1.
Maiolica
–
Maiolica, also called Majolica is Italian tin-glazed pottery dating from the Renaissance period. It is decorated in colours on a background, sometimes depicting historical and mythical scenes. By the late 15th century, several places, mainly small cities in northern and central Italy, were producing sophisticated pieces for a market in Italy. The name is thought to come from the medieval Italian word for Majorca, moorish potters from Majorca are reputed to have worked in Sicily and it has been suggested that their wares reached the Italian mainland from Caltagirone. An alternative explanation of the name is that it comes from the Spanish term obra de Malaga, denoting “ wares from Malaga”. or obra de mélequa, the Spanish name for lustre. In the 15th century, the term maiolica referred solely to lusterware, eventually the term came to be used when describing ceramics made in Italy, lustred or not, of tin-glazed earthenware. With the Spanish conquest of Mexico, tin-glazed maiolica wares came to be produced in the Valley of Mexico as early as 1540, mexican maiolica is known famously as Talavera. By a convenient extension and limitation the name may be applied to all tin-glazed ware, of whatever nationality, the name faïence being reserved for the later wares of the 17th Century onwards, either in original styles or, more frequently, in the Dutch-Chinese tradition. The term maiolica is sometimes applied to modern tin-glazed ware made by studio potters, the word, majolica, is also used for Victorian majolica, a hard-wearing type of pottery where coloured lead glazes are applied direct to the biscuit. Tin glazing creates a brilliant white, opaque surface for painting, the colours are applied as metallic oxides or as fritted underglazes to the unfired glaze, which absorbs pigment like fresco, making errors impossible to fix, but preserving the brilliant colors. Sometimes the surface is covered with a glaze that lends greater shine. In the case of lustred wares, a further firing at a temperature is required. Kilns required wood as well as suitable clay, glaze was made from sand, wine lees, lead compounds and tin compounds. Analysis of samples of Italian maiolica pottery from the Middle Ages has indicated that tin was not always a component of the glaze, such archaic wares are sometimes called proto-maiolica. During the later fourteenth century, the palette of colours was expanded from the traditional manganese purple and copper green to include cobalt blue, antimony yellow. Sgraffito wares were produced, in which the white tin-oxide glaze was scratched through to produce a design from the revealed body of the ware. Refined production of tin-glazed earthenwares made for more local needs was concentrated in central Italy from the later thirteenth century. The medium was adopted by the Della Robbia family of Florentine sculptors
Maiolica
–
Istoriato decoration on a plate from
Castel Durante, c.1550-1570 (
Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lille)
Maiolica
–
Istoriato charger,
Faenza, ca 1555 (
Dallas Museum of Art)
Maiolica
–
Dish with bird, in Islamic-derived style,
Orvieto, ca.1270-1330 (
Victoria and Albert Museum)
Maiolica
–
Dish from
Deruta, 2nd quarter of the 16th century, shows the full range of glaze colors (
Victoria and Albert Museum)
2.
Faenza
–
Faenza is an Italian city and comune, in the province of Ravenna, Emilia-Romagna, situated 50 kilometres southeast of Bologna. Faenza is noted for its manufacture of glazed earthenware pottery. In the nearby valleys of the rivers Samoggia and Lamone there are great number of 18th and 19th century stately homes. According to mythology, the name of the first settlement, Faoentia, had Etruscan and Celtic roots, meaning in Latin Splendeo inter deos or I shine among the gods, in modern English. The very name, coming from the Romans who developed this center under the name of Faventia, has become synonymous with ceramics in various languages, including French, here Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius defeated populares army of Gnaeus Papirius Carbo in 82 BC. Here Totila and an Ostrogothic army defeated the Byzantine army in Italy in the Battle of Faventia in 542 CE, after a period of decadence from the 2nd century to the early Middle Ages it regained prosperity from 8th century on. The first consuls were elected in 1141 and in 1155 a podestà was in charge of government of the city, in the wars between Guelphs and Ghibellines that began in the following years Faenza was at first loyal to the emperor. In 1178, however, it changed side and entered the Lombard League, the inner disputes anyway favoured acquisition of power by Maghinardo Pagano, who remained podestà and capitano del popolo for several years. At the beginning of the 14th century the Guelph Manfredi began a rule over Faenza that was to last for almost two centuries, the peak of splendour was reached under Carlo II Manfredi, in the second half of the century, when the city centre was renewed. In 1488 Galeotto Manfredi was assassinated by his wife, his son Astorre III succeeded him, but was in turn killed in Rome as a prisoner of Cesare Borgia, after a brief period of Venetian domination Faenza became part of the Papal States until 1797. Faenzas architectural attractions are concentrated in the two main squares, Piazza del Popolo, lined by two double order porticoed wings, and Piazza della Libertà. Faenza Cathedral, located along the east side of Piazza della Libertà, influenced by Tuscan style, it is one of the highest expressions of Renaissance art in Romagna. Built to Giuliano da Maianos design, it was begun in 1474, the marble decoration of the façade remained unfinished. Goldsmiths Portico opposite the Cathedral this open gallery and monumental fountain with bronzes were built in the first decade of the 17th century. Clock Tower, in front of the entrance to the Piazza, is a rebuilding of the 17th century tower that stood at the crossroad of the cardo. Among the other monuments of the centre are Palazzo Milzetti, the richest and most significant Neoclassical building in the region. In the nearby, the Villa Case Grandi dei Ferniani has a collection of 18th and 19th century Faenza ceramics, Faenza is home to the International Museum of Ceramics. Other interesting art collections are located in the Municipal Art Gallery, the Diocese Museum, the Bendandi Museum, the historic production of Faenza majolica is recognized worldwide as one of the highest moments of artistic creativity expressed through pottery
Faenza
–
Faenza
Faenza
–
Cathedral of Faenza.
Faenza
–
An example of Faenza Majolica in the so-called Garofano style.
3.
