1.
Groningen (province)
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Groningen is the northeasternmost province of the Netherlands. It borders on Friesland to the west, Drenthe to the south, the German state of Niedersachsen to the east, in 2014, it had a population of 582,640 and a total area of 2,960 km2. The area was part of Frisia, the Frankish Empire, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Dutch Republic. In the 14th century, the city of Groningen became a member of the Hanseatic League, the capital of the province and the seat of the provincial government is the city of Groningen. Since 2016, René Paas has been the Kings Commissioner in the province, a coalition of the Labour Party, Peoples Party for Freedom and Democracy, Democrats 66, and ChristianUnion forms the executive branch. The province is divided into 23 municipalities, the land is mainly used for agriculture. There are sea ports in Delfzijl and Eemshaven, the Groningen gas field was discovered in 1959. The province is home to the University of Groningen and Hanze University of Applied Sciences, Groningen was originally a part of Frisia. It became a part of the Frankish Empire around 785, charlemagne assigned the Christianization of this new possession to Ludger. In the 11th century, the city of Groningen was a village in Drenthe that belonged to the Bishopric of Utrecht, during the Middle Ages, central control was remote, and the city of Groningen acted as a city-state, exerting a dominating influence on the surrounding Ommelanden. In the 14th century, Groningen became one of the towns within the Hanseatic League, in the years after, Groningen expanded its influence. At its peak almost all of the current province Friesland was under the influence, shortly before 1498, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor gave Groningen and Friesland to Albert III, Duke of Saxony, who could however not establish permanent control. In 1514/15 Groningen came to the Duchy of Guelders, and in 1536 as the Lordship of Groningen to the Habsburg Netherlands, in 1594, Groningen was conquered by the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, precursor state of the Netherlands, to which it belonged henceforth. During World War II, the Netherlands were occupied by Nazi Germany, in May 1945, another 3,000 German soldiers were captured in the Battle of Delfzijl by the 5th Canadian Division, after which all of the northern provinces were liberated. East Groningen was the scene of a particularly fierce class struggle in the 19th and 20th centuries, perhaps not coincidentally, Groningen boasts the only municipality where the Communist Party of the Netherlands has ever had a mayor. The northernmost point of the Netherlands is on Rottumerplaat at 53°33′18″N 6°28′41″E, Groningen is the 7th largest province of the Netherlands. It has an area of 2,960 km2, with 2,325 km2 of land and 635 km2 of water. About 80% of the land or 1,876 km2 is used for agriculture
2.
Hybrid (biology)
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In biology, a hybrid, also known as a cross breed, is the result of combining, through sexual reproduction, the qualities of two animals or plants of different breeds, varieties, species or genera. Hybrids are not always intermediate between their parents, but can show heterosis or hybrid vigour, often growing larger or taller than either parent, some act before fertilization, others after it. A few animal species and many plant species, however, are the result of hybrid speciation, doubling the number of chromosomes to create polyploids is important in hybrid speciation, because homoploid hybrids are rarely fertile, the polyploid hybrids are allopolyploids. Human impact on the environment has greatly increased the mixing of species, with introduced species worldwide, the genetic mixing may threaten many species with extinction, while genetic erosion in crop plants may be damaging the gene pools of many species for future breeding. Many commercially useful fruits, flowers, garden herbs and trees have been produced by hybridization, one flower, Oenothera lamarckiana, was central to early genetics research into polyploidy. The term hybrid is derived from Latin hybrida, used for such as of a tame sow and a wild boar, or the child of a freeman. The term came into use in English in the 19th century. Conspicuous hybrids are named with portmanteau words, starting in the 1920s with the breeding of tiger-lion hybrids. The cross between two different homozygous lines produces an F1 hybrid that is heterozygous, having two alleles, one contributed by each parent and typically one is dominant and the other recessive. Typically, the F1 generation is also phenotypically homogeneous, producing offspring that are all similar to each other, double cross hybrids result from the cross between two different F1 hybrids. Three-way cross hybrids result from the cross between an F1 hybrid and an inbred line, triple cross hybrids result from the crossing of two different three-way cross hybrids. Top cross hybrids result from the crossing of a top quality or pure-bred male, population hybrids result from the crossing of plants or animals in a population with those of another population. These include interspecific hybrids or crosses between different breeds. e, from the point of view of genetics, different kinds of hybrid can be distinguished as follows, A genetic hybrid carries two different alleles of the same gene. A structural hybrid results from the fusion of gametes that have differing structure in at least one chromosome, a numerical hybrid results from the fusion of gametes having different haploid numbers of chromosomes. A permanent hybrid results when only the heterozygous genotype occurs, as in Oenothera lamarckiana, from the point of view of taxonomy, hybrids differ according to their parentage, Hybrids between different subspecies are called intra-specific hybrids. Offspring resulting from interspecies mating, are called interspecific hybrids, these result in hybrid speciation. Intergeneric hybrids result from matings between different genera, such as sheep and goats. Interfamilial hybrids such as chickens and guineafowl or pheasants are reliably described but extremely rare
3.
Cultivar
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The term cultivar most commonly refers to an assemblage of plants selected for desirable characteristics that are maintained during propagation. More generally, cultivar refers to the most basic classification category of cultivated plants governed by the ICNCP, most cultivars have arisen in cultivation, but a few are special selections from the wild. Popular ornamental garden plants like roses, camellias, daffodils, rhododendrons, trees used in forestry are also special selections grown for their enhanced quality and yield of timber. Cultivars form a part of Liberty Hyde Baileys broader grouping. Cultivar was coined by Bailey and it is regarded as a portmanteau of cultivated and variety. A cultivar is not the same as a variety, a taxonomic rank below subspecies. In recent times, the naming of cultivars has been complicated by the use of statutory plant patents, the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants offers legal protection of plant cultivars to people or organisations who introduce new cultivars to commerce. UPOV requires that a cultivar be distinct, uniform and stable, to be distinct, it must have characteristics that easily distinguish it from any other known cultivar. To be uniform and stable, the cultivar must retain these characteristics under repeated propagation, a cultivar is given a cultivar name, which consists of the scientific Latin botanical name followed by a cultivar epithet. The cultivar epithet is usually in a vernacular language, for example, the full cultivar name of the King Edward potato is Solanum tuberosum King Edward. The King Edward part of the name is the cultivar epithet, the origin of the term cultivar arises from the need to distinguish between wild plants and those with characteristics that have arisen in cultivation. This distinction dates back to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus, the Father of Botany, botanical historian Alan Morton notes that Theophrastus in his Enquiry into Plants had an inkling of the limits of culturally induced changes and of the importance of genetic constitution. In Species Plantarum, Linnaeus listed all the known to him. Most of the listed by Linnaeus were of garden origin rather than being wild plants. Over time there was an increasing need to distinguish between plants growing in the wild, and those with variations that had produced in cultivation. In the nineteenth century many garden-derived plants were given names, sometimes in Latin. In the twentieth century an improved international terminology was proposed for the classification and it is essentially the equivalent of the botanical variety except in respect to its origin. However, Bailey was never explicit about the etymology of the word, and it has suggested that it is a contraction of the words cultigen and variety
4.
Ulmus glabra
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A large, deciduous tree, it is essentially a montane species, growing at elevations of up to 1500 m, preferring sites with moist soils and high humidity. The tree can form pure forests in Scandinavia and occurs as far north as latitude 67°N at Beiarn in Norway, wych elm has also been successfully introduced to Narsarsuaq, near the southern tip of Greenland. The tree was by far the most common elm in the north, however, this is contested, the correct Gaelic name considered Loch Laomainn, its origin obscure. The word wych comes from the Old English wice, meaning pliant or supple, an older name for the tree was wych hazel, perhaps based on the similar appearance of hazel and wych elm shoots. Some botanists, notably Lindquist have proposed dividing the species into two subspecies, Ulmus glabra subsp, glabra in the south of the species range, with broad leaves, trees often with a short, forked trunk and a low, broad crown Ulmus glabra subsp. Montana Lindqvist in the north of the range, the leaves are narrower, trees commonly with a long single trunk. The wych elm sometimes reaches heights of 40 m, typically with a crown where open-grown. There are not normally root suckers, natural reproduction is by seed alone, the tree is notable for its very tough, supple young shoots, which are always without the corky ridges or wings characteristic of many elms. The alternate leaves are deciduous, 6–17 cm long by 3–12 cm broad, usually obovate with a base, the lobe often completely covering the short petiole. Leaves on juvenile or shade-grown shoots sometimes have three or more lobes near the apex, the perfect hermaphrodite flowers appear before the leaves in early spring, produced in clusters of 10–20, they are 4 mm across on 10 mm long stems and, being wind-pollinated, are apetalous. The fruit is a winged samara 20 mm long and 15 mm broad, with a single, round,6 mm seed in the centre, maturing in late spring. Montana While the species is susceptible to Dutch elm disease. Research in Spain has indicated the presence of a triterpene, alnulin, moreover, once the tree is dying, its bark is quickly colonized by the fungus Phoma, which radically reduces the amount of bark available for the beetle to breed on. In European trials, clones of apparently resistant trees were inoculated with the pathogen, DNA analysis by Cemagref in France has determined the genetic diversity within the species is very limited, making the chances of a resistant tree evolving rather remote. The Swedish Forest Tree Breeding Association at Källstorp produced triploid and tetraploid forms of the tree, in trials conducted in Italy, the tree was found to have a slight to moderate susceptibility to elm yellows, and a high susceptibility to the elm leaf beetle Xanthogaleruca luteola. The wych elm is moderately shade-tolerant, but requires deep, rich soils as typically found along river valleys, however, the species is intolerant of flooding, as it is of prolonged drought. Although rarely used as a street tree owing to its shape, it can be tolerant of urban air pollution, constricted growing conditions. As wych elm does not sucker from the roots, and any seedlings are often consumed by uncontrolled deer populations, the resultant decline has been extreme, and the wych elm is now uncommon over much of its former range
5.
