1.
Union League of Philadelphia
–
The Union League of Philadelphia, founded in 1862 as a Patriotic Society to support the policies of Abraham Lincoln, is today a private members-only club. Founded by Philadelphia society, it remains a bastion of the elite, among its 3,300 members are leaders in business, academia, law, medicine, politics, religion and the arts. Members gather to socialize, dine, network, attend events, exercise, the club is ranked first on the Five Star Platinum Club list. The Union League of Philadelphia is the oldest and most prominent of the remaining loyalty leagues and it has given loyal support to the American military in all conflicts since. Its motto is Love of Country Leads, as in 1862, its members prize tradition and represent the Philadelphia region’s elite in business, education, religion as well as the arts and culture. Although no longer exclusively Republican or male in membership, The Union League of Philadelphia has maintained its identity as distinctly traditional, the club has hosted U. S. presidents, heads of state, industrialists, entertainers and visiting dignitaries from around the world. In 1905, Philadelphia architect Horace Trumbauer won a competition to build major additions to the building. The Beaux Arts-style additions, completed in 1910 and 1911, expanded the length of the building to a city block, the building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. Adorning the walls and hallways is the collection of art and artifacts. A Heritage Center was added to provide a permanent place to store, the collections are all available for research. Union League of Philadelphia, The League Official website The Heritage Center of The Union League of Philadelphia The Union League Club of New York The Union League Club of Chicago
Union League of Philadelphia
Union League of Philadelphia
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Union League of Philadelphia
Union League of Philadelphia
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Washington Grays Monument by
John A Wilson in front of Union League of Philadelphia.
Union League of Philadelphia
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1911 addition, from 15th Street.
2.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
Philadelphia
–
From top left, the Philadelphia skyline, a
statue of Benjamin Franklin, the
Liberty Bell, the
Philadelphia Museum of Art,
Philadelphia City Hall, and
Independence Hall
Philadelphia
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An 18th century map of Philadelphia.
Philadelphia
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Penn's Treaty with the Indians by
Benjamin West
Philadelphia
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Benjamin Franklin, 1777
3.
Victorian architecture
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Victorian architecture is a series of architectural revival styles in the mid-to-late 19th century. Victorian refers to the reign of Queen Victoria, called the Victorian era, however, many elements of what is typically termed Victorian architecture did not become popular until later in Victorias reign. The styles often included interpretations and eclectic revivals of historic styles mixed with the introduction of middle east, the name represents the British and French custom of naming architectural styles for a reigning monarch. Within this naming and classification scheme, it follows Georgian architecture and later Regency architecture, during the early 19th century, the romantic medieval Gothic revival style was developed as a reaction to the symmetry of Palladianism, and such buildings as Fonthill Abbey were built. Paxton also continued to build houses as Mentmore Towers, in the still popular English Renaissance styles. In this era of prosperity new methods of construction were developed, other notable Scottish architects of this period are Archibald Simpson and Alexander Marshall Mackenzie whose stylistically varied work can be seen in the architecture of Aberdeen. Victorian architecture usually has many intricate window frames inspired by the famous architect Elliot Rae, some chose the United States, and others went to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Normally, they applied architectural styles that were fashionable when they left England, thus, the influence of English architecture spread across the world. Several prominent architects produced English-derived designs around the world, including William Butterfield, the Victorian period flourished in Australia and is generally recognised as being from 1840 to 1890, which saw a gold rush and population boom during the 1880s in the state of Victoria. There were fifteen styles that predominated, The Arts and Crafts style and Queen Anne style are considered to be part of the Federation Period, during the British colonial period of British Ceylon, Sri Lanka Law College, Sri Lanka College of Technology and the Galle Face Hotel. In the United States, Victorian architecture generally describes styles that were most popular between 1860 and 1900, a list of these styles most commonly includes Second Empire, Stick-Eastlake, Folk Victorian, Queen Anne, Richardsonian Romanesque, and Shingle. As in the United Kingdom, examples of Gothic Revival and Italianate continued to be constructed during this period, some historians classify the later years of Gothic Revival as a distinctive Victorian style named High Victorian Gothic. Stick-Eastlake, a manner of geometric, machine-cut decorating derived from Stick, on the other hand, terms such as Painted Ladies or gingerbread may be used to describe certain Victorian buildings, but do not constitute a specific style. The names of architectural styles varied between countries, many homes combined the elements of several different styles and are not easily distinguishable as one particular style or another. San Francisco is well known for its extensive Victorian architecture, particularly in the Haight-Ashbury, Lower Haight, Alamo Square, Noe Valley, Castro, Nob Hill, the extent to which any one is the largest surviving example is debated, with numerous qualifications. The Distillery District in Toronto, Ontario contains the largest and best preserved collection of Victorian-era industrial architecture in North America, cabbagetown is the largest and most continuous Victorian residential area in North America. Other Toronto Victorian neighbourhoods include The Annex, Parkdale, and Rosedale, in the USA, the South End of Boston is recognized by the National Register of Historic Places as the oldest and largest Victorian neighborhood in the country. Old Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky also claims to be the nations largest Victorian neighborhood, richmond, Virginia is home to several large Victorian neighborhoods, the most prominent being The Fan
Victorian architecture
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St. Pancras railway station and Midland Hotel in
London, opened in 1868, is an example of the
Gothic Revival style of architecture with
Ruskinian influences. The station eclectically combined elements of
Gothic architecture and other styles with materials and scale made possible by the
Industrial Revolution.
