1.
Software engineering
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Software engineering is the application of engineering to the development of software in a systematic method. Practitioners quickly realized that this design was not flexible and came up with the stored program architecture or von Neumann architecture, thus the division between hardware and software began with abstraction being used to deal with the complexity of computing. Programming languages started to appear in the early 1950s and this was another major step in abstraction. Major languages such as Fortran, ALGOL, and COBOL were released in the late 1950s to deal with scientific, algorithmic, the conference was attended by international experts on software who agreed on defining best practices for software grounded in the application of engineering. The result of the conference is a report that defines how software should be developed, the original report is publicly available. Engineering already addresses all issues, hence the same principles used in engineering can be applied to software. The widespread lack of best practices for software at the time was perceived as a software crisis, barry W. Boehm documented several key advances to the field in his 1981 book, Software Engineering Economics. These include his Constructive Cost Model, which relates software development effort for a program, in man-years T, T = k ∗ The book analyzes sixty-three software projects and concludes the cost of fixing errors escalates as the project moves toward field use. The book also asserts that the key driver of software cost is the capability of the development team. Watts Humphrey founded the SEI Software Process Program, aimed at understanding and managing the software engineering process and his 1989 book, Managing the Software Process, asserts that the Software Development Process can and should be controlled, measured, and improved. Modern, generally accepted best-practices for software engineering have been collected by the ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC7 subcommittee, Software engineering can be divided into 15 sub-disciplines. They are, Software requirements, The elicitation, analysis, specification, Software design, The process of defining the architecture, components, interfaces, and other characteristics of a system or component. It is also defined as the result of that process, Software construction, The detailed creation of working, meaningful software through a combination of coding, verification, unit testing, integration testing, and debugging. Software testing, An empirical, technical investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the product or service under test, Software maintenance, The totality of activities required to provide cost-effective support to software. Software development process, The definition, implementation, assessment, measurement, management, change, many software engineers enter the profession by obtaining a university degree or training at a vocational school. One standard international curriculum for undergraduate software engineering degrees was defined by the CCSE, in addition to university education, many companies sponsor internships for students wishing to pursue careers in information technology. These internships can introduce the student to interesting real-world tasks that typical software engineers encounter every day, similar experience can be gained through military service in software engineering. Legal requirements for the licensing or certification of professional software engineers vary around the World, in Canada, there is a legal requirement to have P. Eng when one wants to use the title engineer or practice software engineering
2.
Grady Booch
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Grady Booch is an American software engineer, best known for developing the Unified Modeling Language with Ivar Jacobson and James Rumbaugh. He is recognized internationally for his work in software architecture, software engineering. Booch earned his bachelors degree in 1977 from the United States Air Force Academy, Booch served as Chief Scientist of Rational Software Corporation since its founding in 1981 and through its acquisition by IBM in 2003, where he kept working until March,2008. Afterwards he became Chief Scientist, Software Engineering in IBM Research, Booch has devoted his lifes work to improving the art and the science of software development. In the 1980s, Booch wrote one of the popular books on programming in Ada. Grady Booch is best known for developing the Unified Modeling Language with Ivar Jacobson, Booch got his first exposure to programming on an IBM1130. I pounded the doors at the local IBM sales office until a salesman took pity on me, after we chatted for a while, he handed me a Fortran. Im sure he gave it to me thinking, Ill never hear from this kid again, I returned the following week saying, This is really cool. Ive read the thing and have written a small program. Where can I find a computer, the fellow, to my delight, found me programming time on an IBM1130 on weekends and late-evening hours. That was my first programming experience, and I must thank that anonymous IBM salesman for launching my career, Booch developed the Booch method of software development, which he presents in his 1991/94 book, Object Oriented Analysis and Design. He advises adding more classes to simplify complex code, the Booch method is a technique used in software engineering. It is a modeling language and methodology that was widely used in object-oriented analysis. It was developed by Booch while at Rational Software, methodological aspects of the Booch method have been incorporated into several methodologies and processes, the primary such methodology being the Rational Unified Process. Booch is also an advocate of design patterns, for instance, he wrote the foreword to Design Patterns, an early and highly influential book in the field. Grady continues to engage with customers working on problems and maintains deep relationships with academia. Grady is one of the authors of the Unified Modeling Language and was also one of the original developers of several of Rationals products. Grady has served as architect and architectural mentor for numerous complex software-intensive systems around the world in just about every domain imaginable, Grady Booch published several articles and books
3.
Ivar Jacobson
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Ivar Hjalmar Jacobson is a Swedish computer scientist and software engineer, known as major contributor to UML, Objectory, Rational Unified Process, aspect-oriented software development and Essence. Ivar Jacobson was born in Ystad, Sweden on September 2nd,1939 and he received his Master of Electrical Engineering degree at Chalmers Institute of Technology in Gothenburg in 1962. After his masters degree, Jacobson joined Ericsson and worked in R&D on computerized switching systems AKE, after his PhD thesis in April 1987, he started Objective Systems with Ericsson as a major customer. In October,1995, Ericsson divested Objectory to Rational Software and Jacobson started working with Grady Booch and James Rumbaugh, when IBM bought Rational in 2003, Jacobson decided to leave, after he stayed on until May 2004 as an executive technical consultant. In mid-2003 Jacobson formed Ivar Jacobson International which operates across three continents with offices in the UK, the US, Sweden, Switzerland, China, in 1967 at Ericsson, Jacobson proposed the use of software components in the new generation of software controlled telephone switches Ericsson was developing. In doing this he invented sequence diagrams, and developed collaboration diagrams and he also used state transition diagrams to describe the message flows between components. Jacobson saw a need for blueprints for software development and he was one of the original developers of the Specification and Design Language. In 1975, SDL became a standard in the telecoms industry, at Objectory he also invented use cases as a way to specify functional software requirements. In November 2005, Jacobson announced the Essential Unified Process or “EssUP” for short, EssUP was a new “Practice” centric software development process that stood on the shoulders of modern but established software development practices. Each one of them contributed different capabilities, structure, agility, Ivar has described EssUP as a super light and agile RUP, and IJI have integrated EssUP into Microsoft Visual Studio Team System and Eclipse. Standing on the experience of EssUP Ivar and his team, in particular Ian Spence and Pan Wei Ng, EssWork is a framework for working with methods. It is based on a kernel of universal elements always prevalent in software development endeavors, on top of the kernel some fifteen practices have been defined. A team can create their own method by composing practices, SEMAT has been inspired by the work at IJI, but it is a fresh new start. It has resulted in Essence, which at the time of writing has been recommended as an OMG standard. Jacobson has published books and articles, a selection,1992. Object-Oriented Software Engineering, A Use Case Driven Approach With Marcus Christerson, the Object Advantage, Business Process Reengineering With Object Technology. With M. Ericsson & A. Jacobson, Software Reuse, Architecture, Process, and Organization for Business Success. With Martin Griss & Patrik Jonsson, with Grady Booch & James Rumbaugh
4.