Giovanni Antonio da Brescia
–
Giovanni Antonio da Brescia was an Italian engraver of northern Italy, active in the approximate period 1490–1519, during the Italian Renaissance. Around 1507 he began to use such as IO. AN. BX. The real Zoan Andrea was an obscure painter, documented as working in Mantua in the 1470s. The newly expanded oeuvre comprises at least 150 engravings, making Giovanni Antonio one of the most prolific Italian engravers of this period. A large number copy other prints, as was then common and he developed his technique, becoming a technical influence on other Italian engravers, notably Marcantonio Raimondi. He began his traceable printmaking career in the circle of Mantegna, arriving in Mantua in the 1490s and he may have been been relatively old and experienced as an artist in another medium when he joined the aged Mantegna. It is assumed he moved to Rome, as his later engravings depict works available to him only in that city, after he left Mantua Benedetto Montagna and his father Bartolomeo Montagna, both of Vicenza, become influences, and a period there has been posited. He also appears to have spent time in Florence, as one print copies a drawing by Filippino Lippi, the date of his arrival in Rome is estimated to be around 1506, c. One print shows the famous Roman sculpture the Laocoön Group, which was excavated in 1506 and his prints are mainly concerned with the figures, which often occupy most of the picture space. According to Sheehan he never achieves a unity between figures and setting, as do the more advanced masters of the 16th century. In Mantua his relationship with Mantegna was apparently close, but the nature of it remains uncertain. Mantegna had been interested in printmaking for decades, probably since the 1460s, and he is the artist who can best be claimed to have invented printmaking in Italy. BM, British Museum, biographical details AM Hind, A History of Engraving and Etching,1923, Houghton Mifflin Co. reprinted Dover Publications,1963, ISBN0486209547 Landau, David, and Parshall, Peter. The Renaissance Print, Yale,1996, ISBN0300068832 Grove, Giovanni Antonio da Brescia Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online
Giovanni Antonio da Brescia
–
Two Ornamental Panels, after a design by Giovanni Antonio da Brescia, engraved by
Daniel Hopfer
4.
The Walters Art Museum
–
The Walters Art Museum, located in Mount Vernon-Belvedere, Baltimore, Maryland, is a public art museum founded and opened in 1934. It holds collections established during the mid-19th Century, located across the back alley, a block south of the Walters mansion on West Monument Street/Mount Vernon Place, on the northwest corner of North Charles Street at West Centre Street. The following year, The Walters reopened its original building after a dramatic three-year physical renovation and replacement of internal utilities. The Archimedes Palimpsest was on loan to the Walters Art Museum from a collector for conservation. This was one of the largest and most comprehensive such releases made by any museum, the Walters collection of ancient art includes examples from Egypt, Nubia, Greece, Rome, Etruria and the Near East. In 1911, Henry Walters purchased almost 100 gold artifacts from the Chiriqui region of western Panama in Central America, the museum owns the oldest surviving Chinese wood-and-lacquer image of the Buddha. It is exhibited in a gallery dedicated solely to this work, the Museum holds one of the largest and finest collections of Thai bronze, scrolls, and banner paintings in the world. Islamic art in all media is represented at the Walters, the Walters Museum owns an array of Islamic manuscripts. Walters Art Museum, MS W.613 contains five Mughal miniatures from a very important Khamsa of Nizami made for the Emperor Akbar, Henry Walters assembled a collection of art produced during the Middle Ages in all the major artistic media of the period. This forms the basis of the Walters medieval collection, for which the Museum is best known internationally. Considered one of the best collections of art in the United States, the Museums holdings include examples of metalwork, sculpture, stained glass, textiles, icons. Sculpted heads from the royal Abbey of St. Denis are rare surviving examples of sculptures that are directly connected with the origins of Gothic art in 12th Century France. An ivory casket covered with scenes of jousting knights is one of about a dozen such objects to survive in the world, many of these works are on display in the Museums galleries. Works in the collection are the subject of active research by the curatorial and conservation departments of the museum. The collection of European Renaissance and Baroque art features holdings of paintings, sculpture, furniture, ceramics, metal work, arms, the museum has one of ten surviving examples of the Sèvres pot-pourri vase in the shape of a ship from the 1750s and 1760s. William and Henry Walters collected works by late 19th Century French academic masters, Henry Walters was particularly interested in the courtly arts of 18th Century France. The museum’s collection of Sèvres porcelain includes a number of pieces that were made for members of the Royal Bourbon Court at Versailles Palace outside of Paris. Portrait miniatures and the examples of works, especially snuffboxes and watches, are displayed in the Treasury, along with some exceptional 19th-
The Walters Art Museum
–
North Charles Street original main entrance to the Walters Art Museum
The Walters Art Museum
–
Sculpture Garden (central "Great Hall") of the Walters Art Gallery (now Walters Art Museum) in the original Main Building of 1905-1909
The Walters Art Museum
–
Sumerian male worshiper, c.2300 BC
The Walters Art Museum
–
"
Padiiset's Statue ", illustrates
Canaan -
Ancient Egypt trade, c.1700 B.C. (inscription c.900 B.C.)
5.
Pottery
–
Pottery is the craft of making ceramic material into pots or potterywares using mud. Major types of potterywares include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain, the place where such wares are made by a potter is also called a pottery. Early Neolithic pottery have found in places such as Jomon Japan. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing, however, prior to shaping processes. Kneading helps to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body, air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished either by a called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging. Wedging can also produce an even moisture content. Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, after shaping, it is dried and then fired. Clay ware takes on varying physical characteristics during the making of pottery, at sufficient moisture content, bodies at this stage are in their most plastic form. Leather-hard refers to a body that has been dried partially. At this stage the clay object has approximately 15% moisture content, clay bodies at this stage are very firm and only slightly pliable. Trimming and handle attachment often occurs at the leather-hard state, bone-dry refers to clay bodies when they reach a moisture content at or near 0%. It is now ready to be bisque fired, bisque refers to the clay after the object is shaped to the desired form and fired in the kiln for the first time, known as bisque fired or biscuit fired. This firing changes the body in several ways. Mineral components of the body will undergo chemical changes that will change the colour of the clay. Glaze fired is the stage of some pottery making. A glaze may be applied to the form and the object can be decorated in several ways. After this the object is glazed fired, which causes the material to melt
Pottery
–
A potter at work in
Bangalore,
India
Pottery
–
Unfired "green ware" pottery on a traditional drying rack at
Conner Prairie living history museum
Pottery
–
Pottery workshop reconstruction in the Museum of traditional crafts and applied arts,
Troyan,
Bulgaria
Pottery
–
A potter at work in Jaura,
Madhya Pradesh,
India.
6.