Ulmus minor
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Ulmus minor Mill. the field elm, is by far the most polymorphic of the European species, although its taxonomy remains a matter of contention. The trees typical habitat is low-lying forest along the rivers, growing in association with oak and ash. Current treatment of the species owes much to Richens, who noted that several varieties of elm are distinguishable on the European mainland. As for British varieties, the continental populations most closely related are in central Europe and he concluded, however, that owing to incomplete field-research at the time of writing, it was not possible to present an overall breakdown of the European Field Elm into regional varieties. Richens sank a number of British elms, notably English elm, however, Melville, writing ten years later, identified five distinct species, several varieties and numerous complex hybrids. In 1992 Armstrong identified no fewer than forty British species and microspecies, clive Stace wrote of the British elms The two-species concept of Richens is not sufficiently discriminating to be of taxonomic value. Nevertheless, it is Richens’ classification which has been the most commonly adopted in recent years, in 2009 Dr Max Coleman of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh wrote, The advent of DNA fingerprinting has shed considerable light on the question. This means that enigmatic British elms such as Plot elm and English elm have been shown to be clones of field elm. Although Richens did not have the evidence to prove it, he was correct in recognising a series of clones and it is hoped that analysis of molecular markers will ultimately eliminate the taxonomic confusion. The tree typically grows to <30 m and bears a rounded crown, the bark of the trunk is rough, furrowed lightly in older trees to form a block pattern. Young branchlets occasionally have corky wings, the shoots are slender compared with those of wych elm. The leaves are smaller than those of the other European species, hence the specific epithet minor, a common characteristic is the presence of minute black glands along the leaf veins, detectable with the aid of a magnifying glass. The samarae are ovate and notched, the notch extending to the central seed. The species readily produces suckers from roots and stumps, even after devastation by Dutch elm disease, most trees are very susceptible to Dutch elm disease, including all the fashionable pre-20th century plantsmans clones. In the UK, despite its late leaf-flush in the north and its suckering habits, augustine Henry wrote in 1913 that the U. minor planted in parks in Scotland were of French origin. More recently U. minor seed was imported to the UK from Italy, there are mature survivors in Edinburgh that are not the common U. minor cultivars. U. minor has been introduced to the hemisphere, notably Australasia. U. minor can live to a great age, an ancient field elm stood until recently in the village square of Metaxades, Thrace, Greece
6.
Glossary of leaf morphology
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The following is a defined list of terms which are used to describe leaf morphology in the description and taxonomy of plants. Leaves may be simple or compound, the edge of the leaf may be regular or irregular, may be smooth or bearing hair, bristles or spines. For more terms describing other aspects of leaves besides their overall morphology see the leaf article, leaves of most plants include a flat structure called the blade or lamina, but not all leaves are flat, some are cylindrical. Leaves may be simple, with a leaf blade, or compound. In flowering plants, as well as the blade of the leaf, there may be a petiole and stipules, leaf structure is described by several terms that include, Being one of the more visible features, leaf shape is commonly used for plant identification. Edge and margin are both interchangeable in the sense that they refer to the perimeter of a leaf. Leaves may also be folded or rolled in various ways, the folding of leaves within a bud is vernation, ptyxis is the folding of an individual leaf in a bud
7.
Dutch elm disease
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Dutch elm disease is caused by a member of the sac fungi affecting elm trees, and is spread by elm bark beetles. It has also reached New Zealand, the disease affects species in the genera Ulmus and Zelkova, therefore it is not specific to the Dutch elm hybrid. The causative agents of DED are ascomycete microfungi, three species are now recognized, Ophiostoma ulmi, which afflicted Europe from 1910, reaching North America on imported timber in 1928. Ophiostoma himal-ulmi, an endemic to the western Himalaya. Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, an extremely virulent species from Japan which was first described in Europe, DED is spread in North America by three species of bark beetles, The native elm bark beetle, Hylurgopinus rufipes. The European elm bark beetle, Scolytus multistriatus, the banded elm bark beetle, Scolytus schevyrewi. In Europe, while S. multistriatus still acts as a vector for infection, it is less effective than the large elm bark beetle. H. rufipes can be a vector for the disease, but is inefficient compared to the other vectors, S. schevyrewi was found in 2003 in Colorado and Utah. Other reported DED vectors include Scolytus sulcifrons, S. pygmaeus, S. laevis, Pteleobius vittatus, other elm bark beetle species are also likely vectors. In an attempt to block the fungus from spreading farther, the tree reacts by plugging its own xylem tissue with gum and tyloses, bladder-like extensions of the xylem cell wall. As the xylem delivers water and nutrients to the rest of the plant, the first sign of infection is usually an upper branch of the tree with leaves starting to wither and yellow in summer, months before the normal autumnal leaf shedding. This progressively spreads to the rest of the tree, with further dieback of branches, eventually, the roots die, starved of nutrients from the leaves. Often, not all the roots die, the roots of some species, notably the English elm Ulmus procera, put up suckers which flourish for approximately 15 years, after which they too succumb. Dutch elm disease was first noticed in continental Europe in 1910, the disease was isolated in The Netherlands in 1921 by Bea Schwarz, a pioneering Dutch phytopathologist, and this discovery would lend the disease its name. Circa 1967, a new, far more virulent strain arrived in Britain on a shipment of rock elm U, the disease is still migrating northwards through Scotland, reaching Edinburgh in the late 1970s, and Inverness in 2006. By 1990, very few mature elms were left in Britain or much of continental Europe, one of the most distinctive English countryside trees, the English elm U. procera Salisb. is particularly susceptible. Thirty years after the outbreak of the epidemic, nearly all these trees, the species still survives in hedgerows, as the roots are not killed and send up root sprouts. These suckers rarely reach more than 5 m tall before succumbing to a new attack of the fungus, however, established hedges kept low by clipping have remained apparently healthy throughout the nearly 40 years since the onset of the disease in the UK
8.
William Dampier
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William Dampier was an English explorer and navigator who became the first Englishman to explore parts of what is today Australia, and the first person to circumnavigate the world three times. He has also described as Australias first natural historian, as well as one of the most important British explorers of the period between Sir Walter Raleigh and James Cook. On a later voyage he rescued Alexander Selkirk, a former crewmate who may have inspired Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe, others influenced by Dampier include James Cook, Horatio Nelson, Charles Darwin, and Alfred Russel Wallace. William Dampier was born at Hymerford House in East Coker, Somerset and he was baptised on 5 September, but his precise date of birth is not recorded. He was educated at Kings School, Bruton, Dampier sailed on two merchant voyages to Newfoundland and Java before joining the Royal Navy in 1673. He took part in the two Battles of Schooneveld in June of that year, Dampiers service was cut short by a catastrophic illness, and he returned to England for several months of recuperation. For the next years he tried his hand at various careers, including plantation management in Jamaica and logging in Mexico. Returning to England, he married Judith around 1679, only to leave for the sea a few months later. This led to his first circumnavigation, during which he accompanied a raid across the Isthmus of Darién in Panama, the pirates then raided Spanish settlements in Peru before returning to the Caribbean. Dampier made his way to Virginia, where in 1683 he was engaged by the privateer John Cooke, Cooke entered the Pacific via Cape Horn and spent a year raiding Spanish possessions in Peru, the Galápagos Islands, and Mexico. This expedition collected buccaneers and ships as it went along, at one time having a fleet of ten vessels, Cooke died in Mexico, and a new leader, Edward Davis, was elected captain by the crew. Dampier transferred to the privateer Charles Swans ship, Cygnet, and on 31 March 1686 they set out across the Pacific to raid the East Indies, calling at Guam, Spanish witnesses saw the predominantly English crew as not only pirates and heretics but also cannibals. Leaving Swan and 36 others behind on Mindanao, the rest of the privateers sailed on to Manila, Poulo Condor, China, the Spice Islands, and New Holland. On 5 January 1688, Cygnet anchored two miles from shore in 29 fathoms on the northwest coast of Australia, near King Sound. Dampier and his ship remained there until March 12, and while the ship was being careened Dampier made notes on the fauna and flora, among his fellows were a significant number of Spanish sailors, most notably Alonso Ramírez, a native of San Juan, Puerto Rico. Later that year, by agreement, Dampier and two shipmates were marooned on one of the Nicobar Islands and they obtained a small canoe which they modified after first capsizing and then, after surviving a great storm at sea, called at Acheen in Sumatra. Dampier returned to England in 1691 via the Cape of Good Hope, penniless and he also had as a source of income a slave known as Prince Jeoly, from Miangas, who became famous for his tattoos. Dampier exhibited Jeoly in London, thereby also generating publicity for a book based on his diaries, the publication of the book, A New Voyage Round the World, in 1697 was a popular sensation, creating interest at the Admiralty
9.
