaft Lourentz was sailing from Lisbon to London. However two Scilly boats, recaptured her the day and brought her into St Ives, Cornwall. On 9 February 1799, after being at sea for three days, the USS Constellation spotted Insurgente approximately six leagues northeast off Nevis. Shortly after being spotted by Constellation this second time the ships encountered a squall during which a violent gust of wind snapped Insurgentes topmast, impairing her speed. As Constellation approached, Captain Michael-Pierre Barreaut first attempted to seek haven by making for St. Eustatius, but to no avail, after being overtaken she hoisted American colors, at which time the Constellation hoisted the private signals. This was the first time since the American Revolution that a shot had been fired from a vessel at an American ship. Truxtun gave the order to clear the deck of Constellation for action, both ships bore up to take positions to engage. The Constellation fired the first broadside, double-shotted, inflicting damage to the French vessels hull. Insurgente responded and fired a broadside, inflicting damage to Constellations rigging and top foremast. At 3,30 PM after an hour and a half of running battle, first Lieutenant John Rodgers, Midshipman David Porter along with eleven men were put on board the captured vessel to take possession and to secure the prisoners who were sent to the lower hold. She had lost 70 men from a crew of 409, while Constellation, badly damaged also and this was the first post-Revolutionary War American victory against a foreign naval vessel
21.
Privateer
–
A privateer was a private person or ship that engaged in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Captured ships were subject to condemnation and sale under prize law, a percentage share usually went to the issuer of the commission. Since robbery under arms was common to trade, all merchant ships were already armed. During war, naval resources were auxiliary to operations on land so privateering was a way of subsidizing state power by mobilizing armed ships, the letter of marque of a privateer would typically limit activity to one particular ship, and specified officers. Typically, the owners or captain would be required to post a performance bond, in the United Kingdom, letters of marque were revoked for various offences. Some crews were treated as harshly as naval crews of the time, some crews were made up of professional merchant seamen, others of pirates, debtors, and convicts. Some privateers ended up becoming pirates, not just in the eyes of their enemies, william Kidd, for instance, began as a legitimate British privateer but was later hanged for piracy. The investors would arm the vessels and recruit large crews, much larger than a merchantman or a vessel would carry. Privateers generally cruised independently, but it was not unknown for them to form squadrons, a number of privateers were part of the English fleet that opposed the Spanish Armada in 1588. Privateers generally avoided encounters with warships, as such encounters would be at best unprofitable, for instance, in 1815 Chasseur encountered HMS St Lawrence, herself a former American privateer, mistaking her for a merchantman until too late, in this instance, however, the privateer prevailed. The United States used mixed squadrons of frigates and privateers in the American Revolutionary War, the practice dated to at least the 13th century but the word itself was coined sometime in the mid-17th century. England, and later the United Kingdom, used privateers to great effect and these privately owned merchant ships, licensed by the crown, could legitimately take vessels that were deemed pirates. The increase in competition for crews on armed merchant vessels and privateers was due, in a large part, because of the chance for a considerable payoff. Whereas a seaman who shipped on a vessel was paid a wage and provided with victuals. This proved to be a far more attractive prospect and privateering flourished as a result, during Queen Elizabeths reign, she encouraged the development of this supplementary navy. Over the course of her rule, she had allowed Anglo-Spanish relations to deteriorate to the point where one could argue that a war with the Spanish was inevitable. By using privateers, if the Spanish were to take offense at the plundering of their ships, some of the most famous privateers that later fought in the Anglo-Spanish War included the Sea Dogs. In the late 16th century, English ships cruised in the Caribbean and off the coast of Spain, at this early stage the idea of a regular navy was not present, so there is little to distinguish the activity of English privateers from regular naval warfare
22.
Squadron (naval)
–
A squadron, or naval squadron, is a significant group of warships which is nonetheless considered too small to be designated a fleet. A squadron is typically a part of a fleet, groups of small warships, or small groups of major warships, might instead be designated flotillas by some navies according to their terminology. Since the size of a naval squadron varies greatly, the associated with command of a squadron also varies greatly. Before 1864 the entire fleet of the Royal Navy was divided into three squadrons, the red, the white, and the blue, each Royal Navy squadron alone was more powerful than most national navies. Today, a squadron might number three to ten vessels, which might be major warships, transport ships, submarines, or small craft in a task force or a fleet. A squadron may be composed of one type of ship of various types tasked with a specific mission such as patrol, blockade. In the United States Navy, the squadron has always been used for formations of destroyers. A large squadron will sometimes be divided into two or more divisions, each of which might be commanded by a subordinate captain, like a fleet, a squadron is usually, but not necessarily, a permanent formation. There are several types of squadron, Independent squadrons, in effect, these are formations that are too small to be called a fleet. Independent squadrons may be assigned to and named after an ocean or sea. In the Age of Sail, fleets were divided into van, centre, a temporary detachment from a fleet would also be called a squadron. U. S. Navy squadron types have included Battleship Squadrons, Cruiser Squadrons, Destroyer Squadrons, Escort Squadrons, Transport Squadrons, in modern navies, squadrons have tended to become administrative units. Most navies began to abandon the squadron as a tactical formation during the Second World War, as warships have grown larger, the term squadron has gradually replaced the term flotilla for formations of destroyers, frigates and submarines in many navies
23.