Pigments
–
A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, many materials selectively absorb certain wavelengths of light. Materials that humans have chosen and developed for use as pigments usually have properties that make them ideal for coloring other materials. A pigment must have a high tinting strength relative to the materials it colors and it must be stable in solid form at ambient temperatures. For industrial applications, as well as in the arts, permanence, pigments that are not permanent are called fugitive. Fugitive pigments fade over time, or with exposure to light, pigments are used for coloring paint, ink, plastic, fabric, cosmetics, food, and other materials. Most pigments used in manufacturing and the arts are dry colorants. This powder is added to a binder, a neutral or colorless material that suspends the pigment. A distinction is made between a pigment, which is insoluble in its vehicle, and a dye, which either is itself a liquid or is soluble in its vehicle. A colorant can act as either a pigment or a dye depending on the vehicle involved, in some cases, a pigment can be manufactured from a dye by precipitating a soluble dye with a metallic salt. The resulting pigment is called a lake pigment, the term biological pigment is used for all colored substances independent of their solubility. In 2006, around 7.4 million tons of inorganic, organic, asia has the highest rate on a quantity basis followed by Europe and North America. By 2020, revenues will have risen to approx, the global demand on pigments was roughly US$20.5 billion in 2009, around 1. 5-2% up from the previous year. It is predicted to increase in a growth rate in the coming years. The worldwide sales are said to increase up to US$24.5 billion in 2015, pigments appear the colors they are because they selectively reflect and absorb certain wavelengths of visible light. White light is an equal mixture of the entire spectrum of visible light with a wavelength in a range from about 375 or 400 nanometers to about 760 or 780 nm. When this light encounters a pigment, parts of the spectrum are absorbed by the molecules or ions of the pigment, in organic pigments such as diazo or phthalocyanine compounds the light is absorbed by the conjugated systems of double bonds in the molecule. Some of the inorganic pigments such as vermilion or cadmium yellow absorb light by transferring an electron from the ion to the positive ion
Pigments
–
Natural
ultramarine pigment in powdered form
Pigments
–
Synthetic ultramarine pigment is chemically identical to natural ultramarine
Pigments
–
Miracle of the Slave by
Tintoretto (c. 1548). The son of a master
dyer, Tintoretto used Carmine Red Lake pigment, derived from the
cochineal insect, to achieve dramatic color effects.
Pigments
–
Girl with a Pearl Earring by
Johannes Vermeer (c. 1665).
7.
Oxides
–
An oxide /ˈɒksaɪd/ is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. Oxide itself is the dianion of oxygen, an O2– atom, Metal oxides thus typically contain an anion of oxygen in the oxidation state of −2. Most of the Earths crust consists of oxides, the result of elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or in water. Hydrocarbon combustion affords the two principal carbon oxides, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, even materials considered pure elements often develop an oxide coating. For example, aluminium foil develops a skin of Al2O3 that protects the foil from further corrosion. Individual elements can form multiple oxides, each containing different amounts of the element. Certain elements can form many different oxides, such those of nitrogen, due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms stable chemical bonds with almost all elements to give the corresponding oxides. Noble metals are prized because they resist direct chemical combination with oxygen, two independent pathways for corrosion of elements are hydrolysis and oxidation by oxygen. The combination of water and oxygen is even more corrosive, virtually all elements burn in an atmosphere of oxygen, or an oxygen rich environment. In the presence of water and oxygen, some elements— sodium—react rapidly, even dangerously, in part for this reason, alkali and alkaline earth metals are not found in nature in their metallic, i. e. native, form. Caesium is so reactive with oxygen that it is used as a getter in vacuum tubes, the surface of most metals consists of oxides and hydroxides in the presence of air. A well-known example is aluminium foil, which is coated with a film of aluminium oxide that passivates the metal. The aluminium oxide layer can be built to greater thickness by the process of electrolytic anodising, though solid magnesium and aluminium react slowly with oxygen at STP—they, like most metals, burn in air, generating very high temperatures. Finely grained powders of most metals can be explosive in air. Consequently, they are used in Solid-fuel rockets. In dry oxygen, iron forms iron oxide, but the formation of the hydrated ferric oxides, Fe2O3−x2x. Free oxygen production by photosynthetic bacteria some 3.5 billion years ago precipitated iron out of solution in the oceans as Fe2O3 in the important iron ore hematite. Oxides have a range of different structures, from molecules to polymeric
Oxides
–
Oxides, such as
iron(III) oxide or
rust, which consists of hydrated
iron(III) oxides Fe 2 O 3 · n H 2 O and
iron(III) oxide-hydroxide (FeO(OH), Fe(OH) 3), form when oxygen combines with other elements
Oxides
–
Silicon dioxide (SiO 2) is one of the most common oxides on the surface of earth. Like most oxides, it adopts a polymeric structure.
8.
Ceramic glaze
–
Ceramic glaze is an impervious layer or coating of a vitreous substance which has been fused to a ceramic body through firing. Glaze can serve to color, decorate or waterproof an item, glazing renders earthenware vessels suitable for holding liquids, sealing the inherent porosity of terracotta, the term we now use for basic unglazed earthenware. It also gives a tougher surface, glaze is also used on stoneware and porcelain. In addition to their functionality, glazes can form a variety of finishes, including degrees of glossy or matte finish. Glazes may also enhance the design or texture either unmodified or inscribed, carved or painted. Most pottery produced in recent centuries has been glazed, tiles are almost always glazed, and modern architectural terracotta is very often glazed architectural terra-cotta. Domestic sanitary ware is invariably glazed, as are many used in industry. The most important groups of traditional glazes, named after their main ceramic fluxing agent, are, Lead-glazed earthenware, is shiny and transparent after firing, used for about 2,000 years around the Mediterranean, in Europe and China. Tin-glazed pottery, which coats the ware with a white glaze. Known in the Ancient Near East and then important in Islamic pottery, includes faience, maiolica, majolica and Delftware. Ash glaze, important in East Asia, simply made from wood or plant ash, modern materials technology has invented new vitreous glazes that do not fall into these traditional categories. Glazes need to include a ceramic flux which functions by promoting partial liquefaction in the clay bodies, fluxes lower the high melting point of the glass formers silica, and sometimes boron trioxide. These glass former may be included in the materials, or may be drawn from the clay beneath. Raw materials of ceramic glazes generally include silica, which will be the glass former. Various metal oxides, such as sodium, potassium and calcium, alumina, often derived from clay, stiffens the molten glaze to prevent it from running off the piece. Colorants, such as oxide, copper carbonate or cobalt carbonate. Most commonly, glazes in aqueous suspension of various powdered minerals, other techniques include pouring the glaze over the piece, spraying it onto the piece with an airbrush or similar tool, or applying it directly with a brush or other tool. Small marks left by these spurs are sometimes visible on finished ware, decoration applied under the glaze on pottery is generally referred to as underglaze
Ceramic glaze
–
Composite body, painted, and glazed bottle.
Iran, 16th century (
Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Ceramic glaze
–
Islamic pottery tiles
Ceramic glaze
–
Sancai ceramics of the Tang Dynasty
Ceramic glaze
–
Pottery,
Nara period
9.
