1.
Sir Edward Carson
–
Edward Henry Carson, Baron Carson, PC, PC, KC, from 1900 to 1921 known as Sir Edward Carson, was an Irish unionist politician, barrister and judge. He was leader of the Irish Unionist Alliance and Ulster Unionist Party between 1910 and 1921, held positions in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom and served as a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary. He was one of the few people not a monarch to receive a British state funeral, Edward Carson was born at 4 Harcourt Street, in Dublin, into a wealthy Anglican family, His father was an architect. The Carsons were of Scottish origin, Edwards grandfather having originally moved to Dublin from Dumfries in 1815, Carsons mother was Isabella Lambert, the daughter of Captain Peter Lambert, part of an old Anglo-Irish family, the Lamberts of Castle Ellen, County Galway. Carson spent holidays at Castle Ellen, which was owned by his uncle and he was one of six children. Edward was educated at Portarlington School, Wesley College, Dublin and Trinity College, Dublin and he also played with the college hurling team. He later received a doctorate from the University of Dublin in June 1901. In 1877 Carson was called to the Irish Bar at Kings Inns and he gained a reputation for fearsome advocacy and supreme legal ability and became regarded as a brilliant barrister, one of the leading ones in Ireland at the time. He was also a master of the appeal to the jury by his legal wit. He was appointed Queens Counsel in 1889, in 1895, he was engaged by the Marquess of Queensberry to lead his defence against Oscar Wildes action for criminal libel. Wilde retaliated with an action, as homosexuality was, at the time. Kevin Myers states that Carsons initial response was to refuse to take the case, later, he discovered that Queensberry had been telling the truth about Wildes activity and was therefore not guilty of the libel of which Wilde accused him. He impugned Wildes works as morally repugnant and designed to corrupt the upbringing of the youth, Queensberry spent a considerable amount of money on private detectives who investigated Wildes activity in the London underworld of homosexual clubs and procurers. Wilde was bankrupted when he was ordered to pay the considerable legal. Based on the evidence of Queensberrys detectives and Carsons cross-examinations of Wilde at the trial and he was eventually found guilty and sentenced to two years hard labour, after which he moved to France, where he died penniless. In 1908 Carson appeared for the London Evening Standard in an action brought by George Cadbury. The Standard was controlled by Unionist interests which supported Joseph Chamberlains Imperial Preference views, the Cadbury family were Liberal supporters of free trade and had, in 1901, purchased The Daily News. The Standard articles alleged that Cadbury Bros Ltd, the Standard alleged that the Cadbury family knew that the reason cocoa from São Tomé was cheaper was because it was grown by slave labour
Sir Edward Carson
–
The Right Honourable The Lord Carson
PC PC (Ire) KC
Sir Edward Carson
–
Carson's ceremonial dress uniform, worn on his appointment as Solicitor General for England in 1900.
Sir Edward Carson
–
Mr. Edward H. Carson (as he then was) addresses Parliament. From
Vanity Fair, 1893.
Sir Edward Carson
–
Sir Edward Carson signing the
Ulster Covenant.
2.
Ulster
–
Ulster is a province in the north of the island of Ireland. In ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a rí ruirech, the definition of the province was fluid from early to medieval times. It took a shape in the reign of King James I of England when all the counties of Ireland were eventually shired. This process of evolving conquest had been under way since the Norman invasion of Ireland, particularly as advanced by the Cambro-Norman magnates Hugh de Lacy, Ulster was a central topic role in the parliamentary debates that eventually resulted in the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Under the terms of the Act, Ireland was divided into two territories, Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland, with the passing through the province. While these six counties and two boroughs were all in the province of Ulster, three other counties of the province – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – were assigned to the Irish Free State. Ulster has no function for local government purposes in either country. However, for the purposes of ISO-3166-2, Ulster is used to refer to the three counties of Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan only, which are given country sub-division code IE-U. It has also suggested to have derived from Uladh plus the Norse suffix ster. The Irish name, Cúige Uladh, means the province of the Ulaid, the Ulaidh were a group of tribes who dwelt in the region. Ulaidh has historically been anglicised as Ulagh or Ullagh and Latinised as Ulidia or Ultonia, the latter two have yielded the terms Ulidian and Ultonian. Words that have used in English are Ullish and Ulsterman/Ulsterwoman. Northern Ireland is often referred to as Ulster, despite including only six of Ulsters nine counties and this usage is most common amongst people in Northern Ireland who are unionist, although it is also used by the media throughout the United Kingdom. Most Irish nationalists object to the use of Ulster in this context, Ulster has a population of just over 2 million people and an area of 21,552 square kilometres. About 62% of the area of Ulster is in the UK while the remaining 38% is in the Republic of Ireland. Ulsters biggest city, Belfast, has an population of over half a million inhabitants, making it the second-largest city on the island of Ireland. Three Ulster counties – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – form part of the Republic of Ireland, about half of Ulsters population lives in counties Antrim and Down. 8% to 42. 7%. While the traditional counties continue to demarcate areas of government in the Republic of Ireland
Ulster
–
At White Park Bay
Ulster
–
Flag
Ulster
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Countryside west of Ballynahinch
Ulster
–
Mourne country cottage
3.
Third Home Rule Bill
–
It was the third such bill introduced by a Liberal government in a 28-year period in response to the Irish Home Rule movement. The Act was the first law passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom that sought to establish a devolved government in any part of the UK. However, the implementation of both it and the equally controversial Welsh Church Act 1914 was formally postponed for a minimum of twelve months with the outbreak of the First World War, in 1909, a constitutional crisis arose when the House of Lords rejected David Lloyd Georges Finance Bill. The Irish Party, which had campaigned for home rule for Ireland since the 1870s, the Parliament Act 1911 replaced the unlimited veto of the Lords with one lasting only two years, ensuring that a bill passed by the Commons could not be blocked for more than two years. The Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith, introduced the Bill on 11 April 1912, the abolition of Dublin Castle administration, though with the retention of the Lord Lieutenant. The financial situation was a concern, Irish taxes had yielded a surplus of £2 million in 1893, that had turned into a current spending net deficit of £1. 5m by 1910 that had to be raised by London. An annual Transferred Sum mechanism was proposed to maintain spending in Ireland as it was, the Bill was passed by the Commons by a majority of 10 votes in 1912 but the House of Lords rejected it 326 votes to 69 in January 1913. In 1913 it was reintroduced and again passed by the Commons but was rejected by the Lords by 302 votes to 64. In 1914 after the reading, the Bill was passed by the Commons on 25 May 1914 by a majority of 77. Having been defeated a third time in the Lords, the Government used the provisions of the Parliament Act to override the Lords, Unionists in Ulster were opposed to a home-rule Ireland governed from Dublin. Early in 1912, they began forming local militias. By April 1912, the Irish Unionist leader, Sir Edward Carson, on 28 September 1912, over 500,000 Unionists signed the Ulster Covenant pledging to defy Home Rule by all means possible. The Covenant was drawn up by Carson and organised by Sir James Craig, at the Bills third reading in the Commons on 21 May 1914 several members asked about a proposal to exclude the whole of Ulster for six years. Asquith was seeking any solution that would avoid a civil war and you have never tried to understand her position. You have never alleged, and you cannot allege, that this Bill gives her one atom of advantage, a government amending bill was introduced in the House of Lords on 23 June 1914 and passed there with amendments on 8 July. Carson and the Irish Unionist Party backed the bill, which envisaged temporary exclusion of Ulster from the workings of the future Act. The Lords amendments to the bill were unacceptable to the government. What was still to be negotiated were the number of counties excluded, the compromise proposed by Asquith was straightforward
Third Home Rule Bill
–
Third Home Rule Act
4.
British Government
–
Her Majestys Government, commonly referred to as the UK government or British government, is the central government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The government is led by the Prime Minister, who all the remaining ministers. The prime minister and the other most senior ministers belong to the supreme decision-making committee, the government ministers all sit in Parliament, and are accountable to it. After an election, the monarch selects as prime minister the leader of the party most likely to command a majority of MPs in the House of Commons. Under the uncodified British constitution, executive authority lies with the monarch, although this authority is exercised only by, or on the advice of, the prime minister, the Cabinet members advise the monarch as members of the Privy Council. They also exercise power directly as leaders of the Government Departments, the current prime minister is Theresa May, who took office on 13 July 2016. She is the leader of the Conservative Party, which won a majority of seats in the House of Commons in the election on 7 May 2015. Prior to this, Cameron and the Conservatives led a government from 2010 to 2015 with the Liberal Democrats. A key principle of the British Constitution is that the government is responsible to Parliament, Britain is a constitutional monarchy in which the reigning monarch does not make any open political decisions. All political decisions are taken by the government and Parliament and this constitutional state of affairs is the result of a long history of constraining and reducing the political power of the monarch, beginning with the Magna Carta in 1215. Parliament is split into two houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons, the House of Commons is the lower house and is the more powerful. The House of Lords is the house and although it can vote to amend proposed laws. Parliamentary time is essential for bills to be passed into law, Ministers of the Crown are responsible to the House in which they sit, they make statements in that House and take questions from members of that House. For most senior ministers this is usually the elected House of Commons rather than the House of Lords, since the start of Edward VIIs reign, in 1901, the prime minister has always been an elected member of Parliament and therefore directly accountable to the House of Commons. Under the British system the government is required by convention and for reasons to maintain the confidence of the House of Commons. It requires the support of the House of Commons for the maintenance of supply, by convention if a government loses the confidence of the House of Commons it must either resign or a General Election is held. The support of the Lords, while useful to the government in getting its legislation passed without delay, is not vital, a government is not required to resign even if it loses the confidence of the Lords and is defeated in key votes in that House. The House of Commons is thus the Responsible house, the prime minister is held to account during Prime Ministers Question Time which provides an opportunity for MPs from all parties to question the PM on any subject
British Government
–
Main entrance of
10 Downing Street, the residence and offices of the First Lord of HM Treasury
British Government
–
Logo of Her Majesty's Government
British Government
–
Refurbishment notice at Old Fire Station,
Oxford, showing HM Government support.
5.
Belfast City Hall
–
Belfast City Hall is the civic building of Belfast City Council. Located in Donegall Square, Belfast, County Antrim, Northern Ireland, it faces north and effectively divides the commercial, the site now occupied by Belfast City Hall was once the home of the White Linen Hall, an important international Linen Exchange. The Street that runs from the door of Belfast City Hall through the middle of Linen Quarter is Linen Hall Street. Plans for the City Hall began in 1888 when Belfast was awarded city status by Queen Victoria and this was in recognition of Belfasts rapid expansion and thriving linen, rope-making, shipbuilding and engineering industries. During this period Belfast briefly overtook Dublin as the most populous city in Ireland, construction began in 1898 under the supervision of architect Sir Alfred Brumwell Thomas and was completed in 1906 at a cost of £369,000. Belfast Corporation used their profits from the gas industry to pay for the construction of Belfast City Hall, local firms H&J Martin and WH Stephens were among the companies involved in construction. James G. Gamble, architect, was the clerk of works, the city hall in Durban, South Africa is almost an exact replica of Belfasts City Hall. It was built in 1910 and designed by Stanley G. Hudson, the Port of Liverpool Building, designed by Arnold Thornley and completed in 1913, is another very close relative. On 1 August 2006 the City Hall celebrated its centenary with a Century of Memories exhibition, on 3 December 2012, the City Council voted to limit the days that the Union Flag flies from City Hall to no more than 18 designated days. Since 1906, the flag had flown every day of the year. The move was backed by the Councils Irish nationalist Councillors and by its Alliance Party Councillors and it was opposed by the unionist Councillors, who had enjoyed a majority on the council until the Northern Ireland local elections,2011. On the night of the vote, unionist and loyalist protesters tried to storm City Hall and they held protests throughout Northern Ireland, some of which became violent. The exterior is mainly from Portland stone and is in the Baroque Revival style. It covers an area of one and a half acres and has an enclosed courtyard, featuring towers at each of the four corners, with a lantern-crowned 173 ft copper dome in the centre, the City Hall dominates the city centre skyline. As with other Victorian buildings in the city centre, the City Halls copper-coated domes are a distinctive green, the Titanic Memorial in Belfast is located on the grounds of Belfast City Hall. The design of the building is reminiscent of the Old Bailey in London, floodlights have been added to City Hall to light up the building in a variety of colours and combinations. Using the same technology as the Empire State Building in New York, a white illumination will be applied to the building, after dusk, and it will also be colour-washed on special dates. The interior has a number of features including The Porte-Cochère and Grand Entrance, The Grand Staircase, The Reception Room
Belfast City Hall
–
Belfast City Hall
Belfast City Hall
–
The White Linen Hall, or the
Linen Hall Library as it was in 1888. Now replaced by the City Hall.