East Coker
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East Coker is a village and civil parish in the South Somerset district of Somerset, England. Its nearest town is Yeovil, which is situated two miles north from the village, the village has a population of 1,667. The parish includes the hamlet of Vole, in the Domesday Survey of 1086 the villages of West and East Coker were known as Cocre. The parish was part of the hundred of Houndsborough, in 1645, soon after the English Civil War,70 people in the village died of the plague. In 2011 South Somerset Council published a plan for housing which included a proposal for the construction of 3,700 new houses on land between East Coker and Yeovil. The parish council has responsibility for issues, including setting an annual precept to cover the councils operating costs. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security. Conservation matters and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council, the village falls within the Non-metropolitan district of South Somerset, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Yeovil Rural District. It is also part of the Yeovil county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, Coker Court was built as a 15th-century manor house, and is now divided into several properties. The 18th-century portion was built by Sir William Chambers and it was used as Clare School at one time. Helyar Almshouses built between 1640 and 1660, hymerford House dates from the 15th century and is listed Grade I. Naish Priory listed Grade I contains extant portions of a substantial and important establishment that was part of the manor of Coker, the parish has no railway station, the nearest being Yeovil Junction railway station on the Exeter-London Waterloo line which passes through the parish. The church of St Michael in East Coker dates from the 12th century and has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade II* listed building, the church is the final resting place of the ashes of T. S. Eliot, whose ancestors came from the village. James Bree, actor Trevor Peacock, actor, William Dampier, buccaneer, sea captain, explorer, author and scientific observer. Gerald Basil Edwards, Guernsey-born author of The Book of Ebenezer Le Page, a superb specimen of the Narrow-leafed Elm Ulmus minor subsp. Minor survives, unscathed by Dutch elm disease, in a pasture to the south-east of the village, measured in 2008, it was >30 m in height, with a d. b. h. of 85 cm. Almost certainly planted as one of many ornamentals by the Helyar dynasty, the tree is a TROBI UK Champion, the tree has been cloned at Le Pépinière Forestière de Letat, Guémené-Penfao, France, as part of the Euforgen genetic resources conservation programme
10.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
11.
Warsaw
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Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It stands on the Vistula River in east-central Poland, roughly 260 kilometres from the Baltic Sea and 300 kilometres from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population is estimated at 1.750 million residents within a metropolitan area of 3.101 million residents. The city limits cover 516.9 square kilometres, while the area covers 6,100.43 square kilometres. Once described as Paris of the East, Warsaw was believed to be one of the most beautiful cities in the world until World War II. On 9 November 1939, the city was awarded Polands highest military decoration for heroism, Warsaw is one of Europe’s most dynamic metropolitan cities. In 2012 the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked Warsaw as the 32nd most liveable city in the world, in 2017 the city came 4th in the “Business-friendly” category and 8th in the “Human capital and life style”. It was also ranked as one of the most liveable cities in Central, Warsaw is considered an Alpha– global city, a major international tourist destination and a significant cultural, political and economic hub. The city is a significant centre of research and development, BPO, ITO, the Warsaw Stock Exchange is the largest and most important in Central and Eastern Europe. Frontex, the European Union agency for external security, has its headquarters in Warsaw. Together with Frankfurt, London and Paris, Warsaw is also one of the cities with the highest number of skyscrapers in the European Union, the city is the seat of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra and the University of Warsaw. The historic city-centre of Warsaw with its picturesque Old Town in 1980 was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, buildings represent examples of nearly every European architectural style and historical period. Warsaw provides many examples of architecture from the gothic, renaissance, baroque, neoclassical and modern periods, furthermore, the city is positioning itself as Europes chic cultural capital with thriving art and club scenes and renowned restaurants. Folk etymology attributes the city name to a fisherman, Wars, according to legend, Sawa was a mermaid living in the Vistula River with whom Wars fell in love. In actuality, Warsz was a 12th/13th-century nobleman who owned a village located at the site of Mariensztat neighbourhood. See also the Vršovci family which had escaped to Poland, the official city name in full is miasto stołeczne Warszawa. A native or resident of Warsaw is known as a Varsovian – in Polish warszawiak, warszawianin, warszawianka, warszawiacy, other names for Warsaw include Varsovia and Varsóvia, Varsovie, Varsavia, Warschau, װאַרשע /Varshe, Варшава /Varšava /Varshava, Varšuva, Varsó. The first fortified settlements on the site of todays Warsaw were located in Bródno, after Jazdów was raided by nearby clans and dukes, a new similar settlement was established on the site of a small fishing village called Warszowa
12.
Dominion Arboretum
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The Dominion Arboretum is located at the Central Experimental Farm of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Originally begun in 1889 the Arboretum covers about 26 ha of rolling land between Prince of Wales Drive, Dows Lake and the Rideau Canal, carleton University is located at the opposite side of the Canal. At a latitude of 45°, it can experience hot and humid summers. It displays a range of well-established trees and shrubs with the intention of evaluating their hardiness. The arboretum is open dawn to dusk and the admission is free. Although the climate of the Ottawa area is Zone 5a, the topography of the Arboretum produces a microclimate and is warmer by one zone and this has allowed for a collection of magnolias, azaleas, and several other fringe trees including Metasequoia and Liriodendron. One of the attractions for tourists is the Ornamental Gardens. In this area are located the annual plant display, perennial borders, lilac walks, the hedge collection was planted between 1966 and 1968 and contains a variety of species suitable for use as a hedge. Information from the Central Experimental Farm Map of the nut trees of the Dominion Arboretum List of botanical gardens in Canada Hinchcliff, for the love of trees, A guide to the trees of Ottawas Central Experimental Farm Arboretum. General Store Publishing House, Renfrew, Ontario, Canada, the living collection of the Dominion Arboretum
13.
Ottawa
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Ottawa is the capital city of Canada. It stands on the bank of the Ottawa River in the eastern portion of southern Ontario. Ottawa borders Gatineau, Quebec, the two form the core of the Ottawa–Gatineau census metropolitan area and the National Capital Region. The 2016 census reported a population of 934,243, making it the fourth-largest city in Canada, the City of Ottawa reported that the city had an estimated population of 960,754 as of December 2015. Founded in 1826 as Bytown, and incorporated as Ottawa in 1855, the city name Ottawa was chosen in reference to the Ottawa River nearby, the name of which is derived from the Algonquin Odawa, meaning to trade. The city is the most educated in Canada, and is home to a number of post-secondary, research, and cultural institutions, including the National Arts Centre, Ottawa also has the highest standard of living in the nation and low unemployment. It ranked second out of 150 worldwide in the Numbeo quality of life index 2014–2015, with the draining of the Champlain Sea around ten thousand years ago the Ottawa Valley became habitable. The area was used for wild harvesting, hunting, fishing, trade, travel. The Ottawa river valley has archaeological sites with arrow heads, pottery, the area has three major rivers that meet, making it an important trade and travel area for thousands of years. The Algonquins called the Ottawa River Kichi Sibi or Kichissippi meaning Great River or Grand River, Étienne Brûlé, the first European to travel up the Ottawa River, passed by Ottawa in 1610 on his way to the Great Lakes. Three years later, Samuel de Champlain wrote about the waterfalls of the area and about his encounters with the Algonquins, the early explorers and traders were later followed by many missionaries. The first maps of the area used the word Ottawa to name the river, philemon Wright, a New Englander, created the first settlement in the area on 7 March 1800 on the north side of the river, across from Ottawa in Hull. He, with five other families and twenty-five labourers, set about to create a community called Wrightsville. Wright pioneered the Ottawa Valley timber trade by transporting timber by river from the Ottawa Valley to Quebec City, the following year, the town would soon be named after British military engineer Colonel John By who was responsible for the entire Rideau Waterway construction project. Colonel By set up military barracks on the site of todays Parliament Hill and he also laid out the streets of the town and created two distinct neighbourhoods named Upper Town west of the canal and Lower Town east of the canal. Similar to its Upper Canada and Lower Canada namesakes, historically Upper Town was predominantly English speaking and Protestant whereas Lower Town was predominantly French, Irish, bytowns population grew to 1,000 as the Rideau Canal was being completed in 1832. In 1855 Bytown was renamed Ottawa and incorporated as a city, William Pittman Lett was installed as the first city clerk guiding it through 36 years of development. On New Years Eve 1857, Queen Victoria, as a symbolic, in reality, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald had assigned this selection process to the Executive Branch of the Government, as previous attempts to arrive at a consensus had ended in deadlock
14.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
15.
Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
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The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh is a scientific centre for the study of plants, their diversity and conservation, as well as a popular tourist attraction. Founded in 1670 as a garden to grow medicinal plants, today it occupies four sites across Scotland — Edinburgh, Dawyck, Logan. The RBGEs living collection consists of more than 13,302 plant species, the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh is an executive non-departmental public body of the Scottish Government. The Edinburgh site is the garden and the headquarters of the public body. The Edinburgh botanic garden was founded in 1670 at St. Annes Yard, near Holyrood Palace, by Dr. Robert Sibbald and it is the second oldest botanic garden in Britain after Oxfords. The site was occupied by tracks of the North British Railway. In 1763, the collections were moved away from the citys pollution to a larger Physick Garden on the west side of Leith Walk. The Temperate Palm House, which remains the tallest in Britain, was built in 1858, in 1877 the city acquired Inverleith House from the Fettes Trust and added it to the existing gardens, opening the remodelled grounds to the public in 1881. The botanic garden at Benmore became the first Regional Garden of the RBGE in 1929 and it was followed by the gardens at Logan and Dawyck in 1969 and 1978. Located one mile from the city centre it covers 70 acres, the RBGE is actively involved in, and coordinates numerous in situ and ex situ conservation projects both in the UK and internationally. The three main cross-cutting themes of work at the RBGE are, Scottish Biodiversity, Plants & Climate Change. In addition to the RBGEs scientific activities the garden remains a destination for both tourists and locals. Locally known as The Botanics, the garden is a place to go for a walk. Entrance to the garden is free, although a small entry charge exists for the glasshouses. During the year the garden hosts many events including performances, guided tours. The RBGE is also an important centre for education, offering taught courses across all levels, in 2009, the John Hope Gateway was opened. John Hope was the first Regius Keeper of RBGE, nearly 273,000 individual plants are grown at the Botanics in Edinburgh or its three smaller satellite gardens located in other parts of Scotland. These represent around 13,300 different species all over the world
16.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
17.
