1.
USS George Washington (CVN-73)
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She was built by Newport News Shipbuilding and was commissioned on 4 July 1992. George Washington is 1,092 ft long,257 ft wide and 244 feet high, with a combat load, GW displaces almost 97,000 long tons and can accommodate 6,250 crewmembers. Her four distilling units can make 400,000 U. S. gallons of water a day. There are over 2,500 compartments on board requiring 2,520 refrigeration tons of air conditioning capacity, the warship uses two Mark II stockless anchors that weigh 30 tons each, with each link of the anchor chain weighing 360 pounds. It is currently equipped with two 20 mm Phalanx CIWS mounts and two Sea Sparrow SAM launchers, one CIWS and one Sea Sparrow mount were removed to make way for two RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile launchers, installed during the 2005 Drydocking Planned Incremental Availability. Since then, all U. S. carriers have followed suit, general Washington had long been a proponent of a strong Navy. On 15 November 1781 he wrote, Without a decisive Naval force, and with it, everything honourable and decisive. These words are engraved on a plaque on the ships quarterdeck, the ship can reach speeds of over 30 knots and is powered by two Westinghouse A4W nuclear reactors that turn four 5-bladed screws of 66,220 pounds each. George Washington can travel more than 3,000,000 nautical miles before needing refueling, the contract for George Washington was awarded to Newport News Shipbuilding on 27 December 1982. The keel was laid on 25 August 1986, the ship was christened on 21 July 1990 by First Lady Barbara Bush, and was commissioned at Naval Station Norfolk on 4 July 1992. In 1993, following a reorganization, the Cruiser-Destroyer Group 2 staff went aboard a new flagship. In 1994 the group was under the command of Rear Admiral Alexander Krekich, the group participated in the 2000 NATO Exercise Destined Glory, Operation Joint Endeavor, Operation Deny Flight, Operation Southern Watch, and Operation Vigilant Resolve. After 2001 the group took part in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom, in 1997 Commander Cruiser-Destroyer Group 2, Rear Admiral Michael Mullen, led the group on deployment from George Washington. On 20 February Washington entered the Gulf of Aden, and a week later was conducting operations in the Persian Gulf, on 28 January 2005 the ship entered shipyard for Drydocking Planned Incremental Availability. Many ships systems were upgraded and maintenance was done to the hull, the ships four jet blast deflectors were removed and upgraded to handle the increased heat generated by the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. One defensive Phalanx CIWS mount and one Sea Sparrow launcher were replaced by two Rolling Airframe Missile launchers, during the 11 months the ship was drydocked, the crew contributed 20,000 hours of volunteer community service to the city of Newport News, Virginia. The work was completed on schedule, and George Washington returned to her Norfolk home port on 17 December 2005, in an attempt to explain the carriers mission to the Japanese public, the U. S. Navy printed a manga about life aboard GW, titled CVN-73. GW and CVW-17 left Norfolk on 4 April for a scheduled deployment to operate as part of SOUTHCOMs Partnership of the Americas
2.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn
3.
Newport News Shipbuilding
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Founded as the Chesapeake Dry Dock and Construction Co. in 1886, Newport News Shipbuilding has built more than 800 ships, including both naval and commercial ships. Located in the city of Newport News, their facilities more than 550 acres. The shipyard is building the aircraft carriers USS Gerald R. Ford, also under construction are the Virginia-class submarines USS Indiana and USS Washington. In 2013, Newport News Shipbuilding began the deactivation of the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, USS Enterprise, Newport News Shipbuilding also performs refueling and complex overhaul work on Nimitz-class aircraft carriers. This is a four-year vessel renewal program that not only involves refueling of the nuclear reactors. The yard has completed RCOH for four Nimitz-class carriers, as of May 2016 this work was underway for the fifth Nimitz-class vessel, USS Abraham Lincoln. Industrialist Collis P. Huntington provided crucial funding to complete the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad from Richmond, however, building the railroad and coal pier was only the first part of Huntingtons dreams for Newport News. In 1886 he built a shipyard to repair ships servicing this transportation hub, in 1891 Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company delivered its first ship, the tugboat Dorothy. By 1897 NNS had built three warships for the US Navy, USS Nashville, Wilmington and Helena, when Collis died in 1900, his nephew Henry E. Huntington inherited much of his uncles fortune. He also married Collis widow Arabella Huntington, and assumed Colliss leadership role with Newport News Shipbuilding, under Henry Huntingtons leadership, growth continued. In 1906 the revolutionary HMS Dreadnought launched a naval race worldwide. Between 1907 and 1923, Newport News built six of the US Navys total of 22 dreadnoughts – USS Delaware, Texas, Pennsylvania, Mississippi, Maryland, all but the first were in active service in World War II. In 1907 President Theodore Roosevelt sent the Great White Fleet on its round-the-world voyage, NNS had built seven of its 16 battleships. In 1914 NNS built SS Medina for the Mallory Steamship Company, in the early years, leaders of the Newport News community and those of the shipyard were virtually interchangeable. Post served from March 9,1911 to Feb.12,1912, earlier, he had come to the area as one of the builders of the C&O Railways terminals, and had served as the first mayor of Newport News after it became an independent city in 1896. It was on March 14,1914 that Albert Lloyd Hopkins and his assistant, Frederic Gauntlett, was also on board, but was able to swim to safety. Homer Lenoir Ferguson was company vice president when Hopkins died, and he saw the company through both world wars, became a noted community leader, and was a co-founder of the Mariners Museum with Archer Huntington. He served until July 31,1946, after the second World War had ended on both the European and Pacific fronts
4.
Mamie Eisenhower
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Mamie Geneva Doud Eisenhower was the wife of United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and First Lady of the United States from 1953 to 1961. Mamie married Dwight Eisenhower at age 19 in 1916, the young couple moved frequently between military quarters in many postings, from Panama to the Philippines. As First Lady, she entertained a wide range of foreign dignitaries, Mamie Eisenhower spent her retirement and widowhood at the family farm in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. She grew up in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Colorado Springs, Colorado, Denver, Colorado, and her father, who retired at age 36, ran a meatpacking company founded by his father, Doud & Montgomery, and had investments in Illinois and Iowa stockyards. Her mother was a daughter of Swedish immigrants and she had three sisters, Eleanor Carlson Doud, Eda Mae Doud, and Mabel Frances Mike Doud. Soon after completing her education at Miss Wolcotts, a finishing school, she met Dwight Eisenhower in San Antonio in October 1915. Introduced by Mrs. Lulu Harris, wife of an officer at Fort Sam Houston. On St. Valentines Day in 1916, he gave her a miniature of his West Point class ring to seal a formal engagement. Lieutenant Dwight D. Eisenhower, aged 25, married Mamie Doud, aged 19, on July 1,1916, at the home of the parents in Denver. The Eisenhowers had two children, Doud Dwight Icky died of scarlet fever, John Sheldon Doud – soldier, diplomat, author – was born in Denver, Colorado, he graduated from West Point in 1944 and earned a masters degree in English literature from Columbia University in 1950. After retiring from a career, he was appointed ambassador to Belgium by Richard Nixon. He authored ten books, among them an account of the Battle of the Bulge, The Bitter Woods, Strictly Personal, and Allies, Pearl Harbor to D-Day. For years, Mamie Eisenhowers life followed the pattern of other Army wives, a succession of posts in the United States, in the Panama Canal Zone, duty in France, and in the Philippine Islands. During the Second World War, while promotion and fame came to Ike, his wife lived in Washington, after he became president of Columbia University in 1948, the Eisenhowers purchased a farm at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. It was the first home they had ever owned and his duties as commander of North Atlantic Treaty Organization forces—and hers as his hostess at a villa near Paris—delayed work on their dream home, finally completed in 1955. They celebrated with a picnic for the staff at what would be their last temporary quarters. Diplomacy—and air travel—in the postwar world brought changes in their official hospitality, the Eisenhowers entertained an unprecedented number of heads of state and leaders of foreign governments. As First Lady, she was noted for her manner, her love of pretty clothes, some of them designed by Scaasi, jewelry
5.
Naval Station Norfolk
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Naval Station Norfolk, is a United States Navy base in Norfolk, Virginia. It supports naval forces in the United States Fleet Forces Command, those operating in the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, the installation occupies about 4 miles of waterfront space and 11 miles of pier and wharf space of the Hampton Roads peninsula known as Sewells Point. Over 150,000 passengers and 264,000 tons of mail and cargo depart annually on Air Mobility Command aircraft, the area where the base is located was the site of the original 1907 Jamestown Exposition. In April 1917, not long after the United States entered World War I, a bill was passed for the purchase of the land, and money was set aside in the amount of $1.6 million for the development of the base. The Fifth Naval Headquarters was established along with the Naval Operating Base, by 1918, there were 34,000 enlisted men at the base. However, by the end, the base was reduced in personnel. New facilities were built including new runways for aircraft, part of NAS Norfolk and it also had ramps built to be used by seaplanes to be operated by the navy during the war. About 400 acres was acquired and by 1943, the air station had become an airfield for operations. Due to the expansion, it contributed to ending the war due to the training it provided to air units. On 1 January 1953, the name of the base was changed to Naval Station Norfolk after being known as the NOB. In 1968, the Naval Air Station was given a role in John F. Kennedys vision of putting a man on the moon. The air station became Recovery Control Center Atlantic, which provided command, control, due to the end of the Cold War. A drawdown began in the 1990s, and the navy began reducing shore installations to help with operating cost. Due to this, the navy merged the separate Naval Station and Naval Air Station into an installation to be called Naval Station Norfolk. Following the attack on the USS Cole and September 11,2001 terrorist attacks, the base had some major upgrades to its security gates costing more than $12.5 million. On 26 January 2017, NS Norfolk celebrated its centennial at the Pennsylvania House, Naval Station Norfolk is homeport for the USS Cole, which was the victim of an Al-Qaeda terrorist attack in October 2000 while it was harbored and being refueled in the port of Aden, Yemen. 17 American sailors were killed, and 39 were injured in the attack, the USS Cole remains in active service and remains homeported at Norfolk. On March 24,2014, a shooting at NS Norfolk resulted in the death of a sailor, the shooting occurred around 11,20 p. m. EST aboard the USS Mahan
6.