Belfast City Hall
–
The grounds of City Hall are popular for relaxation during the summer. In the background are the dome at
Victoria Square Shopping Centre and the
Belfast Wheel.
Belfast City Hall
–
Belfast City Hall illuminated green for the annual
St Patrick's Day celebrations
6.
Sir James Craig
–
James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon, PC, PC, was a prominent Irish unionist politician, leader of the Ulster Unionist Party and the first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland. He was created a baronet in 1918 and raised to the Peerage in 1927, James Craig Snr. owned a large house called Craigavon, overlooking Belfast Lough. His mother, Eleanor Gilmore Browne, was the daughter of Robert Browne, a man who owned property in Belfast. Craig was the child and sixth son in the family, there were eight sons. He was educated at Merchiston Castle School in Edinburgh, Scotland, after school he began work as a stockbroker, eventually opening his own firm in Belfast. He enlisted in the 3rd regiment of the Royal Irish Rifles on 11 January 1900 to serve in the Second Boer War, Military life suited him well, but he became impatient with the lack of professionalism and efficiency in the British Army. On his recovery he became deputy assistant director of the Imperial Military Railways, in June 1901 he was sent home suffering from dysentery, and by the time he was fit for service again the war was over. On his return to Ireland, having received a £100,000 legacy from his fathers will, he turned to politics, serving as Member of the British Parliament for East Down from 1906 to 1918. From 1918 to 1921 he represented Mid Down, and served in the British government as Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Pensions and Parliamentary Secretary to the Admiralty. Craig rallied Ulster loyalist opposition to Irish Home Rule in Ulster before the First World War, organising the paramilitary Ulster Volunteers, the UVF became the nucleus of the 36th Division during the First World War. He succeeded Edward Carson as leader of the Ulster Unionist Party in February 1921, in the 1921 Northern Ireland general election, the first ever, he was elected to the newly created Northern Ireland House of Commons as one of the members for County Down. On 7 June 1921, Craig was appointed the first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. A dedicated member of the Orange Order and staunchly Protestant, he stated, in April 1934, in response to George Leekes question regarding Craigs Protestant Parliament. Member must remember that in the South they boasted of a Catholic State and they still boast of Southern Ireland being a Catholic State. All I boast of is that we are a Protestant Parliament and it is most interesting for me at the moment to watch how they are progressing. I am doing my best always to top the bill and to be ahead of the South and this speech is often misquoted as, A Protestant Parliament for a Protestant People. It is undoubtedly our duty and our privilege, and always will be, to see that those appointed by us possess the most unimpeachable loyalty to the King and that is my whole object in carrying on a Protestant Government for a Protestant people. I repeat it in this House and he was made a baronet in 1918, and in 1927 was created Viscount Craigavon, of Stormont in the County of Down
Sir James Craig
–
The Right Honourable The Viscount Craigavon
Bt PC PC (NI)
Sir James Craig
–
Craig caricatured by WHO for
Vanity Fair, 1911
7.
Dublin
–
Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
Dublin
–
Clockwise from top:
Samuel Beckett Bridge,
Trinity College,
Custom House,
Dublin Castle,
O'Connell Bridge, and
Convention Centre Dublin.
Dublin
–
Father Mathew Bridge, formerly Dublin Bridge, is understood to be near the ancient "Ford of the Hurdles" (Baile Átha Cliath), the original crossing point on the River Liffey.
Dublin
–
Dublin Castle was the fortified seat of
British rule in Ireland until 1922.
Dublin
–
Henrietta Street, developed in the 1720s, is the earliest Georgian Street in Dublin.
8.
Rudyard Kipling
–
Joseph Rudyard Kipling was an English journalist, short-story writer, poet, and novelist. Kiplings works of fiction include The Jungle Book, Kim, and many short stories and his poems include Mandalay, Gunga Din, The Gods of the Copybook Headings, The White Mans Burden, and If—. Kipling was one of the most popular writers in the United Kingdom, Henry James said, Kipling strikes me personally as the most complete man of genius, as distinct from fine intelligence, that I have ever known. In 1907, at the age of 42, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, making him the first English-language writer to receive the prize and its youngest recipient to date. He was also sounded out for the British Poet Laureateship and on occasions for a knighthood. Kiplings subsequent reputation has changed according to the political and social climate of the age, George Orwell called him a prophet of British imperialism. Literary critic Douglas Kerr wrote, is still an author who can inspire passionate disagreement and his place in literary, but as the age of the European empires recedes, he is recognised as an incomparable, if controversial, interpreter of how empire was experienced. That, and a recognition of his extraordinary narrative gifts. Rudyard Kipling was born on 30 December 1865, in Bombay, in the Bombay Presidency of British India, to Alice Kipling, Alice was a vivacious woman about whom Lord Dufferin would say, Dullness and Mrs. Kipling cannot exist in the same room. Lockwood Kipling, a sculptor and pottery designer, was the Principal, John Lockwood and Alice had met in 1863 and courted at Rudyard Lake in Rudyard, Staffordshire, England. They married and moved to India in 1865 and they had been so moved by the beauty of the Rudyard Lake area that when their first child was born they referenced it when naming him. Alices sister Georgiana was married to painter Edward Burne-Jones, and her sister Agnes was married to painter Edward Poynter, Kiplings most famous relative was his first cousin, Stanley Baldwin, who was Conservative Prime Minister of the United Kingdom three times in the 1920s and 1930s. Kiplings birth home on the campus of the J J School of Art in Bombay for many years was used as the Deans residence. Although the cottage bears a plaque stating that this is the site where Kipling was born, the original cottage may have torn down decades ago. Some historians and conservationists are also of the view that the bungalow merely marks a site close to the home of his birth, as the bungalow was built in 1882, Kipling seems to have also said so to the dean when he visited J J School in the 1930s. Kipling was to write of Bombay, According to Bernice M. Murphy, Kipling’s parents considered themselves Anglo-Indians and so too would their son, complex issues of identity and national allegiance would become prominent features in his fiction. So one spoke English, haltingly translated out of the idiom that one thought. Kiplings days of light and darkness in Bombay ended when he was five years old
Rudyard Kipling
–
Rudyard Kipling
Rudyard Kipling
Rudyard Kipling
–
Malabar Point, Bombay, 1865.
Rudyard Kipling
–
Kipling's India: map of
British India.
9.
Ulster Unionist Council
–
The Ulster Unionist Party is one of the two main unionist political parties in Northern Ireland. Having gathered support in the north of Ireland during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was supported by most unionist voters throughout the known as the Troubles. It is currently the party in Northern Ireland, having been overtaken in 2003 by the Democratic Unionist Party. At the 2015 general election, the party won two seats in the House of Commons, Fermanagh and South Tyrone and South Antrim and this marked the first time since 1921 that a devolved government in Northern Ireland did not include the UUP. The party was led by Mike Nesbitt, but on 3 March 2017 he announced his resignation following the poor performance in that years assembly election. The Ulster Unionist Party traces its existence back to the foundation of the Ulster Unionist Council in 1905. Before that, however, there had been a less formally organised Irish Unionist Alliance since the late 19th century, modern organised unionism properly emerged after William Ewart Gladstones introduction in 1886 of the first of three Home Rule Bills in response to demands by the Irish Parliamentary Party. The IUA was an alliance of Irish Conservatives and Liberal Unionists and it was the merger of these two parties in 1912 that gave rise to the current name of the Conservative and Unionist Party, to which the UUP was formally linked until 1985. From the beginning, the party had an association with the Orange Order. The original composition of the Ulster Unionist Council was 25% Orange delegates, although most unionist support was based in the geographic area that became Northern Ireland, there were at one time unionist enclaves throughout southern Ireland. Unionists in County Cork and Dublin were particularly influential, however, after the Irish Convention failed to reach an understanding on home rule and with the partition of Ireland under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, Irish unionism in effect split. Many southern unionist politicians quickly became reconciled with the new Irish Free State, the existence of a separate Ulster Unionist Party became entrenched as the party took control of the new government of Northern Ireland. The leadership of the UUP was taken by Sir Edward Carson in 1910, throughout his 11-year leadership he fought a sustained campaign against Irish Home Rule, including being involved in the formation of the Ulster Volunteers in 1912. In the 1918 general election, Carson switched constituencies from his seat of Dublin University to Belfast Duncairn. The leadership of the UUP and, subsequently, Northern Ireland, was taken by Sir James Craig, until almost the very end of its period of power in Northern Ireland, the UUP was led by a combination of landed gentry, aristocracy and gentrified industrial magnates. Only its last Prime Minister, Brian Faulkner, was from a middle-class background, during this era, all but 11 of the 149 UUP Stormont MPs were members of the Orange Order, as were all Prime Ministers. James Craig governed Northern Ireland from its inception until his death in 1940 and is buried with his wife by the east wing of Parliament Buildings and his successor, J. M. Andrews, was heavily criticised for appointing octogenarian veterans of Craigavons administration to his cabinet
Ulster Unionist Council
–
Ulster Unionist Party
Ulster Unionist Council
–
Carson inspecting the
UVF, pre-1914
Ulster Unionist Council
–
Captain O'Neill
Ulster Unionist Council
–
Ulster Unionist Party, 1974. Troubled Images Exhibition, Linen Hall Library, Belfast, August 2010
10.
Public Record Office of Northern Ireland
–
The Public Record Office of Northern Ireland is situated in Belfast, Northern Ireland. It is a division within the Communities Cohesion Group of the Department for Communities, the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland is distinguished from other archival institutions in the United Kingdom by its unique combination of private and official records. The Record Office is not the Northern Ireland equivalent or imitation of any Great Britain or Republic of Ireland archival institution and this range of remit, embracing, among others, central and local government, the churches and the private sector, is unique to Northern Ireland. PRONI was established by the Public Records Act,1923, the new body opened in March 1924 on the fourth floor of a former linen warehouse in central Belfast. The immediate challenge was to identify and preserve surrogates of records lost in Dublin during the Four Courts fire on June 1922, the first Deputy Keeper, Dr David A. Chart was able to replace many of these records by approaching solicitors, business people, politicians, churches, the success of Charts acquisition policy meant that PRONI needed more storage space. In April 1933, the moved to a new central Belfast location. However, it was not until 1965, that the Ministry of Finance would approve a new building. This new building, opened in 1972, at Balmoral Avenue was the first new office to be built in the UK since the Public Record Office in London was erected in 1838. Between 1924 and 1982 PRONI was part of the Ministry of Finance, the functions were then transferred to the Department of the Environment, and in 1995, PRONI became an executive agency within the DOE. With the restoration of devolved government in 1999, PRONI became an agency within the new Department of Culture, Arts, the department brought together for the first time overall responsibility for libraries, museums and archives. As part of the implementation of the Review of Public Administration, PRONI ceased to be an agency in 2006, on 9 May 2016, PRONI became a division within the Communities Cohesion Group as part of the newly created Department for Communities. In March 2011, PRONI reopened in new built premises at 2 Titanic Boulevard, BT3 9HQ, in the Titanic Quarter of Belfast. PRONI is easily accessed from Belfast City Hall via the Metro 26, 26A, 26B and it is within close proximity to the Titanic Quarter railway station and George Best Belfast City Airport. PRONI is open 9, 00–16,45 Monday to Wednesday and Friday and those unable to visit and register onsite at PRONI can use the remote search and copy service, though there is a fee for this. PRONI currently holds 54 kilometres of records and these records date largely from c.1600 to the present day but a few date as far back as the early 13th century, with the oldest document being a bull of Pope Honorius III, dated 1219. Records range from public documents, such as those from government departments, to private records, the records at PRONI relate chiefly to the North of Ireland. The office holds a number of records relating to other parts of the island of Ireland which have received by private depositors and include amongst others
Public Record Office of Northern Ireland
–
Public Record Office of Northern Ireland
Public Record Office of Northern Ireland
Public Record Office of Northern Ireland
–
PRONI Atrium
Public Record Office of Northern Ireland
–
Papal Bull by Honorius III dated 1219
11.