Victorian architecture
–
Central Hall of the
Natural History Museum, London. Note the cast-iron arches supporting the roof.
Victorian architecture
–
Palace of Westminster, Neo-Gothic completed in 1870. Designed by Sir
Charles Barry and
August Pugin
Victorian architecture
–
Royal Albert Hall, London
4.
Union League Club of New York
–
The Union League Club is a private social club in New York City. The building was designated a New York City landmark on October 25,2011, Union League clubs, which are legally separate but share similar histories and maintain reciprocal links with one another, are also located in Chicago and Philadelphia. Defunct Union League Clubs were located in Brooklyn and New Haven, the club dates its founding from February 6,1863, during the Civil War. Thus, pro-Union men chose to form their own club, with the goals of cultivating a profound national devotion and to strengthen a love. The Union League was actually a political movement before it became a social organization, the New York League was founded by four prominent professionals and intellectuals, Henry Whitney Bellows, Frederick Law Olmsted, George Templeton Strong, and Oliver Wolcott Gibbs. The men, all members of the United States Sanitary Commission, desired to strengthen the nation state and they first aimed to recruit a coalition of moneyed professionals like themselves. Strong believed that the club would only thrive with a catalogue of moneyed men. Olmsted especially desired to recruit the new generation of young, wealthy men, so that the club might teach them the obligations, the founders aimed to win the political governing elite over to support of the Union and abolition. They also believed that a government was essential to their prosperity. As they bought more and more war bonds, the holders had an economic interest in the success of the Union. The club held its first official meeting on March 20,1863, at this first meeting, Robert B. Minturn, head of the second largest shipping firm, was elected president. Some of the vice presidents included William H. Aspinwall, Moses Taylor. It did not take long for the enemies to make their displeasure felt with the new organization. A few months later, the decided to make an unmistakable gesture that they had not been intimidated. The club decided to recruit, train and equip a Colored infantry regiment for Union service, Colored Infantry was formed on Rikers Island in February 1864. The next month, it marched from the Union League Club, down Canal Street, in spite of numerous threats, the members of the Union League Club marched with the men of the 20th, and saw them off. During World War I, the club sponsored the 369th Infantry, the famed Harlem Hellfighters, which was commanded by William Hayward, during Reconstruction, Union Leagues were formed all across the South
Union League Club of New York
–
(2012)
Union League Club of New York
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Edward Lamson Henry 's Presentation of Colors, 1864, depicts the outfitting of two African-American regiments at the Union League Club of New York's first clubhouse on
17th Street, facing
Union Square
Union League Club of New York
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The club's second headquarters, the Jerome Mansion on
Madison Avenue
Union League Club of New York
–
Some league members from 1903
5.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
American Civil War
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New Orleans the largest cotton exporting port for New England and Great Britain textile mills, shipping Mississippi River Valley goods from North, South and Border states.
American Civil War
–
Clockwise from top:
Battle of Gettysburg,
Union Captain John Tidball's artillery,
Confederate prisoners,
ironclad USS Atlanta, ruins of
Richmond, Virginia,
Battle of Franklin
American Civil War
–
Sen. Stephen Douglas, author of the
Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854
American Civil War
–
Sen. John J. Crittenden, of the 1860
Crittenden Compromise
6.