Nimitz-class aircraft carrier
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The Nimitz-class supercarriers are a class of ten nuclear-powered aircraft carriers in service with the United States Navy. The lead ship of the class is named for World War II United States Pacific Fleet commander Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the U. S. Navys last fleet admiral. As a result of the use of power, the ships are capable of operating for over 20 years without refueling and are predicted to have a service life of over 50 years. They are categorized as nuclear-powered aircraft carriers and are numbered with consecutive hull numbers between CVN-68 and CVN-77, all ten carriers were constructed by Newport News Shipbuilding Company in Virginia. USS Nimitz, the ship of the class, was commissioned on 3 May 1975, and USS George H. W. Bush. The angled flight decks of the use a CATOBAR arrangement to operate aircraft, with steam catapults and arrestor wires for launch. As well as speeding up flight deck operations, this allows for a wider variety of aircraft than with the STOVL arrangement used on smaller carriers. An embarked carrier air wing consisting of up to around 90 aircraft is normally deployed on board, after the retirement of the F-14 Tomcat, the air wings strike fighters are primarily F/A-18E and F/A-18F Super Hornets and F/A-18A+ and F/A-18C Hornets. In addition to their aircraft, the vessels carry short-range defensive weaponry for anti-aircraft warfare, the unit cost is about $8.5 billion in FY12 dollars US$8.86 billion inflation adjusted. The Nimitz-class carriers have a length of 1,092 ft. They have a beam at the waterline of 135 ft, the ships companies can number up to 3,200, not including an air wing of 2,480. Among other design improvements, the two reactors on Nimitz-class carriers take up less space than the eight reactors used on Enterprise. Along with a generally improved design, this means that Nimitz-class carriers can carry 90% more aviation fuel. The U. S. Navy has stated that the carriers could withstand three times the damage sustained by the Essex class inflicted by Japanese air attacks during World War II. The hangars on the ships are divided into three bays by thick steel doors that are designed to restrict the spread of fire. This addition has been present on U. S. aircraft carriers since World War II, the first ships were designed around the time of the Vietnam War, and certain aspects of the design were influenced by operations there. A major purpose of the ships was initially to support the U. S and they were initially categorized only as attack carriers, but ships have been constructed with anti-submarine capabilities since USS Carl Vinson. As a result, the ships and their aircraft are now able to participate in a range of operations, which can include sea and air blockades, mine laying
7.
Aircraft carrier
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An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to project air power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Aircraft carriers are expensive to build and are critical assets, there is no single definition of an aircraft carrier, and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers, Aircraft carriers may be classified according to the type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, former head of the Royal Navy, has said, To put it simply, as of April 2017, there are 37 active aircraft carriers in the world within twelve navies. The United States Navy has 10 large nuclear-powered fleet carriers, the largest carriers in the world, the Royal Navy of Great Britain is building two 280-m / 920-ft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth, and the Prince of Wales scheduled to go into service in 2020-2023. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds, by comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried, most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were fast enough to operate with the main fleet, three nations currently operate carriers of this type, ten by the United States, and one each by France and Brazil for a total of twelve in service. Short take-off but arrested-recovery, these carriers are generally limited to carrying lighter fixed-wing aircraft with more limited payloads, currently, Russia, China, and India possess commissioned carriers of this type. Short take-off vertical-landing, limited to carrying STOVL aircraft and this type of aircraft carrier is currently in service with Italy. Some also count the nine US amphibious assault ships in their secondary light carrier role boosting the total to thirteen. Helicopter carrier, Helicopter carriers have an appearance to other aircraft carriers. Some are designed for addition of, or may include, a ski jump ramp allowing for STOVL operations or may have a ski jump installed before retirement of STOVL aircraft. In the past, some conventional carriers were converted and called commando carriers by the Royal Navy, some helicopter carriers with a resistant flight surface can operate STOVL jets. Currently the majority of carriers, but not all, are classified as amphibious assault ships. The US has nine of this type, France and Japan three, Australia two, the UK one, the Republic of Korea one and Spain one, the US and Spains amphibious assault ships operate STOVL jets in normal deployment. Supercarrier Fleet carrier Light aircraft carrier Escort carrier Several systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers, two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiser USS Pennsylvania anchored in San Francisco Bay
8.
Westinghouse Electric Company
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Westinghouse Electric Company LLC is a US based nuclear power company formed in 1998 from the nuclear power division of the original Westinghouse Electric Corporation. It offers nuclear products and services to utilities internationally, including fuel, service and maintenance, instrumentation, control. As of 2014 Westinghouse builds and operates approximately one-half of the operating nuclear plants. Westinghouses world headquarters are located in the Pittsburgh suburb of Cranberry Township, Toshiba Group is the majority owner of Westinghouse. The projects responsible for loss are mostly the construction of four AP1000 reactors at Vogtle in Georgia. Westinghouse filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on March 29,2017. That same year, in 1999 CBS Corporation sold its nuclear business to British Nuclear Fuels Limited. And a year later CBS Corporation was merged into Viacom, thus putting an end to the original Westinghouse, in July 2005 BNFL confirmed it planned to sell Westinghouse, then estimated to be worth $2 billion. This attracted interest from companies, including Toshiba, General Electric. When the Financial Times reported on January 23,2006 that Toshiba had won the bid, on February 6,2006 Toshiba confirmed it was buying Westinghouse Electric Company for $5. 4bn and announced it would sell a minority stake to investors. Finally, the record of UK governments building nuclear plants had been a commercial disaster, on 13 August 2007 Toshiba sold 10% to Kazatomprom, the national uranium company for the Republic of Kazakhstan, for US$540 million, leaving Toshiba with 67%. Kazatomproms ownership is entirely passive, with no voting or veto rights or presence on the board of directors, in September,2011, Toshiba was reported to be in talks to acquire the Shaw stake and both companies confirmed the story soon thereafter. Toshiba said it was open to, and considering, having other partners invest in the business, the purchase closed in January 2013, and brought Toshibas share in the company to 87%. In 2015 concerns were expressed that the value of assets and goodwill in Westinghouse were overstated. S, in February 2017 Toshiba revealed unaudited details of a 390 billion yen loss, mainly in its US nuclear business which was written down by 712 billion yen. On 14 February 2017 Toshiba delayed filing financial results, and Toshiba chairman Shigenori Shiga, formerly chairman of Westinghouse, Toshiba is considering selling the Westinghouse nuclear business. On March 29,2017 Toshibas Westinghouse filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, citing a loss for Toshiba that could exceed $9 billion. The Wall Street Journal reported that four nuclear reactors being built in the south-eastern U. S. would be left to an unknown fate. The U. S. government had given $8.3 billion of loan guarantees on the financing of the four nuclear reactors being built in the U. S, construction began in July 2007, the move lasted from June 2009 to December 2010. As part of this move, Westinghouse piloted the first commuter shuttle running a loop between Monroeville and Cranberry Township
9.
A4W reactor
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The A4W reactor is a naval reactor used by the United States Navy to propel warships and generate onboard electricity. Their reactor cores are expected to operate for about 20 years, the only ships to use these nuclear reactors are the Nimitz class supercarriers, which have two reactors rated at 550 MWt each. These each generate enough steam to produce approximately 100 MW electricity supply plus 140,000 shaft horsepower per shaft
10.
Steam turbine
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A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, in 1551, Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were described by the Italian Giovanni Branca and John Wilkins in England. The devices described by Taqi al-Din and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks, in 1672 an impulse steam turbine driven car was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest. A more modern version of car was produced some time in the late 18th century by an unknown German mechanic. The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, the invention of Parsons steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. Parsons design was a reaction type and his patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, a number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade, De Lavals impulse turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is less efficient. He taught at the École des mines de Saint-Étienne for a decade until 1897, one of the founders of the modern theory of steam and gas turbines was Aurel Stodola, a Slovak physicist and engineer and professor at the Swiss Polytechnical Institute in Zurich. His work Die Dampfturbinen und ihre Aussichten als Wärmekraftmaschinen was published in Berlin in 1903, a further book Dampf und Gas-Turbinen was published in 1922. It was used in John Brown-engined merchant ships and warships, including liners, the present-day manufacturing industry for steam turbines is dominated by Chinese power equipment makers. Other manufacturers with minor market share include Bhel, Siemens, Alstom, GE, Doosan Škoda Power, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the consulting firm Frost & Sullivan projects that manufacturing of steam turbines will become more consolidated by 2020 as Chinese power manufacturers win increasing business outside of China. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines, Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move entirely due to the impact of steam on them and this results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades. A turbine composed of alternating with fixed nozzles is called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine, Rateau turbine
11.
AN/SPS-48
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Existing sets are being modernized under the ROAR program to AN/SPS-48G standard for better reliability and usability. A three-dimensional radar is mounted on a base that allows for 360 degrees of rotation, the target can be located at a given azimuth. The range of the target is also identified due to the time it takes the beam to go out, what makes this radar system different is its ability to detect the height of the target above the surface of the water. With these three pieces of data the radars central processor has the ability to place the target in an X, Y, Z,3 dimensional space. For the SPS-48 in particular, the antenna is rotated to scan azimuth. The 4,500 lb antenna is capable of rotating at 7.5 or 15 rpm, according to ITT Exelis, the system has a range exceeding 200 nmi and can track targets up to 69 degrees in elevation. SPS-48 radars stack multiple beams in a train of pulses at different frequencies, the beams scan different elevation areas, allowing the stack to cover up to 69 degrees of elevation. The first specification for what became AN/SPS-48 was written in 1956, the AN/SPS-48 replaced AN/SPS-39 on the Belknap, Coontz and Leahy classes between 1967 and 1975 under the Guided Missile Frigate Anti-Air Warfare Modernization Program. The AN/SPS-48E included a digital receiver and signal processor that could detect and track very small targets. It was included in the New Threat Upgrade of the 1980s and it only affects the layout of the below-deck units. The plan is to back-fit the existing AN/SPS-48E population from 2011 through 2020 and they will support fleet 3D air search requirements through 2050 and beyond for the ship classes that have SPS-48G. The number of Lowest Replaceable Units is reduced by 87%, the new commercial off-the-shelf radar processors computing capabilities will be sustained through a planned tech-refresh program. With the air targets exact 3D location it is available for interception/removal via either the weapon system or through linked weapons platforms located elsewhere. It is the predecessor of the AEGIS system currently in use on Arleigh Burke-class destroyers, the AEGIS AN/SPY-1B/D radars are electronically scanned phased arrays, while the SPS-48E is frequency scanned in elevation, and mounted on a rotating joint that spins the radar in azimuth. AN/SPS-48A - AN/SPS-48B - Unknown, possible non-existent or prototype for -48C AN/SPS-48C - -48A with Automatic detection, aN/SPS-48D - Prototype version of -48E, tested on USS Mahan. Originally developed as part of the New Threat Upgrade Program to support the SM-2 Launch On Search capability, AN/SPS-48E LBR Land based radar version. AN/SPS-48G - some new-build, others upgraded AN/SPS-48E under the Radar Obsolescence,29 radars are being modernized at a cost of $169.3 million under contract N00024-09-C-5395. Replacing below-decks units with modern electronics based on open architecture will reduce training demands, list of radars Diffraction grating Selex RAN-40L Radar of similar function used in some aircraft carriers
12.