Devolution in the United Kingdom
–
Devolution differs from federalism in that the devolved powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government, thus the state remains, de jure, a unitary state. Legislation creating devolved parliaments or assemblies can be repealed or amended by central government in the way as any statute. The issue of Irish home rule was the dominant political question of British politics at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. In contrast to this, demands for home rule called for autonomy for Ireland within the United Kingdom and this issue was first introduced by the Irish Parliamentary Party led by Isaac Butt, William Shaw and Charles Stewart Parnell. Over the course of four decades, four Irish Home Rule Bills were introduced into the British Parliament, following intense opposition in Ulster and the departure of Unionists from Gladstones Liberal Party, the bill was defeated in the House of Commons. The Second Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1893 by Prime Minister Gladstone, the Third Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1912 by Prime Minister H. H. Asquith based on an agreement with the Irish Parliamentary Party. After a prolonged parliamentary struggle was passed under the provisions of the Parliament Act of 1911, again, this bill was fiercely opposed by Ulster Unionists who raised the Ulster Volunteers and signed the Ulster Covenant to oppose the bill, thereby raising the spectre of civil war. The act received royal assent shortly after the outbreak of World War I, attempts at implementation failed in 1916 and 1917 and the subsequent Irish War of Independence resulted in it never coming into force. The Fourth Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1920 by Prime Minister David Lloyd George and it divided Ireland into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, which each had their own parliament and judiciary but which also shared some common institutions. The Act was implemented in Northern Ireland, where it served as the basis of government until its suspension in 1972 following the outbreak of the Troubles, Home Rule came into effect for Northern Ireland in 1921 under the Fourth Home Rule Act. The Parliament of Northern Ireland established under that act was prorogued on 30 March 1972 owing to the destabilisation of Northern Ireland upon the onset of the Troubles in late 1960s. This followed escalating violence by state and paramilitary organisations following the suppression of civil rights demands by Northern Ireland Catholics, the Northern Ireland Parliament was abolished by the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973, which received royal assent on 19 July 1973. A Northern Ireland Assembly was elected on 28 June 1973 and following the Sunningdale Agreement and this collapsed on 28 May 1974, due to the Ulster Workers Council strike. The Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention and second Northern Ireland Assembly were unsuccessful at restoring devolution, more progress was made after the ceasefires by the Provisional IRA in 1994 and 1997. The 1998 Belfast Agreement, resulted in the creation of a new Northern Ireland Assembly, a British-Irish Council covering the whole British Isles and a British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference were also established. The Executive was restored on 8 May 2007, several policing and justice powers were transferred to the Assembly on 12 April 2010. The fifth Assembly convened in May 2016. That assembly dissolved on 26 January 2017, ever since the Parliament of Scotland adjourned in 1707 as a result of the Acts of Union, individuals and organisations had advocated the return of a Scottish Parliament. The drive for home rule first took shape in the 19th century
Devolution in the United Kingdom
–
Stormont Parliament Building, home of the
Northern Ireland Assembly
Devolution in the United Kingdom
–
United Kingdom
Devolution in the United Kingdom
–
Scottish Parliament Building, Edinburgh
Devolution in the United Kingdom
–
The
Senedd, home to the National Assembly for Wales
12.
Ulster Volunteers
–
The Ulster Volunteers was a unionist militia founded in 1912 to block domestic self-government for Ireland, which was then part of the United Kingdom. The Ulster Volunteers were based in the province of Ulster. Many Ulster Protestants feared being governed by a Catholic-majority parliament in Dublin and losing their local supremacy, in 1913, the militias were organised into the Ulster Volunteer Force and vowed to resist any attempts by the British Government to impose Home Rule on Ulster. Later that year, Irish nationalists formed a militia, the Irish Volunteers. In April 1914, the UVF smuggled 25,000 rifles into Ulster, the Home Rule Crisis was halted by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914. Many UVF members enlisted with the British Armys 36th Division and went to fight on the Western Front, after World War I, the British Government decided to set up two self-governing regions in Ireland, Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland. However, by 1920 the Irish War of Independence was raging and the Irish Republican Army, as a response to these attacks, the UVF was revived. However, this revival was largely unsuccessful and the UVF was absorbed into the Ulster Special Constabulary, a unionist paramilitary group calling itself the Ulster Volunteer Force was formed in 1966. It claims to be a descendant of the older organisation and uses the same logo. By 1912, the Irish Parliamentary Party, an Irish nationalist party which sought devolution for Ireland, in April 1912, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith introduced the third Home Rule Bill. Home Rule was popular in all of Ireland apart from the northeast of Ulster, while Catholics were the majority in most of Ireland, Protestants were the majority in Ulster and in Britain. Many Ulster Protestants feared being governed by a Catholic-dominated parliament in Dublin and losing their local supremacy, at the start of 1912, leading unionists and members of the Orange Order began forming small local militias and drilling. On 9 April Carson and Andrew Bonar Law, leader of the Conservative & Unionist Party, on 13 January 1913, the Ulster Volunteer Force was formally established by the Ulster Unionist Council. Recruitment was to be limited to 100,000 men aged from 17 to 65 who had signed the Covenant, William GIbson was the first commander of the 3rd East Belfast Regiment of the Ulster Volunteers. The Ulster Unionists enjoyed the support of the British Conservative Party. On 23 September 1913, the 500 delegates of the Ulster Unionist Council met to discuss the practicalities of setting up a government for Ulster. On 25 November 1913, partly in response to the formation of the UVF, in March 1914, the British Armys Commander-in-Chief in Ireland was ordered to move troops into Ulster to protect arms depots from the UVF. However,57 of the 70 officers at the Armys headquarters in Ireland chose to resign rather than enforce Home Rule or take on the UVF
Ulster Volunteers
–
Ulster Volunteer Force in 1914
Ulster Volunteers
–
UVF emblem, with the
Red Hand of Ulster and the motto "For God and Ulster"
Ulster Volunteers
–
Peace Park,
Messines
13.
Unionism in Ireland
–
Unionism in Ireland is a political ideology that favours the continuation of some form of political union between the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. Since the partition of Ireland, unionism in Ireland has focused on maintaining and preserving the place of Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom, in this context, a distinction may be made between the unionism in the province of Ulster and unionism elsewhere in Ireland. Irish nationalism is opposed to the ideology of unionism, most unionists come from Protestant backgrounds, most nationalists come from a Roman Catholic background. Exceptions to these generalisations exist, there are Protestant nationalists and there are Catholic unionists, the political relationship between England and Ireland dates from the 12th century with the establishment of the Lordship of Ireland. In 1542, the Crown of Ireland Act was passed by both the English and Irish Parliaments, the Act established a sovereign Kingdom of Ireland with Henry VIII as King of Ireland. Both parliaments later passed the Act of Union 1800 by which a new state was created - the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, twenty-six counties of Ireland gained autonomy from the U. K. as the Irish Free State, in 1949, the State was declared to be a Republic, the Republic of Ireland left the Commonwealth of Nations organisation. The remaining six counties of the island of Ireland constituted the territory of Northern Ireland, in 1927, the realm, consisting of combined territories of Northern Ireland and Great Britain, was renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Today, unionism is almost exclusively an issue for Northern Ireland and it is concerned with the governance of and relationship between Northern Ireland and Great Britain. Unionism emerged as a force in opposition to William Ewart Gladstones Home Rule Bill of 1886. Irish nationalists believed in separation from Great Britain, whether through repeal of the 1800 Act of Union, home rule, Unionists believed in maintaining and deepening the relationship between the various nations of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. They expressed pride in symbols of Britishness, a key symbol for unionists is the Union Flag. Unionist areas of Northern Ireland often display this and other symbols to show the loyalty, Unionism is also known for its allegiance to the person of the British monarch, both historically and today. Historically, most unionists in Ireland have been Protestants and most nationalists have been Catholics, however, a significant number of Protestants have adhered to the nationalist cause, and likewise with Catholics and unionism. These phenomena continue to exist in Northern Ireland, both unionism and nationalism have had sectarian and anti-sectarian elements. While nationalism has had a number of Protestant leaders, unionism was invariably always led by Protestant leaders, newe, served in the Government of Northern Ireland. UUP leader and Nobel Peace Prize-winner David Trimble suggested that Northern Ireland had been a house for Catholics in the past. People espousing unionist beliefs are sometimes referred to as loyalists, the two words are sometimes used interchangeably, but the latter is more often associated with particularly hardline forms of unionism
Unionism in Ireland
–
The political union is symbolised by the Westminster Parliament
Unionism in Ireland
–
Unionists today want Northern Ireland to remain a part of the United Kingdom with England, Scotland and Wales
Unionism in Ireland
–
Sir Edward Carson signing the
Ulster Covenant
Unionism in Ireland
–
Ulster Defence Association mural in
Shankill, Belfast
14.
Citizenship
–
Citizenship is the status of a person recognized under the custom or law as being a legal member of a sovereign state. A person may have multiple citizenships and a person who does not have citizenship of any state is said to be stateless. Nationality is often used as a synonym for citizenship in English – notably in international law – although the term is understood as denoting a persons membership of a nation. In some countries, e. g. the United States, each country has its own policies, regulations and criteria as to who is entitled to its citizenship. A person can be recognised or granted citizenship on a number of bases, usually citizenship based on the place of birth is automatic, in other cases an application may be required. If one or both of a persons parents are citizens of a state, then the person may have the right to be a citizen of that state as well. Formerly this might only have applied through the line. Citizenship is granted based on ancestry or ethnicity, and is related to the concept of a nation state common in China, where jus sanguinis holds, a person born outside a country, one or both of whose parents are citizens of the country, is also a citizen. States normally limit the right to citizenship by descent to a number of generations born outside the state. This form of citizenship is not common in civil law countries, Some people are automatically citizens of the state in which they are born. This form of citizenship originated in England where those who were born within the realm were subjects of the monarch, in many cases both jus solis and jus sanguinis hold, citizenship either by place or parentage. Many countries fast-track naturalization based on the marriage of a person to a citizen, States normally grant citizenship to people who have entered the country legally and been granted permit to stay, or been granted political asylum, and also lived there for a specified period. Some states allow dual citizenship and do not require naturalized citizens to renounce any other citizenship. In the past there have been exclusions on entitlement to citizenship on grounds such as color, ethnicity, sex. Most of these no longer apply in most places. The United States grants citizenship to those born as a result of reproductive technologies, Some exclusions still persist for internationally adopted children born before Feb 27,1983 even though their parents meet citizenship criteria. Polis meant both the assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society. Citizenship has generally been identified as a western phenomenon, there is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny
Citizenship
–
Legal status of
persons
Citizenship
–
Geoffrey Hosking suggests that fear of being enslaved was a central motivating force for the development of the Greek sense of citizenship. Sculpture: a Greek woman being served by a slave-child.
Citizenship
–
Diagram of relationship between; Citizens, Politicians + Laws
15.
British Empire
–
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
British Empire
–
A replica of The Matthew,
John Cabot 's ship used for his second voyage to the
New World.
British Empire
–
Flag
British Empire
–
African slaves working in 17th-century
Virginia, by an unknown artist, 1670.
British Empire
–
Fort St. George was founded at
Madras in 1639.
16.
George V of the United Kingdom
–
George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
George V of the United Kingdom
–
Coronation portrait by
Sir Luke Fildes, 1911
George V of the United Kingdom
–
George as a young boy, 1870
George V of the United Kingdom
–
George, 1893
George V of the United Kingdom
–
York Cottage at
Sandringham House: George and his wife lived here from 1893 to 1926.
17.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
The British
HMS Sandwich fires into the French
flagship Bucentaure (completely dismasted) during
Trafalgar. The Bucentaure also fights
HMS Victory (behind her) and
HMS Temeraire (left side of the picture). In fact, HMS Sandwich never fought at Trafalgar, it's a mistake by
Auguste Mayer, the painter.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
Flag
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
Signing of the
Treaty of Ghent (1814), by A. Forestier c. 1915
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
The Duke of Wellington
18.