Rational Software
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After changing its name to Rational Software, it was sold for US$2.1 billion to IBM on February 20,2003. First released in 1985, the Rational Environment was a development environment for the Ada programming language. The Environments Command Window mechanism made it easy to directly invoke Ada functions and procedures, the horizontally-microprogrammed R1000 provided two independent 64-bit data paths, permitting simultaneous computation and type checking. Memory was organized as a store, a 64-bit virtual address presented to the memory system either immediately returned data. Apex, the Rational Environment for Ada, was launched on Sun and IBM Unix platforms in 1993, a version of Apex that ran on Microsoft Windows NT was successfully developed and released by Rationals Bangalore team. Rose 1.0 was introduced at OOPSLA in 1992, rose 2.0 ran on Windows PCs and on several Unix-based workstations. In 1994, Rational merged with Verdix, a company that produced a wide array of Ada compilers targeted to many architecture/OS combinations. The resulting entity was named Rational Software, and promptly integrated the Rational Ada and C++ environments with the code generators, in 1995, James Rumbaugh joined the company, and Rational acquired Ivar Jacobsons firm Objectory AB from Ericsson. With Grady Booch already aboard, this brought within one company three of the leading object-oriented software methodologists and these three experts attempted to unify their work. It was this effort that earned Rumbaugh, Jacobson and Booch the moniker The Three Amigos within the software engineering industry. At its 1.0 release, the Unified Modeling Language was contributed to the Object Management Group, philippe Kruchten, a Rational techrep, was tasked with the assembly of an explicit process framework for modern software engineering. This effort combined the HTML-based process delivery mechanism employed by Objectory with Rationals 15-year experience base in working with customers developing significant software systems, Rational peaked at US$850M in revenues and 4000 employees. After the dot-com crash, its revenues declined to $650M, but it was dominant, profitable, the acquisition was announced on 6 December 2002 and was completed before the market opened 21 February 2003. IBM Rational software site IBM Rational list of products IBM Rational telecom site UML diagrams from Visio and StarUML to IBM Rational ClearQuest Designers states
5.
Object Management Group
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The Object Management Group is an international, open membership, not-for-profit technology standards consortium. OMG Task Forces develop enterprise integration standards for a range of technologies and industries. OMG modeling standards enable visual design, execution and maintenance of software, originally aimed at standardizing distributed object-oriented systems, the company now focuses on modeling and model-based standards. OMG provides only specifications, and does not provide implementations, but before a specification can be accepted as a standard by OMG, the members of the submitter team must guarantee that they will bring a conforming product to market within a year. This is an attempt to prevent unimplemented standards, other private companies or open source groups are encouraged to produce conforming products and OMG is attempting to develop mechanisms to enforce true interoperability. OMG hosts four technical meetings for its members and interested nonmembers, founded in 1989 by eleven companies, OMGs initial focus was to create a heterogeneous distributed object standard. The founding executive team included Christopher Stone and John Slitz, as of November,2012, the leadership includes Chairman and CEO Richard Soley, President and COO Bill Hoffman and Vice President and Technical Director Andrew Watson. Since 2000, OMG international headquarters has been located in Needham, in November,2012, the headquarters was moved from 140 Kendrick St to 109 Highland Ave. The goal was a portable and interoperable object model with methods. In 1997, the Unified Modeling Language was added to the list of OMG adopted technologies, UML is a standardized general-purpose modeling language in the field of object-oriented software engineering. In 2006 the Business Process Model and Notation was adopted as a standard by OMG, in 2007 the Business Motivation Model was adopted as a standard by the OMG. In 2009 OMG, together with the Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon, in 2011 OMG formed the Cloud Standards Customer Council. Founding sponsors included CA, IBM, Kaavo, Rackspace and Software AG, CSCC is open to all end-user organizations. In September,2011, the OMG Board of Directors unanimously voted to adopt the Vector Signal, VSIPL and VSIPL++ contain hundreds of functions used for common signal processing kernel and other computations. These functions include basic arithmetic, trigonometric, transcendental, signal processing, linear algebra, the VSIPL family of libraries has been implemented by multiple vendors for a range of processor architectures, including x86, PowerPC, Cell, and NVIDIA GPUs. VSIPL and VSIPL++ are designed to high performance, increase programmer productivity. Additionally, VSIPL++ was designed from the start to support for parallelism. Late 2012 early 2013, The Object Management Group Board of Directors adopted the Automated Function Point specification, the push for adoption was led by the Consortium for IT Software Quality
6.
International Organization for Standardization
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The International Organization for Standardization is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promotes worldwide proprietary and it is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of March 2017 works in 162 countries. It was one of the first organizations granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic, ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is an independent, non-governmental organization, the members of which are the standards organizations of the 162 member countries. It is the worlds largest developer of international standards and facilitates world trade by providing common standards between nations. Nearly twenty thousand standards have been set covering everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, use of the standards aids in the creation of products and services that are safe, reliable and of good quality. The standards help businesses increase productivity while minimizing errors and waste, by enabling products from different markets to be directly compared, they facilitate companies in entering new markets and assist in the development of global trade on a fair basis. The standards also serve to safeguard consumers and the end-users of products and services, the three official languages of the ISO are English, French, and Russian. The name of the organization in French is Organisation internationale de normalisation, according to the ISO, as its name in different languages would have different abbreviations, the organization adopted ISO as its abbreviated name in reference to the Greek word isos. However, during the meetings of the new organization, this Greek word was not invoked. Both the name ISO and the logo are registered trademarks, the organization today known as ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations. ISO is an organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards. Members meet annually at a General Assembly to discuss ISOs strategic objectives, the organization is coordinated by a Central Secretariat based in Geneva. A Council with a membership of 20 member bodies provides guidance and governance. The Technical Management Board is responsible for over 250 technical committees, ISO has formed joint committees with the International Electrotechnical Commission to develop standards and terminology in the areas of electrical and electronic related technologies. Information technology ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 was created in 1987 to evelop, maintain, ISO has three membership categories, Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country. These are the members of ISO that have voting rights. Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organization and these members are informed about ISOs work, but do not participate in standards promulgation. Subscriber members are countries with small economies and they pay reduced membership fees, but can follow the development of standards
7.
Booch method
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The Booch method is a method for object oriented software development. It is composed of a modeling language, an iterative object oriented development process. The method was authored by Grady Booch when he was working for Rational Software, published in 1992 and it was widely used in software engineering for object-oriented analysis and design and benefited from ample documentation and support tools. Methodological aspects of the Booch method have been incorporated into several methodologies and processes, the Booch notation is characterized by cloud shapes to represent classes and distinguishes the following diagrams, The process is organized around a macro and a micro process. The Booch Method of Object-Oriented Analysis & Design
8.