AN/SPS-49
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The AN/SPS-49 is a United States Navy two-dimensional, long range air search radar built by Raytheon that can provide contact bearing and range. It is a primary air-search radar for ships in the U. S. It also serves in a complementary role aboard Aegis cruisers with the AN/SPY-1, first tested in 1965 aboard USS Gyatt and introduced in 1975, the AN/SPS-49 operates in the 851–942 MHz, or L-, band and has a range of 256 nautical miles. The orange-peel parabolic shape of the antenna creates a narrow 3. 3°-beam to reduce the probability of detection or jamming and it can rotate at 6 rpm in long range mode or 12 rpm in short-range mode. Default is at 12 rpm for the AN/SPS-49A1, to more frequent scans against incoming missiles. The SPS-49A1 can detect out to its range at either 6 or 12 rpm. The antenna is stabilised to compensate for pitch and roll. The output stage of the transmitter in all variants uses a two-cavity klystron amplifier, as of 2014, there are eleven configurations of the AN/SPS-49. Added radial speed determination on each target, each scan, improved clutter rejection List of radars Electronics Technician Volume 4-Radar Systems - via Tpub
13.
AN/SPQ-9
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AN/SPQ-9A, is a United States Navy multi-purpose surface search & fire control radar used with the Mk-86 gun fire-control system. It is a two dimensional surface-search radar, meaning it provides only range and bearing but not elevation and it is intended primarily to detect & track targets at sea level, on the surface of the water for either gun fire engagement or navigation. It can however, also detect and track low altitude air targets, the SPQ-9A is being replaced on all Ticonderoga Class cruisers by the SPQ-9B, which provides twice the range and improved range resolution. This replacement is being done as a part of the United States Navys Cruiser Modernization program to extend the life of the existing ships, the new SPQ-9B will be a part of the Mk-160 Mod 11 gun fire-control system. The first operational evaluation of the SPQ-9B was on USS Oldendorf in October 2002 and it is to be installed on CVN-68, LPD-17, CG-47, WMSL-750, LHD-1, and LHA-6 ship classes. The system is X-band and the antenna consists of dual planar arrays mounted back-to-back under a radome, flight III DDG-51 destroyers are also planned to have the SPQ-9B. NAVAIR warfighters encyclopedia, AN/SPQ-9A Fire Controlman Volume 02-Fire Control Radar Fundamentals, via tpub GlobalSecurity. org AN/SPQ-9 Radar
14.
AN/SLQ-32 Electronic Warfare Suite
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The AN/SLQ-32 is a shipboard electronic warfare suite built by the Raytheon Company of Goleta, California. It is currently the primary electronic warfare system in use by U. S. Navy ships, referred to by its operators as the slick-32. The SLQ-32 was originally conceived in the 1970s to augment the AN/WLR-1 and it was later determined to save costs to replace the various WLR-1 series suites with the SLQ-32 as a stand alone system. As originally designed, the SLQ-32 was produced in three variants, the 1,2 and 3, later in its service life, two additional versions were built, the 4 and 5. The Air Transport Rack sized processors were supplied by ROLM Mil-Spec Computers in San Jose, sLQ-321 – A simple threat warning receiver, it was capable of receiving high-band radar signals of the type commonly carried on missiles and aircraft. The 1 was installed on ships and small combatants such as frigates. This variant of the system is being phased out as current ships equipped become decommissioned, sLQ-322 – Initially the most common variant, the 2 added the ability to receive surveillance and targeting radars. This provided a passive targeting capability for Harpoon missile-equipped ships, the 2 was installed on frigates, destroyers, and 270-foot Coast Guard Cutters. SLQ-323 – Expanding on the 2’s capabilities, the 3 added active radar-jamming capability, the 3 was installed on various combatants such as cruisers, battleships, large amphibious ships and high-value replenishment vessels. SLQ-324 – Designed for installation on aircraft carriers, the 4 consisted of two 3 systems, one for each side of the ship, tied to a common computer, additional line replaceable units and software were added to support the wide separation of the two antenna/electronics enclosures. SLQ-325 – The 5 was built as a response to the Stark incident in 1987, the 5 incorporated a compact version of the 3 system intended to give active jamming capability to the Perry class FFG’s, which were too small to carry a full 3. All versions of the SLQ-32, with the exception of the 4, are interfaced with the MK36 Decoy Launching System, able to launch chaff and infrared decoys under the control of the SLQ-32. The number and arrangement of MK36 launchers installed depends on the size of the ship, a growing number of systems are being upgraded to incorporate the multi-national MK-53 Nulka system. The original modular design was intended to allow upgrades of the system from one variant to the next by simply installing additional equipment as required, starting in the early 1990s, a program was begun to upgrade all SLQ-32s in the U. S. fleet. Most 1 systems were upgraded to 2, and most 2 systems were upgraded to 3 and this was normally carried out during a major ship overhaul. The initial procurement process was built around a “design to price” concept in which the delivery cost per system was fixed in the contract. The SLQ-32 was designed to support the protection of ships against anti-ship missiles in an open sea environment, after initial deployment of the system, naval roles began to change requiring ships to operate much closer to shore in denser signal environments. This change in roles required changes to the SLQ-32 systems which were added over time, with experience gained working with the SLQ-32, coupled with improvements to the hardware and software, technicians and operators gradually overcame the initial problems
15.
AN/SLQ-25 Nixie
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The AN/SLQ-25 Nixie and its variants are towed torpedo decoys used on US and allied warships. It consists of a towed decoy device and a signal generator. The decoy emits signals to draw a torpedo away from its intended target, the Nixie attempts to defeat a torpedos passive sonar by emitting simulated ship noise, such as propeller and engine noise, which is more attractive than the ship to the torpedos sensors. The AN/SLQ-25A Nixie is a design when compared to the AN/SLQ-25 Nixie. Apart from a few mechanical components, they share no common parts. The AN/SLQ-25A utilises a fiber optic tow cable and a 10 horsepower RL-272C double drum winch, several engineering changes resulted in COTS equipment being utilised extensively in the system. A diagnostic program can be initiated locally or from the control station. The AN/SLQ-25B includes equipment of the AN/SLQ-25A and incorporates a towed array sensor to detect submarines, the AN/SLQ-25B also incorporates additional active sonar decoys by receiving, amplifying, and returning pings from the torpedo, presenting a larger false target to the torpedo. The AN/SLQ-25C System is an upgrade to the AN/SLQ-25A system, the AN/SLQ-25C incorporates improved surface ship torpedo countermeasures with the addition of new countermeasure modes along a longer, more functional Tow Cable. Typically, larger ships may have two Nixie systems mounted on the rear of the ship to allow operation singularly or in pairs while smaller ships may have one system. Under a joint UK/ US Memorandum of understanding, the UK MoD and the US DoD are furthering torpedo survivability systems
16.
RIM-7 Sea Sparrow
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RIM-7 Sea Sparrow is a US ship-borne short-range anti-aircraft and anti-missile weapon system, primarily intended for defense against anti-ship missiles. In this incarnation it was a simple system, guided by a manually aimed radar illuminator. After its introduction, the system underwent significant development into a system similar to other US Navy missiles like the RIM-2 Terrier. Improvements made to the Sparrow for the role led to similar improvements in the Sea Sparrow through the 1970s and 80s. After that point the role passed to the AIM-120 AMRAAM. It now resembles the AIM-7 only in form, it is larger, faster and includes a new seeker. Fifty years after its development, the Sea Sparrow remains an important part of an air defense system. High-speed jet aircraft flying at low altitudes presented a threat to naval forces in the late 1950s. This gave the aircraft an enormous advantage over earlier weapons such as bombers or torpedo bombers. Further improving the capabilities of aircraft against ships were a variety of precision-guided weapons and these systems allowed the aircraft to launch their attacks from outside the range of shipboard anti-aircraft weapons, in relative safety. Only the presence of defensive fighters operating at long ranges from the ships could provide cover against these attacks, US Navy doctrine stressed long-range air cover to counter both high-speed aircraft and missiles, and development of newer short range defenses had been largely ignored. While the Navy was developing expensive long-range fighters like the Douglas F6D Missileer, most ships were left with older weapons, the introduction of sea-skimming missiles dramatically increased the threat against these ships. Unlike the earlier generation of missiles, sea-skimmers approached at low level, like an attack aircraft. The missiles were relatively small and much harder to hit than an attacking aircraft, while the older defenses might be considered a credible threat to a large aircraft at low altitude or a missile approaching at higher altitudes, against a sea-skimming missile they were useless. The US Army faced a similar problem defending against attacks by high-speed jet-powered attack aircraft, in this case the local horizon was generally even more limited, blocked by trees and hills, and engagement times could be measured in seconds. Missiles, on the hand, could progressively tune their approach while they were flying toward the target. These same basic engagement parameters - high-speed and the associated fleeting sighting times - applied to sea-skimming aircraft, the Navy intended to adapt the Mauler to shipboard use by removing its search radar and wiring it into the existing ship-borne radar systems instead. The 9-box launcher and illuminator radar would be retained in a compact mount
17.
RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile
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It was intended originally and used primarily as a point-defense weapon against anti-ship cruise missiles. The missile is so-named because it rolls around its axis to stabilize its flight path. It is as of 2005 the only U. S. Navy missile to operate in this manner, the Rolling Airframe Missiles, together with the Mk 49 Guided Missile Launching System and support equipment, make up the RAM Mk 31 Guided Missile Weapon System. The Mk-144 Guided Missile Launcher unit weighs 5,777 kilograms, the original weapon cannot employ its own sensors prior to firing so it must be integrated with a ships combat system, which directs the launcher at targets. On American ships it is integrated with the AN/SWY-2 Ship Defense Surface Missile System, SeaRAM, a RAM launcher variant equipped with independent sensors derived from the Vulcan Phalanx CIWS, is being installed on Littoral Combat Ships and Arleigh Burke-class destroyers. The RIM-116 was developed by General Dynamics Pomona and Valley Systems divisions under a July 1976 agreement with Denmark, Denmark dropped out of the program, but the USN joined in as the major partner. The Mk 49 launcher was evaluated on board the destroyer USS David R. Ray in the late 1980s, the first 30 missiles were built in FY85 and they became operational on 14 November 1992, on board USS Peleliu. The RIM-116 is in service on several American and 30 German warships, all new German Navy warships will be equipped with the RAM, such as the new Braunschweig-class corvettes, which will mount two RAM launchers per ship. The Greek Navy has equipped the new Super Vita–class fast attack craft with the RAM, south Korea has signed license-production contracts for their navys KDX-II, KDX-III, and Dokdo-class amphibious assault ship. The U. S. Navy plans to purchase a total of about 1,600 RAMs and 115 launchers to equip 74 ships, the missile is currently active aboard Gerald R. The original version of the missile, called Block 0, was based on the AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile, whose rocket motor, fuze, and warhead were used. Block 0 missiles were designed to home in on radiation emitted from a target. In test firings, the Block 0 missiles achieved hit rates of over 95%, the Block 1 is an improved version of the RAM missile that adds an overall infrared-only guidance system that enables it to intercept missiles that are not emitting any radar signals. The Block 0s radar homing capabilities have been retained, the RAM Block 2 is an upgraded version of the RAM missile aimed at more effectively countering more maneuverable anti-ship missiles. On 8 May 2007, the US Navy awarded Raytheon Missile Systems a $105 million development contract, Raytheon was scheduled to deliver 25 Block 2 missiles during the programs integrated testing phase. The Block 2 RAM was delivered to the U. S. Navy in August 2014, initial Operational Capability for the Block 2 RAM was achieved on 15 May 2015. As developed, the HAS upgrade just required software modifications that can be applied to all Block 1 RAM missiles, like the Phalanx, SeaRAM can be fitted to any class of ship. In 2008 a SeaRAM system was delivered to be installed on USS Independence, as of December 2013, one SeaRAM is fitted to each Independence-class vessel
18.
Nuclear marine propulsion
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Nuclear marine propulsion is propulsion of a ship or submarine with heat provided by a nuclear power plant. The power plant heats water to steam and it is this steam that powers the steam turbines. The power is transferred to a gearbox that reduces the ratio by around 50 to 1. Naval nuclear propulsion is used specifically within naval warships, very few experimental civil nuclear ships have been built. The ship or submarine will be fitted with one power plant. The plant is divided two sides, port and starboard. This division of the plant provides a safety net should one side fail to function, water is used to transfer heat generated by the power plant to steam generators. Since water vaporizes at 100 °C at normal pressure the system is pressurized, to transfer the heated water there are two sets of pumps on each side. The steam is provided by water commonly referred to as feed water and this feed water is sea water pumped into the boat and desalinated. The desalinated water is fed to the steam generators. The primary circuit then heats the water turning it to steam. The steam passes through several driers and onto the steam stop valve as super heated dry steam. The Russian, US and British navies rely on steam propulsion, while the French. Most nuclear submarines have a reactor, but Russian submarines. Most American aircraft carriers are powered by two reactors, but USS Enterprise had eight, the majority of marine reactors are of the pressurized water type, although the US and Soviet navies have designed warships powered with liquid metal cooled reactors. Marine-type reactors differ from land-based commercial electric power reactors in several respects, while land-based reactors in nuclear power plants produce up to around 1600 megawatts of power, a typical marine propulsion reactor produces no more than a few hundred megawatts. Space considerations dictate that a marine reactor must be physically small and this means its components are subject to greater stresses than those of a land-based reactor. Its mechanical systems must operate flawlessly under the conditions encountered at sea, including vibration
19.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
20.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
21.
USS Nimitz
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USS Nimitz is a supercarrier of the United States Navy, and the lead ship of her class. One of the largest warships in the world, she was laid down, the ship was named for World War II Pacific fleet commander Chester W. Nimitz, who was the Navy’s third fleet admiral. Nimitz had her homeport at Naval Station Norfolk until 1987, when she was relocated to Naval Station Bremerton in Washington State, following her Refueling and Complex Overhaul in 2001, her homeport was changed to NAS North Island in San Diego, California. The home port of Nimitz was again moved to Naval Station Everett in 2012, in January 2015 Nimitz changed homeport from Everett back to Naval Base Kitsap. With the inactivation of the USS Enterprise in 2012, Nimitz is now the oldest American carrier in active service, Nimitz was authorized by Congress in fiscal year 1967 and Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co. in Newport News, Virginia was awarded the $106.5 million. The keel was laid down 22 June 1968 and it was christened on 13 May 1972 by Catherine Nimitz Lay, the daughter of the late Admiral Nimitz. Nimitz was delivered to the Navy in 1975, and was commissioned at Naval Station Norfolk on 3 May 1975 by President Gerald Ford. June 1983 to July 1984 – Complex Overhaul – forward port sponson added,3 Mk-25 BPDMs replaced with 2 Mk-29,3 CIWS added, November 1985 to March 1986 – Selected Restricted Availability – forward port sponson changed/enlarged. February 2004 to August 2004 – Planned Incremental Availability – catwalk grating was replaced, in November 1976, Nimitz was awarded the Battle E from Commander, Naval Air Force U. S. Atlantic Fleet, for being the most efficient and foremost aircraft carrier in the Atlantic Fleet, the cruise was uneventful, and the carrier returned to Norfolk, Virginia on 7 February 1977. A second uneventful Mediterranean cruise was conducted from 1 December 1977 to 20 July 1978, the third deployment began on 10 September 1979 to the Mediterranean. The ship moved to the Indian Ocean in response to the Iran hostage crisis in which the U. S. Embassy in Tehran, Iran, was overtaken and 52 hostages were held. Prior to this trip, the took part in the shooting of the 1980 film The Final Countdown. After four months on station, Operation Evening Light was launched from Nimitzs decks in an attempt to rescue the U. S. Embassy staff, the mission was aborted after a helicopter crashed at a refueling point in the Iranian desert. The ship returned home 26 May 1980, having spent 144 days at sea, on 26 May 1981, a Marine Corps EA-6B Prowler assigned to Carrier Air Wing 8 crashed on the flight deck, killing 14 crewmen and injuring 45 others. The Prowler was fuel-critical after a bolter, and its crash, despite having no connection to the accident, the media focused on the autopsy results of several members of the Nimitzs enlisted flight deck crew who were killed, who tested positive for marijuana. As a result, President Ronald Reagan instituted a Zero Tolerance drug policy across all of the U. S. armed services, Nimitz deployed again to the Mediterranean on 3 August 1981. The ship, in company with USS Forrestal, conducted a Freedom of Navigation exercise in waters in the Gulf of Sidra near Libya on 18 and 19 August 1981
22.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
23.
Operation Eagle Claw
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Its failure, and the humiliating public debacle that ensued, damaged US prestige worldwide. Carter himself blamed his loss in the 1980 US presidential election mainly on his failure to win the release of U. S. hostages held captive in Iran, the operation encountered many obstacles and was eventually aborted. Eight helicopters were sent to the first staging area, Desert One, One encountered hydraulic problems, another got caught in a cloud of very fine sand, and the last one showed signs of a cracked rotor blade. During planning it was decided that the mission would be aborted if fewer than six helicopters remained, in a move that is still discussed in military circles, the field commanders advised mission abort, which President Carter accepted and confirmed. As the U. S. force prepared to leave, one of the helicopters crashed into an aircraft which contained both servicemen and jet fuel. The resulting fire destroyed both aircraft and killed eight servicemen, Operation Eagle Claw was one of Delta Forces first missions. The Joint Task Force commander was Army Major General James B, Vaught, to be forward based at Wadi Kena, Egypt, and reporting directly to the President. Reporting to General Vaught were field commanders USAF Colonel James H. Kyle for aviation, the Tehran CIA Special Activities Division paramilitary team, led by retired U. S. Army Special Forces officer Richard J. In reality, the most important information came from an embassy cook released by the Iranians, at that time, the floor was hard-packed sand, but in the ensuing three weeks, an ankle-deep layer of powdery sand was deposited by sandstorms. The box four and one pattern acted like a gun sight, the box provided a touchdown area and the far light marked the end of the rollout area. The operation was designed as a complex two-night mission, on the first night, the aircraft would enter Iran in a remote coastal area 60 miles west of Chabahar, and fly to Desert One via the Dasht-e Lut desert. Three EC-130Es would carry the Delta Force and other protection elements, next, eight United States Navy RH-53D Sea Stallion helicopters from HELMINERON16 would arrive from the USS Nimitz. The crew of the Nimitz were unaware of the reason for the eight helicopters presence on their ship for months leading up to the mission, the helicopters would refuel and fly the Delta Force soldiers 260 miles further to Desert Two, located 52 miles short of Tehran. Because it would be close to morning, the helicopters and ground forces would hide during the day at Desert Two, the second night would involve the rescue operation. First, CIA agents who were already inside Iran would bring trucks to Desert Two, together, the CIA agents and ground forces would then drive from Desert Two into Tehran. While the main force was moving to Tehran, other US troops would disable electrical power to the area. In addition, AC-130 gunships would be deployed over Tehran to provide any necessary supporting fire, lastly, Army Rangers would capture the nearby Manzariyeh Air Base so that several C-141 Starlifters could arrive. The ground troops would assault the embassy and eliminate the guards
24.