Kiln
–
A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, a type of oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some process, such as hardening, drying, or chemical changes. Kilns have been used for millennia to turn objects made from clay into pottery, tiles, various industries use rotary kilns for pyroprocessing—to calcinate ores, to calcinate limestone to lime for cement, and to transform many other materials. The word kiln descends from the Old English cylene (/ˈkylene/, which was adapted from the Latin culīna kitchen, cooking-stove, burning-place. During the Middle English Period, the n was not pronounced, as evidenced by kiln having frequently been spelled without the n, Another word, miln, a place where wheat is ground, also had a silent n. Whereas the spelling of miln was changed to mill to match its pronunciation, kiln maintained its spelling, which most likely led to a common mispronunciation, however, there are small bastions where the original pronunciation has endured. Kiln, Mississippi, a town known for its wood drying kilns that once served the timber industry, is still referred to as the Kill by locals. Unwittingly adding the n sound at the end of kiln is due to people being introduced to the word through the language before ever hearing the actual pronunciation. Phonetically, the ln in kiln is categorized as a digraph, from English Words as Spoken and Written for Upper Grades by James A. Bowen 1900, The digraph ln, n silent, occurs in kiln. A fall down the kiln can kill you, Bowen was pointing out the humorous fact that kill and kiln are homophones. A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning, the earliest known kiln dates to around 6000 BC, and was found at the Yarim Tepe site in modern Iraq. Neolithic kilns were able to produce greater than 900 °C. Ceramics require heat at high temperatures so chemical and physical reactions will occur to permanently alter the unfired body, in the case of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. The final characteristics are determined by the composition and preparation of the clay body, after a first firing glazes may be used and the ware is fired a second time to fuse the glaze into the body. A third firing at a lower temperature may be required to fix overglaze decoration, modern kilns often have sophisticated electrical control systems to firing regime, although pyrometric devices are often also used. Clay consists of fine-grained particles, that are weak and porous. Clay is combined with other minerals to create a clay body. Part of the process includes sintering. This heats the clay until the particles partially melt and flow together, creating a strong, single mass, composed of a glassy phase interspersed with pores, through firing, the pores are reduced in size, causing the material to shrink slightly
Kiln
–
Charcoal kilns, California
Kiln
–
Indian brick kiln
Kiln
–
Anagama kiln firing.
Kiln
–
Farnham Pottery,
Wrecclesham,
Surrey with the preserved:bottle kiln: on the right of photo
10.
Ming dynasty
–
The Ming dynasty was the ruling dynasty of China – then known as the Empire of the Great Ming – for 276 years following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming, described by some as one of the greatest eras of orderly government, although the primary capital of Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng, regimes loyal to the Ming throne – collectively called the Southern Ming – survived until 1683. He rewarded his supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats. One, Zheng He, led seven enormous voyages of exploration into the Indian Ocean as far as Arabia, the rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances, the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor during the 1449 Tumu Crisis ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while forced labor constructed the Liaodong palisade, haijin laws intended to protect the coasts from Japanese pirates instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves. The growth of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced an influx of Japanese. This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose money had suffered repeated hyperinflation and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, combined with crop failure, floods, and epidemic, the dynasty collapsed before the rebel leader Li Zicheng, who was defeated by the Manchu-led Eight Banner armies who founded the Qing dynasty. The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty, consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River. A number of Han Chinese groups revolted, including the Red Turbans in 1351, the Red Turbans were affiliated with the White Lotus, a Buddhist secret society. Zhu Yuanzhang was a peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352. In 1356, Zhus rebel force captured the city of Nanjing, with the Yuan dynasty crumbling, competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to establish a new dynasty. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his archrival and leader of the rebel Han faction, Chen Youliang, in the Battle of Lake Poyang, arguably the largest naval battle in history. Known for its ambitious use of ships, Zhus force of 200,000 Ming sailors were able to defeat a Han rebel force over triple their size, claimed to be 650. The victory destroyed the last opposing rebel faction, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in uncontested control of the bountiful Yangtze River Valley, Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu, or Vastly Martial, as his era name. Hongwu made an effort to rebuild state infrastructure. He built a 48 km long wall around Nanjing, as well as new palaces, Hongwu organized a military system known as the weisuo, which was similar to the fubing system of the Tang dynasty. With a growing suspicion of his ministers and subjects, Hongwu established the Jinyiwei, some 100,000 people were executed in a series of purges during his rule
Ming dynasty
–
History of China
Ming dynasty
–
Ming China around 1580
Ming dynasty
–
A
cannon from the
Huolongjing, compiled by
Jiao Yu and
Liu Bowen before the latter's death in 1375.
Ming dynasty
–
Portrait of the
Hongwu Emperor (ruled in 1368–98)
11.
Blue and white porcelain
–
Blue and white pottery covers a wide range of white pottery and porcelain decorated under the glaze with a blue pigment, generally cobalt oxide. The decoration is applied by hand, originally by brush painting. Blue and white decoration first became used in Chinese porcelain in the 14th century. A style of decoration based on plant forms spreading across the object was perfected. Blue and white pottery in all of these continues to be produced. Cobalt blue was first used in decorating Islamic pottery, especially in Persia, the first Chinese blue and white wares were as early as the ninth century in Henan province, China, although only shards have been discovered. Tang period blue-and-white is even rarer than Song blue-and-white and was unknown before 1985, the Tang pieces are not porcelain however, but rather earthenwares with greenish white slip, using cobalt blue pigments. The only three pieces of complete Tang blue and white in the world were recovered from Indonesian Belitung shipwreck in 1998 and it appears that the technique was thereafter forgotten for some centuries. There are still arguing that early pieces are mis-dated, and in fact go back to the Southern Song. In the early 14th century, mass-production of fine, translucent, blue and white porcelain started at Jingdezhen and this development was due to the combination of Chinese techniques and Islamic trade. The new ware was made possible by the export of cobalt from Persia, cobalt blue was considered as a precious commodity, with a value about twice that of gold. Motifs also draw inspiration from Islamic decorations, a large portion of these blue-and-white wares was then shipped to Southwest-Asian markets through the Muslim traders based in Guangzhou. From the 16th century, local sources of cobalt blue started to be developed, production of blue and white wares has continued at Jingdezhen to this day. Blue and white porcelain made at Jingdezhen probably reached the height of its technical excellence during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty. The true development of blue and white ware in China started with the first half of the 14th century, the main production center was in Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province. With the advent of the Ming dynasty in 1368, blue and white ware was shunned for a time by the Court, especially under the Hongwu and Yongle Emperors, as being too foreign in inspiration. Blue and white porcelain however came back to prominence with the Xuande Emperor, during the 17th century, numerous blue and white pieces were made as Chinese export porcelain for the European markets. European symbols and scenes coexisted with Chinese scenes for these objects, in the 1640s, rebellions in China and wars between the Ming dynasty and the Manchus damaged many kilns, and in 1656–1684 the new Qing Dynasty government stopped trade by closing its ports
Blue and white porcelain
–
Ming dynasty blue and white vase,
Xuande era (1725-1735)
Blue and white porcelain
–
Blue and white porcelain-ware with a depiction of a
Chinese dragon from the late
Ming dynasty
Blue and white porcelain
–
Islamic tin-glazed earthenware, with blue and white decoration,
Iraq, 9th century. The Arabic
calligraphy is ghibta, i.e. "happiness".