Union (American Civil War)
–
The Union was opposed by 11 southern slave states that formed the Confederate States, or the Confederacy. All of the Unions states provided soldiers for the U. S. Army, the Border states played a major role as a supply base for the Union invasion of the Confederacy. The Northeast provided the resources for a mechanized war producing large quantities of munitions and supplies. The Midwest provided soldiers, food, horses, financial support, Army hospitals were set up across the Union. Most states had Republican governors who energetically supported the war effort, the Democratic Party strongly supported the war in 1861 but in 1862 was split between the War Democrats and the anti-war element led by the Copperheads. The Democrats made major gains in 1862 in state elections. They lost ground in 1863, especially in Ohio, in 1864 the Republicans campaigned under the National Union Party banner, which attracted many War Democrats and soldiers and scored a landslide victory for Lincoln and his entire ticket. The war years were quite prosperous except where serious fighting and guerrilla warfare took place along the southern border, prosperity was stimulated by heavy government spending and the creation of an entirely new national banking system. The Union states invested a great deal of money and effort in organizing psychological and social support for soldiers wives, widows, orphans, and for the soldiers themselves. Most soldiers were volunteers, although after 1862 many volunteered to escape the draft, Draft resistance was notable in some larger cities, especially New York City with its massive anti-draft riots of 1863 and in some remote districts such as the coal mining areas of Pennsylvania. In the context of the American Civil War, the Union is sometimes referred to as the North, both then and now, as opposed to the Confederacy, which was the South. The Union never recognized the legitimacy of the Confederacys secession and maintained at all times that it remained entirely a part of the United States of America, in foreign affairs the Union was the only side recognized by all other nations, none of which officially recognized the Confederate government. The term Union occurs in the first governing document of the United States, the subsequent Constitution of 1787 was issued and ratified in the name not of the states, but of We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union. Union, for the United States of America, is repeated in such clauses as the Admission to the Union clause in Article IV. Even before the war started, the preserve the Union was commonplace. Using the term Union to apply to the non-secessionist side carried a connotation of legitimacy as the continuation of the political entity. In comparison to the Confederacy, the Union had a large industrialized and urbanized area, additionally, the Union states had a manpower advantage of 5 to 2 at the start of the war. Year by year, the Confederacy shrank and lost control of increasing quantities of resources, meanwhile, the Union turned its growing potential advantage into a much stronger military force
Union (American Civil War)
–
Charleston Mercury Secession Broadside, 1860 - "The Union" had been a way to refer to the American Republic
Union (American Civil War)
–
Map of the division of the states during the American Civil War. Blue (the U.S. Army's uniform color) indicates the Union states; light blue represents Union states which permitted slavery (
border states). Red represents states in rebellion, also known as the
Confederate states. Unshaded areas were U.S. territories.
Union (American Civil War)
–
The Union had large advantages in men and resources at the start of the war; the ratio grew steadily in favor of the Union. In the chart, "cauc men" means white men.
Union (American Civil War)
–
An anti-Lincoln Copperhead pamphlet from 1864
7.
United States of America
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States of America
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States of America
–
Flag
United States of America
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States of America
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
8.
Republican Party (United States)
–
The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883. The Republicans supported the pietistic Protestants who demanded Prohibition, nevertheless, by 1890 the Republicans had agreed to the Sherman Antitrust Act and the Interstate Commerce Commission in response to complaints from owners of small businesses and farmers
Republican Party (United States)
–
Abraham Lincoln, the first Republican U.S. President (1861–1865).
Republican Party (United States)
–
Theodore Roosevelt,
26th President of the United States (1901–1909)
Republican Party (United States)
–
Dwight Eisenhower,
34th President of the United States (1953–1961)
Republican Party (United States)
–
Richard Nixon,
37th President of the United States (1969–1974)
9.
Abraham Lincoln
–
Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
Abraham Lincoln
–
Lincoln in 1863, aged 54
Abraham Lincoln
–
The young Lincoln in sculpture at Senn Park, Chicago.
Abraham Lincoln
–
1864 photo of President Lincoln with youngest son,
Tad
Abraham Lincoln
–
Lincoln depicted protecting a Native American from his own men in a scene often related about Lincoln's service during the
Black Hawk War.
10.
Upper middle class
–
The upper middle class is a sociological concept referring to the social group constituted by higher status members of the middle class. This is in contrast to the lower middle class, which is used for the group at the opposite end of the middle class stratum. There is considerable debate as to how the middle class might be defined. According to sociologist Max Weber the upper middle class consists of well-educated professionals with graduate degrees, the American upper middle class is defined similarly using income, education and occupation as the predominant indicators. The main occupational tasks of upper class individuals tend to center on conceptualizing, consulting. See American professional/managerial middle class for an overview of the American middle classes. In the United States the term middle class and its subdivisions are extremely vague concepts, there are several perceptions of the upper middle class and what the term means. In academic models the term applies to highly-educated, salaried professionals whose work is largely self-directed, many have graduate degrees, with educational attainment serving as the main distinguishing feature of this class. Household incomes commonly may exceed $100,000, with some smaller one-income earners earning incomes in the high 5-figure range, the upper middle class has grown. Increasingly salaried managers and professionals have replaced individual business owners and independent professionals, the key to the success of the upper middle class is the growing importance of educational certification. Its lifestyles and opinions are becoming increasingly normative for the whole society and it is in fact a porous class, open to people. -Dennis Gilbert, The American Class Structure,1998, in addition to having autonomy in their work, above-average incomes, and advanced educations, the upper middle class also tends to be influential, setting trends and largely shaping public opinion. While many Americans cite income as the determinant of class, occupational status, educational attainment. Income is in part determined by the scarcity of certain skill sets, qualifying for such higher income often requires that individuals obtain the necessary skills and demonstrate the necessary competencies. There are also differences between household and individual income, in 2005, 42% of US households had two or more income earners, as a result, 18% of households but only 5% of individuals had six figure incomes. To illustrate, two nurses each making $55,000 per year can out-earn, in a household sense, sociologists Dennis Gilbert, Willam Thompson and Joseph Hickey estimate the upper middle class to constitute roughly 15% of the population. The difference between personal and household income can be explained by considering that 76% of households with incomes exceeding $90,000 had two or more income earners. Note that the income thresholds may vary greatly based on region due to significant differences in average income based on region and urban, suburban
Upper middle class
–
Higher education is one of the most distinguishing features of the upper middle class.