Iran hostage crisis
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The Iran hostage crisis was a diplomatic standoff between Iran and the United States. S. It stands as the longest hostage crisis in recorded history, the crisis was described by the Western media as an entanglement of vengeance and mutual incomprehension. President Jimmy Carter called the victims of terrorism and anarchy and said. After his overthrow in 1979, the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was purportedly admitted to the United States for cancer treatment, Iran demanded that he be returned to stand trial for crimes he was accused of committing during his reign. Specifically, Pahlavi was accused of committing crimes against Iranian citizens with the help of his secret police, Iranians saw the decision to grant him asylum as American complicity in those atrocities. The Americans saw the hostage-taking as a violation of the principles of international law. The crisis reached a climax after diplomatic negotiations failed to win release for the hostages, six American diplomats who had evaded capture were eventually rescued by a Canadian effort on January 27,1980. Shah Pahlavi left the United States in December 1979 and was granted asylum in Egypt. In September 1980, the Iraqi military invaded Iran, beginning the Iran–Iraq War and these events led the Iranian government to enter negotiations with the U. S. with Algeria acting as a mediator. The hostages were released into United States custody the day after the signing of the Algiers Accords, just minutes after the new American president. The crisis is considered an episode in the history of Iran–United States relations. Political analysts cite it as a factor in the downfall of Jimmy Carter’s presidency. In Iran, the crisis strengthened the prestige of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the crisis also led to the United States’ economic sanctions against Iran, further weakening ties between the two countries. In February 1979, less than a year before the crisis, for several decades before that, the United States had allied with and supported the Shah. During World War II, Allied powers Britain and the Soviet Union occupied Iran to force the abdication of first Pahlavi monarch Reza Shah Pahlavi, in favor of his eldest son, Crown Prince Mohammad. Because of its importance in the Allied victory, Iran was subsequently called The Bridge of Victory by Winston Churchill, by the 1950s, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was engaged in a power struggle with Iran’s prime minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh, an immediate descendant of the preceding Qajar dynasty. Mosaddegh led a strike on behalf of impoverished Iranians, demanding a share of the nation’s petroleum revenue from Britain’s Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. However, he overstepped in trying to get $50 million in damages, in 1953, the British and American spy agencies helped Iranian royalists depose Mosaddegh in a military coup détat codenamed Operation Ajax, allowing the Shah to extend his power
25.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
26.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
27.
Afghanistan
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Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
28.
Newport News, Virginia
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Newport News is an independent city located in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 180,719, in 2013, the population was estimated to be 183,412, making it the fifth-most populous city in Virginia. Newport News is included in the Hampton Roads metropolitan area, the area now known as Newport News was once a part of Warwick County. Warwick County was one of the eight original shires of Virginia, formed by the House of Burgesses in the British Colony of Virginia by order of King Charles I, the county was largely composed of farms and undeveloped land until almost 250 years later. In 1881,15 years of development began under the leadership of Collis P. With the new railroad came a terminal and coal piers where the colliers were loaded, within a few years, Huntington and his associates also built a large shipyard. In 1896, the new incorporated town of Newport News, which had briefly replaced Denbigh as the county seat of Warwick County, had a population of 9,000. In 1958, by mutual consent by referendum, Newport News was consolidated with the former Warwick County, the more widely known name of Newport News was selected as they formed what was then Virginias third largest independent city in population. The location on the harbor and along the James River facilitates a large boating industry which can take advantage of its miles of waterfront. Newport News also serves as a junction between the rails and the sea with the Newport News Marine Terminals located at the East End of the city. Served by major east-west Interstate Highway 64, it is linked to others of the cities of Hampton Roads by the circumferential Hampton Roads Beltway, part of the Newport News/Williamsburg International Airport is in the city limits. The original area near the mouth of the James River was first referred to as Newportes Newes as early as 1621, the source of the name Newport News is not known with certainty. Several versions are recorded, and it is the subject of popular speculation locally, the new governor ordered them to turn around, and return to Jamestown. Under this theory, the community was named for Newports good news, another possibility is that the community may have derived its name from an old English word news meaning new town. At least one source claims that the New arose from the settlements being rebuilt after a fire. Another source gave the name as New Port Newce, named for a person with the name Newce. The namesake, Sir William Newce, was an English soldier, there he had established Newcestown near Bandon, County Cork. He sailed to Virginia with Sir Francis Wyatt in October 1621 and was granted 2,500 acres of land and his brother, Capt. Thomas Newce, was given 600 acres at Kequatan, now called Elizabeth Cittie
29.
Captain (United States O-6)
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The predecessors of the NOAA Corps, the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps and the Environmental Science Services Administration Corps, also used the rank. In the United States Navy, captain is an officer rank. It ranks above commander and below rear admiral and it is equivalent to the rank of colonel in the other uniformed services. Promotion to captain is governed by Department of Defense policies derived from the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980 or its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act, Navy captains with sea commands in the surface warfare officer community generally command ships of cruiser size or larger. The more senior the officer, the larger the ship, others may hold command as commodores of destroyer squadrons consisting of multiple destroyers and frigates. Surface Warfare Officers may also command large amphibious warfare ships or combat support ships. Today, like their surface warfare counterparts, captains in the community may serve as commodores of submarine squadrons. A smaller cohort outside of sea and shore commands may also serve as astronauts on loan to the National Aeronautics, in the Naval Special Warfare Sea Air Land community, captains with sea commands are typically commodores in command of Naval Special Warfare Groups. In addition, in the strike group, the Marine Expeditionary Unit commanding officer will always be a Marine Corps colonel. Adding to the confusion, all commanding officers of commissioned U. S. Navy warships and submarines are called captain regardless of actual rank. The United States Coast Guard also uses the same rank system for its commissioned officers as the U. S. Navy, with a Coast Guard captain ranking above a commander. The sleeve and shoulder board insignia are similar to the Navy insignia, the Coast Guard has no staff corps officers. Like the U. S. Navy, all commanding officers of commissioned cutters are addressed as captain regardless of their actual rank, seagoing NOAA captains command certain National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ships, while NOAA aviators command NOAA flight operations activities. USPHS rapid deployment force teams, containing 105 USPHS physicians, nurses, although it exists largely as a maritime training organization, the United States Maritime Service also uses the rank of captain. Captain DA Pamphlet 600–3, Commissioned Officer Professional Development and Career Management
30.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
31.
USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CV-42)
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USS Franklin D. Roosevelt was the second of three Midway-class aircraft carriers. To her crew, she was known as Swanky Franky, Foo-De-Roo, or Rosie, Roosevelt spent most of her active deployed career operating in the Mediterranean Sea as part of the United States Sixth Fleet. The ship was decommissioned in 1977 and was scrapped shortly afterward, Franklin D. Roosevelt was laid down at New York Naval Shipyard on 1 December 1943. Sponsor Mrs. John H. Towers, wife of the Deputy Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Fleet, christened the ship Coral Sea at the 29 April 1945 launching. On 8 May 1945, President Harry S. Truman approved the Secretary of the Navys recommendation to rename the ship Franklin D. Roosevelt in honor of the late president, Roosevelt was commissioned on Navy Day,27 October 1945, at the New York Naval Shipyard. Capt. Apollo Soucek was the ships first commanding officer, during April and May, Roosevelt participated in Eighth Fleet maneuvers off the East Coast, the Navys first major postwar training exercise. On 21 July 1946, Roosevelt became the first American carrier to operate an aircraft under controlled conditions. Lieutenant Commander James Davidson, flying the McDonnell XFD-1 Phantom, made a series of successful take-offs and landings as Roosevelt lay off Cape Henry, Virginia. Jet trials continued in November, when Lt. Col. Marion E. Carl, USMC, Fleet maneuvers and other training operations in the Caribbean preceded Roosevelts first deployment to the Mediterranean, which lasted from August to October 1946. Roosevelt, flying the flag of Rear Admiral John H. Cassady, Commander, Carrier Division 1 and this visit showed U. S. support for the pro-Western government of Greece, which was locked in a civil war with Communist insurgents. The ship received thousands of visitors during her calls to many Mediterranean ports, Roosevelt returned to American waters and operated off the East Coast until July 1947, when she entered Norfolk Naval Shipyard for an extensive overhaul. At that time, her quad 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns were replaced by 40 3-inch Mark 22 guns in Mark 33 twin mountings, from September 1948 to January 1949, Roosevelt undertook a second tour of duty with U. S. Naval Forces, Mediterranean. In 1950, Roosevelt became the first carrier to take nuclear weapons to sea, in September and October 1952, she participated in Operation Mainbrace, the first major NATO exercise in the North Atlantic. Roosevelt operated with major fleet units, including the aircraft carriers USS Midway, USS Wasp. Roosevelt was reclassified CVA-42 on 1 October 1952, on 7 January 1954, she sailed for Puget Sound Naval Shipyard to undergo extensive reconstruction. Too large to pass through the Panama Canal, Roosevelt rounded Cape Horn and she was temporarily decommissioned there for her refit on 23 April 1954. Roosevelt was the first of her class to undergo the SCB-110 reconstruction and she received an enclosed hurricane bow, one C-11-2 and two C-11-1 steam catapults, strengthened arresting gear, an enlarged bridge, a mirror landing system, and a 482-foot angled flight deck. SPS-8 height finding radar and SPS-12 air search radar were mounted on a new tubular mast, the aft elevator was relocated to the starboard deck edge, the forward elevator was enlarged, and all elevators were uprated to 75,000 lb capacity
32.
United States Fleet Forces Command
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The United States Fleet Forces Command is a service component command of the United States Navy that provides naval forces to a wide variety of U. S. forces. The naval resources may be allocated to Combatant Commanders such as United States Northern Command under the authority of the Secretary of Defense. Originally formed as United States Atlantic Fleet in 1906, it has been a part of the defense of the United States of America for most of the 20th century. The command is based at Naval Support Activity Hampton Roads in Norfolk, Northern Command and is a supporting command under the U. S. Strategic Command. The Fleet was a combination of the North Atlantic Fleet and the South Atlantic Squadron, the first commander of the fleet was Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans, who hoisted his flag in the battleship USS Maine on 1 January 1906. In January 1913 the fleet consisted of six divisions, a torpedo flotilla, submarines. The fleet was under the command of Rear Admiral Hugo Osterhaus, the First Division, under Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske, consisted of USS Florida, USS Delaware, and USS North Dakota. The Second Division, under Rear Admiral Nathaniel R. Usher with his flag aboard the USS Vermont, consisted of USS Louisiana, USS Michigan, USS New Hampshire, the Third Division, under Rear Admiral Cameron McR. Winslow, comprised USS Virginia, USS Georgia, USS New Jersey, USS Rhode Island, the Fourth Division, under Rear Admiral Frank F. Fletcher, consisted of the USS Minnesota, USS Connecticut, USS Ohio, USS Idaho, and USS Kansas. Fifth and Sixth Divisions were made up of protected cruisers, USS St. Louis, USS Tennessee, USS Washington, and USS Cleveland, USS Denver, USS Des Moines, and USS Tacoma. The Cruiser and Transport Force, under Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves served in Atlantic waters during World War I moving the American Expeditionary Forces to Europe, United States Battleship Division Nine joined the Grand Fleet in the UK. The Atlantic Fleet was reorganized into the Scouting Force in 1923, in January 1939 the Atlantic Squadron, United States Fleet, was formed. The aircraft carrier USS Ranger was transferred to the Atlantic Ocean, Vice Admiral Alfred Wilkinson Johnson commanded the squadron. On 1 November 1940 the Atlantic Squadron was renamed the Patrol Force, the Patrol Force was organized into type commands, Battleships, Patrol Force, Cruisers, Patrol Force, Destroyers, Patrol Force, and, Train, Patrol Force. On 1 February 1941, the Atlantic Fleet was resurrected and organized from the Patrol Force. Along with the Pacific Fleet and Asiatic Fleet, the fleet was to be under the command of a full Admiral, which jumped the fleets commander Ernest J. King from a two-star to a four-star. Subsequently, the headquarters was in an odd assortment of ships, the USS Augusta, then the old wooden ship USS Constellation, USS Vixen. In 1948, the HQ moved into the naval hospital at Norfolk, Virginia
33.