Blue and white porcelain
–
Early Chinese blue and white porcelain, manufactured circa 1335, that is about the Yuan dynasty period
Jingdezhen.
12.
Armenian bole
–
Armenian bole, also known as bolus armenus or bole armoniac, is an earthy clay, usually red, native to Armenia. It is red due to the presence of oxide, the clay also contains hydrous silicates of aluminum. Historically, it was used as an astringent, prescribed against diarrhea, dysentery, hemorrhage, externally, it was used in strengthening plasters, against dislocations of the joints. Physicians sometimes also called it Rubrica Synopica, from the city of Synope, in the nineteenth century, it was incorporated into non-soluble tooth powder. These types of powders would get stuck between the gums and the teeth and leave an unsightly discoloration, as a result, they were coloured red using Armenian bole to disguise the buildup around the teeth. It is also used in bookbinding for coloring, or applied to the edges during gilding, as a base for the leaf and to give the binding a greater depth. In pottery, it is used as a red pigment for the pottery of Turkey. Finally, it has also used in the waterproofing of windmill sails. A popular mixture was,10 liters of water, combined with 0.75 liter linseed oil,0.75 liter grease, cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. James and John Knapton, et al, bookbinding and the Conservation of books, A Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology. Archived from the original on 16 January 2006
Armenian bole
–
The distinctive flame red is a striking feature of the mature style of Iznik pottery. It comes from an iron-rich red earth, or bole, found in Armenia.
13.
China painting
–
China painting, or porcelain painting, is the decoration of glazed porcelain objects such as plates, bowls, vases or statues. The body of the object may be hard-paste porcelain, developed in China in the 7th or 8th century, or soft-paste porcelain, the broader term ceramic painting includes painted decoration on lead-glazed earthenware such as creamware or tin-glazed pottery such as maiolica or faience. Typically the body is first fired in a kiln to convert it into a hard porous bisque, underglaze decoration may then be applied, followed by glaze, which is fired so it bonds to the body. The glazed porcelain may then be painted with overglaze decoration and fired again to bond the paint with the glaze, most pieces use only one of underglaze or overglaze painting, the latter often being referred to as enamelled. Decorations may be applied by brush or by stenciling, transfer printing, lithography, Porcelain painting was developed in China and later taken up in Korea and then Japan. Decorated Chinese porcelain from the 9th century has been found in the Middle East, Porcelain for trade with this region often has Islamic motifs. Trade with Europe began in the 16th century, by the early 18th century European manufacturers had discovered how to make porcelain. The Meissen porcelain factory in Saxony was followed by factories in Germany, France, Britain. The decoration of some hand-painted plates and vases from the 19th century resembles oil paintings, in the later part of the 19th century china painting became a respectable hobby for middle-class women in North America and Europe. More recently interest has revived in china painting as an art form. The Chinese define porcelain as a type of pottery that is hard, compact and fine-grained, that cannot be scratched by a knife, and it need not be white or translucent. This porcelain is made of paste that mainly consists of kaolin. The clay is mixed with petuntse, or china stone, the glaze is prepared from petuntse mixed with liquid lime, with less lime in the higher-quality glazes. The lime gives the glaze a hint of green or blue, a brilliant surface, hard-paste porcelain is fired to temperatures of 1,260 to 1,300 °C. Soft-paste porcelain was invented in Europe, soft-paste porcelain made in England from about 1745 used a white-firing clay with the addition of a glassy frit. The frit is a flux that causes the piece to vitrify when it is fired in a kiln, soft-paste porcelain is fired to 1,000 to 1,100 °C. The kiln must be raised to the temperature where the piece will vitrify. Soft-paste porcelain is translucent and can be thinly potted, after firing it has similar appearance and properties to hard-paste porcelain
China painting
–
Wucai plate for export,
Kangxi period c. 1680
China painting
–
Painters' workshop at the Imperial Porcelain Manufactory in Vienna c. 1830
China painting
–
Porcelain painting in
Weimar, Germany in 1989
China painting
–
Vintage
Royal Worcester bone china
14.
Tin-glazed pottery
–
Tin-glazed pottery is earthenware covered in glaze containing tin oxide which is white, shiny and opaque, usually this provides a background for brightly-painted decoration. It has been important in Islamic and European pottery, but very little used in East Asia, the pottery body is usually made of red or buff colored earthenware and the white glaze imitated Chinese porcelain. The makers of Italian tin-glazed pottery from the late Renaissance blended oxides to produce detailed, from there it spread to Egypt, Persia and Spain before reaching Italy in the Renaissance, Holland in the 16th century and England, France and other European countries shortly after. The rise in the cost of tin oxide during the First World War led to its substitution by zirconium compounds in the glaze. Tin-glazed pottery of different periods and styles is known by different names, the pottery from Muslim Spain is known as Hispano-Moresque ware. The decorated tin-glaze of Renaissance Italy is called maiolica, sometimes pronounced majolica by English speakers, when the technique was taken up in the Netherlands it became known as delftware as much of it was made in the town of Delft. Dutch potters brought it to England in around 1600 and wares produced there are known as English delftware or galleyware, in France it was known as faience. During the Renaissance, the term maiolica was adopted for Italian-made luster pottery copying Spanish examples, in the late 18th century, old Italian maiolica became popular among the British, who referred to it by the anglicized pronunciation majolica. The Minton pottery copied it and applied the term majolica ware to their product, at the Great Exhibition of 1851, Minton launched the colorful lead-glazed earthenware which they called Palissy ware soon also to become known as majolica. So now we have two distinct products with the same name, for the article about 19th century lead-glazed earthenware, see Victorian majolica W. B. The term maiolica is sometimes applied to modern tin-glazed ware made by studio potters, the Moors introduced tin-glazed pottery to Spain after the conquest of 711. With the Spanish conquest of Mexico, tin-glazed pottery came to be produced in the Valley of Mexico as early as 1540, although the Moors were expelled from Spain in the early 17th century, the Hispano-Moresque style survived in the province of Valencia. Later wares usually have a coarse reddish-buff body, dark blue decoration, such archaic wares are sometimes dubbed proto-maiolica. During the later 14th century, the palette of colors was expanded from the traditional manganese purple and copper green to embrace cobalt blue, antimony yellow. Sgraffito wares were produced, in which the white tin-oxide slip was decoratively scratched to produce a design from the revealed body of the ware. Refined production of tin-glazed earthenware made for more local needs was concentrated in central Italy from the later 13th century. The city itself declined in importance in the half of the 15th century. Italian cities encouraged the start of a new industry by offering tax relief, citizenship, monopoly rights
Tin-glazed pottery
–
Tin-glazed (Majolica) plate from
Faenza, Italy
Tin-glazed pottery
–
Chinese
porcelain white ware bowl (left) found in
Iran, and Iraqi tin-glazed earthenware bowl (right) found in
Iraq, both 9-10th century, an example of
Chinese influences on Islamic pottery.