Caribbean
–
The Caribbean is a region that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands and the surrounding coasts. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region comprises more than 700 islands, islets, reefs and cays. These islands generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea, in a wider sense, the mainland countries of Belize, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana are often included due to their political and cultural ties with the region. Geopolitically, the Caribbean islands are usually regarded as a subregion of North America and are organized into 30 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. From December 15,1954, to October 10,2010, there was a known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five states. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations, the region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest. The two most prevalent pronunciations of Caribbean are KARR-ə-BEE-ən, with the accent on the third syllable. The former pronunciation is the older of the two, although the variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer KARR-ə-BEE-ən while North American speakers more typically use kə-RIB-ee-ən, usage is split within Caribbean English itself. The word Caribbean has multiple uses and its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to slavery, European colonisation, the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas accords the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas. Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea, to the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America, politically, the Caribbean may be centred on socio-economic groupings found in the region. For example, the known as the Caribbean Community contains the Co-operative Republic of Guyana. Bermuda and the Turks and Caicos Islands, which are in the Atlantic Ocean, are members of the Caribbean Community. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is also in the Atlantic and is a member of the Caribbean Community. According to the ACS, the population of its member states is 227 million people. The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies, Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin and these islands include Aruba, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua
24.
Puerto Rico
–
Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
25.
Saint Kitts
–
Saint Kitts, also known more formally as Saint Christopher Island, is an island in the West Indies. The west side of the borders the Caribbean Sea. Saint Kitts and the island of Nevis constitute one country. Saint Kitts and Nevis are separated by a shallow 3-kilometre channel known as The Narrows, the island is one of the Leeward Islands in the Lesser Antilles. It is situated about 2,100 km southeast of Miami, the land area of St. Kitts is about 168 km2, being approximately 29 km long and on average about 8 km across. Saint Kitts has a population of around 35,000, the majority of whom are mainly of African descent, the primary language is English, with a literacy rate of approximately 98%. Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the largest fortress ever built in the Eastern Caribbean, the island of Saint Kitts is home to the Warner Park Cricket Stadium, which was used to host 2007 Cricket World Cup matches. This made St. Kitts and Nevis the smallest nation to ever host a World Cup event, the capital of the two-island nation, and also its largest port, is the town of Basseterre on Saint Kitts. There is a facility for handling large cruise ships there. A ring road goes around the perimeter of the island with smaller roads branching off it, Saint Kitts is 10 km away from Sint Eustatius to the north and 3 km from Nevis to the south. St. Kitts has three groups of volcanic peaks, the North West or Mount Misery Range, the Middle or Verchilds Range. The highest peak is Mount Liamuiga, formerly Mount Misery, a dormant volcano 1,156 m high. There are nine parishes on the island of St. Kitts & Nevis uses the Eastern Caribbean dollar, the US dollar is almost as widely accepted as the Eastern Caribbean dollar. For hundreds of years, St. Kitts operated as a monoculture, but due to decreasing profitability. Tourism is a major and growing source of income to the island, although the number, transportation, non-sugar agriculture, manufacturing and construction are the other growing sectors of the economy. St. Kitts is dependent on tourism to drive its economy, tourism has been increasing since 1978. In 2009, there were 587,479 arrivals to Saint Kitts compared to 379,473 in 2007, as tourism grows, the demand for vacation property increases in conjunction. St. Kitts & Nevis also acquires foreign direct investment from their citizenship by investment program
26.
Flagship
–
A flagship is a vessel used by the commanding officer of a group of naval ships, characteristically a flag officer entitled by custom to fly a distinguishing flag. Used more loosely, it is the ship in a fleet of vessels, typically the first, largest, fastest, most heavily armed. In common naval use, the flagship is fundamentally a temporary designation. Historically, only larger ships could accommodate such requirements, the term was also used by commercial fleets, when the distinction between a nations navy and merchant fleet was not clear. In the age of sailing ships, the flagship was typically a first-rate, non-first rates could serve as flagships, however, the USS Constitution, a frigate, served as flagship for parts of the United States Navy during the early 19th century. In the 20th century, ships became large enough that the types, cruisers and up, could accommodate a commander. Some larger ships may have a flag bridge for use by the admiral. Because its primary function is to coordinate a fleet, a flagship is not necessarily more heavily armed or armored than other ships, during World War II admirals often preferred a faster ship over the largest one. Modern flagships are designed primarily for command and control rather than for fighting, as with many other naval terms, flagship has crossed over into general usage, where it means the most important or leading member of a group, as in the flagship station of a broadcast network. Is used as both a noun and adjective describing the most prominent or highly touted product, brand, location, derivations include the flagship brand or flagship product of a manufacturing company, flagship store of a retail chain, or flagship service of a hospitality or transportation concern. The term flagship may have applications, Auto companies may have a flagship in the form of their leading or highest-priced car. Electronics companies may have a series of products considered to be their flagship, for example, the Samsung Galaxy S series consists of several flagship smartphones that are released on a yearly basis. In rail transport, a service is either the fastest or most luxurious. Often it is also a train or service. In some cases, special service or a class above first class may be available in the service while it is not offered in normal services. Flagship services are used to present the company in advertising or abroad. Most states in the United States provide public university education through one or more university systems, the phrase flagship institution or flagship university may be applied to an individual school or campus within each state system. These schools are often land-grant, sea-grant, or space-grant research universities, the use of the term is seen by some as elitist and boastful
27.
