1.
Yapese language
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Yapese is a language spoken by the people on the island of Yap. It belongs to the Austronesian languages, more specifically to the Oceanic branch of that family and it has been difficult to classify it further, but Yapese may prove to be one of the Admiralty Islands languages. The glottal stop is a feature of Yapese. Words beginning with a vowel letter begin with a glottal stop, adjacent vowels have the glottal stop between them. There are many word-final glottal stops, in Yapese spelling as practised until the 1970s, the glottal stop was not written with an explicit character. A word-final glottal stop was represented by doubling the vowel letter. Glottalization of consonants was represented with an apostrophe, apart from a couple grammatical forms which are V, syllables are CV or CVC. Yapese is one of the few languages in the world with ejective fricatives. The Yapese ejective consonants are /pʼ tʼ kʼ θʼ/, there are also glottalised nasals /mˀ nˀ ŋˀ/ and approximants /jˀ wˀ lˀ/. In the table below, each phoneme is listed to the left of the grapheme that represents it in Yapese orthography, /h/ <h> and /j/ <j> only occur in English and Japanese loans. In the table below, each phoneme is listed to the left of the grapheme that represents it in Yapese orthography, Yapese Wordlist at the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database Jensen Yapese Dictionary On-Line at www. trussel2. com Chepin yuu Waqab. Yapese-language vernacular reader Yaat nu Waqab
2.
Atoll
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An atoll, sometimes called a coral atoll, is a ring-shaped coral reef including a coral rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely. There may be coral islands/cays on the rim, the coral of the atoll often sits atop the rim of an extinct seamount or volcano which has eroded or subsided partially beneath the water. The lagoon forms over the crater or caldera while the higher rim remains above water or at shallow depths that permit the coral to grow. For the atoll to persist, continued erosion or subsidence must be at a slow enough to permit reef growth upwards and outwards to replace the lost height. The word atoll comes from the Dhivehi word atholhu, meaning an administrative subdivision, the distribution of atolls around the globe is instructive, most of the worlds atolls are in the Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean has no large groups of atolls, other than eight atolls east of Nicaragua that belong to the Colombian department of San Andres and Providencia in the Caribbean. Reef-building corals will thrive only in tropical and subtropical waters of oceans and seas. The northernmost atoll of the world is Kure Atoll at 28°24 N, the southernmost atolls of the world are Elizabeth Reef at 29°58 S, and nearby Middleton Reef at 29°29 S, in the Tasman Sea, both of which are part of the Coral Sea Islands Territory. The next southerly atoll is Ducie Island in the Pitcairn Islands Group, at this latitude coral reefs would not develop without the warming waters of the Gulf Stream. However, Bermuda is termed a pseudo-atoll because its general form, while there is no atoll directly on the equator, the closest atoll to the Equator is Aranuka of Kiribati, with its southern tip just 12 km north of the equator. In most cases, the area of an atoll is very small in comparison to the total area. Atoll islands are low lying, with their elevations less than 5 meters, measured by total area, Lifou is the largest raised coral atoll of the world, followed by Rennell Island. More sources however list as the largest atoll in the world in terms of land area Kiritimati, the remains of an ancient atoll as a hill in a limestone area is called a reef knoll. The second largest atoll by dry land area is Aldabra with 155 km², the largest atoll in terms of island numbers is Huvadhu Atoll in the south of the Maldives with 255 islands. In 1842, Charles Darwin explained the creation of coral atolls in the southern Pacific Ocean based upon observations made during a voyage aboard the HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836. In time, subsidence carries the old volcano below the ocean surface, at this point, the island has become an atoll. Atolls are the product of the growth of marine organisms. Volcanic islands located beyond the water temperature requirements of hermatypic organisms become seamounts as they subside and are eroded away at the surface
3.
Caroline Islands
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The Caroline Islands are a widely scattered archipelago of tiny islands in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, to the north of New Guinea. Politically they are divided between the Federated States of Micronesia in the part of the group, and Palau at the extreme western end. Historically, this area was also called Nuevas Filipinas or New Philippines as they were part of the Spanish East Indies, the Carolines span a distance of approximately 3540 kilometers, from Tobi, Palau at the westernmost point to Kosrae at the easternmost. The group consists of about 500 small coral islands, east of the Philippines, in the Pacific Ocean, most of the islands comprise low, flat coral atolls, but some rise high above sea level. Other significant populations include Filipinos and Japanese, the natives live mainly on horticulture and fishing, also supplementing their diet with many different varieties of bananas and taro, either of the swamp or purple varieties. On some islands housing continues to be built with materials including coconut thatch. The language spoken in commerce is English, but there are several indigenous languages and they traditionally believe in a Supreme Being and in a bad spirit, yet they have hardly any religious rites. Due to extensive work, Christianity is the primary religion practiced in this region of Micronesia. Master Micronesian Navigator Mau Piailug was from the Carolinian island of Satawal and he learned the traditional navigation techniques of the Weriyeng school. These techniques had been preserved while similar techniques had been forgotten partly due to the remoteness of the Carolinian Islands. In 1985 a study was made on the origin of the sidereal compass used in the Caroline Islands, different islands and island groups in the Carolines passed down unique and variant oral legends recounting the origins and early histories of their peoples. On Pohnpei, for example, pre-colonial history is divided into three eras, Mwehin Kawa or Mwehin Aramas, Mwehin Sau Deleur, and Mwehin Nahnmwarki, Pohnpeian legend recounts that the Saudeleur rulers, the first to bring government to Pohnpei, were of foreign origin. The Saudeleur centralized form of rule is characterized in Pohnpeian legend as becoming increasingly oppressive over several generations. Arbitrary and onerous demands, as well as a reputation for offending Pohnpeian deities, the Saudeleur Dynasty ended with the invasion of Isokelekel, another semi-mythical foreigner, who replaced the Saudeleur rule with the more decentralized nahnmwarki system in existence today. The Spanish explorers Toribio Alonso de Salazar and Diego de Saavedra arrived on August 22,1526, on 1 January 1528 the discoverer Álvaro de Saavedra took possession of the Uluti Islands on behalf of the King of Spain. Spanish explorers visited the archipelago in 1542,1543, and 1545, in 1565 Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, the first Governor-General of the Philippines, passed through. The name was extended to include the Palau Islands and the archipelagos which were named the Gilbert Islands, the occupation of the Caroline Islands had, as in most of the Spanish colonies, a marked religious character. A royal decree of October 19,1707 granted authorization for the sending of missionaries in several expeditions to the islands, one such expedition was made by Father Juan Antonio Cantova, who was killed
4.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
5.
Islet
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An islet is a very small island. As suggested by its origin as islette, an Old French diminutive of isle, use of the term implies small size, but little attention is given to drawing an upper limit on its applicability. Cay or Key – an islet formed by the accumulation of sand deposits atop a reef Motu – A reef islet formed by broken coral and sand. River island – A small islet within the current of a river, rock – A rock, in the sense of a type of islet, is an uninhabited landform composed of rock, lying offshore, and having at most minimal vegetation. Sandbar – An exposed sandbar is another type of islet, Sea stack – A thin, vertical landform jutting out of a body of water. Skerry – A small rocky island, usually defined to be too small for habitation, subsidiary islets – A more technical application is to small land features, isolated by water, lying off the shore of a larger island. Likewise, any emergent land in an atoll is called an islet. Tidal island – Often small islands lie off the mainland of an area, being connected to it in low tide. In the Caribbean and West Atlantic, islets are often called cays or keys, rum Cay in the Bahamas and the Florida Keys off Florida are examples of islets. In the Channel Islands, they are identified by the suffix -hou from the Norse -holm. In Scotland and Ireland, they are often called inches, from the Gaelic innis, which originally meant island, in Ireland they are often termed skerries. In and around Polynesia, islets are widely known by the term motu, in and around the River Thames in England, small islands are known as aits or eyots. One long-term dispute over the status of such an islet was that of Snake Island, there are thousands of islets on Earth, approximately 24,000 islands and islets in the Stockholm archipelago alone. The following is a list of example islets from around the world, Islands or Rocks, Is that the Real Question. The Treatment of Islands in the Delimitation of Maritime Boundaries, in Myron H. Nordquist, John Norton Moore, Alfred H. A. The Law of the Sea Convention, US Accession and Globalization
6.
Lagoon
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A lagoon is a shallow body of water separated from a larger body of water by barrier islands or reefs. Lagoons are commonly divided into coastal lagoons and atoll lagoons and they have also been identified as occurring on mixed-sand and gravel coastlines. There is an overlap between bodies of water classified as coastal lagoons and bodies of water classified as estuaries, lagoons are common coastal features around many parts of the world. Lagoons can also be man-made and used for treatment, as is the case for e. g. aerated lagoons. Lagoons are shallow, often elongated bodies of water separated from a body of water by a shallow or exposed shoal, coral reef. Some authorities include fresh water bodies in the definition of lagoon, the distinction between lagoon and estuary also varies between authorities. Richard A. Davis Jr. restricts lagoon to bodies of water with little or no fresh water inflow, and little or no tidal flow, Davis does state that the terms lagoon and estuary are often loosely applied, even in scientific literature. Timothy M. Kusky characterizes lagoons as normally being elongated parallel to the coast, while estuaries are usually drowned river valleys, coastal lagoons are classified as inland bodies of water. Many lagoons do not include lagoon in their common names, in England, The Fleet at Chesil Beach has also been described as a lagoon. In Latin America, the term laguna in Spanish, which translates to. However, sometimes it is used to describe a full-sized lake, such as Laguna Catemaco in Mexico. The brackish water lagoon may be explicitly identified as a coastal lagoon. In Portuguese the same usage is found, lagoa may be a body of sea water. Lagoon is derived from the Italian laguna, which refers to the waters around Venice, Laguna is attested in English by at least 1612, and had been Anglicized to lagune by 1673. In 1697 William Dampier referred to a Lagune or Lake of Salt water on the coast of Mexico, captain James Cook described an island of Oval form with a Lagoon in the middle in 1769. Atoll lagoons form as coral reefs grow upwards while the islands that the reefs surround subside, unlike the lagoons that form shoreward of fringing reefs, atoll lagoons often contain some deep portions. Coastal lagoons form along gently sloping coasts where barrier islands or reefs can develop off-shore, coastal lagoons do not form along steep or rocky coasts, or if the range of tides is more than 4 metres. Due to the slope of the coast, coastal lagoons are shallow
7.