British Museum.
Tin-glazed pottery
–
A Hispano-Moresque dish, approx 32cm diameter, with Christian monogram "IHS", decorated in cobalt blue and gold luster. Valencia, c. 1430–1500.
Burrell Collection
Tin-glazed pottery
–
An albarello (drug jar) from Venice or Castel Durante, 16th century. Approx 30cm high. Decorated in cobalt blue, copper green, antimony yellow and yellow ochre.
Burrell Collection
15.
Faience
–
Faience or faïence is the conventional name in English for fine tin-glazed pottery on a delicate pale buff earthenware body. It is originally associated by French speakers with wares exported from Faenza in northern Italy. The invention of a white pottery glaze suitable for painted decoration, the invention seems to have been made in Iran or the Middle East before the ninth century. A kiln capable of producing temperatures exceeding 1,000 °C was required to achieve this result, the result of millennia of refined pottery-making traditions. The term is now used for a variety of pottery from several parts of the world, including many types of European painted wares. Technically, lead-glazed earthenware, such as the French sixteenth-century Saint-Porchaire ware, does not properly qualify as faience, semi-vitreous stoneware may be glazed like faience. However, this material is not pottery at all, containing no clay, the Metropolitan Museum of Art displays a faience hippopotamus from Meir, Egypt, dated to Dynasty 12, ca. Examples of ancient faience are also found in Minoan Crete, which was influenced by Egyptian culture. Faience material, for instance, has recovered from the Knossos archaeological site. The Moors brought the technique of tin-glazed earthenware to Al-Andalus, where the art of lustreware with metallic glazes was perfected, from Málaga in Andalusia and later Valencia these Hispano-Moresque wares were exported, either directly or via the Balearic Islands to Italy and the rest of Europe. This type of Spanish pottery owed much to its Moorish inheritance, in Italy, locally produced tin-glazed earthenwares, initiated in the fourteenth century, reached a peak in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. The first northerners to imitate the tin-glazed earthenwares being imported from Italy were the Dutch, English Delftware produced in Lambeth, London, and at other centers, from the late sixteenth century, provided apothecaries with jars for wet and dry drugs. Many of the potters in London were Flemish. By about 1600, blue-and-white wares were being produced, labelling the contents within decorative borders, the production was slowly superseded in the second half of the eighteenth century with the introduction of cheap creamware. Dutch potters in northern Germany established German centres of faience, the first manufactories in Germany were opened at Hanau and Heusenstamm, in Switzerland, Zunfthaus zur Meisen near Fraumünster church houses the porcelain and faience collection of the Swiss National Museum in Zurich. Faïence parlante bears mottoes often on decorative labels or banners, wares for apothecaries, including albarello, can bear the names of their intended contents, generally in Latin and often so abbreviated to be unrecognizable to the untutored eye. Mottoes of fellowships and associations became popular in the 18th century, at the low end of the market, local manufactories continued to supply regional markets with coarse and simple wares. These so-called majolica wares were also made by Wedgwood and numerous smaller Staffordshire potteries round Burslem
Faience
–
Maiolica in traditional pattern made in
Faenza
Faience
–
Egyptian pendant of lions or Apis Bull. The Walters Art Museum.
Faience
–
Rococo tureen, Marseille, ca 1770
Faience
–
Luneville Faience
16.
Delftware
–
Delftware or Delft pottery, also known as Delft Blue, is blue and white pottery made in and around Delft in the Netherlands and the tin-glazed pottery made in the Netherlands from the 16th century. Delftware in the sense is one of the types of tin-glazed earthenware or faience in which a white glaze is applied. It also forms part of the family of blue and white pottery, using variations of the plant-based decoration first developed in 14th century Chinese porcelain. Delftware includes pottery objects of all such as plates, ornaments. The most highly-regarded period of production is about 1640–1740, the earliest tin-glazed pottery in the Netherlands was made in Antwerp where the Italian potter Guido da Savino settled in 1500. The manufacture of painted pottery spread from Antwerp to the northern Netherlands, production developed in Middelburg and Haarlem in the 1570s and in Amsterdam in the 1580s. Much of the work was produced in Delft, but simple everyday tin-glazed pottery was made in places such as Gouda, Rotterdam, Amsterdam. The main period of pottery in the Netherlands was 1640–1740. From about 1640 Delft potters began using personal monograms and distinctive factory marks. The Guild of St Luke, to which painters in all media had to belong, the Double Tankard, The Young Moors Head, and The Three Bells. The use of marl, a type of rich in calcium compounds, allowed the Dutch potters to refine their technique. The usual clay body of Delftware was a blend of three clays, one local, one from Tournai and one from the Rhineland. From about 1615, the potters began to coat their pots completely in white tin glaze instead of covering only the painting surface and coating the rest with clear ceramic glaze. They then began to cover the tin-glaze with clear glaze, which gave depth to the surface and smoothness to cobalt blues. During the Dutch Golden Age, the Dutch East India Company had a trade with the East. The Chinese workmanship and attention to detail impressed many, only the richest could afford the early imports. Dutch potters did not immediately imitate Chinese porcelain, they began to do so after the death of the Wanli Emperor in 1620, potters now saw an opportunity to produce a cheap alternative for Chinese porcelain. After much experimenting they managed to make a type of earthenware which was covered with a white tin glaze
Delftware
–
Window display of Delftware in the market place, Delft
Delftware
–
The Chinese-style pattern of the kylin animal in an intricate network is used frequently in Delft, both in blue and white and polychrome decorations.It holds an D mark on the base The D mark is unidentified. Considering the various items from various periods with this mark it possibly is just a general indication of the town of Delft as the production center.