11.
United States Sanitary Commission
–
The United States Sanitary Commission was a private relief agency created by federal legislation on June 18,1861, to support sick and wounded soldiers of the U. S. Army during the American Civil War. It operated across the North, raised an estimated $25 million in Civil War era revenue and in-kind contributions to support the cause, the president was Henry Whitney Bellows, and Frederick Law Olmsted acted as executive secretary. It was modeled on the British Sanitary Commission, set up during the Crimean War, Henry Whitney Bellows, a Massachusetts clergyman, planned the USSC and served as its only president. According to The Wall Street Journal, its first executive secretary was Frederick Law Olmsted, George Templeton Strong, New York lawyer and diarist, helped found the commission and served as treasurer and member of the executive committee. In June 1861, the Sanitary Commission set up its Central Office inside the Treasury Building downtown Washington, by late October 1861, the Central Office and the War Department had received detailed studies and reports from the Sanitary Inspectors of more than four hundred regimental camp inspections. C. Requesting water-beds, small tables for writing in bed, iron wire cradles for protecting wounded limbs, dominoes, checkerboards, Delphinium, the demands of the war soon required more frequent decision-making. This led to the creation of the Standing Committee, which met on a daily basis in New York City where most of its members resided. Also active in the association was Colonel Leavitt Hunt, a New York lawyer and photographer, in January 1864, he wrote to President Abraham Lincolns secretary John George Nicolay asking that Nicolay forward him any documents he might have available with the Presidents signature. Hunts mother, the widow of Vermont congressman Jonathan Hunt, planned to attach Lincolns signature to copies of casts of the Presidents hand. Other fund raising events included the famous 50 pound sack of flour that was auctioned off by Reuel Colt Gridley. By auctioning off the same sack of flour, which was then re-donated to be sold again, arising from a meeting in New York City of the Womens Central Relief Association of New York, the organization was also inspired by the British Sanitary Commission of the Crimean War. They organized Sanitary Fairs in numerous cities to support the Federal army with funds and supplies, dorothea Dix, serving as the commissions superintendent, convinced the medical corps of the value of women working in their hospitals. Over 15,000 women volunteered to work in hospitals, usually in nursing care and they assisted surgeons during procedures, gave medicines, supervised the feedings and cleaned the bedding and clothes. They gave good cheer, wrote letters the men dictated, a representative nurse was Helen L. Gilson of Chelsea, Massachusetts, who served in Sanitary Commission. She supervised supplies, dressed wounds, and cooked special foods for patients on a limited diet and she worked in hospitals after the battles of Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg. She was an administrator, especially at the hospital for black soldiers at City Point. Mary Livermore, Mary Ann Bickerdyke, and Annie Wittenmeyer played leadership roles, after the war some nurses wrote memoirs of their experiences, examples include Dix, Livermore, Sarah Palmer Young, and Sarah Emma Edmonds. Organizing the Sanitary Fairs offered ways for local communities to be part of supporting the war effort of the nation
United States Sanitary Commission
–
Seal
United States Sanitary Commission
–
Brooklyn Museum - Brooklyn Sanitary Fair - 2
United States Sanitary Commission
–
During the American Civil War the U.S. Sanitary Commission operated 30 soldiers' homes, lodges, or rests for Union soldiers. This soldiers' home was at
Camp Nelson, Kentucky.
United States Sanitary Commission
–
The Brooklyn Sanitary Fair, 1864, raised funds for the Commission (colored lithograph)
12.
Union League Club of Chicago
–
The Union League Club of Chicago is a prominent social club located at 65 West Jackson Boulevard in the Loop neighborbood of Chicago. The Club can trace its roots to 1862, when radical southern sympathizers in the north were plotting an insurrection in Lincoln’s home state, individual clubs had already formed in Tennessee, Maryland and other border states. Soon, the Union League movement was focusing on providing medical supplies, training nurses, by the end of the Civil War, the Union League of America movement grew to two million members. The Union League played a prominent role in Lincoln’s closely contested re-election in 1864, following the Chicago Fire of 1871, a six-year national depression ignited discontent among workers sparking the labor riots of 1877 and a major railroad strike. A new city charter provided opportunities for vote fraud, the Republican National Convention of 1880 was in Chicago and Wentworth formed the Union League Club to support Ulysses S. Grant, who sought a third-term nomination for president. Though the Convention denied Grant the nomination and selected James A. Garfield of Ohio, the Club’s first president was James B. A native of England, Bradwell worked his way through Knox College, was admitted to the bar and his wife, Myra Bradwell, founded the Chicago Legal News and after numerous defeats became the first woman in the United States admitted to the bar. She represented Mary Todd Lincoln at her insanity hearings and secured her release from an asylum in Batavia, the Club also was instrumental in having Chicago named the site of the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893. More recently, Club leadership spearheaded the siting and opening of the Harold Washington Library Center in downtown Chicago. Union League Union League of Philadelphia Union League Club of New York Notes Bibliography Nowlan, James D. Glory, Darkenss, Light, A History of the Union League Club
Union League Club of Chicago
–
Logo of the Union League Club of Chicago.