Yap State
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Yap State is one of the four states of the Federated States of Micronesia. The other states are Kosrae State, Pohnpei State, and Chuuk State, the state was once the Yap District of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Yap State is the westernmost state of the FSM, to the east from near to far are Chuuk State, Pohnpei State, and Kosrae State. Yap State has five official languages, English, Ulithian, Woleaian, Satawalese, Yap State is divided into municipalities. Dalipebinaw Fanif Gagil Gilman Kanifay Maap Rull Rumung Tomil Weloy Eauripik Elato Fais Faraulep Gaferut Ifalik Lamotrek Ngulu Pikelot Satawal Sorol Ulithi Woleai
8.
Federated States of Micronesia
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Together, the states comprise around 607 islands that cover a longitudinal distance of almost 2,700 km just north of the equator. While the FSMs total land area is small, it occupies more than 2,600,000 km2 of the Pacific Ocean. The capital is Palikir, located on Pohnpei Island, while the largest city is Weno, each of its four states is centered on one or more main high islands, and all but Kosrae include numerous outlying atolls. The Federated States of Micronesia is spread across part of the Caroline Islands in the region of Micronesia. The term Micronesia may refer to the Federated States or to the region as a whole, the FSM was formerly a part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, a United Nations Trust Territory under U. S. Other neighboring island entities, and also members of the TTPI, formulated their own constitutional governments and became the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The FSM has a seat in the United Nations, the ancestors of the Micronesians settled over four thousand years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a centralized economic. Nan Madol, consisting of a series of artificial islands linked by a network of canals, is often called the Venice of the Pacific. European explorers—first the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands and then the Spanish—reached the Carolines in the sixteenth century, the Spanish incorporated the archipelago to the Spanish East Indies and in the 19th century established a number of outposts and missions. In 1887, they founded the town of Santiago de la Ascension in what today is Kolonia on the island of Pohnpei, following defeat in the Spanish–American War, the Spanish sold the archipelago to Germany in 1899 under the German–Spanish Treaty of 1899. Germany incorporated it into German New Guinea, during World War I, it was captured by Japan. Following the war, the League of Nations awarded a mandate for Japan to administer the islands as part of the South Pacific Mandate, during World War II, a significant portion of the Japanese fleet was based in Truk Lagoon. In February 1944, Operation Hailstone, one of the most important naval battles of the war, took place at Truk, in which many Japanese support vessels and aircraft were destroyed. On May 10,1979, four of the Trust Territory districts ratified a new constitution to become the Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands chose not to participate. The FSM signed a Compact of Free Association with the United States, independence was formally concluded under international law in 1990, when the United Nations officially ended the Trusteeship status pursuant to Security Council Resolution 683. The Compact was renewed in 2004, the Federated States of Micronesia is governed by the 1979 constitution, which guarantees fundamental human rights and establishes a separation of governmental powers. The unicameral Congress has fourteen members elected by popular vote, four senators—one from each state—serve four-year terms, the remaining ten senators represent single-member districts based on population, and serve two-year terms
9.
Guam
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Guam is an unincorporated and organized territory of the United States. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, Guam is one of five American territories with a civilian government. The capital city is Hagåtña and the most populous city is Dededo, in 2015,161,785 people resided on Guam. Guamanians are American citizens by birth, Guam has an area of 210 sq mi and a population density of 770/sq mi. It is the largest and southernmost of the Mariana Islands and the largest island in Micronesia, among its municipalities, Mongmong-Toto-Maite has the highest density at 3, 691/sq mi, whereas Inarajan and Umatac have the lowest density at 119/sq mi. The highest point is Mount Lamlam at 406 meters above sea level, the Chamorros, Guams indigenous people, settled the island approximately 4,000 years ago. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan was the first European to visit the island on March 6,1521, Guam was colonized in 1668 with settlers, like Diego Luis de San Vitores, a Catholic missionary. Between the 16th century and the 18th century, Guam was an important stopover for the Spanish Manila Galleons, during the Spanish–American War, the United States captured Guam on June 21,1898. Under the Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded Guam to the United States on December 10,1898, Guam is among the seventeen Non-Self-Governing Territories of the United Nations. Before World War II, Guam and three other territories – American Samoa, Hawaii, and the Philippines – were the only American jurisdictions in the Pacific Ocean. On December 7,1941, hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Guam was captured by the Japanese, during the occupation, Guamanians were subjected to beheadings, forced labor, rape, and torture. Guam endured hostilities when American forces recaptured the island on July 21,1944, since the 1960s, the economy has been supported by two industries, tourism and the United States Armed Forces. The original inhabitants of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands are believed to be descendants of Austronesian people originating from Southeast Asia as early as 2000 BC and they evolved into the Chamorro people. The ancient-Chamorro society had four classes, chamorri, matua, achaot, the matua were located in the coastal villages, which meant they had the best access to fishing grounds, whereas the manachang were located in the interior of the island. Matua and manachang rarely communicated with other, and matua often used achaot as intermediaries. There were also makåhna, skilled in healing and medicine, belief in spirits of ancient Chamorros called Taotao mona still persists as a remnant of pre-European culture. Their society was organized along matrilineal clans, Latte stones are stone pillars that are found only in the Mariana Islands, they are a recent development in Pre-Contact Chamorro society. The latte-stone was used as a foundation on which thatched huts were built, Latte stones consist of a base shaped from limestone called the haligi and with a capstone, or tåsa, made either from a large brain coral or limestone, placed on top
10.
USS Mississinewa (AO-59)
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USS Mississinewa was the first of two United States Navy ships of the name. She was a T3-S2-A1 Auxiliary Oiler of the US Navy, laid down on 5 October 1943 by the Bethlehem Sparrows Point Shipyard, Sparrows Point, Maryland, launched on 28 March 1944, sponsored by Miss Margaret Pence, and commissioned on 18 May 1944. Mississinewa was commanded by Captain Philip G. Beck, Mississinewa began her brief but active wartime service on 18 May 1944. Having completed shakedown in the Chesapeake Bay, she sailed for Aruba, Netherland West Indies, filling her cargo tanks on 23–24 June she continued on to the Pacific Ocean, arriving Pearl Harbor on 10 July. As a unit of Service Squadron 10, she steamed to Eniwetok where she first fueled ships of the 3rd Fleet. On 25 August, she got underway for Manus where she supplied fuel and stores and delivered mail to ships of TF38, the fast carrier force,32 and 31 during the assault and occupation of the Palaus. On 19 October, having emptied her tanks into ships scheduled to take part in the landings at Leyte, she sailed to Ulithi in the Caroline Islands, thence in early November, Mississinewa sailed her last fueling at sea assignment, returning on the 15th. The next day, she replenished her cargo tanks, filling them almost to capacity with 404,000 US gallons of gas,9,000 barrels of diesel fuel. Four days later,20 November, she was anchored in berth No.131. At 05,47, shortly after reveille, an explosion rocked the oiler. Seconds later, fumes in an aviation gas cargo tank ignited, massive flames immediately burst from midship forward. Bunker C oil immediately engulfed the ship, with gas on top of that. The aviation gas acted like a wick, fanned by a light wind, the fire spread aft quickly. A few minutes later the fires reached the magazine and caused yet another explosion to tear through the ship. The ship was abandoned and soon enveloped in flames over 100 ft high, Fleet tugs were immediately brought in to try to extinguish the fire, but in spite of their efforts, at about 09,00 the ship slowly turned over and disappeared. Fifteen minutes later, the fire on the water was out and this ship was the first to be hit by a Japanese Kaiten manned torpedo. The ship sank with a loss of 63 hands as well as the kaiten pilot and this resulted in an expansion of the kaiten program, even though it would not significantly affect the war. Mississinewa was hit in the front starboard bow area, the kaiten probably released by Japanese submarine I-47 just outside Ulithi lagoon, Mississinewa received four battle stars for World War II service
11.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
12.
Typhoon
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A typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that develops in the western part of the North Pacific Ocean between 180° and 100°E. This region is referred to as the Northwestern Pacific Basin, and is the most active tropical cyclone basin on Earth, for organizational purposes, the northern Pacific Ocean is divided into three regions, the eastern, central, and western. While the RSMC names each system, the name list itself is coordinated among 18 countries that have territories threatened by typhoons each year. Only the Philippines use their own naming list for systems approaching the country, a typhoon differs from a cyclone or hurricane only on the basis of location. A hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, within the northwestern Pacific there are no official typhoon seasons as tropical cyclones form throughout the year. While the majority of storms form between June and November, a few storms do occur between December and May, on average, the northwestern Pacific features the most numerous and intense tropical cyclones globally. Like other basins, they are steered by the ridge towards the west or northwest, with some systems recurving near. The Philippines receive the brunt of the landfalls, with China, some of the deadliest typhoons in history have struck China. Southern China has the longest record of typhoon impacts for the region, Taiwan has received the wettest known typhoon on record for the northwest Pacific tropical cyclone basins. The term typhoon is the name in the northwest Pacific for a severe tropical cyclone, whereas hurricane is the regional term in the northeast Pacific. Elsewhere this is called a cyclone, severe tropical cyclone. The Oxford English Dictionary cites Urdu ṭūfān and Chinese tai fung giving rise to early forms in English. The earliest forms -- touffon, later tufan, tuffon, and others -- derive from Urdu ṭūfān, from 1699 appears tuffoon, later tiffoon, derived from Chinese with spelling influenced by the older Urdu-derived forms. The modern spelling dates to 1820, preceded by tay-fun in 1771 and ty-foong. The Urdu source word توفان ṭūfān comes via Persian from Arabic طوفان, the Chinese source is the word tai fung, cited as a common dialect form of Mandarin dà big and fēng wind. In Mandarin the word for the windstorm is 大风 and in Cantonese 大風, the modern Japanese word is also derived from Chinese, 台風. The first character in Japanese has a modern meaning of pedestal or stand. So the Japanese characters originally had a meaning of typhoon wind, the Ancient Greek Τυφῶν is not unrelated and has secondarily contaminated the word
13.