British subject
–
The term British subject has had a number of different legal meanings over time. Currently the term British subject refers, in British nationality law and this second group were predominantly residents of colonies which had become independent, but who had not become citizens of the new country. The status cannot be inherited, and is lost on the acquisition of any other citizenship, the term subject is used rather than citizen because in a monarchy the monarch is the source of authority in whose name all legal power in civil and military law is exercised. The people of a monarchy in former times were regarded as the subjects who were under certain obligations such as owing allegiance to, and thereby entitled to the protection of. Before 1949, every person born within the dominions and allegiance of the English and later British Crown was, based on common law, to be a subject required only that a person be born in any territory under the sovereignty of the Crown. The only exception in common law was that children of foreign ambassadors took the nationality of their fathers, from time to time, statutes were passed expanding the class of persons who held the status of subject. III st.2 naturalised the children of English parents born overseas, entitlement to the status of British subject was first codified by the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914, which came into effect on 1 January 1915. Within the British Empire, the class of people who were not British subjects were the rulers of native states formally under the protection of the British Crown. Between 1947 and 1951 each of the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations created its own national citizenship, the Canadian Citizenship Act 1946 came into effect on 1 January 1947. The Australian Nationality and Citizenship Act 1948 came into force on 26 January 1949, in all cases, the national citizenship co-existed with the continuing status of British subject. However, CUKCs, in common with citizens of other Commonwealth countries, in contrast, the British Nationality Act 1981 now provides that, as far as United Kingdom law is concerned, no person is a British subject except as provided by the Act. In Canada, Commonwealth citizen replaced the term British subject when the Citizenship Act 1977 replaced the Canadian Citizenship Act 1947, New Zealand no longer defined the status of British subject when the Citizenship Act 1977 replaced the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 on 1 January 1978. However, s.2 of the Act still contains a reference in the definition of Alien to. Commonwealth citizen, australia retained the status of British subject until the Australian Citizenship Amendment Act 1984 removed Part II of the Nationality and Citizenship Act 1948 effective on 1 May 1987. Between 1 January 1983 and 1 May 1987 a British citizen, the term encompassed all citizens of countries listed in the Nationality and Citizenship Act 1948. The list was based on, but was not identical with and this definition of British subject meant that, for the purposes of Australian nationality law, citizens of countries that had become republics, such as India, were grouped as British subjects. British subjects ceased to be eligible to be issued with Australian passports under Australian nationality law in 1984, the voting rights of persons who were British subjects and were enrolled to vote on 25 January 1984 have been preserved. As at June 2009, almost 163,000 voters have a British subject notation on the electoral roll, unusual arrangements were made in the cases of Singapore and the Federation of Malaya. In most other Commonwealth countries, the term Commonwealth citizen was used instead of British subject, use of the term British subject was discontinued for all persons who fell into these categories, or who had a national citizenship of any other Commonwealth country
British subject
–
British citizenship and British nationality law
19.
Constitution of the United Kingdom
–
The constitution of the United Kingdom is the sum of laws and principles that make up the body politic of the United Kingdom. It concerns both the relationship between the individual and the state, and the functioning of the legislature, the executive, the UK does not have one specific constitutional document. Instead the constitution is found within a variety of written and some unwritten sources and this is sometimes referred to as an unwritten or uncodified constitution. The British constitution primarily draws from four sources, statute law, common law, parliamentary conventions and it follows that Parliament can change the constitution simply by passing new statutes through Acts of Parliament. Acts of Parliament are bills which have received the approval of Parliament – that is, the Monarch, the House of Lords, on rare occasions, the House of Commons uses the Parliament Acts to pass legislation without the approval of the House of Lords. Acts of Parliament are among the most important sources of the constitution, according to the traditional view, Parliament has the power to legislate however it wishes on any subject it wishes. For example, most of the medieval statute known as Magna Carta has been repealed since 1828. It has traditionally been the case that the courts are barred from questioning any Act of Parliament, on the other hand, this principle has not been without its dissidents and critics over the centuries, and attitudes among the judiciary in this area may be changing. This part of his judgment was obiter – and, indeed, was controversial and it remains to be seen whether the doctrine will be accepted by other judges. Treaties do not, on ratification, automatically become incorporated into UK law, important treaties have been incorporated into domestic law by means of Acts of Parliament. The European Convention on Human Rights, for example, was given further effect into domestic law through the preamble of the Human Rights Act 1998, also, the Treaty of Union of 1707 was important in creating the unitary state which exists today. The treaty was between the governments of England and Scotland and was put into effect by two Acts of Union which were passed by the Parliaments of both nations. The Treaty, along with the subsequent Acts, brought into existence the Kingdom of Great Britain, uniting the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland. Common law legal systems exist in Northern Ireland and in England and Wales, Court judgments also commonly form a source of the constitution, generally speaking in English Law, judgments of the higher courts form precedents or case law that binds lower courts and judges. However Scots Law does not accord the status to precedent. Historically important court judgments include those in the Case of Proclamations, many British constitutional conventions are ancient in origin, though others date from within living memory. Works of authority is the name for works that are sometimes cited as interpretations of aspects of the UK constitution. Most are works written by 19th or early 20th century constitutionalists, in particular A. V. Dicey, Walter Bagehot and these pillars are the principle of Parliamentary sovereignty and the rule of law
Constitution of the United Kingdom
–
Claude Monet 's depiction of the smog-filled air near
Westminster Bridge in 1903, half a century before the
Clean Air Act 1956.
Constitution of the United Kingdom
–
United Kingdom
Constitution of the United Kingdom
–
One of several shelves full of books about the UK constitution at a
law library
Constitution of the United Kingdom
–
Parliamentary sovereignty means judges cannot invalidate legislation. But in practice the UK consents to
British and
European courts to review legislation to comply with international standards under the
Human Rights Act 1998, and consents to follow
EU law under the
European Communities Act 1972.
20.
Belfast
–
Belfast is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, the second largest on the island of Ireland, and the heart of the tenth largest Primary Urban Area in the United Kingdom. On the River Lagan, it had a population of 286,000 at the 2011 census and 333,871 after the 2015 council reform, Belfast was granted city status in 1888. Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, and was an industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century. It has sustained a major aerospace and missiles industry since the mid 1930s, industrialisation and the inward migration it brought made Belfast Irelands biggest city at the beginning of the 20th century. Today, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education, business, and law, additionally, Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, notably around Victoria Square. Belfast is served by two airports, George Best Belfast City Airport in the city, and Belfast International Airport 15 miles west of the city. Although the county borough of Belfast was created when it was granted city status by Queen Victoria in 1888, the site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giants Ring, a 5, 000-year-old henge, is located near the city, Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the Middle Ages. The ONeill clan had a presence in the area, in the 14th century, Cloinne Aodha Buidhe, descendants of Aodh Buidhe ONeill built Grey Castle at Castlereagh, now in the east of the city. Conn ONeill of the Clannaboy ONeills owned vast lands in the area and was the last inhabitant of Grey Castle, evidence of this period of Belfasts growth can still be seen in the oldest areas of the city, known as the Entries. Belfast blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th and 19th centuries, industries thrived, including linen, rope-making, tobacco, heavy engineering and shipbuilding, and at the end of the 19th century, Belfast briefly overtook Dublin as the largest city in Ireland. The Harland and Wolff shipyards became one of the largest shipbuilders in the world, in 1886 the city suffered intense riots over the issue of home rule, which had divided the city. In 1920–22, Belfast became the capital of the new entity of Northern Ireland as the island of Ireland was partitioned, the accompanying conflict cost up to 500 lives in Belfast, the bloodiest sectarian strife in the city until the Troubles of the late 1960s onwards. Belfast was heavily bombed during World War II, in one raid, in 1941, German bombers killed around one thousand people and left tens of thousands homeless. Apart from London, this was the greatest loss of life in a raid during the Blitz. Belfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920 and it had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Catholic and Protestant populations. These opposing groups in conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively. The most recent example of conflict was known as the Troubles – a civil conflict that raged from around 1969 to 1998
Belfast
–
Top: Skyline of Belfast Middle top left to right,
Queen's University Belfast,
Albert Memorial Clock, Belfast, The Boat,
Titanic Belfast Bottom left to right:
Belfast City Hall, view of Belfast with
Samson and Goliath.
Belfast
–
Belfast Castle
Belfast
–
Donegall Square in the early 1900s
Belfast
–
Aftermath of the Blitz in May 1941
21.
Dublin Connolly railway station
–
Dublin Connolly is one of the main railway stations in Dublin, Ireland, and is a focal point in the Irish route network. Opened in 1844 as Amiens Street Station, the facade has a distinctive Italianate tower at its centre. On the North side of the River Liffey, it provides InterCity and commuter services to the north, the North-South Dublin Area Rapid Transit service also passes through the station. The station offices are the headquarters of Irish Rail, Iarnród Éireann, the station opened on 29 November 1844 by the Dublin and Drogheda Railway Company as Dublin Station, but was renamed Amiens Street Station ten years later after the street on which it is located. Originally the station served only a mainline to Drogheda. In 1891, the City of Dublin Junction Railway connected the station with Westland Row Station on the citys South side. The City of Dublin Junction had a station known as Amiens Street Junction consisting of the present platforms 5,6. After the amalgamation of the GNR at the end of the 1950s, this became part of Amiens Street. The City of Dublin Junction Railway allowed services to run from Amiens Street through to Westland Row to Rosslare, Services to Sligo were transferred to Westland Row running non-stop through the station in 1937, with the closure of Broadstone Station by CIÉ. Services to Galway and Mayo also terminated at Westland Row, operating through Connolly Station after 1937, running via Mullingar and this was discontinued in the 1970s in favour of running services from Heuston Station. In 1941 the station took a hit from a German bomb. In 1966, the 50th anniversary of the Easter Rising, the name was changed to Connolly Station after Irish revolutionary. At the same time, other stations were renamed after patriots executed for their roles in the Rising. At the commencement of DART services in 1984, the City of Dublin Junction Railway entrance was refurbished and reopened for commuters, during the late 1990s, Connolly Station was completely renovated and partially rebuilt. An entirely new station hall was built, the roof over platforms 1 to 4 was replaced, the former DART/Suburban station entrance and the secondary station hall built with the DART were again closed, but a new entrance on the International Financial Services Centre side was opened. The Luas Red Line began serving the station in 2004, as part of the preparation for this, the ramp that had been a bus terminus was demolished and replaced with a two-platform tram station connected to the main concourse by escalators and lift. The opening of Docklands Station in March 2007 has provided an extra terminus station to take pressure from Dublin Connolly, during Monday to Friday peak times, trains from M3 Parkway and Dunboyne arrive at Docklands. It also provides a terminus for the Western Commuter line to Mullingar if needed
Dublin Connolly railway station
–
Dublin Connolly railway station façade in 2006
Dublin Connolly railway station
–
Arrivals/Departures board in 2006
Dublin Connolly railway station
–
Departures board in June 2015
Dublin Connolly railway station
–
Commuter 2800 Class (left) and DART 8200 Class (right) trains at Dublin Connolly Station
22.
County Dublin
–
County Dublin is a former county in Ireland. It is conterminous with the Dublin Region and is in the province of Leinster and it is named after the city of Dublin, which is the regional capital and the capital city of Ireland. County Dublin was one of the first parts of Ireland to be shired by John, prior to 1994 County Dublin was also an administrative unit covering the whole county outside of Dublin City Council. In 1994 Dublin County Council was abolished and replaced with three separate administrative county councils, Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin, the total population of the three aforementioned counties and Dublin city was 1,345,402 according to the census of 2016. Since the abolition of the Dublin Regional Assembly by statutory instrument No, 573/2014, the Eurostat statistical region known as Dublin Region falls under the remit of the wider Eastern and Midland Regional Authority. There are four local authorities whose remit collectively encompasses the area of the county and city of Dublin. These are Dublin City Council, South Dublin County Council, Dún Laoghaire-Rathdown County Council, prior to the enactment of the Local Government Act 1993, the county was a unified whole even though it was administered by two local authorities - Dublin County Council and Dublin Corporation. They rank equally as first level administrative units of the NUTS3 Dublin Region for Eurostat purposes. There are 34 LAU1 entities in the Republic of Ireland, each local authority is responsible for certain local services such as sanitation, planning and development, libraries, the collection of motor taxation, local roads and social housing. Dublin County Council was abolished in 1994 and the area divided among the counties of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal. To these areas may be added the area of Dublin city which collectively comprise the Dublin Region, the area lost its administrative county status in 1994, with Section 9 Part 1 of the Local Government Act,1993 stating that the county shall cease to exist. I am not sure whether Dubliners realise that that is what we are about today, the county is part of the Dublin constituency for the purposes of European elections. Together they return 44 deputies to the Dáil, despite the legal status of the Dublin Region, the term County Dublin is still in common usage. Many organisations and sporting teams continue to organise on a County Dublin or Dublin Region basis, the term Greater Dublin Area, which might consist of some or all of the Dublin Region along with counties of Kildare, Meath and Wicklow, has no legal standing. The Dublin Region is a NUTS Level III region of Ireland, the region is one of eight regions of the Republic of Ireland for the purposes of Eurostat statistics. It is co-extensive with the old county, the regional capital is Dublin City which is also the national capital. The latest Ordnance Survey Ireland Discovery Series 1,50,000 map of the Dublin Region, Sheet 50, shows the boundaries of the city and three surrounding counties of the region. Extremities of the Dublin Region, in the north and south of the region, Local radio stations include 98FM, FM104,103.2 Dublin City FM, Q102, SPIN1038, Sunshine 106.8, TXFM, Raidió Na Life and Radio Nova
County Dublin
–
View of Killiney Bay from
Killiney Hill
County Dublin
–
Three Rock Mountain, Dublin, Ireland looking towards Bray Head
County Dublin
–
Balrothery East
23.