Ulmus 'Wentworthii Pendula'
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Little is known of its history, indeed, the tree is not mentioned in either Elwes & Henrys or Beans classic works on British trees. The earliest known references are Dutch and German, the first by de Vos in 1890, at about the same time, the tree was offered for sale by the Späth nursery of Berlin, suggesting it was, in spite of its very English name, of German origin. De Vos writing in 1889 states that the supplement to volume 1 includes entries announced since the volume in 1887 putting the date of introduction between 1887 and 1889. De Vos dismissed the tree as. one we can do without, as ornamentals, U. pitteurs pendula and U. suberosa pendula are far prettier, and as a arbor U. montana pendula is by far the most beautiful. However, given the trees assumed origin in continental Europe, it is difficult to reconcile this hybrid conjecture with the fact that Plotii was never known to have grown beyond the UK. At Kew, Melville dismissed the tree there labelled Ulmus × hollandica Wentworthii as simply U. × vegeta, though Wentworth differs in form, leaf, a tall, conspicuously pendulous tree, bell-shaped when young, domed when older. The upper leaf surface is glossy and very sparsely hairy, the petiole at <5 mm is shorter than that of Huntingdon. The bark of trees is shallowly fissured, unlike the deeply fissured. The tightly-clustered, apetalous wind-pollinated flowers are red, and appear in early spring. The seed is displaced towards the apex of the samara, the tree is susceptible to Dutch elm disease. Wentworthii Pendula is extremely rare in cultivation, and does not feature in the UK National Elm Collection held by Brighton & Hove City Council, the specimens held at Kew Gardens and the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh succumbed to DED towards the end of the 20th century. However, in 2016 two old plantings elsewhere in Edinburgh were discovered, and are the only survivors known worldwide, exported to North America, the tree featured in the 1902 catalogue of the Bobbink and Atkins nursery, Rutherford, New Jersey. The tree is not known to have introduced to Australasia. Two old Wentworth Elms, with girths over 3 metres, believed to have been planted c.1909, stand in the gardens of Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh, on the main lawn to the east of the palace. Almost certainly two of the three specimens supplied to the RBGE by Späth in 1902, the taller is about 30 metres in height, a third tree at Holyrood Palace was felled in 2008 due to Dutch Elm Disease and a ring count indicated an origin of approximately 1905. As was the case with the Wentworthii Pendula at the RBGE, the origin of this specimen, a much younger tree acquired in 1974 but killed by DED in 1996, is recorded only as Wiseman, possibly the Wiseman Nursery at Elgin, Moray. There is also a rare weeping ash cultivar called Wentworth, Fraxinus excelsior Pendula Wentworthii, the fact that the Wentworth ash appeared in print before the Wentworth elm may suggest a marketing decision of late 19th century nurseries to apply the same name to a not dissimilar tree. Ulmus campestris wentworthiensis, Späth nursery, Cat, Ulmus campestris Wentworthii, Dippel, Illustriertes Handbuch der Laubholzkunde,2,24,1892
18.
Rutherford, New Jersey
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Rutherford is a borough in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. Rutherford was formed as a borough by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on September 21,1881, from portions of Union Township, the borough was named for John Rutherfurd, a U. S. Senator who owned land in the area, Rutherford has been called the Borough of Trees and The First Borough of Bergen County. The ridge above the New Jersey Meadowlands upon which Rutherford sits was settled by Lenape Native Americans long before the arrival of Walling Van Winkle in 1687, New Barbadoes was part of Essex County from 1693 to 1710, when Bergen County was formed. In 1826, the became part of Lodi Township. When Hudson County was formed in 1840, the area that is today North Arlington, Lyndhurst, Rutherford, however, the area reverted to Bergen County in 1852 and became known as Union Township. Part of the region was known as Boiling Springs for a powerful, despite its name, the spring actually consisted of cold groundwater seeps rather than hot springs. The Erie Railroad built its Main Line from Jersey City across the Meadowlands in the 1840s, daniel Van Winkle, a descendant of Walling, donated land in 1866 for a train station at Boiling Springs. Several resorts were built along the Passaic, with guests disembarking at Boiling Springs station, later, the railroad opened a station closer to the river, at Carlton Hill. Van Winkle opened a real estate office at Depot Square to sell the land of the Rutherfurd Park Association, in the 1870s, the area began to be called Rutherford. Hayes, who was elected President in 1876, or could have been because of a clerical error done by the United States Postal Service, the Post Office opened a facility called Rutherford in 1876. On September 21,1881, the Borough of Rutherford was formed by vote of secession from Union Township. By then, the community had about 1,000 residents, Rutherford is home to the following locations on the National Register of Historic Places, Iviswold –223 Montross Avenue. Located on the campus of Felician College, a $9 million renovation project of the Iviswold castle that took 14 years was completed in 2013, originally constructed by Floyd W. Miller. Kip Homestead –12 Meadow Road, New Jersey Transit initiated a $1 million project in 2009 to renovate the station, which had been constructed in 1898, to restore the interior of the structure. William Carlos Williams House –9 Ridge Road, yereance-Berry House –91 Crane Avenue. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 2.942 square miles. Rutherford is an suburb of New York City, located 8 miles west of Midtown Manhattan
19.
Morton Arboretum
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The Morton Arboretum, in Lisle, Illinois, is a public garden and outdoor museum with a library, herbarium, and program in tree research including the Center for Tree Science. Its grounds, covering 1,700 acres, include cataloged collections of trees and other living plants, gardens, the living collections include more than 4,100 different plant species, which can be referenced in an online database. In all, there are more than 200,000 cataloged plants, as a place of recreation, the Arboretum has hiking trails, roadways for driving and bicycling, a 4-acre interactive childrens garden and a 1-acre maze. The Schulenberg Prairie at the arboretum was one of the earliest prairie restoration projects in the Midwest and it is one of the largest restored prairies in the Chicago suburban area. The arboretum offers an extensive nature-entered education program for children, families, school groups, scouts, the Woodland Stewardship Program offers classroom and online courses in ecological restoration techniques. The arboretum also offers courses through the Associated Colleges of the Chicago Area. Its stated goal is to encourage the planting and conservation of trees and other plants for a greener, healthier, the arboretum was established on December 14,1922, by Joy Morton, founder of the Morton Salt Company. The arboretums first superintendent was Clarence E. Godshalk, who had received a degree in landscape design from the University of Michigan in 1921. Joy Mortons Thornhill Estate, established in 1910, formed the core of the Arboretums original area, mr. Mortons father Julius Sterling Morton had founded Arbor Day. Designed by noted Chicago architect Harry Weese, the Sterling Morton Library was constructed in 1963 and named after Sterling Morton, son of founder Joy Morton. It currently holds more than 30,000 books and magazines, as well as tens of thousands of items including prints, original art, letters, photographs, landscape plans. The Librarys Suzette Morton Davidson Special Collections includes books, artwork, historic nursery catalogs, landscape drawings, photographs, letters, maps and it also includes documents of May Theilgaard Watts, Jens Jensen, Marshall Johnson, O. C. Simonds and Donald Culross Peattie. The Sterling Morton Library is a member of the Council on Botanical and Horticultural Libraries, the 36,000 sq ft Visitor Center was built in 2004 and designed by David Woodhouse Architects
20.
Populus nigra
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Populus nigra, the black poplar, is a species of cottonwood poplar, the type species of section Aigeiros of the genus Populus, native to Europe, southwest and central Asia, and northwest Africa. The black poplar is a medium to large-sized deciduous tree, reaching 20–30 m, normally their trunks achieve up to 1.5 m in diameter – however, some unusual individual trees in France have grown old enough to have much larger trunks – more than 3 meters DBH. Their leaves are diamond-shaped to triangular, 5–8 cm long and 6–8 cm broad, the species is dioecious – male and female flowers are on different plants – with flowers in catkins and pollination achieved by the wind. The black poplar grows in low-lying areas of moist ground, like most other pioneer species, the tree is characterized by rapid growth and are able to quickly colonize open areas. There are three established subspecies and some botanists distinguishing a fourth, Populus nigra subsp, leaves and shoots glabrous, bark grey-brown, thick and furrowed. Leaf veins and shoots finely downy, bark grey-brown, thick and furrowed, often with heavy burrs, Mediterranean region, also southwest Asia if var. afghanica not distinguished. Southwest Asia, treated as a cultivar of P. nigra by many botanists, the subspecies betulifolia is one of the rarest trees in Great Britain and Ireland, with only about 7,000 trees known, of which only about 600 have been confirmed as female. Several cultivars have also selected, these being propagated readily by cuttings. The true Lombardy poplar, selected in Lombardy, northern Italy, the growth is fastigiate, with a very narrow crown. Coming from the Mediterranean region, it is adapted to hot, dry summers and grows poorly in humid conditions, as a widely selected species chosen by golf architects in the 1960s, it soon became apparent that the Poplars very invasive roots destroyed land drainage systems. Decades later the courses were removing Poplars stands wholesale. A group of clones derived by crossing Italica with P, both male and female clones are grown. This is the tree most commonly grown in Great Britain and Ireland as Lombardy poplar, betulifolia widely planted in northwest England. It is a clone, and currently seriously threatened by Poplar Scab disease. Another fastigiate clone, of origin, with a rather broader. Most, if not all, specimens of the variety Afghanica are of a single clone and it is fastigiate, similar to Italica, but with a striking whitish bark, it also differs from Italica in being a female clone. This is the common fastigiate poplar in southwest Asia and southeast Europe, black poplar has a large distribution area throughout Europe and is also found in northern Africa and central and west Asia. The distribution area extends from the Mediterranean in the south to approximately 64º latitude in the north and from the British Isles in the west to Kazakhstan, the distribution area also includes the Caucasus and large parts of the Middle East
21.