Census
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A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population, the term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses, other common censuses include agriculture, business, and traffic censuses. United Nations recommendations also cover census topics to be collected, official definitions, classifications, the word is of Latin origin, during the Roman Republic, the census was a list that kept track of all adult males fit for military service. Current administrative data systems allow for other approaches to enumeration with the level of detail but raise concerns about privacy. A census can be contrasted with sampling in which information is obtained only from a subset of a population, typically main population estimates are updated by such intercensal estimates. Modern census data are used for research, business marketing, and planning. Census counts are necessary to adjust samples to be representative of a population by weighting them as is common in opinion polling, similarly, stratification requires knowledge of the relative sizes of different population strata which can be derived from census enumerations. In some countries, the census provides the official used to apportion the number of elected representatives to regions. In many cases, a carefully chosen random sample can provide accurate information than attempts to get a population census. A census is often construed as the opposite of a sample as its intent is to count everyone in a rather than a fraction. However, population censuses rely on a frame to count the population. This is the way to be sure that everyone has been included as otherwise those not responding would not be followed up on. The fundamental premise of a census is that the population is not known, the use of a sampling frame is counterintuitive as it suggests that the population size is already known. However, a census is also used to collect data on the individuals in the nation. This process of sampling marks the difference between historical census, which was a house to house process or the product of a decree. The sampling frame used by census is almost always an address register, thus it is not known if there is anyone resident or how many people there are in each household. Depending on the mode of enumeration, a form is sent to the householder, as a preliminary to the dispatch of forms, census workers will check any address problems on the ground. While it may seem straightforward to use the postal service file for this purpose, a particular problem is what are termed communal establishments which category includes student residences, religious orders, homes for the elderly, people in prisons etc
14.
Wedding
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A wedding is a ceremony where two people are united in marriage. Wedding traditions and customs vary greatly between cultures, ethnic groups, religions, countries, and social classes, most wedding ceremonies involve an exchange of marriage vows by the couple, presentation of a gift, and a public proclamation of marriage by an authority figure. Special wedding garments are worn, and the ceremony is sometimes followed by a wedding reception. Music, poetry, prayers or readings from religious texts or literature are commonly incorporated into the ceremony. Some cultures have adopted the traditional Western custom of the wedding, in which a bride wears a white wedding dress. This tradition was popularized through the marriage of Queen Victoria, some say Victorias choice of a white gown may have simply been a sign of extravagance, but may have also been influenced by the values she held which emphasized sexual purity. Within the modern white wedding tradition, a dress and veil are unusual choices for a womans second or subsequent wedding. The use of a ring has long been part of religious weddings in Europe and America. Historian Vicki Howard points out that the belief in the ancient quality of the practice is most likely a modern invention, double ring ceremonies are also a modern practice, a grooms wedding band not appearing in the United States until the early 20th century. The kittel is worn only under the Chupah, and is removed before the reception, different wedding clothing around the world Music played at Western weddings includes a processional song for walking down the aisle either before or after the marriage service. An example of use is reported in the wedding of Nora Robinson. Selections by George Frideric Handel, perhaps most notably the Air from his Water Music as processional, the Bridal Chorus from Lohengrin by Richard Wagner, often used as the processional and commonly known as Here Comes the Bride. Richard Wagner is said to have been anti-Semitic, and as a result, johann Pachelbels Canon in D is an alternative processional. The Wedding March from Felix Mendelssohns incidental music for the Shakespeare play, A Midsummer Nights Dream, the Toccata from Charles-Marie Widors Symphony for Organ No. Segments of the Ode to Joy, the movement of Ludwig van Beethovens Ninth Symphony. Other alternative considerations include various contemporary melodies like Bob Marleys One Love which is performed by a steel drum band. Most religions recognize a union with established ceremonies and rituals. Some religions permit polygamous marriages or same-sex marriages, many Christian faiths emphasize the raising of children as a priority in a marriage
15.
Funeral
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A funeral is a ceremony connected with the burial, cremation, etc. of the body of a dead person, or the burial with the attendant observances. Customs vary widely both between cultures and between groups and denominations within cultures. Common secular motivations for funerals include mourning the deceased, celebrating their life, additionally, funerals often have religious aspects which are intended to help the soul of the deceased reach the afterlife, resurrection or reincarnation. The funeral usually includes a ritual through which the corpse of the deceased is given up, depending on culture and religion, these can involve either the destruction of the body or its preservation. Differing beliefs about cleanliness and the relationship between body and soul are reflected in funerary practices, when a funerary ceremony is performed but the body of the deceased is not available, it is usually called a memorial service. The word funeral comes from the Latin funus, which had a variety of meanings, including the corpse, Funerary art is art produced in connection with burials, including many kinds of tombs, and objects specially made for burial with a corpse. Funeral rites are as old as human culture itself, pre-dating modern Homo sapiens, substantial cross-cultural and historical research document funeral customs as a highly predictable, stable force in communities. Funeral customs tend to be characterized by five anchors, significant symbols, gathered community, ritual action, cultural heritage, and transition of the dead body. The Baháí funeral service also contains the only prayer thats permitted to be read as a group - congregational prayer, the Baháí decedent often controls some aspects of the Baháí funeral service, since leaving a will and testament is a requirement for Baháís. Since there is no Baháí clergy, services are conducted under the guise, or with the assistance of. A Buddhist funeral marks the transition from one life to the next for the deceased and it also reminds the living of their own mortality. Christian burials typically occur on consecrated ground, burial, rather than a destructive process such as cremation, was the traditional practice amongst Christians, because of the belief in the resurrection of the body. Cremations later came into use, although some denominations forbid them. Congregations of varied denominations perform different ceremonies, but most involve offering prayers, scripture reading from the Bible, a sermon, homily, or eulogy, and music. One issue of concern as the 21st century began was with the use of music at Christian funerals. Antyesti, literally last rites or last sacrifice, refers to the rituals associated with a funeral in Hinduism. It is sometimes referred to as Antima Samskaram, Antya-kriya, Anvarohanyya, a dead adult Hindu is cremated, while a dead child is typically buried. The rite of passage is said to be performed in harmony with the premise that the microcosm of all living beings is a reflection of a macrocosm of the universe
16.
Mobile phone
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A mobile phone is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the systems of a mobile phone operator. Most modern mobile telephone services use a network architecture, and, therefore. Mobile phones which offer these and more general computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones, the first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.4.4 lbs. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to seven billion, penetrating 100% of the global population. In first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone manufacturers were Samsung, Apple, a handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a pocket-size folding telephone with a thin carbon microphone. Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships, the race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, the first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.4.4 lbs. The first commercial automated cellular network was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and this was followed in 1981 by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Several other countries followed in the early to mid-1980s. These first-generation systems could support far more simultaneous calls but still used analog cellular technology, in 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. In 1991, the digital cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators, ten years later, in 2001, the third generation was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard. This was followed by 3. 5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access family, allowing UMTS networks to have data transfer speeds. By 2009, it had become clear that, at point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies
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Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
18.
Epiphany (holiday)
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Epiphany, also Theophany or Three Kings Day, is a Christian feast day that celebrates the revelation of God incarnate as Jesus Christ. In Western Christianity, the feast commemorates principally the visit of the Magi to the Christ child, moreover, the feast of the Epiphany, in some Western Christian denominations, also initiates the liturgical season of Epiphanytide. Eastern Christians, on the hand, commemorate the baptism of Jesus on both sides of the Jordan River, seen as his manifestation to the world as the Son of God. Qasr el Yahud in the West Bank, and Al-Maghtas in Jordan on the east bank, Al-Maghtas is considered to be the site of the baptism of Jesus. The traditional date for the feast is January 6, however, since 1970, the celebration is held in some countries on the Sunday after January 1. In many Western Christian Churches, the eve of the feast is celebrated as Twelfth Night, the Monday after Epiphany is known as Plough Monday. Popular Epiphany customs include Epiphany singing, chalking the door, having ones house blessed, consuming Three Kings Cake, winter swimming, the word Epiphany is from Koine Greek ἐπιφάνεια, epiphaneia, meaning manifestation or appearance. It is derived from a meaning to appear. In classical Greek it was used of the appearance of dawn, of an enemy in war, in the Septuagint the word is used of a manifestation of the God of Israel. In the New Testament the word is used in 2 Timothy 1,10 to refer either to the birth of Christ or to his appearance after his resurrection, and five times to refer to his Second Coming. Epiphany may have originated in the Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire as a feast to honor the baptism of Jesus, around 200, Clement of Alexandria wrote that, But the followers of Basilides celebrate the day of His Baptism too, spending the previous night in readings. And they say that it was the 15th of the month Tybi of the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar, and some say that it was observed the 11th of the same month. The Egyptian dates given correspond to January 6 and 10, the Basilides were a Gnostic sect. The reference to readings suggests that the Basilides were reading the Gospels, in ancient gospel manuscripts, the text is arranged to indicate passages for liturgical readings. If a congregation began reading Mark at the beginning of the year, it might arrive at the story of the Baptism on January 6, If Christians read Mark in the same format the Basilides did, the two groups could have arrived at the January 6 date independently. The earliest reference to Epiphany as a Christian feast was in A. D.361, the holiday is listed twice, which suggests a double feast of baptism and birth. The Nativity was assigned to the date as the birth because Luke 3,23 was misread to mean that Jesus was exactly 30 when he was baptized. Epiphanius of Salamis says that January 6 is Christs Birthday, that is, His Epiphany and he also asserts that the Miracle at Cana occurred on the same calendar day
19.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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Second World War
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
21.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
22.
Weather station
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The measurements taken include temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed, wind direction, and precipitation amounts. Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible, while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation, manual observations are taken at least once daily, while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour. Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys, which slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature, wave height. Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount, the instrumentation may be specialized to allow for periodic recording otherwise significant manual labour is required for record keeping. Automatic transmission of data, in a such as METAR, is also desirable as many weather stations data is required for weather forecasting. A personal weather station is a set of measuring instruments operated by a private individual, club, association. The quality, number of instruments, and placement of personal weather stations can vary widely, making the determination of which stations collect accurate, meaningful, personal weather stations also typically involve a digital console that provides readouts of the data being collected. These consoles may interface to a computer where data can be displayed, stored. Personal weather stations may be operated solely for the enjoyment and education of the owner, however some owners share their results with others and they do this by either by manually compiling data and distributing it, distributing data over the internet internet, or sharing data via amateur radio. The Citizen Weather Observer Program is a service which facilitates the sharing of information from weather stations. This data is submitted through use of software, a personal computer, each weather station submitting data to CWOP will also have an individual Web page that depicts the data submitted by that station. The Weather Underground Internet site is popular destination for the submittal. As with CWOP, each station submitting data to The Weather Underground has a unique Web page displaying their submitted data, the UK Met Offices Weather Observations Website also allows such data to be shared and displayed. A weather ship was a ship stationed in the ocean as a platform for surface and it was also meant to aid in search and rescue operations and to support transatlantic flights. The establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during World War II that the International Civil Aviation Organization established a network of 13 weather ships in 1948. Of the 12 left in operation in 1996, nine were located in the northern Atlantic ocean while three were located in the northern Pacific ocean, the agreement of the weather ships ended in 1990. Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, the last weather ship was MS Polarfront, known as weather station M at 66°N, 02°E, run by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute. MS Polarfront was removed from service January 1,2010, since the 1960s this role has been largely superseded by satellites, long range aircraft and weather buoys
23.