Object-modeling technique
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The object-modeling technique is an object modeling approach for software modeling and designing. It was developed around 1991 by Rumbaugh, Blaha, Premerlani, Eddy and Lorensen as a method to develop object-oriented systems, OMT describes object model or static structure of the system. OMT was developed as an approach to software development, the purposes of modeling according to Rumbaugh are, testing physical entities before building them, communication with customers, visualization, and reduction of complexity. OMT has proposed three types of models, Object model, The object model represents the static and most stable phenomena in the modeled domain. Main concepts are classes and associations with attributes and operations, aggregation and generalization are predefined relationships. Dynamic model, The dynamic model represents a view on the model. Main concepts are states, transitions between states, and events to trigger transitions, actions can be modeled as occurring within states. Generalization and aggregation are predefined relationships, functional model, The functional model handles the process perspective of the model, corresponding roughly to data flow diagrams. Main concepts are process, data store, data flow, OMT is a predecessor of the Unified Modeling Language. Many OMT modeling elements are common to UML, functional Model in OMT, In brief, a functional model in OMT defines the function of the whole internal processes in a model with the help of Data Flow Diagrams. It details how processes are performed independently, james Rumbaugh, Michael Blaha, William Premerlani, Frederick Eddy, William Lorensen. ISBN 0-13-629841-9 Terry Quatrani, Michael Jesse Chonoles, succeeding With the Booch and OMT Methods, A Practical Approach. Each of these is likely to be part of documentation that is available to the internal auditor
9.
General Electric
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General Electric, often abbreviated as GE, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation incorporated in New York and headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2011, GE ranked among the Fortune 500 as the 68th-largest firm in the U. S. by gross revenue, as of 2012, the company was listed the fourth-largest in the world among the Forbes Global 2000, further metrics being taken into account. The Nobel Prize has twice been awarded to employees of General Electric, Irving Langmuir in 1932, on January 13,2016, it was announced that GE will be moving its corporate headquarters from Fairfield, Connecticut to the South Boston Waterfront neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. The first group of workers arrived in the summer of 2016, morgan and the Vanderbilt family for Edisons lighting experiments. The new company also acquired Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company in the same year, both plants continue to operate under the GE banner to this day. The company was incorporated in New York, with the Schenectady plant used as headquarters for years thereafter. Around the same time, General Electrics Canadian counterpart, Canadian General Electric, was formed, in 1896, General Electric was one of the original 12 companies listed on the newly formed Dow Jones Industrial Average. After 120 years, it is the one of the original companies still listed on the Dow index. In 1911, General Electric absorbed the National Electric Lamp Association into its lighting business, GE established its lighting division headquarters at Nela Park in East Cleveland, Ohio. Nela Park is still the headquarters for GEs lighting business, owen D. Young, through GE, founded the Radio Corporation of America in 1919 to further international radio. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, in 1927, Ernst Alexanderson of GE made the first demonstration of his television broadcasts at his General Electric Realty Plot home at 1132 Adams Rd, Schenectady, NY. The sound was broadcast on GEs WGY, experimental television station W2XAD evolved into station WRGB which—along with WGY and WGFM —was owned and operated by General Electric until 1983. GEs history of working with turbines in the field gave them the engineering know-how to move into the new field of aircraft turbosuperchargers. Led by Sanford Alexander Moss, GE introduced the first superchargers during World War I, superchargers became indispensable in the years immediately prior to World War II, and GE was the world leader in exhaust-driven supercharging when the war started. This experience, in turn, made GE a natural selection to develop the Whittle W.1 jet engine that was demonstrated in the United States in 1941, GE ranked ninth among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. In 2002, GE acquired the assets of Enron during its bankruptcy proceedings. Some consumers boycotted GE light bulbs, refrigerators and other products in the 1980s and 1990s to protest GEs role in weapons production. With IBM, Burroughs, NCR, Control Data Corporation, Honeywell, RCA and UNIVAC, GE had a line of general purpose and special purpose computers
10.
Hewlett-Packard
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The Hewlett-Packard Company or shortened to Hewlett-Packard was an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Palo Alto, California. The company was founded in a garage in Palo Alto by William Bill Redington Hewlett and David Dave Packard. HP was the worlds leading PC manufacturer from 2007 to Q22013 and it specialized in developing and manufacturing computing, data storage, and networking hardware, designing software and delivering services. HP also had services and consulting business around its products and partner products.4 billion in 2008, in November 2009, HP announced the acquisition of 3Com, with the deal closing on April 12,2010. On April 28,2010, HP announced the buyout of Palm, on September 2,2010, HP won its bidding war for 3PAR with a $33 a share offer, which Dell declined to match. On October 6,2014, Hewlett-Packard announced plans to split the PC and printers business from its enterprise products, the split closed on November 1,2015, and resulted in two publicly traded companies, HP Inc. and Hewlett Packard Enterprise. William Redington Hewlett and David Packard graduated with degrees in engineering from Stanford University in 1935. The company originated in a garage in nearby Palo Alto during a fellowship they had with a past professor, Terman was considered a mentor to them in forming Hewlett-Packard. In 1939, Packard and Hewlett established Hewlett-Packard in Packards garage with a capital investment of US$538. Hewlett and Packard tossed a coin to decide whether the company they founded would be called Hewlett-Packard or Packard-Hewlett, HP incorporated on August 18,1947, and went public on November 6,1957. Of the many projects they worked on, their very first financially successful product was an audio oscillator. This allowed them to sell the Model 200A for $54.40 when competitors were selling less stable oscillators for over $200, the Model 200 series of generators continued until at least 1972 as the 200AB, still tube-based but improved in design through the years. They worked on technology and artillery shell fuses during World War II. Hewlett-Packards HP Associates division, established around 1960, developed semiconductor devices primarily for internal use, instruments and calculators were some of the products using these devices. HP partnered in the 1960s with Sony and the Yokogawa Electric companies in Japan to develop several high-quality products, the products were not a huge success, as there were high costs in building HP-looking products in Japan. HP and Yokogawa formed a joint venture in 1963 to market HP products in Japan, HP bought Yokogawa Electrics share of Hewlett-Packard Japan in 1999. HP spun off a company, Dynac, to specialize in digital equipment. The name was picked so that the HP logo hp could be turned upside down to be a reverse image of the logo dy of the new company
11.