County Wicklow
–
County Wicklow is a county in Ireland. The second last of the traditional 32 counties to be formed, as late as 1606 and it is named after the town of Wicklow, which derives from the Old Norse name Víkingaló, which means Vikings Meadow. Wicklow County Council is the authority for the county. The population of the county is 142,332 according to the 2016 census, Wicklow is colloquially known as the Garden of Ireland. It is the 17th-largest of Irelands 32 counties by area, being thirty-three miles in length by twenty miles in breadth and it is the fourth-largest of Leinsters twelve counties by size and the fifth-largest in terms of population. Between 2011 and 2016 the population of the county grew by 4. 2%, the adjoining counties are Wexford to the south, Carlow to the south-west, Kildare to the west and Dublin to the north. The Wicklow Mountains range is the largest continuous upland region in Ireland, the highest mountain in the range, Lugnaquilla, rises to 925 metres, making Wicklow the second-highest county peak after Kerry. The River Slaney is in the part of the county. The Turlough Hill pumped-storage scheme, a significant civil engineering project, was carried out in the mountains in the 1960s and 1970s, the lakes are small but numerous, located mainly in mountain valleys or glacial corries. They include Lough Dan, Lough Tay, Lough Brae, the lakes of Glendalough as well as the Poulaphouca reservoir, County Wicklow was the last of the traditional counties of Ireland to be shired in 1606 from land previously part of counties Dublin and Carlow. Established as a county, it was aimed at controlling local groups such as the OByrnes. It provided them access to an area that had been a hotbed of Irish rebellion for centuries. Several barracks to house the soldiers were built along the route, the ancient monastery of Glendalough is located in County Wicklow. During the Cromwellian invasion of Ireland, local authorities immediately surrendered without a fight, the local government authority is Wicklow County Council which returns 32 councillors from five municipal districts. All of the previous Town Councils were abolished under a new Local Government Act at the 2014 Local Elections, for elections to Dáil Éireann, the entire county in included in the Wicklow constituency along with some eastern parts of County Carlow. The constituency returns five TDs to the Dáil, mermaid, County Wicklow Arts Centre is based in Bray. Two of the festivals take place in Arklow, the Arklow music Festival. The county is a popular film-making location in Ireland, the BBC series Ballykissangel was also filmed in County Wicklow
County Wicklow
–
Saint Kevin's monastery at
Glendalough.
County Wicklow
–
Surrounding area west of
Bray.
24.
County Clare
–
County Clare is a county in Ireland, in the Mid-West Region and the province of Munster. Clare County Council is the local authority, the county had a population of 117,196 at the 2011 census. Clare is north-west of the River Shannon covering an area of 3,400 square kilometres. Clare was founded by the noble Luke Fitzgerald, A knight of Internal Audit, Clare is the 7th largest of Irelands 32 traditional counties in area and the 19th largest in terms of population. It is bordered by two counties in Munster and one county in Connacht, County Limerick to the south, County Tipperary to the east, clares nickname is the Banner County. The county is divided into the baronies of Bunratty Lower, Bunratty Upper, Burren, Clonderalaw, Corcomroe, Ibrickan, Inchiquin, Islands, Moyarta, Tulla Lower and these in turn are divided into civil parishes, which are divided into townlands. These divisions are cadastral, defining land boundaries and ownership, rather than administrative, bodies of water define much of the physical boundaries of Clare. To the southeast is the River Shannon, Irelands longest river, the border to the northeast is defined by Lough Derg which is the third largest lake on Ireland. To the west is the Atlantic Ocean, and to the north is Galway Bay, County Clare contains The Burren, a unique karst region, which contains rare flowers and fauna. At the western edge of The Burren, facing the Atlantic Ocean, are the Cliffs of Moher, the highest point in County Clare is Moylussa,532 m, in the Slieve Bernagh range in the east of the county. Clare is one of the richest places for these tombs in Ireland, the most noted one is in The Burren area, it is known as Poulnabrone dolmen which translates to hole of sorrows. The remains of the people inside the tomb have been excavated and dated to 3800 BC, Ptolemy created a map of Ireland in his Geographia with information dating from 100 AD, it is the oldest written account of the island with geographical features. Within his map Ptolemy names the Gaelic tribes inhabiting it and the areas in which they resided and it was renamed Thomond, meaning North Munster and spawned Brian Boru during this period, perhaps the most noted High King of Ireland. From 1118 onwards the Kingdom of Thomond was in place as its own petty kingdom, after the Norman invasion of Ireland, Thomas de Clare established a short-lived Norman lordship of Thomond, extinguished at the Battle of Dysert ODea in 1318 during Edward Bruces invasion. There are two hypotheses for the origins of the county name Clare. One hypothesis is that the name is derived from Thomas_de_Clare, _Lord_of_Thomond who was embroiled in local politics. An alternative hypothesis is that the county name Clare comes from the settlement of Clare whose Irish name Clár refers to a crossing over the River Fergus. In 1543, during the Tudor conquest of Ireland, Murrough OBrien by surrender, Henry Sidney as Lord Deputy of Ireland responded the Desmond Rebellion by creating the presidency of Connaught in 1569 and presidency of Munster in 1570
County Clare
–
Baronies of Clare
County Clare
–
The
Cliffs of Moher
County Clare
–
Poulnabrone dolmen in
The Burren.
25.
County Cork
–
County Cork is the largest and southernmost county of Ireland. It lies in the province of Munster and is named after the city of Cork, Cork County Council is the local authority for the county. Its largest settlements are Cork City, Ballincollig and Carrigaline, in 2016, the countys population was 542,196, making it the third most populous county in Ireland. There are two local authorities whose remit collectively encompasses the area of the county and city of Cork. The county, excluding Cork city, is administered by Cork County Council, both city and county are part of the South-West Region. For standardized European statistical purposes both Cork County Council and Cork City Council rank equally as first-level local administrative units of the NUTS3 South-West Region, there are 34 such LAU1 entities in the Republic of Ireland. For elections to Dáil Éireann, the county is divided into five constituencies—Cork East, Cork North–Central, Cork North–West, Cork South–Central, together they return 19 deputies to the Dáil. The county is part of the South constituency for the purposes of European elections, for purposes other than local government, such as the formation of sporting teams, the term County Cork is often taken to include both city and county. County Cork is located in the province of Munster and it borders four other counties, Kerry to the west, Limerick to the north, Tipperary to the north-east and Waterford to the east. Cork is the largest county in the state by land area and it is the largest of Munsters 6 counties by both population and area. The population of Cork city stood at 125,622 in 2016, the population of the entire county is 542,196 making it the states second most populous county and the third most populous county on the island of Ireland. The remit of Cork County Council includes some suburbs of the city not within the area of Cork City Council, there are 24 historic baronies in the county—the most of any county in Ireland. While baronies continue to be officially defined units, they are no longer used for administrative purposes. Their official status is illustrated by Placenames Orders made since 2003, there are 253 civil parishes in the county. Townlands are the smallest officially defined geographical divisions in Ireland, there are approximately 5447 townlands in the county, the Shehy Mountains are on the border with Kerry and may be accessed from the area known as Priests Leap, near the village of Coomhola. The Galtee Mountains are located across parts of Tipperary, Limerick, the upland areas of the Ballyhoura, Boggeragh, Derrynasaggart and the Mullaghareirk Mountain ranges add to the range of habitats found in the county. Important habitats in the uplands include blanket bog, heath, glacial lakes, Cork has the 13th highest county peak in Ireland. The three great rivers, the Bandon, the Blackwater and the Lee, and their valleys dominate central Cork, habitats of the valleys and floodplains include woodlands, marshes, fens and species-rich limestone grasslands
County Cork
–
Pulleen Strand, Bera
County Cork
–
St Finbar's church,
Gougane Barra
County Cork
–
One of many bays in Cork.
26.
County Monaghan
–
County Monaghan is a county in Ireland. It is part of the Border Region and is in the province of Ulster and it is named after the town of Monaghan. Monaghan County Council is the authority for the county. The population of the county is 60,483 according to the 2011 census, the county has existed since 1585, when the Mac Mathghamhna rulers of Airgíalla agreed to join the Kingdom of Ireland. Following the Irish War of Independence and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, Monaghan is the fifth smallest of the Republics 26 counties in area and fourth smallest by population. It is the smallest of Ulsters nine counties in size and also the smallest in terms of population, Cremorne Dartree Farney Monaghan Trough 1. Ballybay =1,461 Notable mountains include Slieve Beagh, Mullyash Mountain and Coolberrin Hill, lakes include Lough Avaghon, Dromore Lough, Drumlona Lough, Lough Egish, Emy Lough, Lough Fea, Inner Lough, Muckno Lough and White Lough. Notable rivers include the River Fane, the River Glyde, the Ulster Blackwater, Monaghan has a number of forests, including Rossmore Forest and Dartrey Forest. Managed by Coillte since 1988, the majority of trees are conifers, due to a long history of intensive farming and recent intensive forestry practices, only small pockets of native woodland remain. The Finn Bridge is a crossing point over the River Finn to County Fermanagh. Lead was formerly mined in County Monaghan, Mines included Annaglogh Lead Mines and Lisdrumgormley Lead Mines. In 1585, the English lord deputy of Ireland, Sir John Perrot, visited the area and they requested that Ulster be divided into counties and land in the kingdom of Airgíalla be apportioned to each of the McMahon chiefs. A commission was established to accomplish this and County Monaghan came into being, the county was subdivided into five baronies, Farney, Cremorne, Dartrey, Monaghan and Truagh, which was left under the control of the McKenna chieftains. After the defeat of the rebellion of Hugh ONeill, The ONeill and the Ulster chieftains in 1603, the lands were instead left in the hands of the native chieftains. In the Irish Rebellion of 1641 the McMahons and their allies joined the rebellion of Irish Catholics. Following their defeat, some colonisation of the county place with Scottish and English families. County Monaghan is traversed by the derelict Ulster Canal, however Waterways Ireland are embarking on a scheme to reopen the canal from Lough Erne into Clones, Monaghan is divided into four local electoral areas, Carrickmacross, Castleblayney, Clones and Monaghan. The towns of Ballybay, Carrickmacross, Castleblayney, Clones and Monaghan are represented by nine-member town councils which deal with matters such as the provision of utilities
County Monaghan
–
Shannahergoa countryside.
County Monaghan
–
Clones Round Tower
County Monaghan
–
Castle Leslie
27.