13.
Reconstruction era
–
Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states
Reconstruction era
–
The southern economy had been ruined by the war. Charleston, South Carolina: Broad Street, 1865
Reconstruction era
–
The ruins of
Richmond, Virginia after the
American Civil War, newly freed
African Americans voting for the first time in 1867, Office of the
Freedmen's Bureau in
Memphis, Tennessee,
Memphis Riots of 1866
Reconstruction era
–
A political cartoon of Andrew Johnson and Abraham Lincoln, 1865, entitled "The Rail Splitter At Work Repairing the Union." The caption reads (Johnson): Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever. (Lincoln): A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended.
Reconstruction era
–
Monument in honor of the Grand Army of the Republic, organized after the war
14.
Freedmen
–
A freedman or freedwoman is a former slave who has been released from slavery, usually by legal means. Historically, slaves were freed either by manumission or emancipation, a fugitive slave is one who escaped slavery by fleeing. Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become plebeian citizens, the act of freeing a slave was called manumissio, from manus, hand, and missio, the act of releasing. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only freedom from ownership. A slave who had acquired libertas was known as a libertus in relation to his former master, as a social class, freed slaves were liberti, though later Latin texts used the terms libertus and libertini interchangeably. Libertini were not entitled to public office or state priesthoods. During the early Empire, however, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, any future children of a freedman would be born free, with full rights of citizenship. The Claudian Civil Service set a precedent whereby freedmen could be used as servants in the Roman bureaucracy. In addition, Claudius passed legislation concerning slaves, including a law stating that sick slaves abandoned by their owners became freedmen if they recovered, the emperor was criticized for using freedmen in the Imperial Courts. Some freedmen enjoyed enormous success and became quite wealthy, the brothers who owned House of the Vettii, one of the biggest and most magnificent houses in Pompeii, are thought to have been freedmen. A freedman who became rich and influential might still be looked down on by the aristocracy as a vulgar nouveau riche. Trimalchio, a character in the Satyricon of Petronius, is a caricature of such a freedman, for centuries Arab slave traders took and transported an estimated 10 to 15 million sub-Saharan Africans to slavery in North Africa and the Middle East. They also enslaved Europeans from coastal areas and the Balkans, many Arabs took women slaves as concubines in their harems. In the patrilineal societies, mixed-race children of concubines and Arab men were considered free and were given inheritance rights related to their fathers property. In the United States, the freedmen and freedwomen refer chiefly to former slaves emancipated during and after the American Civil War, by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves freed before the war, usually by individual manumissions, often in wills, were referred to as Free Negroes or free blacks. There were numerous such families formed in the Upper South before the Revolution, for the first two decades after the Revolution, thousands of slaves were freed in the Upper South, and most northern states abolished slavery, some on a gradual basis. In Louisiana and other areas of the former New France, free people of color were classified in French as gens de couleur libres and they were born to African or African-European mothers and white fathers of mixed-race African and French or other European ancestry
Freedmen
–
Cinerary urn for the freedman Tiberius Claudius Chryseros and two women, probably his wife and daughter
Freedmen
–
Old former slave with horn formerly used to call slaves, Texas, 1939. Photo by
Russell Lee.
15.
Eric Foner
–
Eric Foner is an American historian. His free online courses on The Civil War and Reconstruction, published in 2014, are available from Columbia University on ColumbiaX, in 2011 Foners The Fiery Trial, Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery won the Pulitzer Prize for History, the Lincoln Prize, and the Bancroft Prize. Foner previously won the Bancroft in 1989 for his book Reconstruction, Americas Unfinished Revolution, in 2000, he was elected president of the American Historical Association. Eric Foner describes his father as his first great teacher, and recalls how, deprived of his livelihood while I was growing up, he supported our family as a freelance lecturer. I also imbibed a way of thinking about the past in which visionaries and underdogs—Tom Paine, Wendell Phillips, Eugene V. Debs, and W. E. B. Du Bois—were as central to the drama as presidents and captains of industry. Foner went to Columbia University for his B. A. he was majoring in physics until he took a seminar with James P. Shenton on the Civil War. It probably determined that most of my career has focused on that period. A year later, in 1963, Foner graduated summa cum laude as a history major and he studied at Oxford as a Kellett Fellow, he received a B. A. from Oriel College in 1965. Foner returned to Columbia for his Ph. D, where he worked under Richard Hofstadter, from 1973-1982 Foner served as a professor in the history department at City College and Graduate Center at City University of New York. In 1976-1977 he was a professor of American History at Princeton University. In 1980 he was Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions at the University of Cambridge and he served as president of the Organization of American Historians in, and of the American Historical Association. He is one of two persons to serve as president of the Organization of American Historians, American Historical Association. Foner serves on the boards of Past and Present and The Nation. Foner has written for The New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, London Review of Books, in addition, he has spoken about history on television and radio, including Charlie Rose, Book Notes, and All Things Considered. He has appeared in documentaries on PBS and The History Channel. Foner contributed an essay and conversation with John Sayles in Past Imperfect, History According to the Movies and he was the historian in Freedom, A History of US on PBS in 2003. Foner has long considered a leading authority on the Reconstruction Era of American history
Eric Foner
–
Foner at his New York City office in September 2009.