Delftware
–
Delftware depicting
Chinese scenes, 18th century.
Musee Ernest Cognacq
Delftware
–
Dutch Delftware tile
17.
Excavation (archaeology)
–
In archaeology, excavation is the exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains. An excavation site or dig is a site being studied, such a site excavation concerns itself with a specific archaeological site or a connected series of sites, and may be conducted over as little as several weeks to over a number of years. Numerous specialized techniques each with its features are used. Resources and other practical issues do not allow archaeologists to carry out excavations whenever and wherever they choose and these constraints mean many known sites have been deliberately left unexcavated. This is with the intention of preserving them for generations as well as recognising the role they serve in the communities that live near them. Excavation involves the recovery of types of data from a site. These data include artifacts, features, ecofacts and, most importantly, ideally, data from the excavation should suffice to reconstruct the site completely in three-dimensional space. The presence or absence of remains can often be suggested by remote sensing. Indeed, grosser information about the development of the site may be drawn from this work, the history of excavation began with a crude search for treasure and for artifacts which fell into the category of curio. These curios were the subject of interest of antiquarians and it was later appreciated that digging on a site destroyed the evidence of earlier peoples lives which it had contained. Once the curio had been removed from its context, most of the information it held was lost and it was from this realization that antiquarianism began to be replaced by archaeology, a process still being perfected. Archaeological material tends to accumulate in events, a gardener swept a pile of soil into a corner, laid a gravel path or planted a bush in a hole. A builder built a wall and back-filled the trench, years later, someone built a pig sty onto it and drained the pig sty into the nettle patch. Later still, the original wall blew over and so on, each event, which may have taken a short or long time to accomplish, leaves a context. This layer cake of events is referred to as the archaeological sequence or record. It is by analysis of sequence or record that excavation is intended to permit interpretation. As he remarked, waiting for animals to hunt represented 24% of the total man-hours of activity recorded, no tools left on the site were used, and there were no immediate material byproducts of the primary activity. All of the activities conducted at the site were essentially boredom reducers
Excavation (archaeology)
–
Excavations at the site of Gran Dolina, in the
Atapuerca Mountains,
Spain, 2008
Excavation (archaeology)
–
Excavations at the cave of Santa Ana (
Cáceres,
Extremadura,
Spain)
Excavation (archaeology)
–
Stratigraphy in the excavation area in the
Kerameikos Cemetery (
Athens).
Excavation (archaeology)
–
Excavation at the site of the
Battle at the Harzhorn (Germany)
18.
Tang dynasty
–
The Tang dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It is generally regarded as a point in Chinese civilization. Its territory, acquired through the campaigns of its early rulers, rivaled that of the Han dynasty. The dynasty was founded by the Lǐ family, who seized power during the decline, the dynasty was briefly interrupted when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne, proclaiming the Second Zhou dynasty and becoming the only Chinese empress regnant. In two censuses of the 7th and 8th centuries, the Tang records estimated the population by number of registered households at about 50 million people. Various kingdoms and states paid tribute to the Tang court, while the Tang also conquered or subdued several regions which it controlled through a protectorate system. Besides political hegemony, the Tang also exerted a powerful influence over neighboring states such as those in Korea, Japan. Like the previous Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty maintained a service system by recruiting scholar-officials through standardized examinations and recommendations to office. This civil order was undermined by the rise of military governors known as jiedushi during the 9th century. Chinese culture flourished and further matured during the Tang era, it is considered the greatest age for Chinese poetry. Two of Chinas most famous poets, Li Bai and Du Fu, belonged to this age, as did many famous painters such as Han Gan, Zhang Xuan, there was a rich variety of historical literature compiled by scholars, as well as encyclopedias and geographical works. The adoption of the title Tängri Qaghan by the Tang Emperor Taizong in addition to his title as emperor was eastern Asias first simultaneous kingship, there were many notable innovations during the Tang, including the development of woodblock printing. Buddhism became an influence in Chinese culture, with native Chinese sects gaining prominence. However, Buddhism would later be persecuted by the state, subsequently declining in influence, although the dynasty and central government were in decline by the 9th century, art and culture continued to flourish. This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage, which includes the Tang poet Li Bai, the Tang Emperors also had Xianbei maternal ancestry, from Emperor Gaozu of Tangs Xianbei mother Duchess Dugu. He had prestige and military experience, and was a first cousin of Emperor Yang of Sui, Li Yuan rose in rebellion in 617, along with his son and his equally militant daughter Princess Pingyang, who raised and commanded her own troops. In winter 617, Li Yuan occupied Changan, relegated Emperor Yang to the position of Taishang Huang or retired emperor, and acted as regent to the puppet child-emperor, Emperor Gong of Sui. On the news of Emperor Yangs murder by General Yuwen Huaji on June 18,618, Li Yuan declared himself the emperor of a new dynasty, the Tang
Tang dynasty
–
History of China
Tang dynasty
–
Tang dynasty circa 700
Tang dynasty
–
Portrait painting of
Emperor Yang of Sui, commissioned in 643 by
Taizong, painted by
Yan Liben (600–673)
Tang dynasty
–
Emperor Taizong (r. 626–649) receives
Gar Tongtsen Yülsung, ambassador of
Tibet, at his court; painted in 641 AD by
Yan Liben (600–673)
19.