81st Infantry Division (United States)
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The 81st Infantry Division was an infantry division of the United States Army that was mobilized for service in both World War I and World War II. The division was inactivated in 1965 and remains on the inactive list of the United States Army, the 81st Infantry Division “Wildcats” was organized as a National Division of the United States Army in August 1917 during World War I at Camp Jackson, South Carolina. The division was organized with a small cadre of Regular Army officers. After organizing and finishing training, the 81st Division deployed to Europe, elements of the 81st Division first saw limited action by defending the St. Dié sector in September and early October. After relief of mission, the 81st Division was attached to the American First Army in preparation for the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. After the cessation of hostilities, the 81st Division remained in France until May 1919, after which the division was shipped back to the United States, the 81st Infantry Division was reactivated for World War II service in June 1942 at Camp Rucker, Alabama. As in World War I, the division was filled primarily with inducted men, the division trained at locations in Tennessee, Arizona and California before embarking for Hawaii in June 1944. After completion of amphibious and jungle training, the 81st Infantry Division departed for Guadalcanal in August 1944, there the division was attached to the III Marine Amphibious Corps reserve. In September 1944 the 321st Infantry Regiment of the 81st Infantry Division performed a landing on Angaur Island as part of the operations to secure the Palau Islands chain. After finishing the battle of Angaur, the 81st Infantry Division was ordered to assist the 1st Marine Division in their efforts to seize Peleliu, the 81st Infantry Division eventually relieved the 1st Marine Division, and assumed command of combat operations on Peleliu. The 81st Infantry Division remained engaged in the Battle of Peleliu until the end of organized Japanese resistance on 18 January 1945, in early February 1945, the 81st Infantry Division sailed to New Caledonia to rest and refit. In May 1945, the 81st Infantry Division was deployed to the Philippines to take part in mopping up operations on Leyte Island, after the end of World War II, the 81st Infantry Division deployed to Aomori Prefecture in Japan as part of the Allied occupation force. The 81st Infantry Division was inactivated in Japan on 30 January 1946, on 10 November 1947, the 81st Infantry Division was reconstituted in the Organized Reserve Corps with the division headquarters at Atlanta, Georgia. Under War Department guidelines, the 81st was organized as a Class C reserve unit with 60% of the officer cadre. In the event of a mobilization, the division would expand to wartime strength with called up reservists. However, during the 1950s and 60s, the 81st Infantry Division was not called up for service during the Korean War or Berlin Crisis, inactivated at Hoboken, New Jersey on 11 June 1919. Activated,15 June 1942, Camp Rucker, Alabama, awards, DSC-7, DSM-2, SS-281, LM-7, SM-40, BSM-658, AM-15. Commanders, Maj. Gen. Gustave H. Franke, Maj. Gen. Paul J. Mueller, inactivated,30 January 1946 in Japan
24.
Seabee (US Navy)
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United States Naval Construction Battalions - better known as Seabees, a heterograph of the first initials - C. B. comprise US Naval Construction Forces. International law made it illegal for civilians to resist enemy attack, doing so would classify them as guerrillas, the Seabees would consist of skilled workers that would be trained to drop their tools if necessary and take up their weapons at a moments notice to defend themselves. The concept model, A USMC trained Battalion of construction tradesmen that would be capable of, any type of construction, anywhere needed and it was quickly realized that this model could be utilized in every theater of operations as it was seen to be flexible and adaptable. The use of USMC organization allowed for smooth co-ordination, integration or interface of both the NCF and the Marine Corps elements, in addition, Seabee Battalions could be deployed individually or in multiples as the project scope and scale dictated. What distinguishes Seabees from Combat Engineers are the skill sets, Combat Engineering is but a sub-set in the Seabee toolbox. They have a legacy of creative field ingenuity stretching from Normandy and Okinawa to Iraq. Seabees believe that anything they are tasked with they Can Do and they were unique at conception and remain so today. In 2017, the Seabees celebrated 75 years of service and have not changed from Admiral Ben Moreells conceptual model, as far back as the War of 1812, US Navy seamen were employed in large numbers for major shore construction. In 1813, Essex, under command of Captain David Porter, rounded Cape Horn from the Atlantic Ocean, after capturing several British ships he discovered that a British naval squadron had been sent to search for him. Needing to repair and prepare Essex and his squadron, he sailed for the Marquesas Islands to find a suitable site for him to build the US Navys first advanced base. During construction they were attacked by unfriendly natives, during which they would have to lay down their tools. It wasnt until World War I that Navy craftsmen would be employed in large number again, in 1917, the Twelfth Regiment was organized at Naval Training Station Great Lakes. This allowed the Public Works Department to grow to nearly 600 men by July 1917 and they were organized into the Twelfth Regiment, which was essentially the Public Works Department because staff officers could not exercise military command. Lieutenant William C. Davis was appointed commanding officer of the regiment, he exercised military control, in October 1917, the regiment began building Camp Paul Jones. With its completion, on 30 December 1917, the regiment became operational with 1,500 men organized into three battalions. By April 1918, the regiment consisted of 2,400 in five battalions, men were withdrawn for assignments in the US and abroad. In spring of 1918,100 men were given special mechanics and ordnance training before being sent to St. Nazaire, France, later they would join the gun crews and perform combat duties along the railway lines in proximity to the German lines. The Twelfth Regiment reached its peak strength 5 November 1918,55 officers and 6,211 enlisted men formed into 11 battalions, however, with the end of the war on 11 November 1918, the regiment gradually faded away by the end of 1918
25.
USS Sumner (AGS-5)
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USS Sumner was a survey ship in the United States Navy. She was named in honor of Thomas Sumner and she was originally commissioned as a submarine tender as USS Bushnell, in honor of David Bushnell, the inventor of the first American submarine. She was assigned to the Submarine Flotilla, Atlantic Fleet, as tender to L-class submarines in January 1916, early in 1917 she escorted submarines to the Azores and in December accompanied Submarine Division 5 to Ireland, arriving at Queenstown 27 January 1918. Bushnell acted as tender for submarines operating off Queenstown until the end of World War I and she later escorted captured German submarines to Scotland, Canada, and the United States. In September 1920 she assisted in operations on the submarine USS S-5 sunk off the Delaware Capes. Up until August 1931, Sumner cruised with various Submarine Divisions on the Atlantic coast, in the Caribbean, on the west coast, Bushnell arrived at San Diego 3 September 1931 and reported for duty with the Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet, with whom she operated until 1937. On 25 July 1940 the ships designation was changed to AG-32, Sumner sailed from Norfolk, Virginia 20 October 1941, joined the Base Force, Pacific Fleet, at San Diego, and arrived 25 November at the Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor. On 7 December 1941 Sumner was moored at the Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor, after the attack she assisted the stricken ships in the area. On 12 January 1942 she set sail for Tongatapu and thence to Nandi Island, after transporting Marines to Wallis Island in May, she made a survey of local harbors. During the ensuing months she conducted surveys at Noumea, New Caledonia, Nukuʻalofa, Tonga, Port Vila and Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides, Sumner weighed anchor for Sydney, Australia,28 January 1943. In March she sailed to the Deboyne Islands to make a survey and she subsequently surveyed Stanley, Pitts, and Milne Bays in New Guinea. On 5 August she commenced a survey of Nukufetau, Ellice Islands and these operations were hampered throughout August and September by enemy air attacks. On 1 December 1943 her classification was changed to AGS-5, between 5 December 1943 and 13 February 1944 Sumner participated in the occupation of Tarawa and conducted a survey of the newly acquired area. She sailed to Kwajalein in February 1944 where she was engaged in improving the facilities until 11 April. The ship then stood out for San Francisco, via Pearl Harbor, repairs completed, Sumner returned to the Hawaiian Islands in August. In September she steamed to Ulithi where until February 1945 she conducted survey operations, on 1 February she sailed for Guam where she remained until 27 February. On 4 March she arrived at Iwo Jima and commenced surveying operations under adverse conditions. On 8 March she was hit by a shell which killed one of her crew
26.
Majuro
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Majuro, /ˈmædʒəroʊ/, is the capital and largest city of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. It is also a large atoll of 64 islands in the Pacific Ocean. It forms a district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. The atoll has an area of 9.7 square kilometres and encloses a lagoon of 295 square kilometres. As with other atolls in the Marshall Islands, Majuro consists of land masses. The main population center, named Delap-Uliga-Djarrit, DUD - three contiguous motus, had 20,301 people as of 2012, Majuro has a port, shopping district, hotels, and an international airport. At the western end of the atoll, about 50 kilometres from D–U–D by road, is the community of Laura. Laura has the highest elevation point on the atoll, estimated at less than 3 metres above sea level, being slightly north of the Equator, Majuro has a tropical climate with temperatures always above 21 °C. Humans have inhabited the atoll for at least 2,000 years, Majuro Atoll was claimed by the German Empire with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, and the Germans established a trading outpost. As with the rest of the Marshalls, Majuro was captured by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914 during World War I, on January 30,1944, United States troops invaded, but found that Japanese forces had evacuated their fortifications to Kwajalein and Enewetak about a year earlier. A single Japanese warrant officer had left as a caretaker. With his capture, the islands were secured and this gave the U. S. Navy use of one of the largest anchorages in the Central Pacific. The lagoon became a forward naval base of operations and was the largest and most active port in the world until the war moved westward when it was supplanted by Ulithi. Following World War II, Majuro came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. It supplanted Jaluit Atoll as the center of the Marshall Islands. The major population centers are the D–U–D communities, the islets of Delap–Uliga–Djarrit, as of 2011, Majuro had a population of 27,797. Most of the population is Christian, the majority follows the United Church of Christ. The Cathedral of the Assumption of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Prefecture of the Marshall Islands is located in Majuro, there is a sizable number of Ahmadi Muslims
27.