16.
Ku Klux Klan
–
Historically the KKK used terrorism, both physical assault and murder, against groups or individuals whom they opposed. All three movements have called for the purification of American society, and all are considered right-wing extremist organizations, the first Klan flourished in the Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. It sought to overthrow the Republican state governments in the South during the Reconstruction Era, with numerous chapters across the South, it was suppressed around 1871, through federal law enforcement. Members made their own, often colorful, costumes, robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be terrifying, the second group was founded in 1915, and it flourished nationwide in the early and mid-1920s, particularly in urban areas of the Midwest and West. This second organization adopted a white costume and used code words which were similar to those used by the first Klan, while adding cross burnings. The third and current manifestation of the KKK emerged after 1950, in the form of small, local and they have focused on opposition to the Civil Rights Movement, often using violence and murder to suppress activists. It is classified as a group by the Anti-Defamation League. As of 2016, the Anti-Defamation League puts total Klan membership nationwide at around 3,000, the second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent references to Americas Anglo-Saxon blood, hearkening back to 19th-century nativism. Although members of the KKK swear to uphold Christian morality, virtually every Christian denomination has officially denounced the KKK, the manual of rituals was printed by Laps D. McCord of Pulaski. According to The Cyclopædia of Fraternities, Beginning in April,1867, the members had conjured up a veritable Frankenstein. Although there was little organizational structure above the level, similar groups rose across the South and adopted the same name. Klan groups spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement promoting resistance, for example, Confederate veteran John W. Morton founded a chapter in Nashville, Tennessee. As a secret vigilante group, the Klan targeted freedmen and their allies, it sought to restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including murder, against black and white Republicans. In 1870 and 1871, the government passed the Enforcement Acts. The first Klan had mixed results in terms of achieving its objectives and it seriously weakened the black political establishment through its use of assassinations and threats of violence, it drove some people out of politics. Rable argues that the Klan was a failure and therefore was discarded by the Democratic leaders of the South. He says, the Klan declined in strength in part because of weaknesses, its lack of central organization. More fundamentally, it declined because it failed to achieve its central objective – the overthrow of Republican state governments in the South, for instance, the Red Shirts are credited with helping elect Wade Hampton as governor in South Carolina
Ku Klux Klan
–
A cartoon threatening that the KKK would
lynch carpetbaggers. From the Independent Monitor,
Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 1868.
Ku Klux Klan
–
Ku Klux Klan's emblem
Ku Klux Klan
–
A political cartoon depicting the KKK and the Democratic Party as continuations of the Confederacy
Ku Klux Klan
–
Nathan Bedford Forrest
17.
Metropolitan Museum of Art
–
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially the Met, is located in New York City and is the largest art museum in the United States, and is among the most visited art museums in the world. Its permanent collection contains two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The main building, on the edge of Central Park along Manhattans Museum Mile, is by area one of the worlds largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains a collection of art, architecture. On March 18,2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum at Madison Avenue in the Upper East Side, it extends the museums modern, the Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, Indian, and Islamic art. The museum is home to collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, as well as antique weapons. Several notable interiors, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries, the Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870. The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day and it opened on February 20,1872, and was originally located at 681 Fifth Avenue. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, the museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A number of interiors, ranging from 1st century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts traveling shows throughout the year. The director of the museum is Thomas P. Campbell, a long-time curator and it was announced on February 28th,2017 that Campbell will be stepping down as the Mets director and CEO, effective June. On March 1st,2017 the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss shall be the acting CEO until a replacement is found, Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started to acquire ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few tablets and seals, the Mets collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. The highlights of the include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures. The Mets Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museums most popular collections. Among the collections 14,000 objects are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, Rockefeller donated his more than 3, 000-piece collection to the museum. The Mets Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, the collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum, many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections
Metropolitan Museum of Art
–
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Metropolitan Museum of Art
–
The facade of the Met dominates the city's "
Museum Mile ".
Metropolitan Museum of Art
–
The Great Hall
18.