Jimmy Carter
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James Earl Jimmy Carter Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center, Carter was a Democrat who was raised in rural Georgia. He was a farmer who served two terms as a Georgia State Senator from 1963 to 1967, and one as the Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975. He was elected President in 1976, defeating incumbent President Gerald Ford in a close election. On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts, during Carters term as President, two new cabinet-level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, were established. He established an energy policy that included conservation, price control. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. On the economic front he confronted persistent stagflation, a combination of inflation, high unemployment. The end of his tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. In response to the Soviet move he ended détente, escalated the Cold War, Carter won the 1980 primary with 51. 13% of the vote but lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan, who won 44 of 50 states. His presidency has drawn medium-low responses from historians, with many considering him to have accomplished more with his post-presidency work and he set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has also traveled extensively to conduct negotiations, observe elections. Additionally, Carter is a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project, since surpassing Herbert Hoover in September 2012, he has been the longest-retired president in American history. He is also the first president to mark the 40th anniversary of his election and inauguration, in reference to current political views, he has criticized some of Israels actions and policies in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and has advocated for a two-state solution. James Earl Carter, Jr. was born on October 1,1924, at the Wise Sanitarium in Plains and he is a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635. Numerous generations of Carters lived as farmers in Georgia. Carter is also a descendant of Thomas Cornell, an ancestor of Cornell Universitys founder and of Richard Nixon, Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carters birth. His father, James Earl Carter, Sr. was a local businessman who ran a general store and had begun to invest in farmland
34.
Rosalynn Carter
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Eleanor Rosalynn Carter is the wife of the 39th President of the United States, Jimmy Carter, and served as the First Lady of the United States from 1977 to 1981. She has for decades been an advocate for numerous causes. She was politically active during her White House years, sitting in on Cabinet and she also served as an envoy abroad, to Latin America in particular. Her brothers were William Jerrold Jerry Smith, an engineer, and Murray Lee Smith and her sister, Lillian Allethea Wall, formerly Smith, is a real estate broker. Rosalynn was named after Rosa, her maternal grandmother, Carter claimed that she and her siblings were unaware that they were in poverty, since even though their family didnt have money, neither did anyone else, so as far as we knew, we were well off. At the center of her familys community were churches and schools, Carter played with boys during her early childhood since no girls on her street were the same age as she. She believed that she would become an architect, since she drew buildings and was interested in airplanes, Rosalynns father died of leukemia when she was 13. She called the loss of her father the conclusion of her childhood, thereafter, she helped her mother raise her younger siblings, as well as assisting in the dressmaking business in order to meet the familys financial obligations. At Plains High School, Rosalynn worked hard to achieve her fathers dream of her going to college, Rosalynn graduated as salutatorian of Plains High School. Soon after, she attended Georgia Southwestern College, but later dropped out, though having aspirations to go beyond Plains, she was forced to attend the college due to lack of money and her obligations to her mother and siblings. Although their families were acquainted, Rosalynn first dated Jimmy Carter in 1945 while he was serving at the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis and she developed a crush on him after seeing a picture of him in his Annapolis uniform. As the two were riding in the back of Ruth Carters boyfriends car, Jimmy surprised Rosalynn by kissing her, Rosalynn had previously never allowed a boy to do this on the first date. Rosalynn agreed to marry Jimmy in February 1946 when she went to Annapolis with his parents, the two scheduled their marriage to take place in July, and kept the arrangement secret. Rosalynn resented telling her mother she had chosen to marry instead of continuing her education, on July 7,1946, they married in Plains. The marriage canceled Rosalynns plans to attend Georgia State College for Women, the couple had four children, John William Jack, James Earl Chip III, Donnel Jeffrey Jeff, and Amy Lynn. The first three were born in different parts of the country and away from Georgia, due to Jimmys military duties, during those duties, Rosalynn watched over and enjoyed the independence she had gained from raising the children on her own. However, their relationship faced its first major crisis when she opposed Jimmys resigning to return to Plains in 1953 after he learned his father was dying, after purchasing their first television set, the two became fans of the New York Yankees. They said they never went to bed arguing with each other, in 1953, after her husband left the Navy, Rosalynn helped run the family peanut farm and warehouse business, handling accounting responsibilities
35.
Harold Brown (Secretary of Defense)
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Harold Brown is an American scientist who served as U. S. Secretary of Defense from 1977 to 1981 in the cabinet of President Jimmy Carter. He had previously served in the John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson administrations as Director of Defense Research and Engineering, while Secretary of Defense, he insisted in laying the groundwork for the Camp David accords. He took part in the strategic arms negotiations with the Soviet Union and supported, unsuccessfully and he advocated détente with the Soviet Union, an issue over which he conflicted with National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski. Brown was born in New York City and graduated from the Bronx High School of Science, after a short period of teaching and postdoctoral research, Brown became a research scientist at the Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley. In 1952 he joined the staff of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory at Livermore, California, during the 1950s he served as a member of or consultant to several federal scientific bodies and as senior science adviser at the 1958-59 Conference on the Discontinuance of Nuclear Tests. Brown worked under Robert McNamara as director of research and engineering from 1961 to 1965. Between 1969 and 1977, he was president of the California Institute of Technology, with almost eight years of prior service in the Pentagon, Brown was the first scientist to become secretary of defense He involved himself in practically all areas of departmental activity. Consistent with the Carter administrations objective to reorganize the federal government, but he understood the limits to effective reform. S. military forces and improve collective security arrangements—but with a stronger commitment to arms control. Brown adhered to the principle of equivalence in the nuclear competition with the Soviet Union. S. Advantages in other characteristics, and the U. S. posture is not in fact, Brown considered it essential to maintain the triad of ICBMs, SLBMs, and strategic bombers, some of the administrations most important decisions on weapon systems reflected this commitment. The administration backed development of the MX missile, intended to replace in the 1980s the increasingly vulnerable Minuteman and Titan intercontinental missiles, although this plan was expensive and environmentally controversial, Brown argued that it was the most viable scheme to protect the missiles from enemy attack. For the sea leg of the triad, Brown accelerated development of the larger Trident nuclear submarine, the prospect of such a failure would then deter an adversarys attack on the United States or our vital interests. Indeed, it is at least conceivable that the mission of assured destruction would not have to be executed at all in the event that deterrence failed, official adoption of the countervailing strategy came with President Carters approval of Presidential Directive 59 on July 25,1980. In explaining PD59 Brown argued that it was not a new doctrine, but rather a refinement. In our planning we have not ignored the problem of ending the war, others charged that PD59 made it more likely that the United States would initiate a nuclear conflict, based on the assumption that a nuclear war could somehow be limited. Brown insisted that the strategy was not a first strike strategy. As he put it, Nothing in the policy contemplates that nuclear war can be an instrument of achieving our national security goals. But we cannot afford the risk that the Soviet leadership might entertain the illusion that nuclear war could be an option--or its threat a means of coercion--for them, Brown regarded the strengthening of NATO as a key national security objective and worked hard to invigorate the alliance
36.
Zbigniew Brzezinski
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Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzezinski is a Polish-American diplomat and political scientist. He served as a counselor to President Lyndon B. Johnson from 1966 to 1968 and was President Jimmy Carters National Security Advisor from 1977 to 1981. Brzezinski belongs to the realist school of international relations, standing in the tradition of Halford Mackinder. Control of the Panama Canal after 1999, in recent years, he has been a supporter of the Prague Process. His son, Mark Brzezinski, was the United States Ambassador to Sweden from 2011 to 2015, Zbigniew Brzezinski was born in Warsaw, Poland, in 1928. His family, members of the nobility, bore the Trąby coat of arms, the town of Brzeżany is thought to be the source of the family name. From 1936 to 1938, Tadeusz Brzeziński was posted to the Soviet Union during Joseph Stalins Great Purge, in 1938, Tadeusz Brzeziński was posted to Canada. In 1939, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was agreed to by Nazi Germany, the 1945 Yalta Conference between the Allies allotted Poland to the Soviet sphere of influence. Some sources suggest this meant Brzezinskis family could not safely return to their country, after attending Loyola High School in Montreal Brzezinski entered McGill University in 1945 to obtain both his Bachelor and Master of Arts degrees. His Masters thesis focused on the various nationalities within the Soviet Union and he received his doctorate in 1953, the same year, he traveled to Munich and met Jan Nowak-Jezioranski, head of the Polish desk of Radio Free Europe. He later collaborated with Carl J. Friedrich to develop the concept of totalitarianism as a way to accurately and powerfully characterize and criticize the Soviets in 1956. As a Harvard professor, he argued against Dwight Eisenhowers and John Foster Dulless policy of rollback, the Polish protests followed by Polish October and Hungarian Revolution in 1956 lent some support to Brzezinskis idea that the Eastern Europeans could gradually counter Soviet domination. In 1957, he visited Poland for the first time since he left as a child and he developed his ideas he called peaceful engagement. In 1958 he became a United States citizen, despite his decades of residence in Canada and the presence of family members there, he never became a Canadian citizen. When in 1959 Brzezinski was not granted tenure at Harvard, he moved to New York City to teach at Columbia University, here he wrote Soviet Bloc, Unity and Conflict, which focused on Eastern Europe since the beginning of the Cold War. He also taught future Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, who, like his wife, is of Czech descent, and he also became a member of the Council on Foreign Relations in New York and joined the Bilderberg Group. During the 1960 U. S. presidential elections, Brzezinski was an advisor to the John F. Kennedy campaign, urging a non-antagonistic policy toward Eastern European governments. Seeing the Soviet Union as having entered a period of stagnation, through Jan Nowak-Jezioranski, Brzezinski met with Adam Michnik, future Polish Solidarity activist
37.
Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
38.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
39.