France in the American Revolutionary War
–
France played a key role in the American Revolutionary War. Motivated by a rivalry with Britain and to avenge their territorial losses during the French and Indian War. By 1763, the French debt acquired to fight in the French and it set off Frances own fiscal crisis, in which a political brawl over taxation soon became one of the reasons for the French Revolution. The French objective in assisting the Americans was to weaken Britain, in 1777, America captured the British invasion army at Saratoga. In 1778, France recognized the United States of America as a nation, signed a military alliance. Benjamin Franklin served as the American ambassador to France from 1776 to 1785 and he met many leading diplomats, aristocrats, intellectuals, scientists. Franklins image and writings caught the French imagination, there were many images of Franklin being sold on the market, and he became the cultural icon of the archetypal new American. Franklin even became a hero for a call for new order inside France, having lost Canada in the Conquest of 1760, France wanted revenge. Meanwhile, the American colonists and the British government began a dispute over whether Parliament in London, the ideological conflict escalated into open warfare in 1775, at which point the American patriots took control of each of the 13 colonies away from Royal officials. Britain refused to accept the independence, France, which had been rebuilding their Navy and other forces, now saw an opportunity to seriously weaken her perennial enemy. France bitterly resented her loss in the Seven Years War and sought revenge, the opportunity came following the Declaration of Independence, the American Revolution was well received in France, by both the general population and the aristocracy. The Revolution was perceived as the incarnation of the Enlightenment Spirit against the English tyranny, Benjamin Franklin, dispatched to France in December 1776 to rally its support, was welcomed with great enthusiasm. The French had become interested in the American Revolution from the outset and they saw the revolution as an opportunity to strip Britain of their North American possessions in retaliation for Frances loss of Canada a decade earlier. At first, French support was covert, French agents sent the Patriots military aid through a company called Rodrigue Hortalez et Compagnie, estimates place the percentage of French supplied arms to the Americans in the Saratoga campaign up to 90%. By 1777, over five million livres of aid had been sent to the American rebels, motivated by the prospect of glory in battle or animated by the sincere ideals of liberty and republicanism, volunteers joined the American army such as Pierre Charles LEnfant. The most famous was Lafayette, a young aristocrat who defied the kings order. He became an aide to Washington and a combat general, more importantly, he solidified a favorable American view of France. Kramer argues that Lafayette provided a legitimacy for the war and confidence that there was serious European support for independence, Lafayettes personal style was highly attractive
28.
American Revolutionary War
–
From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
29.
Brig
–
A brig is a sailing vessel with two square-rigged masts. During the Age of Sail, brigs were seen as fast and they were especially popular in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Brigs fell out of use with the arrival of the ship because they required a relatively large crew for their small size and were difficult to sail into the wind. They are not to be confused with a brigantine, which has different rigging, in sailing, a full-rigged brig is a vessel with two square rigged masts. The main mast of a brig is the aft one, to improve maneuverability, the mainmast carries a small fore-and-aft sail. Behind the main sail there is a small fore-and-aft sail called the spanker or boom mainsail, on the foremast is a similar sail, called the trysail. Attached to the yards of square-rigged ships are smaller spars. These are called studding sails, and are used with fair, the wings are named after the sails to which they are fastened, i. e. the main studding sails, main top studding sails, and the main top gallant studding sails, etc. The brig’s foremast is smaller than the main mast, the fore mast holds a fore sail, fore top sail, fore top gallant sail, and fore royal. Between the fore mast and the bowsprit are the fore staysail, jib, all the yards are manipulated by a complicated arrangement of cordage named the running rigging. This is opposed to the rigging which is fixed, and keeps mast. A brig is generally built on a scale than a schooner. Brigs vary in length between 75 and 165 ft with tonnages up to 480, a notable exception being the famous designer Colin Mudies Little Brigs, which are only 10m long and weigh only 8 tonnes. Historically, most brigs were made of wood, although some later brigs were built with hulls, a brig made of pine in the 19th century was designed to last for about twenty years. The word brig has been used in the past as an abbreviation of brigantine, the brig actually developed as a variant of the brigantine. Re-rigging a brigantine with two square-rigged masts instead of one gave it greater sailing power, the square-rigged brigs advantage over the fore-and-aft rigged brigantine was that the sails, being smaller and more numerous, are more easily managed, and require fewer men or hands to work them. The variant was so popular that the term came to exclusively signify a ship with this type of rigging. By the 17th century the British Royal Navy defined brig as having two square rigged masts, Brigs were used as small warships carrying about 10 to 18 guns
30.