Lambeth
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Lambeth is a district in Central London, England, located in the London Borough of Lambeth. It is situated 1 mile south of Charing Cross, the population of Lambeth was 23,937 in 2011. The area experienced some growth in the medieval period as part of the manor of Lambeth Palace. By the Victorian era the area had seen significant development as London expanded, the changes brought by World War II altered much of the fabric of Lambeth. Subsequent development in the late 20th century and early 21st century has seen an increase in the number of high-rise buildings, the area is home to the International Maritime Organization. The origins of the name of Lambeth come from its first record in 1062 as Lambehitha, meaning landing place for lambs, in the Domesday Book, Lambeth is called Lanchei, likely in error. The name refers to a harbour where lambs were either shipped from or to and it is formed from the Old English lamb and hythe. South Lambeth is recorded as Sutlamehethe in 1241 and North Lambeth is recorded in 1319 as North Lamhuth, the manor of Lambeth is recorded as being under ownership of the Archbishop of Canterbury from at least 1190. The Archbishops led the development of much of the manor, with Archbishop Hubert Walter creating the residence of Lambeth Palace in 1197, Lambeth and the palace were the site of two important 13th century international treaties, the Treaty of Lambeth 1217 and the Treaty of Lambeth 1212. Edward, the Black Prince lived in Lambeth in the 14th century in an estate that incorporated the land not belonging to the Archbishops, which also included Kennington. As such, much of the land of Lambeth to this day remains under Royal ownership as part of the estate of the Duchy of Cornwall. The road names, Norfolk Place and Norfolk Row reflect the history, Lambeth Palace lies opposite the southern section of the Palace of Westminster on the Thames. The two were linked by a horse ferry across the river. Until the mid-18th century the north of Lambeth was marshland, crossed by a number of roads raised against floods, the marshland in the area, known as Lambeth Marshe, was drained in the 18th century but is remembered in the Lower Marsh street name. The subsequent growth in road and marine transport, along with the development of industry in the wake of the revolution brought great change to the area. The area grew with a population at this time, many of whom were considerably poor. As a result, Lambeth opened a workhouse in 1726. In 1777 a parliamentary report recorded a parish workhouse in operation accommodating up to 270 inmates and its operation was overseen by an elected Board of twenty Guardians
22.
Diameter at breast height
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Diameter at breast height, or DBH, is a standard method of expressing the diameter of the trunk or bole of a standing tree. DBH is one of the most common dendrometric measurements, Tree trunks are measured at the height of an adults breast. However, this is defined differently in different countries and situations, in continental Europe, the UK, and Canada the diameter is measured at 1.3 metres above ground. In the US, Australia, New Zealand, Burma, India, Malaysia, in many cases the height makes little difference to the measured diameter. Ornamental trees are usually measured at 1.5 metres above ground, instead Dx was proposed whereby the x denotes the exact height above the floor at which the diameter is measured. For instance D130 denotes a diameter measured at 130 cm above the floor, on sloping ground, the above ground reference point is usually taken as the highest point on the ground touching the trunk, but some use the average between the highest and lowest points of ground. If the DBH point falls on a swelling in the trunk it is customary to measure the girth below the swelling at the point where the diameter is smallest, other ambiguous settings for determining the exact place where to measure the diameter is given in Dahdouh-Guebas & Koedam. Treetec, a company based in Melbourne, has created an online calculator to determine the DBH for multi-stemmed trees as per AS 4970-2009 Protection of Trees on Development Sites. The two most common used to measure DBH are a girthing tape and calipers. A girthing tape actually measures the girth of the tree, the tape is calibrated in divisions of π centimetres. The measure assumes the trunk has a circular cross-section and gives a directly converted reading of the diameter and it is accurate for most plantation trees. Calipers consist of two parallel arms one of which is fixed and the able to slide along a scale. Calipers are held at right-angles to the trunk with the arms on either side of the trunk, precision can be improved on non-circular stems by averaging two caliper measurements taken at right-angles. Electronic calipers are also available enabling highly accurate measurements to be taken, DBH is used in estimating the amount of timber volume in a single tree or stand of trees utilising the allometric correlation between stem diameter, tree height and timber volume. It can also be used in the estimation of the age of trees, given that diameter increment is the only. Biltmore stick Crown Tree crown measurement Forest inventory Site index Site tree Brokaw, N. and Thompson, Forest Ecology and Management 129, 89-91. Hamilton, G. J. Forest Mensuration Handbook, mackie, E. D. and Matthews, R. W. Forest Mensuration, a handbook for practitioners. ISBN 0-85538-621-5 White, J. Estimating the Age of Large and Veteran Trees in Britain
23.
Arnold Arboretum
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The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University is an arboretum located in the Jamaica Plain and Roslindale sections of Boston, Massachusetts. It was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and is the second largest link in the Emerald Necklace. The Arboretum was founded in 1872 when the President and Fellows of Harvard College became trustees of a portion of the estate of James Arnold, Harvard used this land for the creation of the Bussey Institute, which was dedicated to agricultural experimentation. The first Bussey Institute building was completed in 1871 and served as headquarters for a school of agriculture. Sixteen years after Busseys death, James Arnold specified that a portion of his estate was to be used for. the promotion of Agricultural, either indigenous or exotic, which can be raised in the open air of West Roxbury. The historical mission of the Arnold Arboretum is to increase knowledge of plants through research. In 1872 Charles Sprague Sargent was appointed director and Arnold Professor of Botany shortly after the establishment of the institution, the Hunnewell building was designed by architect Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow, Jr. in 1892 and constructed with funds donated by H. H. Hunnewell in 1903. From 1946 to 1950 the landscape architect Beatrix Farrand was the design consultant for the Arboretum. Her early training in the 1890s included time with Charles Sprague Sargent and Jackson Thornton Johnson, today the Arboretum occupies 281 acres of land divided between four parcels, viz. the main Arboretum and the Peters Hill, Weld-Walter and South Street tracts. The collections are located primarily in the main Arboretum and on the Peters Hill tract, the Arboretum remains one of the finest examples of a landscape designed by Frederick Law Olmsted. It is known as the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site and has designated as a National Historic Landmark. Dr. Ned Friedman is the eighth and current Director of the Arnold Arboretum and he is also the Arnold Professor of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University. The Arboretum is privately endowed as a department of Harvard University, the land was deeded to the City of Boston in 1882 and incorporated into the so-called Emerald Necklace. The annual operating budget of $7,350,644 is largely derived from the endowment, all Arboretum staff are University employees. Other income is obtained through granting agencies and contributors, the main Arborway gate is located on Route 203 a few hundred yards south of its junction with the Jamaicaway. Public transportation to the Arboretum is available on the MBTA Orange Line to its terminus at Forest Hills Station, the Arboretum is within easy walking distance from either of these points. The Arboretums southwest gate is close to the turn between Weld and Walter Streets on the #51 bus line between Cleveland Circle/Reservoir and Forest Hills. The Centre Street entrance, across from Whitcomb Ave and Westchester Road, is served by the #38 bus, the grounds are open free of charge to the public from sunrise to sunset 365 days of the year
24.
Brighton and Hove
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Brighton and Hove is a city in East Sussex, in South East England. At the 2011 census, it was Englands most populous seaside resort with a population of 273,400, the towns of Brighton and Hove formed a unitary authority in 1997 and in 2001 were granted city status by Queen Elizabeth II. Brighton is often referred to synonymously with the official Brighton and Hove although many still consider the two to be separate towns. Both Brighton and Hove became non-metropolitan districts of East Sussex, on 15 October 2004, Brighton and Hove was granted Fairtrade City status. Elections are held four years, with the last elections occurring on 7 May 2015. Brighton and Hove was the first ever council in the United Kingdom where the Green Party were both the largest group and led the council, in 2013 the council was obliged to finalise single status across its workforce, resulting in a strike of its refuse collectors and street cleaners. Their council reformed their allowances to equalise them with other staff at the organisation conducting similar work, the Leader of the Council and Labour minority administration since May 2015 is Councillor Warren Morgan. The mayor of Brighton and Hove for 2016-2017 is Councillor Pete West, geoff Raw is the current chief executive. In 2012 it was revealed that the Brighton and Hove unitary authority has been banned from accessing information from the Driver. This information is made available to local authorities for purposes such as enforcing parking fines. The first census of Brighton was in 1801, the resident population of Brighton and Hove at the 2011 census was 273,369 persons, 50% male and 50% female. The 2011 census found the composition of Brighton and Hove to be 89. 08% white,4. 13% Asian,3. 81% mixed race,1. 53% black and 0. 80% Arab. The 2011 census found the composition to be 42. 90% Christian,42. 42% nonreligious,2. 23% Muslim,1. 00% Buddhist,0. 98% Jewish. 1. 66% were adherents of other religion, while 8. 81% did not state their religion. In the 2001 census, Brighton and Hove had the highest percentage of citizens indicating their religion as Jedi among all areas of England. To all whom these Presents shall come Greeting, whereas We for divers good causes and considerations Us thereunto moving are graciously pleased to confer on the Towns of Brighton and Hove the status of a city. In witness whereof We have caused Our Letters to be made Patent Witness Ourself at Westminster the thirty first day of January in the forty ninth year of our reign, by Warrant under The Queens Sign Manual. The economy of the city is service-based with a emphasis on creative, digital
25.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
26.