Gaeltacht
–
Gaeltacht is an Irish-language word used to denote any primarily Irish-speaking region. The boundaries of the Gaeltacht have included a percentage of resident English-speakers since British colonisation. It is now recognised that the Gaeltacht is threatened by serious language decline, research published in 2015 showed that of the 155 electoral divisions in the Gaeltacht, only 21 are communities where Irish is spoken on a daily basis by 67% or more of the population. 67% is regarded by some academics as a point for language survival. In 1926 the official Gaeltacht came into being after the report of the first Gaeltacht Commission Coimisiún na Gaeltachta, the exact boundaries were not defined. The quota at the time was 25%+ Irish-speaking, although in many cases Gaeltacht status was accorded to areas that were weaker than this. The Irish Free State recognised that there were Irish-speaking or semi-Irish-speaking districts in 15 of its 26 counties, in the 1950s another Gaeltacht Commission concluded that the Gaeltacht boundaries were ill-defined. It recommended that the Gaeltacht status admittance of an area be based solely on the strength of the language there, the Gaeltacht districts were initially defined precisely in the 1950s, excluding many areas which had witnessed a decline in the language. This left Gaeltacht areas in seven of the states 26 counties and this would threaten the future of the Gaeltacht. Parents felt that the educational system cancelled their efforts to pass on Irish as a language to their children. The study added that a significant number of Gaeltacht schools had switched to teaching through English, in 2002 the third Coimisiún na Gaeltachta stated in its report that the erosion of Irish in the Gaeltacht was now such that it was only a matter of time before the Gaeltacht disappeared. In some areas Irish had already ceased to be a community language, even in the strongest Gaeltacht areas, current patterns of bilingualism were leading to the dominance of English. Policies implemented by the State and voluntary groups were having no effect, a new language reinforcement strategy was required, one that had the confidence of the community itself. The Commission recommended, among other things, that the boundaries of the official Gaeltacht should be redrawn. It also recommended a comprehensive study to assess the vitality of the Irish language in the remaining Gaeltacht districts. The study was undertaken by Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge, and on 1 November 2007 Staidéar Cuimsitheach Teangeolaíoch ar Úsáid na Gaeilge sa Ghaeltacht appeared, in response to this situation, the government introduced the Gaeltacht Bill 2012. Its stated aim was to provide for a new definition of based on language criteria. This status could only be revoked if the area failed to prepare a language plan, the Bill was also criticised for placing all responsibility for the maintenance of Irish on voluntary organisations, with no increase in resources
Gaeltacht
–
An Ghaeltacht 1926; areas of the island of Ireland which would have qualified for Gaeltacht status according to the first Coimisiún na Gaeltachta
Gaeltacht
–
Official Gaeltacht regions in Ireland
Gaeltacht
–
Traffic sign, meaning "Give Way" or "
Yield ", in
County Waterford
Gaeltacht
–
Signs in
Irish in
Dungloe,
County Donegal.
28.
Republic of Ireland
–
Ireland, also known as the Republic of Ireland, is a sovereign state in north-western Europe occupying about five-sixths of the island of Ireland. The capital and largest city is Dublin, which is located on the part of the island. The state shares its land border with Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom. It is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the Celtic Sea to the south, Saint Georges Channel to the south-east, and it is a unitary, parliamentary republic. The head of government is the Taoiseach, who is elected by the Dáil and appointed by the President, the state was created as the Irish Free State in 1922 as a result of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It was officially declared a republic in 1949, following the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, Ireland became a member of the United Nations in December 1955. It joined the European Economic Community, the predecessor of the European Union, after joining the EEC, Ireland enacted a series of liberal economic policies that resulted in rapid economic growth. The country achieved considerable prosperity between the years of 1995 and 2007, which known as the Celtic Tiger period. This was halted by a financial crisis that began in 2008. However, as the Irish economy was the fastest growing in the EU in 2015, Ireland is again quickly ascending league tables comparing wealth and prosperity internationally. For example, in 2015, Ireland was ranked as the joint sixth most developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index and it also performs well in several national performance metrics, including freedom of the press, economic freedom and civil liberties. Ireland is a member of the European Union and is a member of the Council of Europe. The 1922 state, comprising 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland, was styled, the Constitution of Ireland, adopted in 1937, provides that the name of the State is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland. Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 states, It is hereby declared that the description of the State shall be the Republic of Ireland. The 1948 Act does not name the state as Republic of Ireland, because to have done so would have put it in conflict with the Constitution. The government of the United Kingdom used the name Eire, and, from 1949, Republic of Ireland, for the state, as well as Ireland, Éire or the Republic of Ireland, the state is also referred to as the Republic, Southern Ireland or the South. In an Irish republican context it is referred to as the Free State or the 26 Counties. From the Act of Union on 1 January 1801, until 6 December 1922, during the Great Famine, from 1845 to 1849, the islands population of over 8 million fell by 30%
Republic of Ireland
–
The
Irish Parliamentary Party was formed in 1882 by
Charles Stewart Parnell (1846–1891).
Republic of Ireland
–
Flag
Republic of Ireland
–
In 1922 a new parliament called the
Oireachtas was established, of which
Dáil Éireann became the
lower house.
Republic of Ireland
–
Éamon de Valera (1882–1975)
29.
Frederick H. Crawford
–
Colonel Frederick Hugh Crawford CBE, JP was an officer in the British Army. Crawford was born in Belfast on 21 August 1861 into a solid Methodist family of Ulster-Scots roots and he attended Methodist College Belfast and University College, London. His other child, Stuart Wright Knox, is recorded as a pupil at Ballycloghan National School, Stuart would become a lieutenant-colonel in the British Army, before being invalided in 1944. Malcolm, after being a member of the Colonial Police, joined the Royal Ulster Constabulary, in 1931, Malcolm became a Justice of the Peace for Singapore. Crawford worked as an engineer for White Star Line in the 1880s, in 1898, Crawford was appointed governor of Campbell College, Belfast. Two of his children, Stuart Wright Knox and Malcolm Adair Alexander, in 1911 he became a member of the Ulster Unionist Council. With the formation of the Ulster Volunteer Force in 1913, he was made their Director of Ordnance, in World War I he was officer commanding of the Royal Army Service Corps, and was awarded the Royal Humane Societys Bronze Medal for saving life. He also became a Justice of the Peace for Belfast, Crawford in regards to Irish Home Rule was strongly partisan and backed armed resistance in opposing it, being contemptuous of those who used political bluffing. His avocation for armed resistance was evident when he remarked that at one meeting of the Ulster Unionist Council his heart rejoiced when he heard talk of looking into using physical force. At another meeting he went as far as ask some attendees to step into another room where he had fixed bayonets, rifles. In 1910 the Ulster Unionist Council planned for the creation of an army to oppose Home Rule, Crawford tried several times to smuggle arms into Ulster, however vigilant customs officials seized many of them at the docks. By the 1920s Crawford remained as stoic in his beliefs remarking in a letter in 1920 that I am ashamed to call myself an Irishman, I am an Ulsterman, a very different breed. This organisation however only lasted completely unofficially for a few months after failing to gain acceptance with the political authorities, in 1921 Crawford was included in the Royal Honours List and granted a CBE. In 1934 Crawford wrote his memoirs, titled Guns for Ulster and he died 5 November 1952, and was buried in the City Cemetery, Falls Road, Belfast. Upon news of his death he was described by the then Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, Sir Basil Brooke, arms smuggling Ulster Volunteers Ulster Unionist Council Irish Home Rule Movement
Frederick H. Crawford
–
Colonel Crawford is shown second from the left in this loyalist mural in East Belfast's
Ballymacarrett Road
30.
Forensic science
–
Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence during the course of an investigation. In addition to their role, forensic scientists testify as expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense. While any field could technically be forensic, certain sections have developed over time to encompass the majority of forensically related cases, the word forensic comes from the Latin term forensis, meaning of or before the forum. The history of the term originates from Roman times, during which a charge meant presenting the case before a group of public individuals in the forum. Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches based on their sides of the story, the case would be decided in favor of the individual with the best argument and delivery. This origin is the source of the two usages of the word forensic – as a form of legal evidence and as a category of public presentation. In modern use, the term forensics in the place of science can be considered correct. However, the term is now so closely associated with the field that many dictionaries include the meaning that equates the word forensics with forensic science. The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping punishment, Criminal investigations and trials heavily relied on forced confessions and witness testimony. However, ancient sources do contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow concepts in science that were developed centuries later. The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve criminal cases is attributed to the book of Xi Yuan Lu, written in China by Song Ci in 1248, during the Song Dynasty. In one of the accounts, the case of a person murdered with a sickle was solved by an investigator who instructed everyone to bring his sickle to one location, flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed, methods from around the world involved saliva and examination of the mouth and tongue to determine innocence or guilt, as a precursor to the Polygraph test. In ancient India, some suspects were made to fill their mouths with dried rice, similarly, in Ancient China, those accused of a crime would have rice powder placed in their mouths. In ancient middle-eastern cultures, the accused were made to lick hot metal rods briefly, in 16th-century Europe, medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on the cause and manner of death. Ambroise Paré, a French army surgeon, systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs, two Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation of modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease. In the late 18th century, writings on these began to appear. Two examples of English forensic science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the use of logic
Forensic science
–
Forensic science
Forensic science
–
Ambroise Paré 's surgical work laid the groundwork for the development of forensic techniques in the following centuries.
Forensic science
–
Apparatus for the arsenic test, devised by
James Marsh.
Forensic science
–
Fingerprints taken by
William Herschel 1859/60.
31.
Luminol
–
Luminol is a chemical that exhibits chemiluminescence, with a blue glow, when mixed with an appropriate oxidizing agent. Luminol is a crystalline solid that is soluble in most polar organic solvents. Forensic investigators use luminol to detect trace amounts of blood at crime scenes, biologists use it in cellular assays to detect copper, iron, and cyanides, as well as specific proteins by western blot. When luminol is sprayed evenly across an area, trace amounts of an activating oxidant make the luminol emit a glow that can be seen in a darkened room. The glow only lasts about 30 seconds, but investigators can document the effect with a long-exposure photograph, crime scene investigators must apply it evenly to avoid misleading results, as blood traces appear more concentrated in areas that receive more spray. The intensity of the glow does not indicate the amount of blood or other activator present, Luminol may be synthesized by reverse-phosphorescence, two-step process. First, hydrazine is heated with the 3-nitrophthalic acid in a solvent such as triethylene glycol. An acyl substitution reaction occurs, with loss of water. Reduction of the group to an amino group with sodium dithionite, via a transient hydroxylamine intermediate. The compound was first synthesized in Germany in 1902, but was not named luminol until 1934, to exhibit its luminescence, the luminol must be activated with an oxidant. Usually, a solution containing hydrogen peroxide and hydroxide ions in water is the activator, in the forensic detection of blood, the catalyst is the iron present in haemoglobin. Enzymes in a variety of systems may also catalyse the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. Luminol reacts with the ion, forming a dianion. The oxygen produced from the hydrogen peroxide reacts with the luminol dianion. This emission produces the blue glow, in 1928, German chemist H. O. Albrecht found that blood, among other substances, enhanced the luminescence of luminol in an alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide. In 1936, Karl Gleu and Karl Pfannstiel confirmed this enhancement in the presence of haematin, in 1937, German forensic scientist Walter Specht made extensive studies of luminols application to the detection of blood at crime scenes. In 1939, San Francisco pathologists Frederick Proescher and A. M, crime scene investigators use luminol to find traces of blood, even if someone has cleaned or removed it. The investigator sprays a solution of luminol and the oxidant, the iron in blood catalyses the luminescence
Luminol
–
Chemiluminescence of luminol
Luminol
–
Luminol
32.
Haemoglobin
–
Hemoglobin in the blood carries oxygen from the respiratory organs to the rest of the body. There it releases the oxygen to permit aerobic respiration to provide energy to power the functions of the organism in the process called metabolism, in mammals, the protein makes up about 96% of the red blood cells dry content, and around 35% of the total content. Hemoglobin has a capacity of 1.34 mL O2 per gram. The mammalian hemoglobin molecule can bind up to four oxygen molecules, Hemoglobin is involved in the transport of other gases, It carries some of the bodys respiratory carbon dioxide as carbaminohemoglobin, in which CO2 is bound to the globin protein. The molecule also carries the important regulatory molecule nitric oxide bound to a globin protein thiol group, Hemoglobin is also found outside red blood cells and their progenitor lines. Other cells that contain hemoglobin include the A9 dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, macrophages, alveolar cells, in these tissues, hemoglobin has a non-oxygen-carrying function as an antioxidant and a regulator of iron metabolism. Hemoglobin and hemoglobin-like molecules are found in many invertebrates, fungi. In these organisms, hemoglobins may carry oxygen, or they may act to transport and regulate other small molecules and ions such as carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, hydrogen sulfide and sulfide. In 1825 J. F. Engelhard discovered that the ratio of Fe to protein is identical in the hemoglobins of several species, from the known atomic mass of iron he calculated the molecular mass of hemoglobin to n ×16000, the first determination of a proteins molecular mass. This hasty conclusion drew a lot of ridicule at the time from scientists who could not believe that any molecule could be that big, gilbert Smithson Adair confirmed Engelhards results in 1925 by measuring the osmotic pressure of hemoglobin solutions. The oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin was discovered by Hünefeld in 1840, hemoglobins reversible oxygenation was described a few years later by Felix Hoppe-Seyler. In 1959, Max Perutz determined the structure of myoglobin by X-ray crystallography. This work resulted in his sharing with John Kendrew the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, the role of hemoglobin in the blood was elucidated by French physiologist Claude Bernard. The name hemoglobin is derived from the heme and globin. Each heme group contains one iron atom, that can bind one oxygen molecule through ion-induced dipole forces, the most common type of hemoglobin in mammals contains four such subunits. Hemoglobin consists of subunits, and these proteins, in turn, are folded chains of a large number of different amino acids called polypeptides. The amino acid sequence of any polypeptide created by a cell is in turn determined by the stretches of DNA called genes, in all proteins, it is the amino acid sequence that determines the proteins chemical properties and function. There is more than one gene, in humans, hemoglobin A is coded for by the genes, HBA1, HBA2
Haemoglobin
–
Max Perutz, one of the founding fathers of molecular biology
Haemoglobin
–
hemoglobin
Haemoglobin
–
A hemoglobin concentration measurement being administered before a blood donation at the
American Red Cross Boston Blood Donation Center.