Cutter (boat)
–
A cutter is typically a small, but in some cases a medium-sized, watercraft designed for speed rather than for capacity. Traditionally a cutter sailing vessel is a small single-masted boat, fore-and-aft rigged, the cutters mast may be set farther back than on a sloop. In modern usage, a cutter can be either a small- or medium-sized vessel whose occupants exercise official authority, examples are harbor pilots cutters and cutters of the U. S. Coast Guard or UK Border Force. Cutters can also be a small boat serving a one to ferry passengers or light stores between larger boats and the shore. This type of cutter may be powered by oars, sails or a motor, the cutter is one of several types of sailboats. Traditionally the sloop rig was a rig with a single mast located forward of 70% of the length of the sailplan, in this traditional definition a sloop could have multiple jibs on a fixed bowsprit. Cutters had a rig with a single mast more centrally located, which could vary from 50% to 70% of the length of the sailplan, with multiple headsails, a mast located aft of 50% would be considered a mast aft rig. Somewhere in the 1950s or 1960s there was a shift in these definitions such that a sloop only flew one headsail, in this modern idiom, a cutter is a sailing vessel with more than one head sail and one mast. Cutters carry a staysail directly in front of the mast, set from the forestay, a traditional vessel would also normally have a bowsprit to carry one or more jibs from its end via jibstay on travelers. In modern vessels the jib may be set from a permanent stay fixed to the end of a fixed bowsprit, or directly to the stem fitting of the bow itself. In these cases, that may be referred to as the forestay, and the inner one, a sloop carries only one head sail, called either the foresail or jib. These could be managed without the need for crews, winches, or complex tackles, making the cutter especially suitable for pilot, customs. For example, a pilot cutter may only have two people on board for its outward trip—the pilot to be delivered to a ship and an assistant who had to sail the cutter back to port single-handed. The cutter sailing rig became so ubiquitous for these tasks that the modern-day motorised vessels now engaged in these duties are known as cutters, the open cutter carried aboard naval vessels in the 18th Century was rowed by pairs of men sitting side-by-side on benches. The cutter, with its transom, was broader in proportion compared to the longboat, the Watermen of London used similar boats in the 18th Century often decorated as depicted in historical prints and pictures of the River Thames in the 17th & 18th Centuries. The modern Waterman’s Cutter is based on drawings of these boats and they are 34 feet long with a beam of 4 ft 6 in They can have up to six oarsmen either rowing or sculling and can carry a cox and passengers. The organisers of the Great River Race developed the modern version in the 1980s, watermen’s Cutters also compete annually in the Port of London Challenge, and the Port Admirals’ Challenge. Cutter races are also to be found at various town rowing and skiffing regattas, in addition the cutters perform the role of ceremonial Livery Barges with the canopies and armorial flags flying on special occasions
31.
Guadeloupe
–
Guadeloupe is an insular region of France located in the Leeward Islands, part of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. Administratively, it is a region consisting of a single overseas department. With a land area of 1,628 square kilometres and a population of 400,132 as of January 2015. Guadeloupes two main islands are Basse-Terre to the west and Grande-Terre to the east, which are separated by a strait that is crossed with bridges. They are often referred to as a single island, the department also includes the Dependencies of Guadeloupe, which include the smaller islands of Marie-Galante and La Désirade, and the Îles des Saintes. Guadeloupe, like the other departments, is an integral part of France. As a constituent territory of the European Union and the Eurozone, as an overseas department, however, it is not part of the Schengen Area. The prefecture of Guadeloupe is the city of Basse-Terre, which lies on the island of the same name, the official language is French, and virtually the entire population except recent arrivals from metropolitan France also speak Antillean Creole. Christopher Columbus named the island Santa María de Guadalupe in 1493 after the Virgin Mary, venerated in the Spanish town of Guadalupe, the island was called Karukera by the Arawak people, who settled on there in 300 AD/CE. During the 8th century, the Caribs came and killed the population of Amerindians on the island. During his second trip to the Americas, in November 1493, Christopher Columbus became the first European to land on Guadeloupe, while seeking fresh water. He called it Santa María de Guadalupe de Extremadura, after the image of the Virgin Mary venerated at the Spanish monastery of Villuercas, in Guadalupe, the expedition set ashore just south of Capesterre, but left no settlers behind. Columbus is credited with discovering the pineapple on the island of Guadeloupe in 1493 and he called it piña de Indias, which can be correctly translated as pine cone of the Indies. During the 17th century, the Caribs fought against the Spanish settlers, after successful settlement on the island of St. Due to Martiniques inhospitable nature, the duo resolved to settle in Guadeloupe in 1635, took possession of the island and it was annexed to the kingdom of France in 1674. Over the next century, the British seized the island several times, the economy benefited from the lucrative sugar trade, which commenced during the closing decades of the 17th century. Guadeloupe produced more sugar than all the British islands combined, worth about £6 million a year, the British captured Guadeloupe in 1759. The British government decided that Canada was strategically important and kept Canada while returning Guadeloupe to France in the Treaty of Paris that ended the Seven Years War
32.