Menachem Begin
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Menachem Begin was an Israeli politician, founder of Likud and the sixth Prime Minister of Israel. Before the creation of the state of Israel, he was the leader of the Zionist militant group Irgun and he proclaimed a revolt, on 1 February 1944, against the British mandatory government, which was opposed by the Jewish Agency. As head of the Irgun, he targeted the British in Palestine, later, the Irgun fought the Arabs during the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine. He remained in opposition in the eight elections, but became more acceptable to the political center. His 1977 electoral victory and premiership ended three decades of Labor Party political dominance, Begin’s most significant achievement as Prime Minister was the signing of a peace treaty with Egypt in 1979, for which he and Anwar Sadat shared the Nobel Prize for Peace. In the wake of the Camp David Accords, the Israel Defense Forces withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula, later, Begin’s government promoted the construction of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Begin authorized the bombing of the Osirak nuclear plant in Iraq, as IDF forces remained mired in Lebanon and the economy suffered from hyperinflation, the public pressure on Begin mounted. Depressed by the death of his wife Aliza in November 1982, he withdrew from public life. He was the youngest of three children, on his mothers side he was descended from distinguished rabbis. His father, a merchant, was a community leader, a passionate Zionist. The midwife who attended his birth was the grandmother of Ariel Sharon, after a year of a traditional cheder education Begin started studying at a Tachkemoni school, associated with the religious Zionist movement. In his childhood, Begin, like most Jewish children in his town, was a member of the Zionist scouts movement Hashomer Hatzair and he was a member of Hashomer Hatzair until the age of 13, and at 16, he joined Betar. At 14, he was sent to a Polish government school, Begin studied law at the University of Warsaw, where he learned the oratory and rhetoric skills that became his trademark as a politician, and viewed as demagogy by his critics. During his studies, he organized a group of Jewish students to counter harassment by anti-Semites on campus. He graduated in 1935, but never practiced law, at this time, he became a disciple of Vladimir Zeev Jabotinsky, the founder of the nationalist Revisionist Zionism movement and its Betar youth wing. His rise within Betar was rapid, At 22, he shared the dais with his mentor at the Betar World Congress in Kraków, the pre-war Polish government actively supported Zionist youth and paramilitary movements. Begins leadership qualities were quickly recognised, in 1937 he was the active head of Betar in Czechoslovakia and became head of the largest branch, that of Poland. As head of Betars Polish branch, Begin traveled among regional branches to encourage supporters, to save money, he stayed at the homes of Betar members
40.
British Aerospace Sea Harrier
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It first entered service with the Royal Navy in April 1980 as the Sea Harrier FRS1 and became informally known as the Shar. The Sea Harrier served in the Falklands War, and the Balkans conflicts and its usage in the Falklands War was its most high profile and important success, where it was the only fixed-wing fighter available to protect the British Task Force. The Sea Harriers shot down 20 enemy aircraft during the conflict with one lost to ground fire. They were also used to ground attacks in the same manner as the Harriers operated by the Royal Air Force. The Sea Harrier was marketed for sales abroad, but by 1983 India was the only operator other than Britain after sales to Argentina, the aircraft was withdrawn from service early by the Royal Navy in 2006. The Sea Harrier remained in service for another decade with the Indian Navy until its retirement in 2016 thus ending the career of the historic British jet. By 1960, the last battleship, HMS Vanguard, was retired from the Navy, perhaps the biggest sign of the new trend towards naval austerity came in 1966, when the planned CVA-01 class of large aircraft carriers destined for the Royal Navy was cancelled. During this time, requirements within the Royal Navy began to form for a vertical and/or short take-off, afterward, the first V/STOL tests on a ship began with a Hawker Siddeley P.1127 landing on HMS Ark Royal in 1963. A second concept for the future of naval aviation emerged in the early 1970s as the first of a new class of through deck cruisers was planned and these ships were ordered as the Invincible class in 1973, and are now popularly recognised as aircraft carriers. Almost immediately upon their construction, a ski-jump was added to the end of the 170-metre deck, the Royal Air Forces Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR1s had entered service in April 1969. A navalised variant of the Harrier was developed by Hawker Siddeley to serve on the upcoming ships, in 1975, the Royal Navy ordered 24 Sea Harrier FRS.1 aircraft, the first of which entered service in 1978. During this time Hawker Siddeley became part of British Aerospace through nationalisation in 1977, by the time the prototype Sea Harrier was flown at Dunsfold on 20 August 1978 the order had been increased to 34. The Sea Harrier was declared operational in 1981 on board the first Invincible class ship HMS Invincible, the first flight of the prototype took place in September 1988 and a contract was signed for 29 upgraded aircraft in December that year. In 1990, the Navy ordered 18 new-build FA2s, at a unit cost of around £12 million, the first aircraft was delivered on 2 April 1993. The Sea Harrier is an aircraft designed to fill strike, reconnaissance. It features a single Rolls-Royce Pegasus turbofan engine with two intakes and four vectorable nozzles and it has two landing gear on the fuselage and two outrigger landing gear on the wings. The Sea Harrier is equipped with four wing and three fuselage pylons for carrying weapons and external fuel tanks, parts were changed to use corrosion resistant alloys or coatings were added to protect against the marine environment. After the Falklands War, the Sea Harrier was fitted with the new anti-ship Sea Eagle missile, the Blue Vixen formed the basis for development of the Eurofighter Typhoons CAPTOR radar
41.
Fleet Air Arm
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The Fleet Air Arm is the branch of the British Royal Navy responsible for the operation of naval aircraft. The Fleet Air Arm currently operates the AgustaWestland Merlin, Westland Sea King, and AgustaWestland Wildcat helicopters, helicopters such as the Lynx and Westland Wasp have been deployed on smaller vessels since 1964, taking over the roles once performed by biplanes such as the Fairey Swordfish. During the Second World War, the Fleet Air Arm operated aircraft on ships as well as land-based aircraft that defended the Royal Navys shore establishments, British naval flying started in 1909, with the construction of an airship for naval duties. The Naval Wing of the RFC lasted until July 1914 when the Royal Navy reformed its air branch, under the Air Department of the Admiralty, naming it the Royal Naval Air Service. By the outbreak of the First World War, in August 1914, the RNAS had more aircraft under its control than the remaining RFC. In April 1918 the RNAS, which at this time had 67,000 officers and men,2,949 aircraft,103 airships and 126 coastal stations, merged with the RFC to form the Royal Air Force. On 1 April 1924, the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Air Force was formed, encompassing those RAF units that normally embarked on aircraft carriers, over the following months RAF Fleet Air Arm Fairey IIID reconnaissance biplanes operated off Hermes, conducting flying trials. On 24 May 1939 the Fleet Air Arm was returned to Admiralty control under the Inskip Award, at the onset of the Second World War, the Fleet Air Arm consisted of 20 squadrons with only 232 aircraft. By the end of the war the strength of the Fleet Air Arm was 59 aircraft carriers,3,700 aircraft,72,000 officers and men. During the war, the FAA operated fighters, torpedo bombers, following the Dunkirk evacuation and the commencement of the Battle of Britain, the Royal Air Force soon found itself critically short of fighter pilots. In the summer of 1940, the RAF had little more than 800 fighter pilots, with this desperate situation the RAF was forced to call upon the Admiralty for Fleet Air Arm assistance. The aircraft carrier had replaced the battleship as the Fleets capital ship, the top scoring fighter ace with 17 victories was Commander Stanley Orr, the Royal Marine ace was Ronald Cuthbert Hay with 13 victories. A number of Royal Marines served as FAA pilots during the war, after the war the FAA needed to fly jet aircraft from their carriers. The jet aircraft of the era were considerably less effective at low speeds than propeller aircraft, the FAA took on its first jet, the Sea Vampire, in the late 1940s. The Sea Vampire was the first jet credited with taking off, the Air Arm continued with high-powered prop aircraft alongside the new jets resulting in the FAA being woefully outpowered during the Korean War. Nevertheless, jets were not yet wholly superior to propeller aircraft, as jets became larger, more powerful and faster they required more space to take off and land. The US Navy simply built much larger carriers, the Royal Navy had a few large carriers built and completed after the end of the war but another solution was sought. An associated British invention, intended to more precise optical guidance to aircraft on final approaching the deck, was the Fresnel lens optical landing aid
42.
Indian Ocean
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The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf, the oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the width exceeds 1,000 kilometres. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m and its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep, Sunda Trench has a depth of 7, 258–7,725 m. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the basin is covered by pelagic sediments. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments, glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean, marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include, The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April, from May until October south, in the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are milder. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency, among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy River. The oceans currents are controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, during the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, north of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C, exceeding 28 °C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly, surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia
43.
Souda Bay
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Souda Bay is a bay and natural harbour near the town of Souda on the northwest coast of the Greek island of Crete. The bay is about 15 km long and only two to four km wide, and a natural harbour. It is formed between the Akrotiri peninsula and Cape Drapano, and runs west to east, the bay is overlooked on both sides by hills, with a relatively low and narrow isthmus in the west near Chania. Near the mouth of Souda bay, between the Akrotiri and the town of Kalives, there is a group of islands with Venetian fortifications. The largest island is Souda Island, giving its name to the bay, Souda Bay is now a popular tourist destination although there are no real public beaches due to the presence of the Crete Naval Station. Villages such as Megala Chorafia and Kalives afford fine views of the bay, there have been port facilities on the bay since ancient times, previously serving the city of Aptera. Aptera was founded in the 7th Century BC and was an important city during the ancient and it was destroyed by the Saracens in the 820s AD. The nearest large ancient city was Kydonia, which flourished in the Minoan era on Crete, moreover, the Venetians occupied the area in 1207. In 1571 an Ottoman military force landed at Souda and caused destruction in the Chania area. The Venetians fortified Souda Island between 1570 and 1573, in order to protect the area from Ottoman raiders and pirates, however, Souda Bay remained a pirate infested area during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The Venetians managed to hold on to the islands within Souda Bay until 1715. In 1822 an Egyptian army of approximately 10,000 under Hassan Pasha landed at Souda to defeat the Cretan Revolution of 1821, after the Cretan Revolution of 1866–69, the Ottomans built fortresses at Aptera and Kalami, barracks, a military hospital and a naval base. They also built the town of Souda at the head of the bay, the fortress at Kalami is still in use as prisons. The naval base was inaugurated in 1872, in the presence of Sultan Abdul Aziz. In the period of the semi-independent Cretan State the area attracted international interest, the first High Commissioner, Prince George of Greece, disembarked at Souda Bay on December 9,1898. The church of Saint Nicholas was built during this period, in 1913, events marking the union of Crete with Greece took place on Souda Island. On February 1 the metallic Ottoman flag, the last symbol of Ottoman rule, was removed and replaced by the Greek flag on May 1, also the ruined chapel was rebuilt and dedicated to Saint George. In 1916 the British liner SS Minnewaska, requisitioned by the British Army as a troops carrier, after 1923 the area was used as an Hellenic Army base, housing the artillery units of 5th Infantry Division
44.