Digital Equipment Corporation
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Digital Equipment Corporation, also known as DEC and using the trademark Digital, was a major American company in the computer industry from the 1950s to the 1990s. DEC was a vendor of computer systems, including computers, software. Their PDP and successor VAX products were the most successful of all minicomputers in terms of sales, DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, in what was at that time the largest merger in the history of the computer industry. At the time, Compaq was focused on the market and had recently purchased several other large vendors. DEC was a major player overseas where Compaq had less presence, however, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions, and soon found itself in financial difficulty of its own. The company subsequently merged with Hewlett-Packard in May 2002, as of 2007 some of DECs product lines were still produced under the HP name. From 1957 until 1992, DECs headquarters were located in a wool mill in Maynard. DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, which merged with Hewlett-Packard in May 2002. Some parts of DEC, notably the business and the Hudson. Initially focusing on the end of the computer market allowed DEC to grow without its potential competitors making serious efforts to compete with them. Their PDP series of machines became popular in the 1960s, especially the PDP-8, looking to simplify and update their line, DEC replaced most of their smaller machines with the PDP-11 in 1970, eventually selling over 600,000 units and cementing DECs position in the industry. Originally designed as a follow-on to the PDP-11, DECs VAX-11 series was the first widely used 32-bit minicomputer and these systems were able to compete in many roles with larger mainframe computers, such as the IBM System/370. The VAX was a best-seller, with over 400,000 sold, at its peak, DEC was the second largest employer in Massachusetts, second only to the Massachusetts State Government. The rapid rise of the business microcomputer in the late 1980s, DECs last major attempt to find a space in the rapidly changing market was the DEC Alpha 64-bit RISC instruction set architecture. DEC initially started work on Alpha as a way to re-implement their VAX series, DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, in what was at that time the largest merger in the history of the computer industry. At the time, Compaq was focused on the market and had recently purchased several other large vendors. DEC was a major player overseas where Compaq had less presence, however, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions, and soon found itself in financial difficulty of its own. The company subsequently merged with Hewlett-Packard in May 2002, as of 2007 some of DECs product lines were still produced under the HP name
12.
IBM
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International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
13.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
14.
Component (UML)
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A component in the Unified Modeling Language represents a modular part of a system, that encapsulates its content and whose manifestation is replaceable within its environment. A component defines its behavior in terms of provided and required interfaces, a component may be replaced by another if and only if their provided and required interfaces are identical. This idea is the underpinning for the capability of component-based systems. As can be seen from the definition, UML places no restriction on the granularity of a component. Thus, a component may be as small as a figures-to-words converter, such assemblies are illustrated by means of component diagrams. Package Component in UML2 Component Diagram in UML2
15.
Component-based software engineering
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It is a reuse-based approach to defining, implementing and composing loosely coupled independent components into systems. This practice aims to bring about an equally wide-ranging degree of benefits in both the short-term and the long-term for the software itself and for organizations that sponsor such software, Software engineering practitioners regard components as part of the starting platform for service-orientation. Components can produce or consume events and can be used for event-driven architectures, an individual software component is a software package, a web service, a web resource, or a module that encapsulates a set of related functions. All system processes are placed into separate components so all of the data. Because of this principle, it is said that components are modular. With regard to system-wide co-ordination, components communicate with each other via interfaces, when a component offers services to the rest of the system, it adopts a provided interface that specifies the services that other components can utilize, and how they can do so. This interface can be seen as a signature of the component - the client does not need to know about the workings of the component in order to make use of it. This principle results in components referred to as encapsulated, the UML illustrations within this article represent provided interfaces by a lollipop-symbol attached to the outer edge of the component. However, when a component needs to use another component in order to function, in the UML illustrations in this article, used interfaces are represented by an open socket symbol attached to the outer edge of the component. Another important attribute of components is that they are substitutable, so that a component can replace another, consequently, components can be replaced with either an updated version or an alternative without breaking the system in which the component operates. In other words, a component acts without changing its source code, although, the behavior of the components source code may change based on the applications extensibility, provided by its writer. Reusability is an important characteristic of a high-quality software component, programmers should design and implement software components in such a way that many different programs can reuse them. Furthermore, component-based usability testing should be considered when software components directly interact with users and it takes significant effort and awareness to write a software component that is effectively reusable. Though these subroutine libraries reused well-defined algorithms in an effective manner, as of 2010, modern reusable components encapsulate both data structures and the algorithms that are applied to the data structures. It claims that software components, like the idea of hardware components, used for example in telecommunications, on the other hand, it is argued that it is a mistake to focus on independent components rather than the framework. The conference set out to counter the so-called software crisis, mcIlroys subsequent inclusion of pipes and filters into the Unix operating system was the first implementation of an infrastructure for this idea. Brad Cox of Stepstone largely defined the concept of a software component. He called them Software ICs and set out to create an infrastructure, the above belongs to former kind, while the below belongs to later kind
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User interface
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The user interface, in the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. Examples of this concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology. Generally, the goal of user interface design is to produce a user interface makes it easy, efficient. This generally means that the needs to provide minimal input to achieve the desired output. Other terms for user interface are man–machine interface and when the machine in question is a computer human–computer interface, the user interface or human–machine interface is the part of the machine that handles the human–machine interaction. Membrane switches, rubber keypads and touchscreens are examples of the part of the Human Machine Interface which we can see. In complex systems, the interface is typically computerized. The term human–computer interface refers to this kind of system, in the context of computing the term typically extends as well to the software dedicated to control the physical elements used for human-computer interaction. The engineering of the interfaces is enhanced by considering ergonomics. The corresponding disciplines are human factors engineering and usability engineering, which is part of systems engineering, tools used for incorporating human factors in the interface design are developed based on knowledge of computer science, such as computer graphics, operating systems, programming languages. Nowadays, we use the graphical user interface for human–machine interface on computers. There is a difference between a user interface and an interface or a human–machine interface. A human-machine interface is typically local to one machine or piece of equipment, an operator interface is the interface method by which multiple equipment that are linked by a host control system is accessed or controlled. The system may expose several user interfaces to serve different kinds of users, for example, a computerized library database might provide two user interfaces, one for library patrons and the other for library personnel. The user interface of a system, a vehicle or an industrial installation is sometimes referred to as the human–machine interface. HMI is a modification of the original term MMI, in practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used although some may claim that MMI stands for something different now. Another abbreviation is HCI, but is commonly used for human–computer interaction