Corvette
–
A corvette is a small warship. It is traditionally the smallest class of vessel considered to be a proper warship, the warship class above the corvette is that of the frigate, while the class below was historically that of the sloop-of-war. The modern types of ship below a corvette are coastal patrol craft, in modern terms, a corvette is typically between 500 tons and 2,000 tons although recent designs may approach 3,000 tons, which might instead be considered a small frigate. The word corvette is first found in Middle French, a diminutive of the Dutch word corf, meaning a small ship, from the Latin corbis, the rank corvette captain, equivalent in many navies to lieutenant commander, derives from the name of this type of ship. During the Age of Sail, corvettes were one of many types of smaller than a frigate. They were very closely related to sloops-of-war, the role of the corvette consisted mostly of coastal patrol, fighting minor wars, supporting large fleets, or participating in show-the-flag missions. The English Navy began using small ships in the 1650s, the first reference to a corvette was with the French Navy in the 1670s, which may be where the term originated. The French Navys corvettes grew over the decades and by the 1780s they were ships of 20 guns or so, the British Navy did not adopt the term until the 1830s, long after the Napoleonic Wars, to describe a small sixth-rate vessel somewhat larger than a sloop. Most corvettes and sloops of the 17th century were around 40 to 60 ft in length and they carried four to eight smaller guns on a single deck. Over time, vessels of increasing size and capability were called corvettes, by 1800, they reached lengths of over 100 ft, ships during the steam era became much faster and more manoeuvrable than their sail ancestors. Corvettes during this era were used alongside gunboats during colonial missions. Battleships and other vessels were unnecessary when fighting the indigenous people of the Far East. The modern corvette appeared during World War II as an easily built patrol, first Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill, later Prime Minister, had a hand in reviving the name corvette. During the arms buildup leading to World War II, the corvette was almost attached to the Tribal-class destroyer. The Tribals were so much larger than and sufficiently different from other British destroyers that some consideration was given to resurrecting the classification of corvette and this idea was dropped, and the term applied to small, mass-produced antisubmarine escorts such as the Flower class of World War II. The first modern corvettes were the Flower class and their chief duty was to protect convoys throughout the Battle of the Atlantic and on the routes from the UK to Murmansk carrying supplies to the Soviet Union. They were very seaworthy and maneuverable, but living conditions for ocean voyages were appalling, because of this, the corvette was superseded in the Royal Navy as the escort ship of choice by the frigate, which was larger, faster, better armed, and had two shafts. The Royal Australian Navy built 60 Bathurst-class corvettes, including 20 for the Royal Navy crewed by Australians and these were officially described as Australian mine sweepers, or as minesweeping sloops by the Royal Navy, and were named after Australian towns
33.
24-pounder long gun
–
The 24-pounder long gun was a heavy calibre piece of artillery mounted on warships of the Age of sail, second only to the 36-pounder long gun. 24-pounders were in service in the navies of the France, Spain, Great Britain, Netherlands, Sweden, and they were comparable to the Canon de 24 Gribeauval used by the French Army as its largest piece of siege artillery. As the 24-pounder calibre was consistent with both the French and the British calibre systems, it was a widespread gun amongst nations between the 17th and the 19th century. The experiment was tried again in 1785 with Pomone, a design that opened the way to a standardisation on the 24-pounder frigate exemplified by the Romaine class. Overall,14 of these frigates were built between Pomone in 1785, and Poursuivante in 1798, each carrying between 24 and 30 24-pounders. After the Bourbon Restoration, frigates were built using a different artillery system, two-deckers used the 24-pounder in two capacities, on the smallest two-deckers of 64 guns, the 24-pounder constituted the main artillery, with 26 pieces. Typical 74-gun vessels carried a 36-pounder main battery and an 18-pounder secondary battery, until the enlarged variant of the Téméraire class appeared in 1803, comprising Vétéran, during the reign of Louis XIV, three-deckers were standardised on a 36-pounder main artillery and an 18-pounder secondary battery. From the mid-18th century, under Louis XV, the battery was strengthened to 24-pounders. The practices was continued with the Océan class and the Commerce de Paris class, in the Royal Navy, the 24-pounder was similarly used on some heavy frigates, which carried 26 guns. Fourth-rate ships carried 22 on their batteries, and third-rates carried 32. First-rates carried thirty-four 24-pounders on their middle deck,4 lengths of iron 24-pounders are mentioned in a notebook from the 1720s,10,9 1/2,9, and 8 1/2 feet long. Ten surviving guns which are examples of the 9 1/2 foot version weigh between 48 and 49 3/4 hundredweight. These guns are similar to the gun of 9 1/2 feet and 49 1/4 hundredweight which was detailed in the mensuration of 1743. In the establishment of 1764,2 new iron 24-pounders were specified, One other 24-pounder is mentioned in sources from 1780 and later and it is unknown whether the gun was new or the same as the 10 foot 24-pounder mentioned above. The guns cast in 1813 were designed to be evaluated against William Congreves new pattern of gun, the guns of 9 1/2 feet 50 1/2 hundredweight and 9 feet 47 3/4 hundredweight were highly regarded as siege guns and widely used in that role in addition to their naval use. The guns of 22 and 20 hundredweight were mostly used in casemates and it had a muzzle similar to a carronade, and the breeching ring was discarded in favor of a hole in the center of the neck of the cascabel. Because the weight of the cannon was much back, the trunnions could also be cast much farther rearward than in a similar conventional cannon. Initially 2 guns were manufactured for testing, The heavier gun was tested in HMS Eurotas in October 1813, the results were so favorable that 300 more guns were ordered, and by 1820, Congreve noted 700 guns as being cast
34.