Statue of Liberty
–
The Statue of Liberty is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City, in the United States. The copper statue, a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, the statue was dedicated on October 28,1886. The Statue of Liberty is a female figure representing Libertas. She holds a torch above her head, and in her left arm carries a tabula ansata inscribed July 4,1776, a broken chain lies at her feet. The statue became an icon of freedom and of the United States, due to the post-war instability in France, work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue, Bartholdi completed the head and the torch-bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions. The torch-bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened due to lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World started a drive for donations to complete the project attracted more than 120,000 contributors. The statue was constructed in France, shipped overseas in crates, the statues completion was marked by New Yorks first ticker-tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland. The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War, public access to the balcony surrounding the torch has been barred for safety reasons since 1916. The project is traced to a conversation between Édouard René de Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor. The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, in order to honor these achievements, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States, according to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulayes comment was not intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi. Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi took no action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye. Sketches and models were made of the work, though it was never erected. There was a precedent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes. This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet high, any large project was further delayed by the Franco-Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and deposed, Bartholdis home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians, and a more liberal republic was installed in France
Statue of Liberty
–
Statue of Liberty
Statue of Liberty
–
Bartholdi's design patent
Statue of Liberty
–
Bartholdi's
Lion of Belfort
Statue of Liberty
–
Detail from a fresco by
Constantino Brumidi in the
U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C., showing two early symbols of America:
Columbia (left) and the Indian princess
19.
Not-for-profit
–
A nonprofit organization is an organization whose purpose is something other than making a profit. A nonprofit organization is dedicated to furthering a particular social cause or advocating for a particular point of view. This is known as the non-distribution constraint, the decision to adopt a nonprofit legal structure is one that will often have taxation implications, particularly where the nonprofit seeks income tax exemption, charitable status and so on. The terms nonprofit and not-for-profit are not consistently differentiated across jurisdictions, in laymans terms they are usually equivalent in concept, although in various jurisdictions there are accounting and legal differences. The nonprofit landscape is varied, although many people have come to associate NPOs with charitable organizations. Although charities do make up an often high-profile or visible aspect of the sector, overall, they tend to be either member-serving or community-serving. e. It could be argued many nonprofits sit across both camps, at least in terms of the impact they make. For example, the support group that provides a lifeline to those with a particular condition or disease could be deemed to be serving its members. Many NPOs use the model of a bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit. Although NPOs are permitted to generate revenues, they must be retained by the organization for its self-preservation, expansion. NPOs have controlling members or a board of directors, many have paid staff including management, whereas others employ unpaid volunteers and executives who work with or without compensation. In some countries, where there is a fee, in general. The extent to which an NPO can generate surplus revenues may be constrained or use of surplus revenues may be restricted. Some NPOs may also be a charity or service organization, they may be organized as a corporation or as a trust. Their goal is not to be successful in terms of wealth, NPOs have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. Some of the above must be expressed in the charter of establishment or constitution. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose, most countries have laws that regulate the establishment and management of NPOs and that require compliance with corporate governance regimes
Not-for-profit
–
Front building of the
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation in
Seattle
20.
Cyrus McCormick
–
Cyrus Hall McCormick was an American inventor and businessperson, the founder of the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, which later became part of the International Harvester Company in 1902. From the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia, he and many members of his family became prominent residents of Chicago. Even greater than his achievement as an inventor was his success in the development of a company, with manufacturing, marketing. Cyrus McCormick was born on February 15,1809 in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia and he was the eldest of eight children born to inventor Robert McCormick, Jr. and Mary Ann Polly Hall. As Cyrus father saw the potential of the design for a mechanical reaper and he worked for 28 years on a horse-drawn mechanical reaper to harvest grain, however, he was never able to reproduce a reliable version. He was aided by Jo Anderson, an enslaved African American on the McCormick plantation at the time, a few machines based on a design of Patrick Bell of Scotland were available in the United States in these years. The Bell machine was pushed by horses, the McCormick design was pulled by horses and cut the grain to one side of the team. Cyrus McCormick held one of his first demonstrations of mechanical reaping at the village of Steeles Tavern. He claimed to have developed a version of the reaper in 18 months. The young McCormick was granted a patent on the reaper on June 21,1834, however, none were sold, because the machine could not handle varying conditions. The McCormick family also worked together in a smelting business. The panic of 1837 almost caused the family to go into bankruptcy when a partner pulled out, in 1839 McCormick started doing more public demonstrations of the reaper, but local farmers still thought the machine was unreliable. He did sell one in 1840, but none for 1841, using the endorsement of his fathers first customer for a machine built by McPhetrich, Cyrus continuously attempted to improve the design. He finally sold seven reapers in 1842,29 in 1843 and they were all built manually in the family farm shop. He received a patent for reaper improvements on January 31,1845. As word spread about the reaper, McCormick noticed orders arriving from farther west, where farms tended to be larger and the land flatter. While he was in Washington, DC to get his 1845 patent, he heard about a factory in Brockport, New York and he also licensed several others across the country to build the reaper, but their quality often proved poor, which hurt the products reputation. In 1847, after their fathers death, Cyrus and his brother Leander moved to Chicago, at the time, other cities in the midwestern United States, such as Cleveland, Ohio, St. Louis, Missouri, and Milwaukee, Wisconsin, were more established and prosperous
Cyrus McCormick
–
Cyrus Hall McCormick portrait, held by the
National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C.