Haemoglobin
–
The giant tube worm
Riftia pachyptila showing red hemoglobin-containing plumes
33.
Solemn League and Covenant
–
Covenant redirects here, not to be confused with the Scottish Covenant. The Solemn League and Covenant was an agreement between the Scottish Covenanters and the leaders of the English Parliamentarians in 1643 during the First English Civil War. On 17 August 1643 the Church of Scotland accepted it and on 25 September 1643 so did the English Parliament, general assent was obtained for the Solemn League and Covenant throughout Scotland and England by allowing the populace to sign it. The Protestant leaders of the embattled English parliament, faced with the threat of Irish Catholic troops joining with the Royalist army, the Presbyterian Covenanters promised their aid against the papists, on condition that the Scottish system of church government was adopted in England. This was acceptable to the majority of the English Long Parliament, as many MPs were presbyterians, after some haggling a document called The Solemn League and Covenant was drawn up. It was subscribed to by many in England, Scotland, and Ireland, approved by the English Long Parliament, the agreement meant that the Covenanters sent another army south to England to fight on the Parliamentarian side in the First English Civil War. Its object was the management of peace overtures to, or making war on, the Scots withdrew from the Committee after the end of the First Civil War, although it continued to sit and from then on was known as the Derby House Committee. In 1648 the Royalists and the Covenanters were defeated at the Battle of Preston, protestation Returns of 1641–1642 List of treaties EB editors. London, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 243–250, dunbar Martyrs 1650 The Solemn League and Covenant British Civil Wars website
Solemn League and Covenant
–
Title page of the Solemn League and Covenant.
Solemn League and Covenant
–
A 17thC playing card shows English
Puritans taking the Covenant
Solemn League and Covenant
–
Plaque marking the signing of the Solemn League and Covenant by
Charles II.
34.
Covenanter
–
The Covenanters were a Scottish Presbyterian movement that played an important part in the history of Scotland, and to a lesser extent that of England and Ireland, during the 17th century. Presbyterian denominations tracing their history to the Covenanters and often incorporating the name continue the ideas and traditions in Scotland and internationally. They derived their name from the word covenant meaning a band, legal document or agreement, there were two important covenants in Scottish history, the National Covenant and the Solemn League and Covenant. Based on the Scots Confession of Faith of 1560, this document denounced the Pope, in 1637, Scotland was in a state of turmoil. King Charles I and William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, met with a reverse in their efforts to impose a new liturgy on the Scots. Fearing further measures on the part of the King, it occurred to Archibald Johnston to revive the Negative Confession of 1581 in a suited to the times. Together with the cooperation of Alexander Henderson, this National Covenant was finalized in early 1638, the Covenant was adopted and signed by a large gathering in the kirkyard of Greyfriars Kirk in Edinburgh, on 28 February 1638, after which copies were sent throughout the country for signing. The subscribers engaged by oath to maintain religion in the form that it existed in 1580 and it did not specifically reject episcopacy but in effect undermined it. The year 1638 marked an apex of events for the Covenanters, confrontations occurred in several parts of Scotland, such as the one with the Bishops of Aberdeen by a high level assembly of Covenanters staging their operations from Muchalls Castle. The General Assembly of 1638 was composed of ardent Covenanters, and in 1640 the Covenant was adopted by the Scottish parliament, before this date, the Covenanters were usually referred to as Supplicants, but from about this time the former designation began to prevail. The Covenanters raised an army to resist Charles Is religious reforms, the crisis that this caused to the Stuart monarchy helped bring about the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which included the English Civil War, the Scottish Civil War and Irish Confederate Wars. For the following ten years of war in Britain, the Covenanters were the de facto government of Scotland. In 1642, they sent an army to Ulster in Ireland to protect the Scottish settlers there from the Irish Catholic rebels who had attacked them in the Irish Rebellion of 1641. The Scottish army remained in Ireland until the end of the civil wars, a further Covenanter military intervention began in 1643. Following considerable debate, a document called the Solemn League and Covenant was drawn up and it did not explicitly mention Presbyterianism and included some ambiguous formulations that left the door open to Independency. It was subscribed to by many in both kingdoms and also in Ireland, and was approved by the English Parliament, and with slight modifications by the Westminster Assembly of Divines. This agreement meant that the Covenanters sent another army south to England to fight on the Parliamentarian side in the First English Civil War, the Scottish armies in England were instrumental in bringing about the victory of the English Parliament over the King. In turn, this sparked the outbreak of war in Scotland in 1644–47
Covenanter
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An illegal
conventicle. Covenanters in a Glen, painting by Alexander Carse.
Covenanter
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Greyfriars Kirkyard where the National Covenant was signed in 1638
Covenanter
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Edinburgh's copy of the National Covenant
Covenanter
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The Solemn League And Covenant, as publicised in England
35.
Roundhead
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Roundhead was the name given to the supporters of the Parliament of England during the English Civil War. Also known as Parliamentarians, they fought against Charles I of England and his supporters, the Cavaliers or Royalists, who claimed rule by absolute monarchy, the goal of the Roundhead party was to give the Parliament supreme control over executive administration. Most Roundheads sought constitutional monarchy in place of the absolutist monarchy sought by Charles I, englands many Puritans and Presbyterians were almost invariably Roundhead supporters, as were many smaller religious groups such as the Independents. However many Roundheads were Church of England, as were many Cavaliers, Roundhead political factions included the proto-anarchist Diggers, the diverse group known as the Levellers and the apocalyptic Christian movement of the Fifth Monarchists. Some Puritans, but by no means all, wore their hair closely cropped round the head or flat, during the war and for a time afterwards, Roundhead was a term of derision—in the New Model Army it was a punishable offence to call a fellow soldier a Roundhead. This contrasted with the term Cavalier to describe supporters of the Royalist cause, Roundheads appears to have been first used as a term of derision toward the end of 1641, when the debates in Parliament in the Clergy Act 1640 were causing riots at Westminster. The demonstrators included London apprentices and Roundhead was a term of derision for them because the regulations to which they had agreed included a provision for closely cropped hair. However, Richard Baxter ascribes the origin of the term to a made by Queen Henrietta Maria of France at the trial of Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford. Referring to John Pym, she asked who the man was. The principal advisor to Charles II, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, remarked on the matter and they who were looked upon as servants to the king being then called Cavaliers, and the other of the rabble contemned and despised under the name of Roundheads. By the end of this period some Independent Puritans were again using the term Roundhead to refer to the Presbyterian Puritans. Likewise during the Exclusion Bill crisis, the term Cavalier was replaced with Tory, an Irish term introduced by their opponents, the History of England from the Accession of James II. Historical Memorials Relating to the Independents Or Congregationalists, From Their Rise to the Restoration of the Monarchy, religious Thought in England, from the Reformation to the End of Last Century, A Contribution to the History of Theology. Heavy Words Lightly Thrown, The Reason Behind Rhyme, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Anonymous
Roundhead
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A Roundhead by
John Pettie
Roundhead
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A Roundhead inquisitor asks a son of a Cavalier, "
And when did you last see your father? " —
William Frederick Yeames (1878).
36.
First English Civil War
–
The First English Civil War began the series of three wars known as the English Civil War. The English Civil War can be divided into three, the First English Civil War, the Second English Civil War, and the Third English Civil War. For the most part, accounts summarise the two sides fought the English Civil Wars as the Royalist Cavaliers of Charles I of England versus the Parliamentarian Roundheads of Oliver Cromwell. However, as many civil wars, loyalties shifted for various reasons. During this time, the Irish Confederate Wars continued in Ireland, starting with the Irish Rebellion of 1641, the first and last of these motives animated the foot-soldiers of the Royal armies. These sturdy rustics who followed their squires to the war, saw the enemy as rebels, the cavalry was composed largely of the higher social orders. The rebel troops on the hand were mainly drawn from the ranks of the middle class or bourgeois. The other side of the war saw the causes of the initially as a constitutional issue. Thus, the elements of resistance in Parliament and the nation were at first confused, but the backbone of resistance was the Puritan element, and this waging war at first with the rest on the political issue, soon brought the religious issue to the front. But for a generation before the war broke out, the system had disciplined and trained the middle classes of the nation to centre their will on the attainment of their ideals, the parliamentarians had the stronger material force. They controlled the navy, the nucleus of an army that was being organised for the Irish war and they had the sympathies of most of the large towns, where the trained bands, drilled once a month, provided cadres for new regiments. Also, by recognising that war was likely, they prepared for war before Royalists did, the Earl of Warwick, the Earl of Essex, the Earl of Manchester, and other nobles and gentry of the Parliamentary party, had great wealth and territorial influence. On the other hand, Charles could raise men without authority from Parliament by using impressment and the Lords-Lieutenant, thus he depended on financial support from his adherents, such as the Earl of Newcastle and the Earl of Derby. Both the king and the Parliament raised men when and where they could, Parliament claimed to be justified by its own recent Militia Ordinance, while the king claimed the old-fashioned Commissions of Array. For example, in Cornwall the Royalist leader Sir Ralph Hopton indicted the enemy before the jury of the county for disturbing the peace. In effect, both sides assembled local forces wherever they could do so by valid written authority and this thread of local feeling and respect for the laws runs through the early operations of both sides, almost irrespective of the main principles at stake. Many promising schemes failed because of the reluctance of militiamen to serve outside their own county, as the offensive lay with the King, his cause naturally suffered from this far more than that of Parliament. However, the spirit of the struggle proved very different
First English Civil War
–
Oliver Cromwell
First English Civil War
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The
Battle of Marston Moor, by James Barker
First English Civil War
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Marquess of Hertford
First English Civil War
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Charles I holding a council of war the day before the
Battle of Edgehill by
Charles Landseer
37.
Natal Province
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The Province of Natal, commonly called the Natal Province, was a province of South Africa from 1910 until 1994. The Natal Province included the bantustan of KwaZulu, the majority of the white population were English-speaking, causing Natal to become the only province to vote no to the creation of a republic in the referendum of 1960. In the latter part of the 1980s, Natal was in a state of violence that only ended with the first multiracial election in 1994, in 1994, the KwaZulu bantustan was reincorporated into the territory of Natal and the province redesignated KwaZulu-Natal. Districts of the province and population at the time of the 1991 census, coat of arms of Natal Mtetwa Empire Zululand Natalia Republic Colony of Natal KwaZulu-Natal
Natal Province
38.