12-pounder long gun
–
The 12-pounder long gun was an intermediary calibre piece of artillery mounted on warships of the Age of sail. As the 12-pounder calibre was consistent with both the French and the British calibre systems, it was a widespread gun amongst nations between the 17th and the 19th century. Under Louis XIV, frigates were organised into first-rank frigates, which were small two-deckers comparable in role to the 60-gun ships of the 19th century, the first-rank frigates carried the 12-pounder as main artillery on their lower deck. Hermione was captured by the British in 1757 and was swiftly imitated, under Louis XVI, the heavier 18-pounder frigate became predominant, with over 130 units produced, but the French Navy still had around 70 lighter 12-pounder frigates in commission. On 64-gun two-deckers, the 12-gun was used as secondary artillery,28 guns were carried on the top gun-deck. Larger units used the 12-pounder to complement the firepower provided by their main, on 80-gun ships of the Tonnant class and Bucentaure class, they armed the forecastle and the poop deck. On capital ships, the 12-pounder was used on the deck from the reign of Louis XIV. In the Royal Navy, the 12-pounder was used in a similar capacity, the capture of Hermione in 1757 encouraged the British to imitate her design, yielding the Southampton class and Richmond class frigates. The 12-pounder also equipped the castles on razeed ships, where 12 pieces were mounted, finally,30 were installed on the third deck of 90-gun second-rates. Jean Boudriot et Hubert Berti, LArtillerie de mer, marine française 1650-1850, Paris, jean Peter, Lartillerie et les fonderies de la marine sous Louis XIV, Paris, Economica,1995,213 p
35.
Deck (ship)
–
A deck is a permanent covering over a compartment or a hull of a ship. On a boat or ship, the primary or upper deck is the structure that forms the roof of the hull, strengthening it. Decks for some purposes have specific names, the main purpose of the upper or primary deck is structural, and only secondarily to provide weather-tightness and support people and equipment. The deck serves as the lid to the box girder which is the hull. It resists tension, compression, and racking forces, the decks scantling is usually the same as the topsides, or might be heavier if the deck is expected to carry heavier loads. The deck will be reinforced around deck fittings such as the capstan, cleats, on ships with more than one level, deck refers to the level itself. The actual floor surface is called the sole, the term refers to a structural member tying the ships frames or ribs together over the keel. In modern ships, the decks are usually numbered from the primary deck. So the first deck below the deck will be #2. Some merchant ships may alternatively designate decks below the deck, usually machinery spaces, by numbers. Ships may also call decks by common names, or may invent fanciful and romantic names for a deck or area of that specific ship. Equipment mounted on deck, such as the wheel, binnacle, fife rails. Eastern designs developed earlier, with efficient middle decks and minimalist fore, in vessels having more than one deck there are various naming conventions, numerically, alphabetically, etc. However, there are various common historical names and types of decks,01 level is the term used in naval services to refer to the deck above the main deck. The next higher decks are referred to as the 02 level, the 03 level, afterdeck an open deck area toward the stern-aft. Berth deck, A deck next below the gun deck, where the hammocks of the crew are slung, Boat deck, Especially on ships with sponsons, the deck area where lifeboats or the ships gig are stored. Boiler deck, The passenger deck above the vessels boilers, may also refer to the deck of a bridge. Flight deck, A deck from which aircraft take off or land, flush deck, Any continuous unbroken deck from stem to stern
36.
Ballistic missile
–
A ballistic missile is a missile that follows a ballistic trajectory with the objective of delivering one or more warheads to a predetermined target. A ballistic missile is only guided during relatively brief periods of flight and this contrasts to a cruise missile, which is aerodynamically guided in powered flight. Long range intercontinental ballistic missiles are launched on a flight trajectory. Shorter range ballistic missiles stay within the Earths atmosphere, the earliest use of rockets as a weapon date to the 13th Century. A pioneer ballistic missile was the A-4, commonly known as the V-2 rocket developed by Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s under the direction of Wernher von Braun. The first successful launch of a V-2 was on October 3,1942, by the end of World War II in May 1945, over 3,000 V-2s had been launched. The R-7 Semyorka was the first intercontinental ballistic missile, a total of 30 nations have deployed operational ballistic missiles. Development continues with around 100 ballistic missile tests in 2007, mostly by China, Iran. In 2010, the U. S. and Russian governments signed a treaty to reduce their inventory of intercontinental ballistic missiles over a period to 1550 units each. Ballistic missiles can be launched from fixed sites or mobile launchers, including vehicles, aircraft, ships, the powered flight portion can last from a few tenths of seconds to several minutes and can consist of multiple rocket stages. When in space and no more thrust is provided, the missile enters free-flight, the re-entry stage begins at an altitude where atmospheric drag plays a significant part in missile trajectory, and lasts until missile impact. The course taken by ballistic missiles has two significant desirable properties, first, ballistic missiles that fly above the atmosphere have a much longer range than would be possible for cruise missiles of the same size. Powered rocket flight through thousands of kilometers of air would require greater amounts of fuel, making the launch vehicles larger and easier to detect. Powered missiles that can cover similar ranges, such as missiles, do not use rocket motors for the majority of their flight. Despite this, cruise missiles have not made ballistic missiles obsolete, due to the major advantage. An ICBM can strike a target within a 10,000 km range in about 30 to 35 minutes, with terminal speeds of over 5,000 m/s, ballistic missiles are much harder to intercept than cruise missiles, due to the much shorter time available to intercept them. This is why ballistic missiles are some of the most feared weapons available, despite the fact that cruise missiles are cheaper, more mobile, Ballistic missiles can vary widely in range and use, and are often divided into categories based on range. A comparable missile would be the decommissioned Chinas JL-1 SLBM with a range of less than 2, tactical, short- and medium-range missiles are often collectively referred to as tactical and theatre ballistic missiles, respectively
37.