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Rational Unified Process
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The Rational Unified Process is an iterative software development process framework created by the Rational Software Corporation, a division of IBM since 2003. RUP is an implementation of the Unified Process. Rational Software originally developed the unified process as a software process product. The product includes a hyperlinked knowledge-base with sample artifacts and detailed descriptions for different types of activities. RUP is included in the IBM Rational Method Composer product which allows customization of the process, Philippe Kruchten, an experienced Rational technical representative was tasked with heading up the original RUP team. This journey began with the creation of the Rational Objectory Process in 1996 and this was renamed Rational Unified Process in subsequent releases, in part to align the name with that of the Unified Modeling Language.8. To help make this knowledge base more accessible, Philippe Kruchten was tasked with the assembly of an explicit process framework for modern software engineering. This effort employed the HTML-based process delivery mechanism developed by Objectory and this guidance was augmented in subsequent versions with knowledge based on the experience of companies that Rational had acquired. Additional techniques including performance testing, UI Design, data engineering were included, in 1999, a project management discipline was introduced, as well as techniques to support real-time software development and updates to reflect UML1. These changes included, the introduction of concepts and techniques from such as eXtreme Programming. This included techniques such as programming, test-first design. A complete overhaul of the discipline to better reflect how testing work was conducted in different iterative development contexts. The introduction of supporting guidance - known as tool mentors - for enacting the RUP practices in various tools and these essentially provided step-by-step method support to Rational tool users. IBM acquired Rational Software in February 2003, in 2006, IBM created a subset of RUP tailored for the delivery of Agile projects - released as an OpenSource method called OpenUP through the Eclipse web-site. The main building blocks, or content elements, are the following, Roles – A role defines a set of related skills, work products – A work product represents something resulting from a task, including all the documents and models produced while working through the process. Tasks – A task describes a unit of work assigned to a Role that provides a meaningful result, also, each phase has one key objective and milestone at the end that denotes the objective being accomplished. The visualization of RUP phases and disciplines over time is referred to as the RUP hump chart, the primary objective is to scope the system adequately as a basis for validating initial costing and budgets. In this phase the business case which includes business context, success factors, to complement the business case, a basic use case model, project plan, initial risk assessment and project description are generated
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Class diagram
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The class diagram is the main building block of object-oriented modelling. It is used both for general conceptual modelling of the systematics of the application, and for detailed modelling translating the models into programming code, Class diagrams can also be used for data modeling. The classes in a class diagram represent both the elements, interactions in the application, and the classes to be programmed. In the diagram, classes are represented with boxes that contain three compartments, The top compartment contains the name of the class and it is printed in bold and centered, and the first letter is capitalized. The middle compartment contains the attributes of the class and they are left-aligned and the first letter is lowercase. The bottom compartment contains the operations the class can execute and they are also left-aligned and the first letter is lowercase. In the design of a system, a number of classes are identified and grouped together in a diagram that helps to determine the static relations between them. With detailed modelling, the classes of the design are often split into a number of subclasses. In order to describe the behaviour of systems, these class diagrams can be complemented by a state diagram or UML state machine. UML provides mechanisms to represent class members, such as attributes and methods, classifier members are commonly recognized as “static” in many programming languages. The scope is the class itself, attribute values are equal for all instances Method invocation does not affect the instance’s state Instance members are scoped to a specific instance. Attribute values may vary between instances Method invocation may affect the instance’s state To indicate a classifier scope for a member, otherwise, instance scope is assumed by default. A relationship is a term covering the specific types of logical connections found on class. UML defines the relationships, A dependency is a semantic connection between dependent and independent model elements. It exists between two elements if changes to the definition of one element may cause changes to the other, an association represents a family of links. A binary association is represented as a line. An association can link any number of classes, an association with three links is called a ternary association. An association can be named, and the ends of an association can be adorned with names, ownership indicators, multiplicity, visibility
19.
Composite structure diagram
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A composite structure is a set of interconnected elements that collaborate at runtime to achieve some purpose. Each element has some defined role in the collaboration, the key composite structure entities identified in the UML2.0 specification are structured classifiers, parts, ports, connectors, and collaborations. Part, A part represents a role played at runtime by one instance of a classifier or by a collection of instances, the part may only name the role, it may name an abstract superclass, or it may name a specific concrete class. The part can include a multiplicity factor, such as the shown for Viewer in the diagram, port, A port is an interaction point that can be used to connect structured classifiers with their parts and with the environment. Ports can optionally specify the services they provide and the services they require from other parts of the system, in the diagram, each of the small squares is a port. Each port has a type and is labelled with a name, such as var, indVar1, ports may contain a multiplicity factor, for example. Ports can either delegate received requests to internal parts, or they can deliver directly to the behavior of the structured classifier that the port is contained within. Public ports that are visible in the environment are shown straddling the boundary, all the ports in the diagram are public, except for the view port along the right boundary of FibonacciSystem. Connector, A connector binds two or more together, allowing them to interact at runtime. The connector is shown as a line between some combination of parts, ports and structured classifiers, the diagram shows three connectors between ports, and one connector between a structured classifier and a part. Collaboration, A collaboration is generally more abstract than a structured classifier and it is shown as a dotted oval containing roles that instances can play in the collaboration. Structured classifier, A StructuredClassifier represents a class, often an abstract class, encapsulated classifier, An EncapsulatedClassifier is a type of structured classifier that contains ports. In the diagram below, both FibonacciSystem and Variable are encapsulated classifiers because they both have ports along their boundaries, as an example, consider one possible way of modeling production of the Fibonacci sequence. This UML2.0 composite structure diagram specifies that instances of the FibonacciSystem class are composed of a number of parts, the topmost of these parts is identified as having the classifier FibonacciFunction. Three of the parts are identified by the role they play within instances of FibonacciSystem - the NMinus2 role, the NMinus1 role, the fifth part, identified by its classifier Viewer, includes a multiplicity specification. At runtime there can be 0 or more instances of Viewer or some concrete subclass of Viewer, at runtime the class instances that implement these three roles must provide the services specified by the IVar interface through their var ports. One such class is Variable, shown on the diagram with a port named var of type Var that realizes the IVar interface, the port named view is a non-public port that can be used by an instance of FibonacciSystem to access the optional instance of Viewer. General information on UML including the official UML2.0 specification, see especially the large section on Composite Structures
20.