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
–
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, also called Five Dynasties, was an era of political upheaval in 10th-century imperial China. During this period, five states quickly succeeded one another in the Chinese Central Plain, while more than a dozen concurrent states were established elsewhere, mainly in south China. Traditionally, the era started with the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907 AD, many states were de facto independent kingdoms long before 907. After the Tang had collapsed, the kings who controlled the central plain crowned themselves as emperor, war between kingdoms occurred frequently to gain control of the central plain for legitimacy, and then over whole China. The last of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms states, Northern Han, was not vanquished until 979, the Five Dynasties were, Later Liang Later Tang Later Jin Later Han Later Zhou. The Ten Kingdoms were, Wu Wuyue Min Chu Southern Han Former Shu Later Shu Jingnan Southern Tang Northern Han and this era also led to the founding of the Liao dynasty in the north. Other regimes during this period were Yan, Qi, Zhao, Yiwu Jiedushi, Dingnan Jiedushi, Wuping Jiedushi, Qingyuan Jiedushi, Yin, Ganzhou, Shazhou, towards the end of the Tang, the imperial government granted increased powers to the jiedushi, the regional military governors. The Huang Chao Rebellion weakened the government, and by the early 10th century the jiedushi commanded de facto independence from its authority. Thus ensued the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, although he was originally a member of Huang Chaos rebel army, he took on a crucial role in suppressing the Huang Chao Rebellion. For this function, he was awarded the Xuanwu Jiedushi title, within a few years, he had consolidated his power by destroying neighbours and forcing the move of the imperial capital to Luoyang, which was within his region of influence. In 904, he executed Emperor Zhaozong of Tang and made his 13-year-old son a subordinate ruler, three years later, he induced the boy emperor to abdicate in his favour. He then proclaimed emperor, thus beginning the Later Liang. During the final years of the Tang Dynasty, rival warlords declared independence in their governing provinces — not all of whom recognized the emperors authority, Li Cunxu and Liu Shouguang fiercely fought the regime forces to conquer northern China, Li Cunxu succeeded. He defeated Liu Shouguang in 915, and declared himself emperor in 923, within a few months, thus began the Shatuo Later Tang — the first in a long line of conquest dynasties. After reuniting much of northern China, Cunxu conquered Former Shu in 925, the Later Tang had a few years of relative calm, followed by unrest. In 934, Sichuan again asserted independence, in 936, Shi Jingtang, a Shatuo jiedushi from Taiyuan, was aided by the Liao dynasty in a rebellion against the Later Tang. In return for their aid, Shi Jingtang promised annual tribute, the rebellion succeeded, Shi Jingtang became emperor in this same year. Not long after the founding of the Later Jin, the Khitans regarded the emperor as a ruler for China proper
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
–
History of China
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
–
The Later Liang (yellow) and contemporary kingdoms
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
–
Night Revels of Han Xizai, by
Gu Hongzhong, 10th century (read right-to-left).
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
–
Painting by Chinese artist
Li Cheng (c. 919–967)
20.
Ceramics (art)
–
Ceramic art is art made from ceramic materials, including clay. It may take forms including art ware, tile, figurines, sculpture, Ceramic art is one of the arts, particularly the visual arts. Of these, it is one of the plastic arts, while some ceramics are considered fine art, some are considered to be decorative, industrial or applied art objects. Ceramics may also be considered artefacts in archaeology, Ceramic art can be made by one person or by a group of people. In a pottery or ceramic factory, a group of people design, manufacture, products from a pottery are sometimes referred to as art pottery. In a one-person pottery studio, ceramists or potters produce studio pottery, the word ceramics comes from the Greek keramikos, meaning pottery, which in turn comes from keramos meaning potters clay. Most traditional ceramic products were made from clay, shaped and subjected to heat, in modern ceramic engineering usage, ceramics is the art and science of making objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials by the action of heat. It excludes glass and mosaic made from glass tesserae, cultures especially noted for ceramics include the Chinese, Cretan, Greek, Persian, Mayan, Japanese, and Korean cultures, as well as the modern Western cultures. Different types of clay, when used with different minerals and firing conditions, are used to produce earthenware, stoneware, porcelain, earthenware is pottery that has not been fired to vitrification and is thus permeable to water. Many types of pottery have been made from it from the earliest times, earthenware is often made from clay, quartz and feldspar. Terracotta, a type of earthenware, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic and its uses include vessels, water and waste water pipes, bricks, and surface embellishment in building construction. Terracotta has been a medium for ceramic art. Stoneware is a vitreous or semi-vitreous ceramic made primarily from stoneware clay or non-refractory fire clay, stoneware is fired at high temperatures. Vitrified or not, it is nonporous, it may or may not be glazed and it may be vitreous or semi-vitreous. It is usually coloured grey or brownish because of impurities in the used for its manufacture. Porcelain is a material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C. Porcelain has been described as being completely vitrified, hard, impermeable, white or artificially coloured, translucent and it has been defined as ware with a translucent body containing a minimum of 30% of phosphate derived from animal bone and calculated calcium phosphate. Developed by English potter Josiah Spode, bone china is known for its levels of whiteness and translucency
Ceramics (art)
–
Etruscan: Diomedes and Polyxena, from the Etruscan amphora of the Pontic group, ca. 540–530 BC. From
Vulci.
Ceramics (art)
–
Venus of Dolní Věstonice, before 25,000 BCE
Ceramics (art)
–
Vessel from
Mesopotamia, late
Ubaid period (4,500-4,000 BCE)
Ceramics (art)
–
Hexagonal Tile, mid 15th century.
Brooklyn Museum.
21.
Design
–
Design is the creation of a plan or convention for the construction of an object, system or measurable human interaction. Design has different connotations in different fields, in some cases, the direct construction of an object is also considered to use design thinking. Designing often necessitates considering the aesthetic, functional, economic, and it may involve considerable research, thought, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design. Meanwhile, diverse kinds of objects may be designed, including clothing, graphical user interfaces, skyscrapers, corporate identities, business processes, and even methods or processes of designing. Thus design may be a substantive referring to an abstraction of a created thing or things. It is an act of creativity and innovation, here, a specification can be manifested as either a plan or a finished product, and primitives are the elements from which the design object is composed. With such a broad denotation, there is no language or unifying institution for designers of all disciplines. This allows for many differing philosophies and approaches toward the subject, the person designing is called a designer, which is also a term used for people who work professionally in one of the various design areas usually specifying which area is being dealt with. A designers sequence of activities is called a process while the scientific study of design is called design science. Another definition of design is planning to manufacture an object, system, thus the word design can be used as a noun or a verb. In a broader sense, the design is an applied art, while the definition of design is fairly broad, design has a myriad of specifications that professionals utilize in their fields. Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, the prevailing view has been called The Rational Model, Technical Problem Solving and The Reason-Centric Perspective. The alternative view has been called Reflection-in-Action, Evolutionary Design, co-evolution, the Rational Model was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon, an American scientist, and Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz, two German engineering design theorists. The Rational Model is based on a rationalist philosophy and underlies the waterfall model, systems development life cycle, according to the rationalist philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner. Technical rationality is at the center of the process, each stage has many associated best practices. Unrealistic assumptions – goals are often unknown when a design project begins, the Action-Centric Perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to The Rational Model. Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers, like the Rational Model, the Action-Centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge. Designers context-dependent experience and professional judgment take center stage more than technical rationality, at least two views of design activity are consistent with the Action-Centric Perspective
Design
–
The new terminal at
Barajas airport in
Madrid,
Spain
Design
–
A drawing for a booster engine for
steam locomotives. Engineering is applied to design, with emphasis on function and the utilization of mathematics and science.
Design
–
An example of a business workflow process using
Business Process Modeling Notation.