Sutton St James
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Sutton St James is a village and civil parish in the South Holland district of Lincolnshire, England, about 4 miles south-west from Long Sutton. Lying in the Lincolnshire Fens, Sutton St James did not exist at the time of the 1086 Domesday Book, Sutton St James was a chapelry to the parish of Long Sutton until it was created a civil parish in 1866. The tower is Grade II* listed and dates from the 15th century, the chancel is Grade II listed and dates from the 15th century – it was heavily restored at the same time as the tower, and an extension was added in the 20th-century. St Ives Cross is a 14th-century butter cross, all that now remains are four steps, the base and 12 inches of the shaft. It stands at the junction of four roads west of the village, unusually for a small village, there is another cross located near Old Fen Dyke, which is believed to be a market cross, nearly 0.75 miles south-west of St Ives Cross. Similarly, the base, and part of the shaft are all that survive and it is scheduled and Grade II listed. It is believed to be one of a group of medieval boundary markers of which only two other crosses survive. Media related to Sutton St James at Wikimedia Commons Sutton St James Parish Website
27.
Spalding, Lincolnshire
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Spalding is a market town with a population of 28,722 at the 2011 census, on the River Welland in the South Holland district of Lincolnshire, England. Little London is a hamlet south of Spalding on the B1172, whilst Pinchbeck. The town was known for its annual Spalding Flower Parade, dating from 1959. The parade celebrated the regions vast tulip production and the links between the Fens and the landscape and people of South Holland. At one time, it attracted crowds up more than 100,000 and that year, two local councils announced they would no longer fund the parade, and the 2013 parade was the last. Since 2002 the town has held an annual Pumpkin Festival, not linked to Halloween, at Wygate Park salt making seems to have come to an end by the mid-3rd century AD, climatic change and flooding may have made such activities difficult, causing the practice to die out. The settlements name is derived from an Anglian tribe, the Spaldingas, in John Bartholomews Gazetteer of the British Isles, Spalding was described as a, market town and par. Lincolnshire, on River Welland,14 m, SW. of Boston,12,070 ac. pop. Spalding is an important railway centre, while the river has been navigable to the town for vessels of from 50 to 70 tons. It is situated in an agricultural district, and has a large trade, by river and by rail, in corn, wool, coal. It has also flour, bone, and saw mills, breweries, there are remains of a priory of 1501, a fine old church, a grammar school, a corn exchange, and a spacious market place. Land had been reclaimed from the wetlands in the area since mediaeval times, the Coronation Channel, opened in 1953, diverted the excess waters around Spalding and ended the flooding. The area around the banks has been developed for residential and business use, although this area has become heavily built up, there is much recreational use of the river and fishing is still popular. In July 2005 a Spalding Water Taxi service was launched, running from Easter to late October and its route is from just off Spaldings High Street, upstream along the river, turning into the Coronation Channel, and then to Springfields Outlet Shopping & Festival Gardens, and back. It is mainly used as a recreational tourist attraction, around the north-west of Spalding is a large waterway called Vernatts Drain, named after one of the Adventurers who drained the Fens in the 17th century. Philibert Vernatti was made a baronet on 7 June 1643, a South Holland council nature reserve is situated on part of the old Boston railway line at Vernatts Drain. The Drain runs from the station at Pode Hole to Surfleet Seas End. Fulney Lock is the point where the Welland is no longer tidal, Spalding falls within the drainage area of the Welland and Deepings Internal Drainage Board
28.
Lincolnshire
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Lincolnshire is a county in the east of England. It also borders Northamptonshire in the south for just 20 yards, Englands shortest county boundary, the county town is Lincoln, where the county council has its headquarters. The ceremonial county of Lincolnshire is composed of the county of Lincolnshire. Therefore, part of the county is in the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England. The county is the second-largest of the English ceremonial counties and one that is predominantly agricultural in land use, the county is fifth largest of the two-tier counties, as the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire are not included. The county can be broken down into a number of geographical sub-regions including, Lincolnshire derived from the merging of the territory of the ancient Kingdom of Lindsey with that controlled by the Danelaw borough of Stamford. For some time the county was called Lindsey, and it is recorded as such in the 11th-century Domesday Book. In 1888 when county councils were set up, Lindsey, Holland and these survived until 1974, when Holland, Kesteven, and most of Lindsey were unified into Lincolnshire. A local government reform in 1996 abolished Humberside, and the south of the Humber was allocated to the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire. These two areas became part of Lincolnshire for ceremonial such as the Lord-Lieutenancy, but are not covered by the Lincolnshire police and are in the Yorkshire. The remaining districts of Lincolnshire are Boston, East Lindsey, Lincoln, North Kesteven, South Holland, South Kesteven and they are part of the East Midlands region. Lincolnshire is home to Woolsthorpe Manor, birthplace and home of Sir Isaac Newton and he attended The Kings School, Grantham and its library has preserved his signature, applied to a window sill when he was a teenager. Lincolnshire is an area, growing large amounts of wheat, barley, sugar beet. In South Lincolnshire, where the soil is rich in nutrients, some of the most common crops include potatoes, cabbages, cauliflowers. Most such companies are long gone, and Lincolnshire is no longer an engineering centre, however, as a result of the current economic climate some food production facilities have closed down, this has caused some reduction in the levels of migrant workers. The large number of people from Portugal is still obvious in the town of Boston. A coalition of Conservatives, Liberal Democrats and Independents currently controls Lincolnshire County Council, the Conservative Party comfortably controlled the County Council following the 2009 local elections, in which they increased their majority to 43 seats. The Labour Party lost a total of 15 seats including 7 in Lincoln, the Lincolnshire Independents gained a total of four seats, although one of their number moved to the Conservative group during 2010, increasing the number of Conservative seats to 61
29.
Salaspils
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Salaspils is a town in Latvia, the administrative centre of Salaspils municipality. The town is situated on the bank of the Daugava River 18 kilometers to the south-east of the city of Riga. Salaspils is one of the oldest settlements in Latvia, archaeological excavations of 1964-1975 in ancient settlements, burial grounds and castle mounds give evidence of very dense population of the region. At this time, the remains of 11, 000-year-old reindeer hunters were found and 3500-year-old remains of Baltic hunters, there is evidence that both Livs and Balts built hill forts in the region. At the end of the 12th century, German merchants travelled up the Daugava, one important centre of Daugava Livonians, the small island Mārtiņsala had a Christian church as early as 1186. So began the Christianizing and gradual subjection of the local Livonian tribes, in 1206, in the early phases of the Livonian Crusade, the Livonian chieftain Ako organized the first revolt against the German crusaders but suffered defeat. The Latvian name of the Salaspils island castle is derived from Mārtiņsala Island castle. Both names were used when referring to the territory on the bank of the Daugava. In 1380 the Livonian Order built the castle on the mainland, the castle was an important support-point outside of Riga, and a small town grew up around it. Both the castle and village were destroyed in 1577 during the Livonian War, in 1605 the village was a site of the Battle of Kircholm in which forces of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth defeated a much more numerous army of Sweden. This was the biggest battle of the Polish-Swedish war, the battle took place near St George’s church and about 9000 Swedish soldiers were buried there. Two memorial stones in Salaspils commemorate of one of the biggest battles in Europe in the 17th century – in memory of the victory of the Polish-Lithuanian forces, up to the second part of the 20th century a magnificent 17th century military fortification near the Daugava – the Swedish rampart. The destroyed church was renovated in 1631, but later – in 1896 and 1923 - rebuilt, the Riga – Daugavpils railway opened in 1861, and the new center of the town developed near Salaspils station just opposite the Kurtes Estate. In the second part of the 19th century, military camps were organized in the territory of Salaspils. During the World War I, the front line was at Salaspils for two years, and many of the buildings and farmsteads, especially along the river, were destroyed, the infamous battles at Nāves Sala and Mazā Jugla were fought nearby. During the first Republic of Latvia there were three parishes in Salaspils territory – Stopiņi, Salaspils and Dole, during World War II, the Nazis established the largest civilian concentration camp in the Baltics two km outside of the town. The Latvian historian Heinrihs Strods and the German Holocaust historians Andrej Angrick and Peter Klein conclude number of deaths at Salaspils was 2, 000–3,000 in total, including children. At the site of camp, a monument complex in remembrance of the Soviet victims of Nazism was opened on 31 October 1967
30.