Sequence diagram
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A sequence diagram is an interaction diagram that shows how objects operate with one another and in what order. It is a construct of a message sequence chart, a sequence diagram shows object interactions arranged in time sequence. It depicts the objects and classes involved in the scenario and the sequence of messages exchanged between the objects needed to out the functionality of the scenario. Sequence diagrams are typically associated with use case realizations in the Logical View of the system under development, Sequence diagrams are sometimes called event diagrams or event scenarios. This allows the specification of simple runtime scenarios in a graphical manner, if the lifeline is that of an object, it demonstrates a role. Leaving the instance name blank can represent anonymous and unnamed instances, messages, written with horizontal arrows with the message name written above them, display interaction. Solid arrow heads represent synchronous calls, open arrow heads represent asynchronous messages, if a caller sends a synchronous message, it must wait until the message is done, such as invoking a subroutine. If a caller sends a message, it can continue processing. Asynchronous calls are present in multithreaded applications and in message-oriented middleware, activation boxes, or method-call boxes, are opaque rectangles drawn on top of lifelines to represent that processes are being performed in response to the message. Objects calling methods on themselves use messages and add new activation boxes on top of any others to indicate a level of processing. If an object is destroyed, an X is drawn on bottom of the lifeline, and it should be the result of a message, either from the object itself, or another. A message sent from outside the diagram can be represented by a message originating from a circle or from a border of the sequence diagram. UML has introduced significant improvements to the capabilities of sequence diagrams, most of these improvements are based on the idea of interaction fragments which represent smaller pieces of an enclosing interaction. Multiple interaction fragments are combined to create a variety of combined fragments, UML Distilled by Martin Fowler Current UML Specification by Object Management Group Introduction to UML2 Sequence Diagrams by Scott W. Ambler. A Quick Introduction to UML Sequence Diagrams by Yanic Inghelbrecht UML2 Sequence Diagrams
21.
Activity diagram
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Activity diagrams are graphical representations of workflows of stepwise activities and actions with support for choice, iteration and concurrency. In the Unified Modeling Language, activity diagrams are intended to model both computational and organizational processes, activity diagrams show the overall flow of control. Activity diagrams are constructed from a number of shapes, connected with arrows. Arrows run from the start towards the end and represent the order in which activities happen, activity diagrams may be regarded as a form of flowchart. Typical flowchart techniques lack constructs for expressing concurrency, however, the join and split symbols in activity diagrams only resolve this for simple cases, the meaning of the model is not clear when they are arbitrarily combined with decisions or loops. These changes cause many UML1. x activity diagrams to be interpreted differently in UML2. x, UML activity diagrams in version 2. x can be used in various domains, e. g. in design of embedded systems. It is possible to such a specification using model checking technique. Business Process Modeling Notation Control flow graph Data flow diagram Drakon-chart Event-driven process chain List of UML tools Pseudocode State diagram Articles on UML2 Activities and Actions
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UML state machine
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UML state machine is an object-based variant of Harel statechart, adapted and extended by UML. The goal of UML state machines is to overcome the limitations of traditional finite-state machines while retaining their main benefits. UML statecharts introduce the new concepts of hierarchically nested states and orthogonal regions, UML state machines have the characteristics of both Mealy machines and Moore machines. The term UML state machine can refer to two kinds of machines, behavioral state machines and protocol state machines. Behavioral state machines can be used to model the behavior of individual entities, protocol state machines are used to express usage protocols and can be used to specify the legal usage scenarios of classifiers, interfaces, and ports. Once the event handling is complete, the system back to waiting for the next event. The response to an event generally depends on both the type of the event and on the state of the system and can include a change of state leading to a state transition. The pattern of events, states, and state transitions among those states can be abstracted and represented as a finite-state machine. The concept of a FSM is important in event-driven programming because it makes the event handling explicitly dependent on both the event-type and on the state of the system. Conversely, using event-driven programming without an underlying FSM model can lead programmers to produce error prone, difficult to extend, UML preserves the general form of the traditional state diagrams. The UML state diagrams are directed graphs in which nodes denote states, for example, Figure 1 shows a UML state diagram corresponding to the computer keyboard state machine. In UML, states are represented as rounded rectangles labeled with state names, the transitions, represented as arrows, are labeled with the triggering events followed optionally by the list of executed actions. The initial transition originates from the circle and specifies the default state when the system first begins. Every state diagram should have such a transition, which should not be labeled, the initial transition can have associated actions. An event is something that happens that affects the system, strictly speaking, in the UML specification, the term event refers to the type of occurrence rather than to any concrete instance of that occurrence. For example, Keystroke is an event for the keyboard, but each press of a key is not an event but a concrete instance of the Keystroke event. Another event of interest for the keyboard might be Power-on, an event can have associated parameters, allowing the event instance to convey not only the occurrence of some interesting incident but also quantitative information regarding that occurrence. An event instance outlives the instantaneous occurrence that generated it and might convey this occurrence to one or more state machines, once generated, the event instance goes through a processing life cycle that can consist of up to three stages
23.
Component diagram
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In the Unified Modeling Language, a component diagram depicts how components are wired together to form larger components or software systems. They are used to illustrate the structure of complex systems. A component is something required to execute a stereotype function, examples of stereotypes in components include executables, documents, database tables, files, and library files. Components are wired together by using a connector to connect the required interface of one component with the provided interface of another component. This illustrates the service consumer - service provider relationship between the two components, an assembly connector is a connector between two components that defines that one component provides the services that another component requires. An assembly connector is a connector that is defined from an interface or port to a provided interface or port. A delegation connector is a connector that links the external contract of a component to the realization of that behavior by the component’s parts. The example above illustrates what an insurance policy administration system might look like. Each of the components depicted in the diagram may have other component diagrams illustrating its internal structure. A component is represented by a rectangle with either the keyword component or a stereotype in the top right corner, the lollipop, a small circle on a stick, represents an implemented or provided interface. The socket symbol is a semicircle on a stick that can fit around the lollipop and this socket is a dependency or needed interface. Component Diagrams in UML2 UML2 Component Diagram Guidelines by Scott W. Ambler UML2 Component Diagrams
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Deployment diagram
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A deployment diagram in the Unified Modeling Language models the physical deployment of artifacts on nodes. To describe a web site, for example, a deployment diagram would show what hardware components exist, what software components run on each node, the nodes appear as boxes, and the artifacts allocated to each node appear as rectangles within the boxes. Nodes may have subnodes, which appear as nested boxes, a single node in a deployment diagram may conceptually represent multiple physical nodes, such as a cluster of database servers. An execution environment node is a computing resource that runs within an outer node. Introduction to UML2 Deployment Diagrams by Scott W. Ambler UML2 Deployment Diagram UML Deployment Diagrams
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Object diagram
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An object diagram in the Unified Modeling Language, is a diagram that shows a complete or partial view of the structure of a modeled system at a specific time. In the Unified Modeling Language, an object diagram focuses on some set of objects and attributes. A correlated set of object diagrams provides insight into how an arbitrary view of a system is expected to evolve over time, in early UML specifications the object diagram is described as, An object diagram is a graph of instances, including objects and data values. A static object diagram is an instance of a class diagram, the use of object diagrams is fairly limited, namely to show examples of data structure. The latest UML2.5 specification does not explicitly define object diagrams, Object diagrams and class diagrams are closely related and use almost identical notation. Both diagrams are meant to visualize static structure of a system, while class diagrams show classes, object diagrams display instances of classes. Object diagrams are more concrete than class diagrams and they are often used to provide examples or act as test cases for class diagrams. Only aspects of current interest in a model are shown on an object diagram. Each object and link on a diagram is represented by an InstanceSpecification. This can show an objects classifier and instance name, as well as attributes, each slot corresponds to a single attribute or feature, and may include a value for that entity. The name on an instance specification optionally shows a name, a, separator. The contents of slots, if any, are included below the names, a link is shown as a solid line, and represents an instance of an association. As an example, consider one possible way of modeling production of the Fibonacci sequence, the second object is named v2, is of class IndependentVariable, plays the NMinus1 role, and has val =1. The DependentVariable object is named v3, and plays the N role, the topmost instance, an anonymous instance specification, has FibonacciFunction as its classifier, and may have an instance name, a role, and slots, but these are not shown here. The diagram also includes three named links, shown as lines, links are instances of an association. In the second diagram, at a later point in time, the IndependentVariable and DependentVariable objects are the same. The role names are not shown here, in the last object diagram, a still later snapshot, the same three objects are involved. The instance and role names are not shown here, if you are using a UML modeling tool, you will typically draw object diagrams using some other diagram type, such as on a class diagram
26.