18-pounder long gun
–
The 18-pounder long gun was an intermediary calibre piece of artillery mounted on warships of the Age of sail. As the 18-pounder calibre was consistent with both the French and the British calibre systems, it was used in many European navies between the 17th and the 19th century. It was a calibre for early ships of the line, arming, for instance. Under Louis XVI, from 1779, the 18-pounder gradually became the standard calibre for frigates and these frigates were built on standard patterns designed by Jacques-Noël Sané, carrying 26, and later 28 main guns, complemented with smaller pieces on the forecastle. Around 130 of these frigates were built, at the end of the Empire, 24-pounder frigates began supplanting the 18-pounder frigates. Frigates built after the Bourbon Restoration used a different artillery system, on two-deckers, the 18-pounder was mounted on the upper deck as secondary artillery, to complement the 36-pounder main artillery on the lower deck. A 74-gun would carry thirty 18-pounders, this lighter secondary battery added firepower to the ship without raising the centre of gravity too much, three-deckers used 36-pounders on their lower decks and 24-pounders on their second deck. The Royal Navy used the 18-pounder on frigates, which carried 28 guns, fourth rates ships carried 26 on their secondary batteries, and third rates carried 28. First rates carried thirty-four 18-pounders on their deck and 24-pounders on the middle deck. The medium 18-pounder was 6 feet long, and weighed 26 3⁄4 Cwt, citations References James, William, Chamier, Frederick. The Naval History of Great Britain, From the Declaration of War by France In 1793 to the Accession of George IV, jean Boudriot et Hubert Berti, LArtillerie de mer, marine française 1650-1850, Paris, éditions Ancre,1992. Jean Peter, Lartillerie et les fonderies de la marine sous Louis XIV, Paris, Economica,1995,213 p
38.
Carronade
–
A carronade is a short, smoothbore, cast iron cannon which was used by the Royal Navy and first produced by the Carron Company, an ironworks in Falkirk, Scotland, UK. It was used from the 1770s to the 1850s and its main function was to serve as a powerful, short-range, anti-ship and anti-crew weapon. The carronade was designed as a naval weapon with a low muzzle velocity for merchant ships. It was produced by the Carron ironworks and was at first sold as a system with the gun, mounting, the standard package of shot per gun was 25 roundshot,15 barshot,15 double-headed shot,10 single grapeshot, and 10 single canister shot. Single meant that the shot weighed the same as the roundshot, while some other canister and grapeshot were also included which weighed one and a half times the roundshot. Its invention is variously ascribed to Lieutenant General Robert Melville in 1759, or to Charles Gascoigne, in its early years, the weapon was sometimes called a mellvinade or a gasconade. The carronade can be seen as the culmination of a development of naval guns reducing the barrel length, the advantages for merchant ships are described in an advertising pamphlet of 1779. Production of both shot and gun by the firm immediately allowed a reduction in the windage, the gap between the bore of the gun and the diameter of the ball. The mounting, attached to the side of the ship on a pivot, the reduced recoil did not alter the alignment of the gun. The smaller gunpowder charge reduced the heating in action. The pamphlet advocated the use of cartridges, which eliminated the need for wadding and worming. Simplifying gunnery for comparatively untrained merchant seamen in both aiming and reloading was part of the rationale for the gun, the replacement of trunnions by a bolt underneath, to connect the gun to the mounting, reduced the width of the carriage enhancing the wide angle of fire. A merchant ship would almost always be running away from its enemy, a carronade weighed a quarter as much and used a quarter to a third of the gunpowder charge as a long gun firing the same cannonball. The reduced charge allowed carronades to have a length and much lighter weight than long guns. Increasing the size of the bore and ball reduces the length of barrel. Long guns were also heavy in comparison to carronades because they were over-specified, being capable of being double-shotted. Carronades also required a smaller gun crew, which was important for merchant ships. Carronades initially became popular on British merchant ships during the American Revolutionary War, a lightweight gun that needed only a small gun crew and was devastating at short range was a weapon well suited to defending merchant ships against French and American privateers
39.