Pearl Harbor
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Pearl Harbor is a lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. Much of the harbor and surrounding lands is a United States Navy deep-water naval base and it is also the headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet. The U. S. government first obtained exclusive use of the inlet, the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on December 7,1941, was the immediate cause of the United States entry into World War II. Pearl Harbor was originally a shallow embayment called Wai Momi or Puʻuloa by the Hawaiians. Puʻuloa was regarded as the home of the goddess, Kaʻahupahau. Making due allowance for legendary amplification, the estuary already had an outlet for its waters where the present gap is, during the early 19th century, Pearl Harbor was not used for large ships due to its shallow entrance. The interest of United States in the Hawaiian Islands grew as a result of its whaling, shipping and trading activity in the Pacific. As early as 1820, an Agent of the United States for Commerce and these commercial ties to the American continent were accompanied by the work of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. American missionaries and their families became a part of the Hawaiian political body. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, many American warships visited Honolulu, in most cases, the commanding officers carried letters from the U. S. Government giving advice on governmental affairs and of the relations of the island nation with foreign powers. In 1841, the newspaper Polynesian, printed in Honolulu, advocated that the U. S. establish a base in Hawaii for protection of American citizens engaged in the whaling industry. The British Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Crichton Wyllie, remarked in 1840 that and my opinion is that the tide of events rushes on to annexation to the United States. In 1865, the North Pacific Squadron was formed to embrace the western coast, lackawanna in the following year was assigned to cruise among the islands, a locality of great and increasing interest and importance. This vessel surveyed the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands toward Japan, as a result, the United States claimed Midway Island. The Secretary of the Navy was able to write in his report of 1868. This increased activity caused the permanent assignment of at least one warship to Hawaiian waters and it also praised Midway Island as possessing a harbor surpassing Honolulus. In the following year, Congress approved an appropriation of $50,000 on March 1,1869, after 1868, when the Commander of the Pacific Fleet visited the islands to look after American interests, naval officers played an important role in internal affairs. They served as arbitrators in disputes, negotiators of trade agreements and defenders of law
28.
Service Squadron
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A Service Squadron was a U. S. Navy squadron that supported fleet combat units. Service Squadrons were used by the United States Navy from their inception in 1943 to as late as the early 1980s. At the time of their inception during the Second World War they allowed the US Navy to operate across the vast reaches of the Pacific ocean for extended periods of time. Service Squadrons created temporary forward bases to allow the naval squadrons to spend time in transit. Ulithi, a volcanic atoll in the central Pacific, is one such example. Service Squadrons essentially created a naval base near the area of operation. With the naval base at Ulithi to refit, repair and resupply, many ships were able to deploy, among the vessels operating in service squadrons were tankers, oilers, refrigerator ships, ammunition ships, supply ships, floating docks and repair ships. They provided diesel, ordnance, aviation fuel, food stuffs, Ulithi was as far forward from the US naval base at San Francisco as the San Francisco base was from London, England. To have a fully functional major port in the middle of the Pacific was a significant aid to U. S. Navy operations, the commander of the service squadron was responsible for the operation of all the ships, docks and repair yards in the squadron. The Commander was referred to as ComServRon, with the title followed by the designation of his Squadron. Service Squadrons were slowly disbanded as fleet combat support functions were shifted to Military Sealift Command, Service squadrons played a vital role in the war in the Pacific during the second world war. The Pacific ocean with its vast reaches was a significant obstacle to overcome, in considering their war in the Pacific against the United States, the Japanese had counted on the fact that the size of the Pacific Ocean would in itself be a defense. For the US Navy to conduct operations against the Japanese, all actions would necessarily be far from their home ports. Travel to the area of combat would consume the fleets supplies of fuel and food, Japanese naval strategy was built around the idea that this would present them with an opportunity to knock the US Navy out of the conflict with a single decisive action. They sought such an opportunity throughout the war and he referred to this future force as the Big Blue Fleet. To make it effective at projecting its power, he would need to devise a way to keep it supplied, the ongoing resupply of a large naval force across the vast expanse of the Pacific would require the US Navy to perform something no navy had ever accomplished before. In the autumn of 1943 Admiral Nimitz ordered the creation of two service squadrons and these two squadrons would provide mobile service to the fleet as it moved across the Pacific — with one service as fleet base while the second remained to the rear. As the fleet captured new sites the rear squadron would move to the front and he did this essentially by bringing the port to the Navy
29.
Battle of Leyte Gulf
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The Battle of Leyte Gulf is generally considered to be the largest naval battle of World War II and, by some criteria, possibly the largest naval battle in history. It was fought in waters near the Philippine islands of Leyte, Samar and Luzon, from 23–26 October 1944, between combined American and Australian forces and the Imperial Japanese Navy. The Imperial Japanese Navy mobilized nearly all of its major naval vessels in an attempt to defeat the Allied invasion but was repulsed by the U. S. Navys 3rd. The IJN failed to achieve its objective, suffered heavy losses. The majority of its surviving ships, deprived of fuel, remained in their bases for the rest of the Pacific War. It was the first battle in which Japanese aircraft carried out organized kamikaze attacks, by the time of the battle, Japan had fewer aircraft than the Allied forces had sea vessels, demonstrating the difference in power of the two sides at this point of the war. S. 5th Fleets Fast Carrier Task Force captured most of the Mariana Islands and this offensive breached Japans strategic inner defense ring and gave the Americans a base from which long-range Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers could attack the Japanese home islands. The Japanese counterattacked in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, the U. S. Navy destroyed three Japanese aircraft carriers and approximately 600 Japanese aircraft, leaving the IJN with virtually no carrier-borne air power or any experienced pilots. For subsequent operations, Admiral Ernest J. U. S. Army General Douglas MacArthur championed an invasion of the Philippines, which also lay across the supply lines to Japan. Leaving the Philippines in Japanese hands would be a blow to American prestige and an affront to MacArthur. However, Nimitz and MacArthur initially had opposing plans, with Nimitzs plan centered on an invasion of Formosa, Formosa could also serve as a base for an invasion of mainland China, which MacArthur felt was unnecessary. Nimitz eventually changed his mind and agreed to MacArthurs plan and it was also estimated that an invasion of Formosa would require about 12 divisions of U. S. Army soldiers and Marines. It was eventually decided that MacArthurs forces would invade the island of Leyte in the central Philippines, amphibious forces and close naval support would be provided by the 7th Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Thomas C. The 7th Fleet at this time contained units of the U. S. Navy, the U. S. 3rd Fleet—commanded by Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr. with Task Force 38 as its main component—would provide more distant cover and support for the invasion. A fundamental defect in this plan was there would be no single American naval admiral in overall command, Kinkaid and his 7th Fleet fell under MacArthur as Supreme Allied Commander Southwest Pacific, whereas Halseys 3rd Fleet reported to Nimitz as C-in-C Pacific Ocean Areas. This lack of unity of command, along with failures in communication, was to produce a crisis, by coincidence, the Japanese plan, using three separate fleets, also lacked an overall commander. The American options were apparent to the IJN, the plans were for complex offensive operations committing nearly all available forces to a decisive battle, despite this substantially depleting Japans slender reserves of fuel oil. The Japanese command therefore put Shō-Gō2 into action, launching waves of air attacks against 3rd Fleets carriers, following the American invasion of the Philippines, the Japanese Navy made the transition to Shō-Gō1
30.
Battle of Okinawa
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The 82-day-long battle lasted from 1 April until 22 June 1945. The Tenth was unique in that it had its own air force. The battle has been referred to as the typhoon of steel in English, the nicknames refer to the ferocity of the fighting, the intensity of Japanese kamikaze attacks, and the sheer numbers of Allied ships and armored vehicles that assaulted the island. The battle was one of the bloodiest in the Pacific, with an total of over 82,000 direct casualties on both sides,14,009 Allied deaths and 77,417 Japanese soldiers. Allied grave registration forces counted 110,071 dead bodies of Japanese soldiers,149,425 Okinawans were killed, committed suicide or went missing, a significant proportion of the estimated pre-war 300,000 local population. As part of the operations surrounding the battle, the Japanese battleship Yamato was sunk. After the battle, Okinawa provided an anchorage, troop staging areas. Expeditionary Troops under Lieutenant General Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr. with Tenth Army, TF56 was the largest force within TF50 and was built around the 10th Army. The army had two corps under its command, III Amphibious Corps, consisting of 1st and 6th Marine Divisions, the 2nd Marine Division was an afloat reserve, and Tenth Army also controlled the 27th Infantry Division, earmarked as a garrison, and 77th Infantry Divisions. In all, the Army had over 102,000 soldiers, at the start of Battle of Okinawa 10th Army had 182,821 men under its command. It was planned that General Buckner would report to Turner until the phase was completed. Although Allied land forces were composed of U. S. units. Although all the carriers were provided by Britain, the carrier group was a combined British Commonwealth fleet with British, Canadian, New Zealand and Australian ships. Their mission was to neutralize Japanese airfields in the Sakishima Islands, most of the air-to-air fighters and the small dive bombers and strike aircraft were U. S. Navy carrier-based airplanes. The Japanese land campaign was conducted by the 67, 000-strong regular 32nd Army and some 9,000 Imperial Japanese Navy troops at Oroku naval base, supported by 39,000 drafted local Ryukyuan people. The Japanese had used kamikaze tactics since the Battle of Leyte Gulf, between the American landing on 1 April and 25 May, seven major kamikaze attacks were attempted, involving more than 1,500 planes. The 32nd Army initially consisted of the 9th, 24th, and 62nd Divisions, the 9th Division was moved to Taiwan prior to the invasion, resulting in shuffling of Japanese defensive plans. Primary resistance was to be led in the south by Lt. General Mitsuru Ushijima, his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Isamu Chō and his chief of operations, Yahara advocated a defensive strategy, whilst Chō advocated an offensive one
31.