Latvia
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Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe, one of the three Baltic states. It is bordered by Estonia to the north, Lithuania to the south, Russia to the east, Latvia has 1,957,200 inhabitants and a territory of 64,589 km2. The country has a seasonal climate. Latvia is a parliamentary republic established in 1918. The capital city is Riga, the European Capital of Culture 2014, Latvia is a unitary state, divided into 119 administrative divisions, of which 110 are municipalities and 9 are cities. Latvians and Livs are the people of Latvia. Latvian and Lithuanian are the two surviving Baltic languages. Despite foreign rule from the 13th to 20th centuries, the Latvian nation maintained its identity throughout the generations via the language, Latvia and Estonia share a long common history. Until World War II, Latvia also had significant minorities of ethnic Germans, Latvia is historically predominantly Protestant Lutheran, except for the Latgale region in the southeast, which has historically been predominantly Roman Catholic. The Russian population has brought a significant portion of Eastern Orthodox Christians. The Republic of Latvia was founded on 18 November 1918, however, its de facto independence was interrupted at the outset of World War II. The peaceful Singing Revolution, starting in 1987, called for Baltic emancipation of Soviet rule and it ended with the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia on 4 May 1990, and restoring de facto independence on 21 August 1991. Latvia is a democratic and developed country and member of the European Union, NATO, the Council of Europe, the United Nations, CBSS, the IMF, NB8, NIB, OECD, OSCE, and WTO. For 2014, Latvia was listed 46th on the Human Development Index and it used the Latvian lats as its currency until it was replaced by the euro on 1 January 2014. The name Latvija is derived from the name of the ancient Latgalians, one of four Indo-European Baltic tribes, henry of Latvia coined the Latinisations of the countrys name, Lettigallia and Lethia, both derived from the Latgalians. The terms inspired the variations on the name in Romance languages from Letonia. Around 3000 BC, the ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium, trading local amber for precious metals, by 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia, Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians, as well as the Livonians speaking a Finnic language
31.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
32.
University of Copenhagen
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The University of Copenhagen is the oldest university and research institution in Denmark. Founded in 1479 as a studium generale, it is the second oldest institution for education in Scandinavia after Uppsala University. The university has 23,473 undergraduate students,17,398 postgraduate students,2,968 doctoral students, the university has four campuses located in and around Copenhagen, with the headquarters located in central Copenhagen. Most courses are taught in Danish, however, many courses are offered in English. The university has several thousands of students, about half of whom come from Nordic countries. The university has had 8 alumni become Nobel laureates and has produced one Turing Award recipient, the rector, the prorector and the director of the university is appointed by the university board. The rector in turn appoints directors of the different parts of the central administration, the deans appoint heads of 50 departments. There is no faculty senate and faculty is not involved in the appointment of rector, deans, hence the university has no faculty governance, although there are elected Academic Boards at faculty level who advise the deans. The governing body manages a budget of about BDKK8.3. The University is organized into six faculties and about 100 departments, the University employs about 5,600 academic staff and 4,400 technical and administrative staff. The total number of enrolled students is about 40,000 annually, UCPH has established an international graduate talent program which provides grants for international Ph. D, students and a tenure track carrier system. UCPH operates about fifty master’s programmes taught in English, and has arranged about 150 exchange agreements with institutions and 800 Erasmus agreements. Each year there are about 1,700 incoming exchange students,2,000 outbound exchange students and 4,000 international degree-seeking students, about 3,000 Ph. D. students study there each year. South Campus – houses the Faculty of Humanities and a proportion of the Faculty of Science. In the winter of 2016–2017, the Faculty of Law and the Faculty of Theology will also move to South Campus, frederiksberg Campus – home to sections of the Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences. The Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences and the Faculty of Science also use the Taastrup Campus, the Faculty of Science also has facilities in Helsingør, Hørsholm and Nødebo. The University of Copenhagen was founded in 1479 and is the oldest university in Denmark, between the closing of the Studium Generale in Lund in 1536 and the establishment of the University of Aarhus in the late 1920s, it was the only university in Denmark. The university became a centre of Roman Catholic theological learning, but also had faculties for the study of law, medicine, between 1675 and 1788, the university introduced the concept of degree examinations
33.
Glimmen
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Glimmen is a village in the northeastern Netherlands. It is located in the municipality of Haren, Groningen, at about 10 kilometres from the city of Groningen, the river Drentsche Aa flows past the village, nearby the Huis te Glimmen, a stately home on the site of a medieval castle. The Appèlbergen is a wood to the east of the village, through this wood leads an old Roman road, known as the Hereweg. Media related to Glimmen at Wikimedia Commons
34.
Wichelen
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Wichelen is a municipality located in the Denderstreek in the Belgian province of East Flanders. The municipality comprises the towns of Schellebelle, Serskamp and Wichelen proper, on January 1,2006, Wichelen had a total population of 11,145. The total area is 22.87 km² which gives a density of 487 inhabitants per km². Wichelen is crossed by the Molenbeek in Schellebelle, Serskamp and Wichelen, media related to Wichelen at Wikimedia Commons Official website The reference for Wichelen
35.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
36.
Hoorn
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Hoorn is a municipality and a town in the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland. It is located on the Markermeer,35 kilometres north of Amsterdam, Hoorn had a population of 71,888 in 2014. The area of the municipality is 53.25 km2 of which 33.00 km2 consists of water, the municipality consists of the following villages and/or districts, Blokker, Hoorn, Zwaag, and parts of Bangert and De Hulk. Cape Horn, the most southerly point of the Americas, was named after the town by Willem Schouten, the Hoorn Islands of the Oceanian nation of Wallis and Futuna are also named after this city. The origin of the name Hoorn, even in old spelling Hoern or Hoirne, is surrounded in myths, Hoorns name, according to Old Frisian legends, is derived from the stepson of King Redbad, called Hornus. A third version says that the name was derived from the shape of one of its first ports. The author of the Origo Civitatis Hornensis assumes that name Hoorn was derived from Damphoorn, Damphoorn is the medieval name for a weed that could be made into whistles, which grew in abundance in the area outside the dykes of Hoorn. Chronicler Velius rejects this statement because there are no old historical entries that Hoorn was called Damphoorn and he wrote, The name was from the start Hoorn, not derived from the weed Damphoorn, as the current sentiment holds. Velius also rejects the assertion that the origin is Dampter Horn, a neighbourhood of the village Dampten. The name is most probably derived from Hornicwed, a name that is popping up in early mediaeval documents, the medieval meaning of hornic is corner, with wed or wedor being the medieval word for water. Many places and neighbourhoods in the Netherlands are called, even today, Heurne, Huurne, Hornicwed would therefore refer to the location of a corner on the coastline, the location of Hoorn at the Zuiderzee. We see hornic in the meaning of corner also reflected in another municipality in the mediaeval County of Holland, Uithoorn, meaning uithoek and this area was abandoned and flooded after 1391, following the abandonment of the old dyke. A new dyke was built inland, resulting in a bay which is now the Hoornse Hop. Hoorn was already in existence then, founded in 716, Hoorn rapidly grew to become a major harbour town. During Hollands Golden Age, Hoorn was an important home base for the Dutch East India Company, the Hoorn fleet plied the seven seas and returned laden with precious commodities. Exotic spices such as pepper, nutmeg, cloves, and mace were sold at vast profits, with their skill in trade and seafaring, sons of Hoorn established the towns name far and wide. Jan Pieterszoon Coen is famous for his violent raids in Dutch Indies and he has a big statue on the Rode Steen square in the center of Hoorn. In 1618 Willem Bontekoe undertook his first and only voyage for the VOC, Bontekoe van Hoorn, begrijpende veel wonderlijcke en gevaerlijcke saecken hem daer in wedervaren
37.
Henry John Elwes
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He was one of the first group of 60 people to receive the Victoria Medal of the Royal Horticultural Society in 1897. Elwes was the eldest son of John Henry Elwes of Colesbourne Park near Cheltenham and he was described as a giant of a man, and a very dominating character. With a booming voice which carried well across his Gloucestershire estate, after the age of 17 he spent at least part of every year abroad, and was sent to tutors in Paris, Brussels and Dresden before spending five years in the Scots Guards from 1865. He apparently did not take soldiering very seriously, being interested in ornithology which in those days consisted of collecting specimens. He resigned his commission in 1869 and thenceforth lived the life of a travelling naturalist and he visited various parts of the world studying aspects of natural history including ornithology, botany, entomology and big game. He combined horticulture with entomology and big game hunting with estate management and raising prize-winning show livestock and he would later ascribe his interest in plants to his wife, Margaret Lowndes, whom he married in 1871. His first garden was at Miserden, near Cirencester, he moved to Preston House, Cirencester. This was his last major contribution, as his interest moved on to insects and, increasingly. It was this visit to the Himalaya that sparked his interest in Lepidoptera, Elwes visit to Turkey in 1874 was somewhat fortuitous as it replaced a trip to Cyprus at short notice. It is evident that on this journey Elwes interest was focused on plants, in early April, whilst in the mountains near Smyrna, he came across the fine large snowdrop which now bears my name. Before leaving Turkey he arranged for bulbs to be collected later, in 1880 he visited India, accompanied by Frederick Du Cane Godman and the two visited Allan Octavian Hume before proceeding to Sikkim. He also made trips to the United Provinces, the Punjab. Along with T. Edwards, Elwes wrote a monograph on the Oriental Hesperiidae and he also made a trip to the Altai region in 1898. His posthumously published Memoirs includes a chapter describing his visit to Nepal in 1914 and he also mentions an unnamed companion, now known to be the English naturalist Aubyn Trevor-Battye, who took some of the photographs used to illustrate this chapter. Elwes was famous for his breeding of Nerine and Eremurus, horticulturalist and garden writer Edward Augustus Bowles noted that he was specially interested in Arisaema, Crinum, Crocus, Fritillaria and Iris, as well as Kniphofia, Paeonia and Yucca. Bowles memoir in Elwes posthumous biography offers most information about the Colesbourne garden, Elwes horticultural interests largely concentrated on bulbs, and he was said to have the finest collection in private hands. To ensure that the text was as accurate as possible, between March 1877 and May 1880 subscribers received seven parts, illustrated with 48 plates by Walter Hood Fitch. In his garden he was able to grow many of the members of the Lilium genus becoming an expert in the field
38.