Package diagram
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A package diagram in the Unified Modeling Language depicts the dependencies between the packages that make up a model. By default, a dependency between two packages is interpreted as a package import relationship. In this relationship, elements within the package will be imported into the source package. A package merge is a relationship between two packages, that indicates that the contents of the two packages are to be combined. 1 Package, a general mechanism for organizing model elements & diagrams into groups. It provides an encapsulated namespace within which all the names must be unique and it is used to group semantically related elements. It is a namespace as well as an element that can be contained in other packages namespaces,2 Class, a representation of an object that reflects its structure and behavior within the system. It is a template from which running instances are created, classes usually describe the logical structure of the system. 3 Interface, a specification of behavior, an implementation class must be written to support the behavior of an interface class. 4 Object, an instance of a class and it is often used in analysis to represent an artifact or other item. Package diagrams can use packages containing use cases to illustrate the functionality of a software system, Package diagrams can use packages that represent the different layers of a software system to illustrate the layered architecture of a software system. The dependencies between these packages can be adorned with labels / stereotypes to indicate the communication mechanism between the layers and it is used in large scale systems to picture dependencies between major elements in the system Package diagrams represent a compile time grouping mechanism. Introduction to UML2 Package Diagrams by Scott W. Ambler UML2 Package Diagrams
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Profile diagram
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A profile diagram operates at the metamodel level to show stereotypes as classes with the «stereotype» stereotype, and profiles as packages with the «profile» stereotype. The extension relation indicates what metamodel element a given stereotype is extending, the profile diagram didnt exist in UML1. It was introduced with UML2 to display the usage of profiles, before its introduction, other diagrams had been used to display this issue. UML diagrams Christoph Kecher, UML2.0 - Das umfassende Handbuch Galileo Computing,2006, ISBN 3-89842-738-2
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Communication diagram
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A communication diagram in the Unified Modeling Language 2.0, is a simplified version of the UML1. x collaboration diagram. Communication diagrams represent a combination of information taken from Class, Sequence, however, communication diagrams use the free-form arrangement of objects and links as used in Object diagrams. In order to maintain the ordering of messages in such a diagram, messages are labeled with a chronological number. Reading a communication diagram involves starting at message 1.0, Communication diagrams show a lot of the same information as sequence diagrams, but because of how the information is presented, some of it is easier to find in one diagram than the other. Communication diagrams show which each one interacts with better. Data flow diagram Communication Diagrams in UML2
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Interaction overview diagram
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Interaction Overview Diagram is one of the fourteen types of diagrams of the Unified Modeling Language, which can picture a control flow with nodes that can contain interaction diagrams. The interaction overview diagram is similar to the activity diagram, in that both visualize a sequence of activities, the difference is that, for an interaction overview, each individual activity is pictured as a frame which can contain a nested interaction diagram. This makes the interaction overview diagram useful to deconstruct a complex scenario that would require multiple if-then-else paths to be illustrated as a single sequence diagram. The other notation elements for interaction overview diagrams are the same as for activity diagrams and these include initial, final, decision, merge, fork and join nodes. The two new elements in the interaction overview diagrams are the occurrences and interaction elements. UML2 Interaction Overview Diagrams at agilemodeling. com UModel Interaction Overview Diagrams
30.
Use case diagram
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A use case diagram at its simplest is a representation of a users interaction with the system that shows the relationship between the user and the different use cases in which the user is involved. A use case diagram can identify the different types of users of a system, while a use case itself might drill into a lot of detail about every possibility, a use-case diagram can help provide a higher-level view of the system. It has been said before that Use case diagrams are the blueprints for your system and they provide the simplified and graphical representation of what the system must actually do. Due to their nature, use case diagrams can be a good communication tool for stakeholders. The drawings attempt to mimic the world and provide a view for the stakeholder to understand how the system is going to be designed. Siau and Lee conducted research to determine if there was a situation for use case diagrams at all or if they were unnecessary. What was found was that the use case diagrams conveyed the intent of the system in a simplified manner to stakeholders. The purpose of the use case diagrams is simply to provide the high level view of the system, additional diagrams and documentation can be used to provide a complete functi. Agile software development UML Application Business Case Fundamental modeling concepts SysML Unified Modeling Language Use case User story Gemino, A. Parker, Use case diagrams in support of use case modeling, Deriving understanding from the picture, Journal of Database Management,20, 1-24. Christerson M. Jonsson P. Övergaard G. Object-Oriented Software Engineering - A Use Case Driven Approach, systems Analysis for Collaborative System by Use Case Diagram, Journal of Integrated Design & Process Science,11, 13-27. Head First Object Oriented Analysis and Design, OReilly Media, Inc, are use case and class diagrams complementary in requirements analysis. An experimental study on use case and class diagrams in UML, Requirements Engineering,9, vidgen, R. Requirements Analysis and UML, Use Cases and Class Diagrams, Computing & Control Engineering,14,12
31.