USS Iowa (BB-61)
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USS Iowa is the lead ship of her class of battleship and the fourth in the United States Navy to be named after the state of Iowa. She also served as the Third Fleet flagship, flying Adm. William F. Halseys flag at the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay. During the Korean War, Iowa was involved in raids on the North Korean coast, after which she was decommissioned into the United States Navy reserve fleets, better known as the mothball fleet. She was reactivated in 1984 as part of the 600-ship Navy plan, in April 1989, an explosion of undetermined origin wrecked her No.2 gun turret, killing 47 sailors. The Iowa was decommissioned for the last time in the year 1990 and she was reinstated from 1999 to 2006 to comply with federal laws that required retention and maintenance of two Iowa-class battleships. USS Iowa was the ship of her class of fast battleship designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction. She was the first ship of her class of battleship to be commissioned, USS Iowas main battery consisted of nine 16 in /50 caliber Mark 7 guns, which could fire 2,700 lb armor-piercing shells 20 nmi. Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 5 in /38 cal guns in twin mounts, on 24 February 1943, Iowa put to sea for a shakedown in the Chesapeake Bay and along the Atlantic coast. After refueling and gathering her escorts, Iowa carried President Roosevelt, Secretary of State Cordell Hull, Chief of Staff Admiral William D. Leahy, on being warned, Iowa turned hard to avoid being hit by the torpedo and the torpedo detonated in the ships wake. Iowa was unhurt and trained her guns on William D. Porter. Iowa completed her presidential escort mission on 16 December by returning the President to the United States, Roosevelt addressed the crew of Iowa prior to leaving by stating. From all I have seen and all I have heard, the Iowa is a happy ship and he also touched on the progress made at the conference before concluding his address with. Good luck, and remember that I am with you in spirit, each, from 29 January to 3 February, she supported carrier air strikes made by Rear Admiral Frederick C. Shermans Task Group 38.3 against Kwajalein and Eniwetok atolls and her next assignment was to support air strikes against the major Japanese naval and logistics base at Truk, Caroline Islands. On 21 February, she was underway with the Fast Carrier Task Force while it conducted the first strikes against Saipan, Tinian, Rota, and Guam in the Mariana Islands. On 18 March 1944, Iowa, flying the flag of Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee, although struck by two Japanese 4.7 in projectiles, Iowa suffered negligible damage. She then rejoined TF58 on 30 March, and supported air strikes against the Palau Islands, from 22–28 April, Iowa supported air raids on Hollandia, Aitape, and Wake Islands to support Army forces on Aitape and at Tanahmerah and Humboldt Bays in New Guinea. She then joined the Task Forces second strike on Truk, on 29 and 30 April, and bombarded Japanese facilities on Ponape in the Carolines on 1 May
32.
USS Ajax (AR-6)
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USS Ajax, in service 1943 to 1986, was the second Vulcan-class repair ship and the fourth ship in the United States Navy to bear the name. Laid down in 1941, launched in 1942 and commissioned in 1943 it was decommissioned in 1986, Ajax received four battle stars for Korean War service and five campaign stars for service in Vietnam. The ship was part of the clean up of the Pearl Harbor attack, on 8 January 1944, an oil fire in her blacksmith shop threatened the entire ship, but was extinguished. Nevertheless, Ajax spent part of January repairing her own damage, upon completing that mission, the ship returned to Funafuti on 26 February, only to sail three days later for Majuro. While she was serving there, Service Squadron 4 was absorbed by ServRon 10, there, she and Vestal repaired combatant ships through the Hollandia strikes and during preparations for the Marianas campaign. On 13 June, she sailed for Eniwetok to help set up a repair base where she labored through August, at one time working extensive jobs on 19 cruisers. Late in August, bacillary dysentery broke out among the crew, the ship was quarantined on 1 September and detached on 9 September to proceed to Kwajalein to combat the epidemic. Quarantine ended on 10 October, and Ajax steamed to Ulithi to resume repair work, severely damaged during a torpedo attack off Formosa, Canberra received sufficient temporary repairs alongside Ajax to enable the cruiser to continue on to Manus. The repair ship continued her work at Ulithi in support of operations in the Philippines, Iwo Jima, on 25 May 1945, Ajax headed for San Pedro Bay, Leyte Gulf, to help prepare for the final assault on Japan, spending July repairing typhoon-battered Bennington. The job consisted of rebuilding the section of her flight deck and required assistance from Basilan, Baham. Upon learning of Japans capitulation on 15 August, Ajax began readying amphibious, on 20 September, she sailed for Guiuan, Samar, embarked troops for passage to Okinawa, and once there, repaired other typhoon-damaged ships. Ironically, while she was carrying out this task, typhoons forced her to go to sea herself on 28 September, but for these two incidents, her work at Okinawa was uninterrupted until 28 November, when she sailed for the United States with 800 passengers. She arrived at San Diego on 18 December and, three days later, entered the San Francisco Naval Shipyard for a six-week overhaul. The yard work ended on 23 February 1946, and Ajax sailed via Pearl Harbor for the Bikini Atoll to participate in the bomb tests to be held there in July. The first bomb was dropped 8 miles away from the ship, the crew men were instructed to stand on the deck. It was reported that each man saw the skeleton of the man in front of him, following the tests, she returned to San Diego on 8 October. For the next few years, she tended ships primarily at San Diego, the repair ship got underway on 2 April 1951 for the first of many postwar cruises to Japan and arrived at Yokosuka on the 18th. She headed for Sasebo on 1 May and spent the rest of the year, Ajax returned to San Diego on 26 April and dev oted the next four and one-half months to operations in various shipyards and ports along the coast of California
33.
USS Abatan (AW-4)
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USS Abatan was a Pasig-class distilling ship built for the United States Navy during World War II, named for a river located in the southwestern part of Bohol Island in the Philippines. John A. Norman Eriksen in command, late in February, the new distilling ship got underway for shakedown training off the coast of southern California. She left the continental United States on the 28th and shaped a course for the Western Caroline Islands, during this period of her service, Japan capitulated in mid-August. The ship sailed for Okinawa on 1 October, and stopped en route at Samar, Philippine Islands and she reached her destination on 11 October and began issuing water to various fleet units. The ship left Okinawa on 15 November and set a course for Shanghai and she touched at that port on the 18th and remained stationed there through April 1946. The vessel left Chinese waters on 2 May and sailed via Okinawa to the Marshall Islands, Abatan reached Eniwetok on 31 May and assumed duties in connection with Operation Crossroads, a series of tests conducted to determine the effects of atomic explosions upon warships. She was involved in this project until 27 June, when she weighed anchor, the distilling ship arrived there the next day and remained in port providing potable water through 17 July. She then commenced a voyage to the east coast of the United States, the vessel visited Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, in late July, transited the Panama Canal, reported to the Atlantic Fleet in mid-August, and then proceeded to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. She arrived there on 20 August and entered a preinactivation availability phase, Abatan was placed out of commission, in reserve, on 27 January 1947 and was berthed at Philadelphia. Her name was struck from the Navy list on 1 July 1960, Abatan was reacquired by the Navy and reinstated on the Navy list on 27 September 1962 for use as a backup fresh water storage ship at the Naval Base, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. She was again struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 May 1970 but was retained as a hulk for storing water at Guantanamo Bay, dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
34.
Falalop Airfield
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Falalop Airfield or Naval Air Base Ulithi is a former World War II airfield on the island of Falalop, part of Ulithi Atoll in the Caroline Islands. Ulithi Atoll was captured unopposed on 20 September 1944, the airfield was fully operational by 1 December 1944. Marine Air Group 45 deployed to Falalop in late September to establish base operations, units stationed at Falalop included VMD-354 operating photo-reconnaissance F4Us and VMF-542 operating F6F-3N night-fighters. Fleet Air Wing One was based at Falalop from 15 October until 30 December 1944 when it was relocated to Saipan, on 7 December 1944 a detachment of two PBYs of VPB-23 was deployed to Falalop for air-sea rescue missions. A further 3 aircraft were deployed on 20 June 1945, all VPB-23 aircraft were transferred to Tanapag Harbor on Saipan on 13 December 1945. The airfield remains in use today
35.
Quonset hut
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A Quonset hut /ˈkwɒnsᵻt/ is a lightweight prefabricated structure of corrugated galvanized steel having a semicircular cross-section. Developed in the United States, the design was based on the Nissen hut introduced by the British during World War I, hundreds of thousands were produced during World War II and military surplus was sold to the public. The name comes from their site of first manufacture, Quonset Point, the United States Navy entered into a contract with the George A. Fuller construction company to manufacture them. The first was produced within 60 days of contract award, the original design was a 16 ft ×36 ft structure framed with steel members with an 8 ft radius. The sides were corrugated steel sheets, the two ends were covered with plywood, which had doors and windows. The interior was insulated and had pressed wood lining and a wood floor, the building could be placed on concrete, on pilings, or directly on the ground with a wood floor. The original design used low grade steel, which was replaced by a more rust-resistant version. The United States used an all-spruce Pacific Hut in the Pacific Theater of Operations in World War II, other sizes were developed, including 20 ft ×40 ft and 40 ft ×100 ft warehouse models. The flexible interior space was open, allowing for use as barracks, latrines, offices, medical and dental offices, isolation wards, housing, between 150,000 and 170,000 Quonset huts were manufactured during World War II. After the war, in the United States, the military sold its surplus Quonset huts to the public, many remain standing throughout the United States. Besides those that remain in use as outbuildings, they are seen at military museums. Some are still in use at United States military bases, for example, Camps Red Cloud and Casey near the Korean DMZ. Many were also used around the United States for temporary housing, such as Rodger Young Village in Los Angeles. Columbia Records Studio B in Nashville was also called The Quonset Hut, a number of variations on the Quonset hut design use materials other than corrugated galvanized steel. Daniel House Dymaxion Deployment Unit Iris hut Jamesway hut Iroquois longhouse Nissen hut Penarth History of Quonset Hut from the U. S. Naval History, Quonset Hut, Metal Living for a Modern Age. Shows descriptions and photos of different styles of Quonset hut. Quonset Hut History in Washington State, Washington State Department of Archaeology & Historic Preservation. Quonset Huts at Guampedia, Guams Online Encyclopedia Quonset Hut Quonset Huts, At National Airport, Arlington, Arlington County, VA at the Historic American Buildings Survey
36.