Augustine Henry
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Augustine Henry was an Irish plantsman and sinologist. He is best known for sending over 15,000 dry specimens, by 1930, he was a recognised authority and was honoured with society membership in Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Finland, France, and Poland. In 1929 the Botanical Institute of Peking dedicated to him the volume of Icones plantarum Sinicarum. In 1935, J. W. Henry was born on 2 July 1857 in Dundee, Scotland to Bernard and Mary Henry, at some stage, he came in contact with Sir Robert Hart who encouraged him to join the Imperial Customs Service in China. Henry entered the Imperial Customs Service in Shanghai in 1881 as Assistant Medical Officer and he was sent to the remote posting of Yichang in 1882 in Hubei Province, Central China, to investigate plants used in Chinese medicine. He also served in Hupeh, Szechuan, Simao, Mengsi, later in his Chinese career he studied Law and became a member of the Middle Temple. Henry had studied Chinese before going to China and gained a proficiency in the language. Henry retired with the rank of Mandarin, while at Yichang and in other parts of China he collected plants, seeds and specimens, many of which had not been known until then. In 1888 he published a list of Chinese plants for the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, at that time the flora and fauna of China was not well known. By 1896,25 new genera and 500 new species had been identified from his specimens, Henry gave instructions to the plant collector Ernest Wilson on where to collect Davidia involucrata, originally discovered by the French missionry priest Père Armand David. On his return to Europe he spent some time working on his own introductions at the Royal Botanic Garden Kew, in 1900, Henry went to France to study at the French National School of Forestry at Nancy. He later became joint author with Henry John Elwes of the 7 volume Trees of Great Britain and Ireland 1907–13. His contribution here was unique insofar as he devised a system of identification based on leaves and twigs and on the position of buds to aid identification even in the absence of fruit and flowers. He was involved in the establishment of the Chair of Forestry at Cambridge University in 1907, and remained there until 1913. He was responsible, with A. C. Forbes, the Director of Forestry at the Department of Agriculture and Technical instruction, for the lay-out of 1-acre plots of trees at Avondale, Henry had an interest in the Arts and Crafts movement and in the Celtic Revival. He knew the poet W. B. Yeats, George William Russell, Charlotte, wife of George Bernard Shaw and he took up the Chair of Forestry at the Royal College of Science, in 1913 and assisted later in setting up a National Forestry Service. Henry married Alice Brunton in 1908, they did not have children, the Trees of Great Britain and Ireland 1907–13, co-author H. J. Elwes. Notes on Economic Botanical of China, introduction by E, History of European Botanical Discoveries in China,1898 London
39.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
40.
Ulmus 'Exoniensis'
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Ulmus Exoniensis, the Exeter Elm, was discovered near Exeter, England, in 1826, and propagated by the Ford & Please nursery in that city. Traditionally believed to be a cultivar of the Wych Elm U, the tree initially has an upright, columnar form, but later develops a large rounded crown and occasionally reaches 17 m in height. Older specimens may develop pendulous branches, Exeter Elm is chiefly distinguished by its contorted leaves, <11 cm long by 8 cm broad, which occasionally wrap around the branchlets and remain thus well into winter. Exoniensis is often pollarded to produce a denser, fan-shaped crown, once commonly planted in the UK and parts of western Europe, Exoniensis is also known to have been marketed in Poland in the 19th century by the Ulrich nursery, Warsaw, and remains in commerce there. The Späth nursery of Berlin cultivated the tree as U. montana fastigiata from the early 20th century. It is possible that three trees supplied by the Späth nursery to the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh in 1902 as U. montana fastigiata were Exeter Elm, in Sweden Exoniensis is sometimes pruned from an early age to form a tidy cone-shaped tree called locally pyramidalm. It is found in Australia at the Ballarat Botanical Gardens where it is listed on the Significant Tree Register of the National Trust, a 180-year-old specimen in Hamburg has attained a height of 28 m and a trunk diameter of 1.45 m. The UK TROBI Champion tree is in Scotland, at Baxter Gardens, Dundee, the cultivar is represented in Éire by a tree at Birr Castle, County Offaly, with a d. b. h. of 29 cm when measured in 2002. Clusius, Columella, Dodoens, Lobel, Plantyn, Nanguen = Lutèce™, the cultivar Columella features the same rough, rounded, contorted leaves, the result of a recessive gene inherited from the Exeter Elm. Loudon, Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum,3,1399,1838, ulmus montana fastigiata, Loudon, Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum,3,1399,1838. Ulmus montana f. fastigiata plumosa Hort, ulmus plumosa, C. de Vos, Beredeneerd woordenboek der voornaamste heesters en coniferen, in Nederland gekweekt,136,1867. Ulmus plumosa foliis variegatis, C. de Vos, Woordenboek 137,1867, ulmus suberosa oxoniensis, Audibert, Tonelle, Tarascon, France Catalogue,1832, probable misspelling. Var. replicata, Masters, Hortus Duroverni,67,1831, brighton & Hove City Council, UK, NCCPG Elm Collection. A number of trees, large specimens at Stanmer Park Arboretum, Linkway Lodge, Hollingdean, University of Sussex, Cambridge Botanic Garden, University of Cambridge, UK.1 tree, no accession details available. Grange Farm Arboretum, Sutton St. James, Spalding, Lincs, museum Castle Sypesteyn, Nieuw-Loosdrechtsedijk 150, Loosdrecht,3 mature trees planted in 1910. University of Copenhagen, Botanic Garden Denmark, australasia Ballarat Botanical Gardens, acc. details not known. Hollybush Nursery, Hollybush Cottage, Slaley, Hexham, Northumberland, standard Trees, Golden Cross, East Sussex, UK Szkółki Konieczko, Gogolin, Poland. Thornhayes Nursery, Cullompton, Devon, UK Westerveld Boomkwekerij B. V. Opheusden, sheet originally labelled U. montana fastigiata glabra, probably an error for U. montana fastigiata, from Späth nursery,1902 Herbarium specimen - E00824875
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Elm
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Elms are deciduous and semi-deciduous trees comprising the flowering plant genus Ulmus in the plant family Ulmaceae. The genus first appeared in the Miocene geological period about 20 million years ago, Elms are components of many kinds of natural forests. Some individual elms reached great size and age, however, in recent decades, most mature elms of European or North American origin have died from Dutch elm disease, caused by a microfungus dispersed by bark beetles. In response, disease-resistant cultivars have been developed, capable of restoring the elm to forestry, eight species are endemic to North America, and a smaller number to Europe, the greatest diversity is found in Asia. The classification adopted in the List of elm species, varieties, cultivars, a large number of synonyms have accumulated over the last three centuries, their currently accepted names can be found in the list List of elm Synonyms and Accepted Names. Botanists who study elms and argue over elm identification and classification are called pteleologists, as part of the sub-order urticalean rosids they are distant cousins of cannabis, hops, and nettles. The name Ulmus is the Latin name for these trees, while the English elm, the genus is hermaphroditic, having apetalous perfect flowers which are wind-pollinated. Elm leaves are alternate, with simple, single- or, most commonly, doubly serrate margins, usually asymmetric at the base, the fruit is a round wind-dispersed samara flushed with chlorophyll, facilitating photosynthesis before the leaves emerge. All species are tolerant of a range of soils and pH levels but, with few exceptions. The elm tree can grow to height, often with a split trunk creating a vase-shape profile. Dutch elm disease devastated elms throughout Europe and much of North America in the half of the 20th century. It derives its name Dutch from the first description of the disease and its cause in the 1920s by the Dutch botanists Bea Schwarz, DED is caused by a micro-fungus transmitted by two species of Scolytus elm-bark beetle which act as vectors. The disease affects all species of elm native to North America and Europe, fungal spores, introduced into wounds in the tree caused by the beetles, invade the xylem or vascular system. The tree responds by producing tyloses, effectively blocking the flow from roots to leaves, woodland trees in North America are not quite as susceptible to the disease because they usually lack the root-grafting of the urban elms and are somewhat more isolated from each other. In France, inoculation with the fungus of over three hundred clones of the European species failed to find a single variety possessed of any significant resistance. The second, far more virulent strain of the disease Ophiostoma novo-ulmi was identified in Europe in the late 1960s, Elm phloem necrosis is a disease of elm trees that is spread by leafhoppers or by root grafts. This very aggressive disease, with no cure, occurs in the Eastern United States, southern Ontario in Canada. It is caused by phytoplasmas which infect the phloem of the tree, infection and death of the phloem effectively girdles the tree and stops the flow of water and nutrients
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