Software architecture
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Software architecture refers to the high level structures of a software system, the discipline of creating such structures, and the documentation of these structures. These structures are needed to reason about the software system, each structure comprises software elements, relations among them, and properties of both elements and relations. The architecture of a system is a metaphor, analogous to the architecture of a building. Software architecture is about making fundamental structural choices which are costly to change once implemented, Software architecture choices include specific structural options from possibilities in the design of software. For example, the systems that controlled the space launch vehicle had the requirement of being very fast. Therefore, an appropriate real-time computing language would need to be chosen, documenting software architecture facilitates communication between stakeholders, captures early decisions about the high-level design, and allows reuse of design components between projects. The important stuff—whatever that is, this refers to the fact that software architects should concern themselves with those decisions that have impact on the system. Following this line of thought, architectural design issues may become non-architectural once their irreversibility can be overcome and this insight has led to substantial research into software architecture knowledge management. There is no distinction between software architecture versus design and requirements engineering. They are all part of a chain of intentionality from high-level intentions to low-level details, Software architecture exhibits the following, Multitude of stakeholders, software systems have to cater to a variety of stakeholders such as business managers, owners, users and operators. These stakeholders all have their own concerns with respect to the system, balancing these concerns and demonstrating how they are addressed is part of designing the system. This implies that architecture involves dealing with a variety of concerns and stakeholders. Separation of concerns, the way for architects to reduce complexity is to separate the concerns that drive the design. Architecture documentation shows that all stakeholder concerns are addressed by modeling and describing the architecture from separate points of view associated with the various stakeholder concerns and these separate descriptions are called architectural views. Recurring styles, like building architecture, the software architecture discipline has developed ways to address recurring concerns. These standard ways are called by various names at various levels of abstraction, common terms for recurring solutions are architectural style, tactic, reference architecture and architectural pattern. This vision should be separated from its implementation, the architect assumes the role of keeper of the vision, making sure that additions to the system are in line with the architecture, hence preserving conceptual integrity. Software architecture is an intellectually graspable abstraction of a complex system and this abstraction provides a number of benefits, It gives a basis for analysis of software systems behavior before the system has been built
32.
Meta-Object Facility
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The Meta-Object Facility is an Object Management Group standard for model-driven engineering. Its purpose is to provide a system for entities in the CORBA architecture. The official reference page may be found at OMGs website, MOF is designed as a four-layered architecture. It provides a model at the top layer, called the M3 layer. This M3-model is the used by MOF to build metamodels. The most prominent example of a Layer 2 MOF model is the UML metamodel and these M2-models describe elements of the M1-layer, and thus M1-models. These would be, for example, models written in UML, the last layer is the M0-layer or data layer. It is used to describe real-world objects, beyond the M3-model, MOF describes the means to create and manipulate models and metamodels by defining CORBA interfaces that describe those operations. Because of the similarities between the MOF M3-model and UML structure models, MOF metamodels are usually modeled as UML class diagrams, a supporting standard of MOF is XMI, which defines an XML-based exchange format for models on the M3-, M2-, or M1-Layer. MOF is a closed metamodeling architecture, it defines an M3-model, MOF allows a strict meta-modeling architecture, every model element on every layer is strictly in correspondence with a model element of the layer above. MOF only provides a means to define the structure, or abstract syntax of a language or of data, for defining metamodels, MOF plays exactly the role that EBNF plays for defining programming language grammars. MOF is a Domain Specific Language used to define metamodels, just as EBNF is a DSL for defining grammars, similarly to EBNF, MOF could be defined in MOF. In short MOF uses the notion of MOF, Classes, as known from object orientation, MOF may be used to define object-oriented metamodels as well as non object-oriented metamodels. As of May 2006, the OMG has defined two compliance points for MOF, EMOF for Essential MOF CMOF for Complete MOF In June 2006, the variant ECore that has been defined in the Eclipse Modeling Framework is more or less aligned on OMGs EMOF. Another related standard is OCL, which describes a language that can be used to define model constraints in terms of predicate logic. QVT, which means to query, view and transform MOF-based models, is a very important standard. See Model Transformation Language for further information, JMI defines a Java API for manipulating MOF models. OMGs MOF is not to be confused with the Managed Object Format defined by the Distributed Management Task Force in section 6 of the Common Information Model Infrastructure Specification, version 2.5.0
33.
Metamodeling
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A metamodel or surrogate model is a model of a model, and metamodeling is the process of generating such metamodels. As its name implies, this applies the notions of meta- and modeling in software engineering. Metamodels are of types and have diverse applications. A thorough discussion is presented in the following text, a metamodel or surrogate model is a model of the model, i. e. a simplified model of an actual model of a circuit, system, or software like entity. Metamodel can be a relation or algorithm representing input and output relations. A model is an abstraction of phenomena in the real world, a model conforms to its metamodel in the way that a computer program conforms to the grammar of the programming language in which it is written. Various types of metamodels include polynomial equations, neural network, Kriging, Metamodeling is the construction of a collection of concepts within a certain domain. Metamodeling typically involves studying the output and input relationships and then fitting right metamodels to represent that behavior, the concept can be useful in mathematics, and has practical applications in computer science and computer engineering/software engineering. The latter are the focus of this article. In software engineering, the use of models is more and more recommended and this should be contrasted with the classical code-based development techniques. A model always conforms to a unique metamodel, one of the currently most active branch of Model Driven Engineering is the approach named model-driven architecture proposed by OMG. This approach is based on the utilization of a language to write metamodels called the Meta Object Facility or MOF, typical metamodels proposed by OMG are UML, SysML, SPEM or CWM. ISO has also published the standard metamodel ISO/IEC24744, all the languages presented below could be defined as MOF metamodels. One important move in Model Driven Engineering is the use of Model Transformation Languages. The OMG has proposed a standard for this called QVT for Queries/Views/Transformations, QVT is based on the Meta-Object Facility or MOF. Among many other Model Transformation Languages, some examples of implementations of this standard are AndroMDA, VIATRA, Tefkat, MT, meta-models are closely related to ontologies. The grammar specifies what it means to be a statement, assertion, query. Meta-modeling, can be considered as a description of how a domain-specific model is built
34.
Stereotype (UML)
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A stereotype is one of three types of extensibility mechanisms in the Unified Modeling Language, the other two being tags and constraints. The nomenclature is derived from the meaning of stereotype, used in printing. For example, when modeling a network you might need to have symbols for representing routers, by using stereotyped nodes you can make these things appear as primitive building blocks. Graphically, a stereotype is rendered as a name enclosed by guillemets, in addition or alternatively it may be indicated by a specific icon. The icon image may replace the entire UML symbol. For instance, in a class diagram stereotypes can be used to classify method behavior such as «constructor» and «getter», despite its appearance, «interface» is not a stereotype but a classifier. One alternative to stereotypes, suggested by Peter Coad in his book Java Modeling in Color with UML, Enterprise Components, the archetypes indicated by different-colored UML boxes can be used in combination with stereotypes. This added definition of meaning indicates the role that the UML object plays within the software system. From version 2.0 the previously independent tagged value is considered to be a stereotype attribute, the name tagged value is still kept. Each stereotype has zero or more tag definitions, and all stereotyped UML elements have the number of tagged values. In UML, become is a keyword for a specific UML stereotype, become shows that the source modeling element is transformed into the target modeling element, while keeping some sort of identity, even though it may have changed values, state, or even class. While UML2.1 uses the «become» stereotype within the specification, it does not define it