Kaiten
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Kaiten were manned torpedoes and suicide craft, used by the Imperial Japanese Navy in the final stages of World War II. In recognition of the progress of the war, toward the end of 1943 the Japanese high command considered suggestions for various suicide craft. These were initially rejected, but later deemed necessary, various suicide mission vehicles were developed in the Japanese Special Attack Units. For the Navy, this meant Kamikaze planes, Shinyo suicide boats, Kaiten submarines, the Kamikazes were somewhat successful, and the second most successful were the Kaitens. Research on the first Kaiten began in February 1944, followed on 25 July of the year by the first prototype. By 1 August, an order for 100 units had been placed, the torpedos pneumatic gyroscope was replaced by an electric model and controls were linked up to give the pilot full control of the weapon. The original designers and testers of new weapon were Lieutenant Hiroshi Kuroki. They were both to die at the controls of Kaitens, Lieutenant Kuroki in an early training prototype. In total six models of Kaiten were designed, Types 1,2,4,5 and 6 being based on the Type 93 torpedo, the Type 10 was the only model based on the Type 92 torpedo. Types 2,4,5,6 and 10 were only manufactured as prototypes, early designs allowed the pilot to escape after the final acceleration toward the target. There is no record of any pilot attempting to escape or intending to do so, and this provision was dropped from later Kaitens, so that, once inside, the pilot could not unlock the hatches. The Kaiten was fitted with a control, intended for use if an attack failed or the impact fuse failed. The island of Otsushima in the Inland Sea was used as a training site and it was equipped with cranes, torpedo testing pits and launch ramps, and had a large shallow bay for test running and firing. The Kaiten Memorial Museum is now situated there, Kaiten pilots were all men aged between 17 and 28. Initial training consisted of sailing fast surface boats by periscope and instrument readings alone, when a pilot had advanced past this basic training, he would begin training on Kaitens. When the instructors were confident of the abilities, he would be advanced to training in open waters against target ships. Training at this level was often done at full attack speed, the final phase of training would be a submarine launch and more open water attack runs on target ships. Training was dangerous, and 15 men died in accidents, the most common being from collision with the target vessel, although the warheads were only dummies, the impact at ramming speed was enough to not only cripple the Kaiten but also severely injure the pilot
37.
USS Case (DD-370)
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USS Case was a Mahan-class destroyer in the United States Navy before and during World War II. She was the ship named for Augustus Ludlow Case. Case was launched at the Boston Navy Yard, Boston, Massachusetts, M. R. Case and commissioned on 15 September 1936, with Commander J. S. Roberts in command. Case was berthed at Pearl Harbor when the Japanese struck on 7 December 1941, Case joined in fleet problems in the Hawaiian area, and in 1938, served as school ship at San Diego, California. Between February and April 1941, she cruised to Samoa, Tahiti, Case was in a nest of destroyers at Pearl Harbor Navy Yard on 7 December 1941 during the attack on Pearl Harbor. From 7 December until 23 May 1942, Case escorted convoys passing between the west coast and Pearl Harbor, from 31 May to 7 August 1942, Case patrolled and carried out the usual varied destroyer assignments off Kodiak, Alaska. On 7 August, she unleashed her guns in the bombardment of Kiska. Case continued on patrol off Adak until mid-October, when she escorted shipping to Pearl Harbor, returning to Pearl Harbor in late November 1942, Case cleared to escort a convoy to the Fiji Islands, arriving 20 December. After overhaul at San Francisco, California, Case returned to Pearl Harbor in December, for the next 8 months, Case was almost constantly at sea, screening groups of the 3rd and 5th Fleets. From mid-January through mid-March 1944, these strikes were against Japanese bases in the Marshall Islands, palau and the western Carolines were the targets 30 March-1 April, and Case next sailed from Majuro for the late-April air raids on Hollandia, Truk, Satawan, and Ponape. With this group, she screened carriers in the historic Battle of the Philippine Sea on 19 and 20 June, through mid-September, Case served on inter-island escort duty in the Marianas. In September, she rendezvoused with two submarines carrying allied prisoners of war, many of them wounded, rescued after the sinking of a Japanese transport, since rough seas prevented the submarines from transferring the wounded to Case, the destroyer put medical officers on board the submarines. Case participated in the bombardment of Marcus Island on 9 October 1944 and she returned to Ulithi 29 October, putting to sea again 8 November for the bombardment of Iwo Jima on the night of 11/12 November. Resuming escort duty from Ulithi, Case was screening cruisers bound for Saipan on 20 November, when she rammed and sank a Japanese midget submarine at the entrance to Mugai Channel. Immediately, she put back to Ulithi for an inspection of damage incurred in the encounter, Case joined in a smashing bombardment of Iwo Jima once more on 24 December, during which she and Roe were dispatched to attack a fleeing Japanese transport. A 2-hour chase at full speed followed, both destroyers firing as the range closed, at 1559, the effect of accurate gunfire told as the transport sank, her survivors refusing any assistance from the American destroyers. After repairs at Saipan, she returned to Iwo Jima 24 and 25 January 1945 for antisubmarine patrol during the phases of operations ashore. On 2 September 1945, the Case sailed to Chichi Jima to accept, on 19 September, she took departure from Iwo Jima for Norfolk, Virginia, arriving 1 November
38.
Type C submarine
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The Cruiser submarine Type-C was one of the first classes of submarine in the Imperial Japanese Navy to serve during the Second World War. Type-C submarines were better armed than the Type-A and Type-B, the Type-Cs were also utilized as Kō-hyōteki or Kaiten mother ships, for this reason they were not equipped with aviation facilities. The Type-C submarines were divided into three classes, Type-C Type-C Mod, however, the Vessel number 379-class was never built. They were based on the I-7 class, eight boats were built between 1937 and 1944 under the Maru 3 Programme and the Maru Kyū Programme. Boats in class Project number S37D, twenty boats were planned under the Maru Tsui Programme and the Kai-Maru 5 Programme. According to their Project number, they were one of the variants of the Type-B submarine, seventeen boats were cancelled in late 1943, because the IJN was planning to build the Type E submarine which was to become the primary submarine in 1945. Boats in class Project number S49B, twenty eight boats were planned under the Maru Kyū Programme and the Kai-Maru 5 Programme. All boats were cancelled in late 1943, because the IJN was planning to build the Type E submarine, may 1999, Book code 08734-5 The Maru Special, Japanese Naval Vessels No.31 Japanese Submarines I, Ushio Shobō, September 1979, Book code 68343-31 Cruiser submarine
39.
Operation Tan No. 2
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The Japanese hoped to take the U. S. Pacific fleet by surprise and sink or damage a significant number of the aircraft carriers or other large ships. The Azusa Special Attack Unit, to which were allocated twenty-four Yokosuka P1Y1 twin-engine bombers took off from the Kanoya Air Field on Kyushu, the southernmost of the main Japanese islands. The aircraft were bound for the US naval base at Ulithi on a one way trip at the limits of their range in an attempt to destroy the Fifth Fleet carriers at anchor there. Each of the planes carried an 800kg bomb, which intended to deliver by crashing onto the American flight decks. A number of aircraft and submarines were used to help guide the attackers over their long flight. Some six of the P1Y1s suffered mechanical difficulties and had to back to their home base at Kanoya. Still others had to ditch at sea, two of the twenty-four aircraft reached Ulithi, arriving after nightfall and achieving complete surprise. One aircraft hit the Essex class aircraft carrier USS Randolph in the stern just below the deck, killing 27 men and wounding 105. The second aircraft crashed onto a road on the small island of Sorlen. There were no deaths in the attack beyond the crew, though several U. S. servicemen were injured from debris. Randolph was repaired at the facilities available at Ulithi and rejoined the U. S. fleet in April,1945. She then took part in the Battle of Okinawa, where Admiral Mitscher shifted his flag to her after Kamikaze attacks successively knocked both USS Bunker Hill and USS Enterprise out of the battle, Azusa tokubetsu kougekitai, Bakugekiki Ginga sanzen kiro no kouseki. Divine Thunder, The life and death of the Kamikazes, rielly, Robin L. Kamikaze Attacks of World War II, A Complete History of Japanese Suicide Strikes on American ships, by Aircraft and Other Means. Fading Victory, The Diary of Admiral Matome Ugaki, 1941-1945,2, The Japanese Attack on Task Force 58s Anchorage at Ulithi. A Tribute to the USS Randolph and Her Crews
40.
Kamikaze
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During World War II, about 3,862 kamikaze pilots died, and about 19% of kamikaze attacks managed to hit a ship. Kamikaze aircraft were essentially pilot-guided explosive missiles, purpose-built or converted from conventional aircraft, a kamikaze could sustain damage which would disable a conventional attacker and still achieve its objective. The goal of crippling or destroying large numbers of Allied ships, particularly aircraft carriers, was considered by the Empire of Japan to be a just reason for sacrificing pilots and these attacks, which began in October 1944, followed several critical military defeats for the Japanese. They had long since lost aerial dominance due to outdated aircraft, Japan suffered from a diminishing capacity for war, and a rapidly declining industrial capacity relative to the Allies. Japan was also losing pilots faster than it could train their replacements, in combination, these factors, coupled with the unwillingness to surrender, led to the use of kamikaze tactics as Allied forces advanced towards the Japanese home islands. While the term usually refers to the aerial strikes, it has also been applied to various other suicide attacks. The Japanese military also used or made plans for non-aerial Japanese Special Attack Units, including those involving submarines, human torpedoes, speedboats, the tradition of death instead of defeat, capture, and perceived shame was deeply entrenched in Japanese military culture. It was one of the traditions in the samurai life. The Japanese word kamikaze is usually translated as divine wind, in Japanese, the formal term used for units carrying out suicide attacks during 1944–1945 is tokubetsu kōgeki tai, which literally means special attack unit. This is usually abbreviated to tokkōtai, more specifically, air suicide attack units from the Imperial Japanese Navy were officially called shinpū tokubetsu kōgeki tai. Shinpū is the on-reading of the characters that form the word kamikaze in Japanese. As a result, the attack units are sometimes known in Japan as kamikaze tokubetsu kōgeki tai. Axell and Kase see these suicides as individual, impromptu decisions by men who were prepared to die. The case of Nikolai Gastellos taran on 26 June 1941 passed into Soviet air-warfare lore, in most cases, little evidence exists that such hits represented more than accidental collisions of the kind that sometimes happen in intense sea or air battles. One example of this occurred on 7 December 1941 during the attack on Pearl Harbor, First Lieutenant Fusata Iidas plane had taken a hit and had started leaking fuel when he apparently used it to make a suicide attack on Naval Air Station Kaneohe. Before taking off, he had told his men that if his plane were to become badly damaged he would crash it into an enemy target. During 1943–1944, U. S. forces steadily advanced toward Japan, newer U. S. -made planes, especially the Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair, began to outnumber and outclass Japans fighter planes. Tropical diseases, as well as shortages of parts and fuel
41.