Afrikaner nationalism
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A major proponent of the ideology was the secret Broederbond organisation and the National Party that ruled the country from 1948 to 1994. In his writings, Du Toit put forward the notion that Afrikaners were a distinct nationality with a fatherland and their own language, religion, especially Afrikaner Calvinism, played an instrumental role in the development of Afrikaner nationalism and consequently the apartheid ideology. The Dutch Reformed Churches of South Africa were involved throughout the 18th century in a constant battle against modernism and they aligned with the conservative views of Abraham Kuyper, who emphasised Gods authority over separate spheres of creation. These spheres, for example historical nations, had to be preserved and protected from liberalism, Kuyper also rejected the Enlightenment with its emphasis on human rationality and individuality and thought that it had led to the ideals of equality, fraternity and freedom of the French Revolution. In his view, all these ideas challenged Gods authority, Afrikaner theologians worked from this foundation and defined a number of political, economic and cultural spheres that had their separate, independent destinies. The Afrikaner history was reinterpreted through a Christian-nationalistic ideology. During the 1930s and 1940s many intellectuals partook in the formulation of Afrikaner nationalism. According to Diederichs, God created nations and these nations had a God-ordained right to exist as separate entities, therefore, Afrikaners could refuse a British-designed South Africa in which they would co-exist with other ethnic groups as a minority. He acknowledged this as unjust and unchristian, and as a solution offered total segregation and their solution was a drastic reordering of the South African demographic map with a dominant Afrikaner Republic not influenced by British imperialism. However, because of the opposition of the middle class they did not propose a return to conservative. The economic depression in 1905–09 changed this attitude when a new group of whites, mostly Afrikaners. Afrikaner nationalism and Nazism had common roots in religio-nationalism and Pan Germanism, for example, Afrikaner criticism of the capitalistic system inter-war period was quite anti-Semitic. Many Afrikaner nationalists also viewed a Nazi German style strong government as necessary to protect the volk, J. B. M. Hertzog led the National Party to the 1915 and 1920 elections under the slogan South Africa first to create a South Africa independent from the British influence. During his reign, he steadily promoted Afrikaner nationalism while deepening the racial segregation in the country, volkskapitalisme strived to improve the economic conditions of the Afrikaners who in general at the time were less well-off than the English-speaking whites in South Africa. In practice the program consisted of utilising the Afrikaner capital into new, despite the efforts of the Broederbond activists to Afrikanerise South Africa, the uptake of this new Christian-nationalistic Afrikaner identity was slow and unenthusiastic. According to electoral studies, the majority of the group did not vote for the Afrikaner nationalistic National Party until the early 1960s. During the 1930s and 1940s Afrikaner nationalists constructed a community of the Afrikaner with maps and narratives of its heroic past, moral purpose. The usage of Afrikaans instead of Dutch was aggressively promoted throughout the 1920s especially in white schools
Afrikaner nationalism
–
Abraham Kuyper
Afrikaner nationalism
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James Barry Munnik Hertzog
Afrikaner nationalism
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Voortrekker Monument, Afrikaner nationalistic monument in the honour of the people that took part in the
Great Trek. The architect
Gerard Moerdijk described it as a "monument that would stand a thousands of years to describe the history and the meaning of the Great Trek to it descendants".
Afrikaner nationalism
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Afrikaner Broederbond leadership in 1918.
39.
Union of South Africa
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The Union of South Africa is the historic predecessor to the present-day Republic of South Africa. It came into being on 31 May 1910 with the unification of four previously separate British colonies, Cape Colony, Natal Colony, Transvaal Colony and it included the territories formerly part of the Boer republics annexed in 1902, South African Republic and Orange Free State. The Union of South Africa was a dominion of the British Empire and it was governed under a form of constitutional monarchy, with the Crown represented by a governor-general. The Union came to an end when the 1961 constitution was enacted, on 31 May 1961 the country became a republic and left the Commonwealth, under the new name Republic of South Africa. Unlike Canada and Australia, the Union of South Africa was a state, rather than a federation. A bicameral parliament was created, consisting of a House of Assembly and Senate, during the course of the Union the franchise changed on several occasions always to suit the needs of the government of the day. Bloemfontein and Pietermaritzburg were given financial compensation, the Union initially remained under the British Crown as a self-governing dominion of the British Empire. With the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, the Union and other dominions became equal in status to the United Kingdom, the Monarch was represented in South Africa by a Governor-General, while effective power was exercised by the Executive Council, headed by the Prime Minister. Louis Botha, formerly a Boer general, was appointed first Prime Minister of the Union, heading a coalition representing the white Afrikaner, prosecutions before courts were instituted in the name of the Crown and government officials served in the name of the Crown. Some extremist Nationalist organisations, like the Ossewa Brandwag, openly supported Nazi Germany during the Second World War, the Afrikaner-dominated Government consequently withdrew South Africa from the Commonwealth. Natal, which had an English-speaking majority, voted against, following the referendum result, some whites in Natal even called for secession from the Union. Five years earlier, some 33,000 Natalians had signed the Natal Covenant in opposition to the plans for a republic, subsequently the National Party Government passed a Constitution that repealed the South Africa Act. The features of the Union were carried over with little change to the newly formed Republic. The decision to transform from a Union to Republic was narrowly decided in the referendum, the South Africa Act dealt with race in two specific provisions. Second it made native affairs a matter for the national government, the practice therefore was to establish a Minister of Native Affairs. Several previous unsuccessful attempts to unite the colonies were made, with proposed political models ranging from unitary, Sir George Grey, the Governor of Cape Colony from 1854 to 1861, decided that unifying the states of southern Africa would be mutually beneficial. He believed that a united South African Federation, under British control and his idea was greeted with cautious optimism in southern Africa, the Orange Free State agreed to the idea in principle and the Transvaal may also eventually have agreed. However, he was overruled by the British Colonial Office which ordered him to desist from his plans and his refusal to abandon the idea eventually led to him being recalled
Union of South Africa
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The first Union cabinet
Union of South Africa
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Flag
Union of South Africa
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South-West Africa stamp: princesses
Elizabeth and
Margaret on the 1947 royal tour of South Africa
40.
South African republic referendum, 1960
–
A referendum on becoming a republic was held in South Africa on 5 October 1960. The National Party government subsequently organised the referendum on whether the then Union of South Africa should become a republic, the vote, which was restricted to whites, was narrowly approved by 52. 29% of the voters. The Republic of South Africa was constituted on 31 May 1961, despite the defeat of the two Boer republics, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, republican sentiment remained strong in the Union of South Africa among Afrikaners. After the cultural and economic needs, the Afrikaner will have to devote his attention to the needs of our people. Added to that objective must be an entirely independent genuine, Afrikaans form of government for South Africa. A form of government which through its embodiment in our own personal head of state, bone of our bone, flesh of our flesh, will inspire us to irresistible unity and strength. On the matter of continued Commonwealth membership, the Broederbonds view was that departure from the Commonwealth as soon as possible remains a cardinal aspect of our republican aim. In 1948, the National Party, now led by D. F. Malans successor as Prime Minister, J G Strijdom, also downplayed the republic issue, however, he later reaffirmed his partys commitment to a republic, as well as a single national flag. Strijdom stated that the matter of whether South Africa would be a republic inside or outside the Commonwealth would be decided with a view to circumstances then prevailing. Like his precessor, Strijdom declared the belief that a republic could only be proclaimed on the basis of the broad will of the people. On becoming Prime Minister in 1958, Verwoerd gave a speech to Parliament in which he declared that, This has indeed been the basis of our struggle all these years and this has been the struggle since 1910, a republic as opposed to the monarchical connection. We stand unequivocally and clearly for the establishment of the republic in the correct manner, in 1960, Verwoerd announced plans to hold a whites-only referendum on the establishment of a republic, with a bill to that effect being introduced in Parliament on 23 April of that year. The Referendum Act received assent on 3 June 1960 and he stated that a simple majority in favour of the change would be decisive, although minimal changes would be made to the existing constitutional structures. Also included on the roll were white voters in South West Africa. As in South Africa, the Afrikaners and ethnic Germans in the territory outnumbered English-speaking whites, in addition, Coloureds were no longer enfranchised as voters and were not eligible to vote in the referendum. This prompted Verwoerd to declare in the House of Assembly, It was not the Republic of South Africa that was told, We are not going to support you in this respect. Those words were addressed to the monarchy of South Africa, and it was a warning given to all of us, English-speaking and Afrikaans-speaking, republican and anti-republican. It was clear to all of us that as far as matters are concerned
South African republic referendum, 1960
–
Results by province
41.
Durban
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Durban is the largest city in the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal. Durbans metropolitan municipality ranks third among the most populous areas in South Africa after Johannesburg. It is also the second most important manufacturing hub in South Africa after Johannesburg and it forms part of the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality. Durban is famous for being the busiest port in South Africa and it is also seen as one of the major centres of tourism because of the citys warm subtropical climate and extensive beaches. It is the largest city in KwaZulu-Natal which is the 2nd most populous province in South Africa and it has the highest number of dollar millionaires added per year of any South African city with the number rising 200% between 2000 and 2014. In May 2015, Durban was officially recognised as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Vigan, Doha, La Paz, Havana, Beirut, archaeological evidence from the Drakensberg mountains suggests that the Durban area has been inhabited by communities of hunter-gatherers since 100,000 BC. He named the area Natal, or Christmas in Portuguese, accompanying Farewell was an adventurer named Henry Francis Fynn. Fynn was able to befriend the Zulu King Shaka by helping him to recover from a wound he suffered in battle. As a token of Shakas gratitude, he granted Fynn a 30-mile strip of coast a hundred miles in depth. During a meeting of 35 European residents in Fynns territory on 23 June 1835, it was decided to build a town and name it dUrban after Sir Benjamin dUrban. The Voortrekkers established the Republic of Natalia in 1838, with its capital at Pietermaritzburg, piet Retief, leader of the Voortrekkers in Natal, negotiated with the Zulu King, Dingane, in order to obtain land for their farming purposes. After negotiations were concluded, Dingane however reneged and had Retief, thereafter the Zulus attacked and killed more than 500 Voortrekkers at Retiefs laager. The Voortrekkers retaliated and broke Dinganes power at the Battle of Blood River, the force arrived on 4 May 1842 and built a fortification that was later to be The Old Fort. On the night of 23/24 May 1842 the British attacked the Voortrekker camp at Congella, the attack failed, and the British had to withdraw to their camp which was put under siege. A local trader Dick King and his servant Ndongeni were able to escape the blockade and rode to Grahamstown, the reinforcements arrived in Durban 20 days later, the Voortrekkers retreated, and the siege was lifted. Fierce conflict with the Zulu population led to the evacuation of Durban, a British governor was appointed to the region and many settlers emigrated from Europe and the Cape Colony. The British established a sugar industry in the 1860s. Farm owners had a difficult time attracting Zulu labourers to work on their plantations, as a result of the importation of Indian labourers, Durban has the largest Asian community on the African continent, and has the largest Indian population outside of India
Durban
Durban
Durban
Durban
42.
PRONI
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The Public Record Office of Northern Ireland is situated in Belfast, Northern Ireland. It is a division within the Communities Cohesion Group of the Department for Communities, the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland is distinguished from other archival institutions in the United Kingdom by its unique combination of private and official records. The Record Office is not the Northern Ireland equivalent or imitation of any Great Britain or Republic of Ireland archival institution and this range of remit, embracing, among others, central and local government, the churches and the private sector, is unique to Northern Ireland. PRONI was established by the Public Records Act,1923, the new body opened in March 1924 on the fourth floor of a former linen warehouse in central Belfast. The immediate challenge was to identify and preserve surrogates of records lost in Dublin during the Four Courts fire on June 1922, the first Deputy Keeper, Dr David A. Chart was able to replace many of these records by approaching solicitors, business people, politicians, churches, the success of Charts acquisition policy meant that PRONI needed more storage space. In April 1933, the moved to a new central Belfast location. However, it was not until 1965, that the Ministry of Finance would approve a new building. This new building, opened in 1972, at Balmoral Avenue was the first new office to be built in the UK since the Public Record Office in London was erected in 1838. Between 1924 and 1982 PRONI was part of the Ministry of Finance, the functions were then transferred to the Department of the Environment, and in 1995, PRONI became an executive agency within the DOE. With the restoration of devolved government in 1999, PRONI became an agency within the new Department of Culture, Arts, the department brought together for the first time overall responsibility for libraries, museums and archives. As part of the implementation of the Review of Public Administration, PRONI ceased to be an agency in 2006, on 9 May 2016, PRONI became a division within the Communities Cohesion Group as part of the newly created Department for Communities. In March 2011, PRONI reopened in new built premises at 2 Titanic Boulevard, BT3 9HQ, in the Titanic Quarter of Belfast. PRONI is easily accessed from Belfast City Hall via the Metro 26, 26A, 26B and it is within close proximity to the Titanic Quarter railway station and George Best Belfast City Airport. PRONI is open 9, 00–16,45 Monday to Wednesday and Friday and those unable to visit and register onsite at PRONI can use the remote search and copy service, though there is a fee for this. PRONI currently holds 54 kilometres of records and these records date largely from c.1600 to the present day but a few date as far back as the early 13th century, with the oldest document being a bull of Pope Honorius III, dated 1219. Records range from public documents, such as those from government departments, to private records, the records at PRONI relate chiefly to the North of Ireland. The office holds a number of records relating to other parts of the island of Ireland which have received by private depositors and include amongst others
PRONI
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Public Record Office of Northern Ireland
PRONI
PRONI
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PRONI Atrium
PRONI
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Papal Bull by Honorius III dated 1219