Naval boarding
–
Naval boarding is to come up against, or alongside, an enemy ship to attack by placing men aboard the enemy ship. The goal of boarding is to capture, or destroy, the enemy vessel, larger ships carried specially trained and equipped sailors, or marines, as boarders. A cutting out boarding is an attack by boats, preferably at night and against an unsuspecting. It became popular in the later 18th century, and was used during the Napoleonic Wars. This heralded the emphasis on stealth, and surprise, that would come to dominate future boarding tactics, an example is the successful cutting out of the Hermione which took place at Puerto Cabello, Venezuela, on 25 October 1799. In modern warfare, boarding by military forces almost always involves stealth and it may involve the use of small submarines or submersibles, or inflatable boats, or by scuba divers. All involve scaling the sides of the ship, when stealth is not as important, helicopters may be used to carry troops to the deck of the ship. Boarding is used in wartime as a way to seize a vessel without destroying it and it can also be used to aid in the collection of naval intelligence, as soldiers boarding a sinking, crippled, or surrendered vessel could possibly recover enemy plans, cipher codebooks or machines. For a boarding to be successful, it must occur without the knowledge of the crew of the defending ship, a nations Coast Guard could also board any suspicious ships that have been overfishing in such a nations territorial waters. Boarding is the oldest methods of securing an opposing ship, as the first cases were depicted when the Sea Peoples, for cultures that lack effective shipboard artillery, boarding is the main technique of ship-to-ship combat. However, in the era, boarding is still used. In all eras, boarding requires that the ship boarded be stable enough to withstand the impact of enemy personnel leaping or climbing onto the deck, the target ship must also have enough deck space for boarders to be able to stand and fight effectively. Instead, such vessels were used for the rapid transportation of troops and supplies. Throughout the classical and medieval periods, all naval ship-to-ship combat focused primarily on boarding, although ramming, Greek and Persian naval tactics emphasized ramming and boarding, notably at the Battle of Salamis. The earliest Roman naval battles against Carthage also emphasized boarding, since the Romans were primarily a land-based army, they could not effectively combat the Carthaginian navy, and subsequently lost several sea battles. The corvus, a ramp with two steel spikes, was the Roman answer to this problem. Roman sailors piloted their ship alongside a Carthaginian ship, dropped the corvus from one deck to the other, the Carthaginian navy, unprepared for this land combat on the oceans, lost several ships to this tactic. This invention secured Roman naval dominance in the Mediterranean Sea for several centuries, during the medieval period, boarding continued to be the dominant form of ship-to-ship combat
40.
Saba
–
Saba is a Caribbean island and the smallest special municipality of the Netherlands. It consists largely of the active volcano Mount Scenery, at 887 metres the highest point of the entire Netherlands. Saba has an area of 13 square kilometres. As of January 2013, the population was 1,991 inhabitants and its towns and major settlements are The Bottom, Windwardside, Hells Gate and St. Johns. The origin of the name Saba comes from the Arabic word Sabha, like many Caribbean islands, Saba is highly dependent on fossil fuels imports, which leaves it vulnerable to global oil price fluctuations that directly impact the cost of electricity. This new energy policy is defined by the development plan 2014–2020’. Intermediate targets are 20% renewable electricity by 2017 and 40% by 2020, christopher Columbus is said to have sighted the island on 13 November 1493. He did not land, being deterred by the islands rocky shores. In 1632, a group of shipwrecked Englishmen landed upon Saba and they stated they found the island uninhabited when they were rescued, however, clear evidence has been found indicating that Caribs and Arawak Native Nations have lived on the island. In 1635, a stray Frenchman claimed Saba for Louis XIII of France, in the latter 1630s, the Dutch Governor of the neighboring island of Sint Eustatius sent several Dutch families over to colonize the island for the Dutch West India Company. These Dutch family names included Hassell, Heyliger, Leverock, Zagers, the Netherlands have been in continuous possession of Saba since 1816, after numerous flag changes during the previous centuries. By 2016 the island had been French for 12 years, English for 18 years, in the 17th and 18th centuries Sabas major industries were sugar, indigo and rum produced on plantations owned by Dutchmen living on St Eustatius, and later fishing, particularly lobster fishing. In the 17th century Saba was believed to be a hideout for Jamaican pirates. England also deported its undesirable people to live in the Caribbean colonies, and some of them also became pirates, the island of Saba is forbidding and steep, a natural fortress, and so the island became a private sanctuary for the families of smugglers and pirates. The most notable native Saban pirate was Hiram Beakes, who famously quipped, during this period of time, with most of the islands men gone out to sea, the island became known as The Isle of Women. The remains of the settlements of 1630–40 can be found on the west side at Tent Bay and these settlements were destroyed by a landslide in the 17th century. A status referendum was held in Saba on 5 November 2004,86. 05% of the population voted for closer links to the Netherlands. Saba consists largely of the active volcano Mount Scenery
United States
France
Michel-Pierre Barreaut 