Crete
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Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, 88th-largest island in the world and the fifth-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and Corsica. Crete and a number of surrounding islands and islets constitute the region of Crete, the capital and the largest city is Heraklion. As of 2011, the region had a population of 623,065, Crete forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece, while retaining its own local cultural traits. It was once the centre of the Minoan civilization, which is regarded as the earliest recorded civilization in Europe. The island is first referred to as Kaptara in texts from the Syrian city of Mari dating from the 18th century BC, repeated later in Neo-Assyrian records and it was also known in ancient Egyptian as Keftiu, strongly suggesting a similar Minoan name for the island. The current name of Crete is thought to be first attested in Mycenaean Greek texts written in Linear B, through the words
45.
Beirut
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Beirut is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. No recent population census has been done but in 2007 estimates ranged from more than 1 million to slightly less than 2 million as part of Greater Beirut. Located on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanons Mediterranean coast, Beirut is the countrys largest and it is one of the oldest cities in the world, inhabited more than 5,000 years ago. The first historical mention of Beirut is found in the ancient Egyptian Tell el Amarna letters dating from the 15th century BC, the Beirut River runs south to north on the eastern edge of the city. Beirut is Lebanons seat of government and plays a role in the Lebanese economy, with most banks and corporations based in its Central District, Badaro, Rue Verdun, Hamra. Following the destructive Lebanese Civil War, Beiruts cultural landscape underwent major reconstruction, identified and graded for accountancy, advertising, banking/finance and law, Beirut is ranked as a Beta World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. In May 2015, Beirut was officially recognized as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Vigan, Doha, Durban, Havana, Kuala Lumpur, and La Paz. Beirut I, or Minet el Hosn, was listed as Beyrouth ville by Louis Burkhalter and said to be on the beach near the Orent, the site was discovered by Lortet in 1894 and discussed by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1900. The flint industry from the site was described as Mousterian and is held by the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon, Beirut II, or Umm el Khatib, was suggested by Burkhalter to have been south of Tarik el Jedideh, where P. E. Gigues discovered a Copper Age flint industry at around 100 metres above sea level, the site had been built on and destroyed by 1948. Beirut III, Furn esh Shebbak or Plateau Tabet, was suggested to have located on the left bank of the Beirut River. Burkhalter suggested that it was west of the Damascus road, although this determination has been criticized by Lorraine Copeland, P. E. Gigues discovered a series of Neolithic flint tools on the surface along with the remains of a structure suggested to be a hut circle. Auguste Bergy discussed polished axes that were found at this site. The area was covered in red sand that represented Quaternary river terraces, the site was found by Jesuit Father Dillenseger and published by fellow Jesuits Godefroy Zumoffen, Raoul Describes and Auguste Bergy. Collections from the site were made by Bergy, Describes and another Jesuit, a large number of Middle Paleolithic flint tools were found on the surface and in side gullies that drain into the river. They included around 50 varied bifaces accredited to the Acheulean period, some with a lustrous sheen, Henri Fleisch also found an Emireh point amongst material from the site, which has now disappeared beneath buildings. Levallois flints and bones and similar material were found amongst brecciated deposits. The area has now built on
46.
Lebanon
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Lebanon, officially known as the Lebanese Republic, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, Lebanons location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland facilitated its rich history and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity. At just 10,452 km2, it is the smallest recognized country on the entire mainland Asian continent, the earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years, predating recorded history. Lebanon was the home of the Canaanites/Phoenicians and their kingdoms, a culture that flourished for over a thousand years. In 64 BC, the region came under the rule of the Roman Empire, in the Mount Lebanon range a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church was established. As the Arab Muslims conquered the region, the Maronites held onto their religion, however, a new religious group, the Druze, established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well, generating a religious divide that has lasted for centuries. During the Crusades, the Maronites re-established contact with the Roman Catholic Church, the ties they established with the Latins have influenced the region into the modern era. The region eventually was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1516 to 1918, following the collapse of the empire after World War I, the five provinces that constitute modern Lebanon came under the French Mandate of Lebanon. The French expanded the borders of the Mount Lebanon Governorate, which was populated by Maronites and Druze. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, establishing confessionalism, a unique, foreign troops withdrew completely from Lebanon on 31 December 1946. Lebanon has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie since 1973, despite its small size, the country has developed a well-known culture and has been highly influential in the Arab world. Before the Lebanese Civil War, the experienced a period of relative calm and renowned prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, commerce. At the end of the war, there were efforts to revive the economy. In spite of troubles, Lebanon has the highest Human Development Index and GDP per capita in the Arab world. The name of Mount Lebanon originates from the Phoenician root lbn meaning white, occurrences of the name have been found in different Middle Bronze Age texts from the library of Ebla, and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L, the name occurs nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, as לְבָנוֹן. The borders of contemporary Lebanon are a product of the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920 and its territory was the core of the Bronze Age Phoenician city-states. After the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant, it was part of the Rashidun, Umyayad, Abbasid Seljuk, with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Greater Lebanon fell under French mandate in 1920, and gained independence under president Bechara El Khoury in 1943
47.
Lebanese Civil War
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The Lebanese Civil War was a multifaceted civil war in Lebanon, lasting from 1975 to 1990 and resulting in an estimated 120,000 fatalities. As of 2012, approximately 76,000 people remain displaced within Lebanon, there was also an exodus of almost one million people from Lebanon as a result of the war. The government of Lebanon had been run under a significant influence of the elites among the Maronite Christians, however, the country had a large Muslim population and many pan-Arabist and left-wing groups opposed the pro-western government. Fighting between Maronite and Palestinian forces began in 1975, then Leftist, pan-Arabist and Muslim Lebanese groups formed an alliance with the Palestinians, during the course of the fighting, alliances shifted rapidly and unpredictably. Furthermore, foreign powers, such as Israel and Syria, became involved in the war, Peace keeping forces, such as the Multinational Force in Lebanon & UNIFIL, were also stationed in Lebanon. The 1989 Taif Agreement marked the beginning of the end of the fighting, in January 1989, a committee appointed by the Arab League began to formulate solutions to the conflict. In March 1991, parliament passed an amnesty law that all political crimes prior to its enactment. In May 1991, the militias were dissolved, with the exception of Hezbollah, religious tensions between Sunnis and Shias remained after the war. An 1860 civil war between Druze and Maronites erupted in the Ottoman Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon, which had been divided between them in 1842 and it resulted in the massacre of about 10,000 Christians and at least 6,000 Druzes. The 1860 war was considered by the Druze as a military victory, World War I was hard for the Lebanese. While the rest of the world was occupied with the World War, with the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Turkish rule ended. France took control of the area under the French Mandate for Syria, the French created the state of Greater Lebanon as a safe haven for the Maronites, but included a large Muslim population within the borders. In 1926, Lebanon was declared a republic, and a constitution was adopted, however, the constitution was suspended in 1932. Various factions sought unity with Syria, or independence from the French, in 1934, the countrys first census was conducted. In 1936, the Maronite Phalange party was founded by Pierre Gemayel, World War II and the 1940s brought great change to Lebanon and the Middle East. Lebanon was promised independence and on 22 November 1943, during World War II, Free French troops, who had invaded Lebanon in 1941 to rid Beirut of the Vichy French forces, left the country in 1946. The Maronites assumed power over the country and economy, a parliament was created, in which both Muslims and Christians each had a set quota of seats. Accordingly, the President was to be a Maronite, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine in late 1947 led to civil war in Palestine, the end of Mandatory Palestine, and the Israeli Declaration of Independence on 14 May 1948
48.
Vought F-8 Crusader
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The first F-8 prototype was ready for flight in February 1955. The F-8 served principally in the Vietnam War, the Crusader was the last American fighter with guns as the primary weapon, earning it the title The Last of the Gunfighters. The RF-8 Crusader was a development and operated longer in U. S. service than any of the fighter versions. RF-8s played a role in the Cuban Missile Crisis, providing essential low-level photographs impossible to acquire by other means. U. S. Naval Reserve units continued to operate the RF-8 until 1987, in September 1952, the United States Navy announced a requirement for a new fighter. It was to have a top speed of Mach 1.2 at 30,000 ft with a rate of 25,000 ft/min. Korean War experience had demonstrated that 0.50 inch machine guns were no longer sufficient, in response, the Vought team led by John Russell Clark, created the V-383. Unusual for a fighter, the aircraft had a wing which necessitated the use of a fuselage-mounted short. The Crusader was powered by a Pratt and Whitney J57 turbojet engine, the engine was equipped with an afterburner that, unlike on later engines, was either fully lit, or off. The engine produced 18,000 lb of thrust at full power, the Crusader was the first jet fighter in US service to reach 1,000 mph, U. S. Navy pilot R. W. Windsor reached 1,015 mph on a flight in 1956. The most innovative aspect of the design was the wing which pivoted by 7° out of the fuselage on takeoff. This allowed a greater angle of attack, increasing lift without compromising forward visibility and this innovation helped the F-8s development team win the Collier Trophy in 1956. Simultaneously, the lift was augmented by leading-edge slats drooping by 25°, the armament, as specified by the Navy, consisted primarily of four 20 mm autocannon, the Crusader happened to be the last U. S. fighter designed with guns as its primary weapon. They were supplemented with a tray with 32 unguided Mk 4/Mk 40 Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket. Vought also presented a tactical reconnaissance version of the called the V-392. In May 1953, the Vought design was declared a winner and in June, the first prototype flew on 25 March 1955 with John Konrad at the controls. The aircraft exceeded the speed of sound during its maiden flight, the development was so trouble-free that the second prototype, along with the first production F8U-1, flew on the same day,30 September 1955. On 4 April 1956, the F8U-1 performed its first catapult launch from Forrestal, in parallel with the F8U-1s and -2s, the Crusader design team was also working on a larger aircraft with ever greater performance, internally designated as the V-401
49.
French Naval Aviation
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French Naval Aviation is the naval air arm of the French Navy. Born as a fusion of carrier squadrons and naval air force. The headquarters is under command of an admiral in Toulon naval base, the French Naval Aviation has a strength of around 6,800 military and civilian personnel. They operate from four airbases in Metropolitan France and several detachments in foreign countries or French overseas territories
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United States
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