USS Randolph (CV-15)
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USS Randolph was one of 24 Essex-class aircraft carriers built during World War II for the United States Navy. The second US Navy ship to bear the name, she was named for Peyton Randolph, Randolph was commissioned in October 1944, and served in several campaigns in the Pacific Theater of Operations, earning three battle stars. Decommissioned shortly after the end of the war, she was modernized and recommissioned in the early 1950s as an attack carrier, in her second career she operated exclusively in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Caribbean. In the early 1960s she served as the ship for two Project Mercury space missions, including John Glenns historic first orbital flight. She was decommissioned in 1969 and sold for scrap in 1975, Randolph was one of the long-hull Essex-class ships. She was laid down on 10 May 1943, at Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co and she was launched on 28 June 1944, sponsored by Rose Gillette. Randolph commissioned on 9 October 1944, Captain Felix Locke Baker, following shakedown off Trinidad, Randolph got underway for the Panama Canal and the Pacific. On 31 December, she reached San Francisco where Air Group 87 was detached, on 20 January 1945, Randolph departed San Francisco for Ulithi, from which she sortied on 10 February with Task Force 58. She launched attacks on 16–17 February against Tokyo airfields and the Tachikawa engine plant, the following day, she made a strike on the island of Chichi Jima. On 20 February, she launched three aerial sweeps in support of forces invading Iwo Jima and two against Haha Jima. During the next four days, further strikes hit Iwo Jima, three sweeps against airfields in the Tokyo area and one against Hachijo Jima followed on 25 February before the carrier returned to Ulithi. Riding at anchor at Ulithi on 11 March, a Yokosuka P1Y1 Frances kamikaze hit Randolph on the starboard side aft just below the deck, killing 27 men. Repaired at Ulithi, Randolph joined the Okinawa Task Force on 7 April, Combat air patrols were flown daily until 14 April, when strikes were sent against Okinawa, Ie Shima, and Kakeroma Island. The following day, an air support mission of fighters, bombers, and torpedo planes hit Okinawa, under daily air attack from 17 April on, Randolph continued to send her aircraft on CAP and support missions throughout the month. In May, planes from the hit the Ryukyu Islands and southern Japan, Kikai naval base and airfields. Becoming the flagship of TF58 on 15 May, Randolph continued her support of the occupation of Okinawa until 29 May, on her next war cruise, as a part of Admiral Halseys 3rd Fleet, Randolph made a series of strikes up and down the Japanese home islands. With Air Group 16 replacing Air Group 12, the ship launched eight raids on 10 July against airfields in the Tokyo area, on the 14th, her planes struck the airfields and shipping in and near Tsugaru Strait. In this attack, two of the important Honshū-Hokkaidō train ferries were sunk and three were damaged
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I-400-class submarine
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The IJN called this type of submarine Sentoku type submarine. The type name was shortened to Toku-gata Sensuikan and they were submarine aircraft carriers able to carry three Aichi M6A Seiran aircraft underwater to their destinations. They were designed to surface, launch their planes, then dive again before they were discovered. They also carried torpedoes for close-range combat, the I-400 class was designed with the range to travel anywhere in the world and return. A fleet of 18 boats was planned in 1942, and work started on the first in January 1943 at the Kure, within a year the plan was scaled back to five, of which only three were completed. The I-400 class was the brainchild of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Combined Fleet and he commissioned Captain Kameto Kuroshima to make a feasibility study. Yamamoto submitted the proposal to Fleet Headquarters on 13 January 1942. It called for 18 large submarines capable of making three round-trips to the west coast of the United States without refueling or one round-trip to any point on the globe. They also had to be able to store and launch at least two aircraft armed with one torpedo or 800 kg bomb. By 17 March, general plans for the submarines were finalized. Construction of I-400 commenced at Kure Dock Yards on 18 January 1943, following Yamamotos death in April 1943, the number of aircraft-carrying submarines to be built was reduced from eighteen to nine, then five and finally three. Only I-400 and I-401 actually entered service, I-402 was completed on 24 July 1945, five weeks before the end of the war, but never made it to sea. Each submarine had four 1,680 kW engines and carried fuel to go around the world one-and-a-half times—more than enough to reach the United States travelling east or west. Measuring more than 120 m long overall, they displaced 5,900 t, the cross-section of its pressure hull had a unique figure-of-eight shape which afforded the necessary strength and stability to handle the weight of a large on-deck aircraft hangar. To allow stowage of three aircraft along the centreline, the conning tower was offset to port. Located approximately amidships on the top deck was a cylindrical watertight aircraft hangar,31 m long and 3.5 m in diameter. The outer access door could be opened hydraulically from within or manually from the outside by turning a large hand-wheel connected to a rack, the door was made waterproof with a 51-millimetre-thick rubber gasket. Sited atop the hangar were three waterproofed Type 96 triple-mount 25 mm autocannon for AA defence, two aft and one forward of the conning tower, a single 25 mm autocannon on a pedestal mount was also located just aft the bridge
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Fais Island
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Fais Island is a raised coral island in the eastern Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Fais Island is located approximately 87 kilometres east of Ulithi and 251 kilometres northeast of Yap and is the closest land to Challenger Deep, the population of Fais Island was 215 in 2000. Fais Island is an oblong, oval-shaped raised coralline mass with an elevation of 18 metres, surrounded by a narrow lagoon. It has a land area of 2.6 square kilometres. First, he hooked up crops of all sorts, and taro, first recorded sighting of Fais Island was by the Spanish expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos on 23 January 1543. Fais was therefore charted as Matelotes, however, while this could be a natural explanation of the incident, it doesnt explain why, according to Villalobos records the local people greeted them in perfect Spanish and not in Portuguese. French naval captain Louis Tromelin visited the island during a journey through the Pacific 1828-29 As with all of the Caroline Islands, the island came under the control of the Empire of Japan after World War I, and was subsequently administered under the South Pacific Mandate. Allied forces occupied Fais Island from January 1,1945 and built an airstrip
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Latin script
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Latin script is used as the standard method of writing in most Western and Central European languages, as well as in many languages in other parts of the world. Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any writing system and is the most widely adopted writing system in the world, Latin script is also the basis of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The 26 most widespread letters are the contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The script is either called Roman script or Latin script, in reference to its origin in ancient Rome, in the context of transliteration, the term romanization or romanisation is often found. Unicode uses the term Latin as does the International Organization for Standardization, the numeral system is called the Roman numeral system, and the collection of the elements, Roman numerals. The numbers 1,2,3. are Latin/Roman script numbers for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the Latin alphabet spread, along with Latin, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Latin script also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, the speakers of East Slavic languages generally adopted Cyrillic along with Orthodox Christianity. The Serbian language uses both scripts, with Cyrillic predominating in official communication and Latin elsewhere, as determined by the Law on Official Use of the Language and Alphabet. As late as 1500, the Latin script was limited primarily to the languages spoken in Western, Northern, the Orthodox Christian Slavs of Eastern and Southeastern Europe mostly used Cyrillic, and the Greek alphabet was in use by Greek-speakers around the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabic script was widespread within Islam, both among Arabs and non-Arab nations like the Iranians, Indonesians, Malays, and Turkic peoples, most of the rest of Asia used a variety of Brahmic alphabets or the Chinese script. It is used for many Austronesian languages, including the languages of the Philippines, Latin letters served as the basis for the forms of the Cherokee syllabary developed by Sequoyah, however, the sound values are completely different. In the late 19th century, the Romanians returned to the Latin alphabet, under French rule and Portuguese missionary influence, a Latin alphabet was devised for the Vietnamese language, which had previously used Chinese characters. In 1928, as part of Mustafa Kemal Atatürks reforms, the new Republic of Turkey adopted a Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Iranian-speaking Tajikistan, and the breakaway region of Transnistria kept the Cyrillic alphabet, chiefly due to their close ties with Russia. In the 1930s and 1940s, the majority of Kurds replaced the Arabic script with two Latin alphabets, although the only official Kurdish government uses an Arabic alphabet for public documents, the Latin Kurdish alphabet remains widely used throughout the region by the majority of Kurdish-speakers. In 2015, the Kazakh government announced that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the system for the Kazakh language by 2025. In the course of its use, the Latin alphabet was adapted for use in new languages, sometimes representing phonemes not found in languages that were written with the Roman characters. These new forms are given a place in the alphabet by defining an alphabetical order or collation sequence, a digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. Examples are ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨sh⟩ in English, a trigraph is made up of three letters, like the German ⟨sch⟩, the Breton ⟨c’h⟩ or the Milanese ⟨oeu⟩
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Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
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The Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships is the official reference work for the basic facts about ships used by the United States Navy. When the writing project was developed the parameters for this series were designed to cover only commissioned US Navy ships with assigned names, if the ship was not assigned a name it was not included in the histories written for the series. In addition to the entries, DANFS and the online links have been expanded to include appendices on small craft, histories of Confederate Navy ships. DANFS was published in print by the Naval Historical Center as bound volumes, ordered by ship name. Several volumes subsequently went out of print, in 1991 a revised Volume I Part A, covering only ship names beginning with A, was released. Work continues on revisions of the remaining volumes, volunteers at the Hazegray website undertook to transcribe the DANFS and make it available on the World Wide Web. The project goal is a transcription of the DANFS, with changes limited to correcting typographical errors. In 2008 the NHC was re-designated as the Naval History and Heritage Command and it has developed an online version of DANFS through a combination of optical character recognition and hand transcription. The NHHC is slowly updating its online DANFS to correct errors, the NHHC has begun a related project to place Ship History and Command Operations Reports online at their DANFS site. As the DANFS is a work of the U. S. government, its content is in the domain. Many websites organized by former and active members of U. S. Navy vessels include a copy of their ships DANFS entries. The Dictionary limits itself largely to basic descriptions and brief operational notes, and includes almost no analysis or historical context
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United States Department of the Navy
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The Secretary of the Navy is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. They supervise their military services of the Department of the Navy. They are assisted by a Vice Chief of Naval Operations and an Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps. Unlike its U. S. Army and U. S. Air Force counterparts, the Department of the Navy consists of all elements of the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps. According to Navy Regulations Section 0204-2, the term Navy Department refers only to the offices at the seat of government. The bill passed in the House on 17 May 2007, but encountered opposition among members of the DoD civilian leadership and among senior Navy admirals, in the Senate, the provision was replaced in S. Amdt. 2011, an amendment in the nature of a substitute proposed by Senator Carl Levin of Michigan on 9 July 2007, the amendment removed the renaming provision and also made other changes. The House version including the provision was withdrawn in conference committee, Naval Vessel Register Title 32 of the Code of Federal Regulations United States Navy Regulations, Accessed on 2011-03-23. Department of the Navy website US Marine Corps official website US Navy official website Department of Defense website Department of the Navy in the Federal Register
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