Cyrus McCormick
–
Cyrus McCormick
Cyrus McCormick
–
Sketch of 1845 model reaper
Cyrus McCormick
–
McCormick
reaper and twine binder in 1884
21.
Robert Todd Lincoln
–
Robert Todd Lincoln was an American politician, lawyer, and businessman. He was the first son of President Abraham Lincoln and Mary Todd Lincoln, born in Springfield, Illinois, United States, he was the only one of Lincolns four sons to live an adult life, and the only member of the family to survive into the 20th century. Lincoln attended Harvard University, and then served on the staff of Ulysses S. Grant as a captain in the Union Army in the days of the American Civil War. Following completion of law school in Chicago, he built a law practice. After the war Lincoln married Mary Eunice Harlan, the daughter of a United States senator and they remained married until his death, and were the parents of three children. The one office to which he was elected was town supervisor of South Chicago, which he held from 1876 to 1877, the town later became part of the city of Chicago. Lincoln accepted appointments as secretary of war in the administration of James A. Garfield, continuing under Chester A. Arthur, in Lincolns later years he resided at homes in Washington, D. C. and Manchester, Vermont. The Manchester home, Hildene, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977, in 1922 he took part in the dedication ceremonies for the Lincoln Memorial. A dedicated amateur astronomer and golfer, Lincoln remained active almost until his death and he died at Hildene on July 26,1926, six days before his eighty-third birthday, and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Robert Todd Lincoln was born in Springfield, Illinois, on August 1,1843, to Abraham Lincoln and he had three younger brothers, Edward Baker Lincoln, William Wallace Lincoln and Thomas Tad Lincoln. By the time Lincoln was born, his father had become a member of the Whig political party and had previously served as a member of the state legislature for four terms. Robert Lincoln was named after his maternal grandfather, by the time his father became president of the United States, Lincoln was the only one of the presidents three children to be largely on his own. He took the Harvard University entrance examination in 1859, but failed fifteen out of the sixteen subjects and he was then enrolled at Phillips Exeter Academy to further prepare for attending college, and he graduated in 1860. Admitted to Harvard College, he graduated in 1864, and was a member of the Hasty Pudding Club, morris states after gaining admission to Harvard, Robert Lincoln emerged from college an unsympathetic bore. After graduating from Harvard, Lincoln enrolled at Harvard Law School, Robert Lincoln attended Harvard Law School from September,1864 to January,1865, and left in order to join the Union Army. Much to the embarrassment of the president, Mary Todd Lincoln prevented Robert Lincoln from joining the Army until shortly before the wars conclusion. We have lost one son, and his loss is as much as I can bear, without being called upon to make another sacrifice, President Lincoln argued our son is not more dear to us than the sons of other people are to their mothers. However, Mary Todd Lincoln persisted by stating that she could not bear to have Robert exposed to danger, in January 1865, the First Lady yielded and President Lincoln wrote Ulysses S. Grant, asking if Robert could be placed on his staff
Robert Todd Lincoln
–
Robert Todd Lincoln
Robert Todd Lincoln
–
Robert Lincoln's home in Washington, DC from 1918 until his death in 1926.
Robert Todd Lincoln
–
Robert Todd Lincoln's mansion
Hildene in Manchester, Vermont.
Robert Todd Lincoln
–
Chief Justice
Taft, President
Harding and Lincoln at the dedication of the
Lincoln Memorial in 1922.
22.
Daniel Burnham
–
Daniel Hudson Burnham, FAIA was an American architect and urban designer. He was the Director of Works for the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Burnham took a leading role in the creation of master plans for the development of a number of cities, including Chicago, Manila and downtown Washington, D. C. Burnham was born in Henderson, New York and raised in Chicago and his parents brought him up under the teachings of the Swedenborgian called The New Church, which ingrained in him the strong belief that man should strive to be of service to others. After failing admissions tests for both Harvard and Yale and a stint at politics, Burnham apprenticed as a draftsman under William LeBaron Jenney. At age 26, Burnham moved on to the Chicago offices of Carter, Drake, and Wight, Burnham and Root were the architects of one of the first American skyscrapers, the Masonic Temple Building in Chicago. Measuring 21 stories and 302 feet, the temple held claims as the tallest building of its time, under the design influence of Root, the firm had produced modern buildings as part of the Chicago School. Following Root’s premature death from pneumonia in 1891, the became known as D. H. Burnham & Company. Burnham and Root had accepted responsibility to design and construction of the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago’s then-desolate Jackson Park on the south lakefront. The largest worlds fair to date, it celebrated the 400-year anniversary of Christopher Columbus famous voyage. Under Burnhams direction, the construction of the Fair overcame huge financial and logistical hurdles, including a financial panic. Considered the first example of a planning document in the nation, the fairground was complete with grand boulevards, classical building facades. Often called the White City, it popularized neoclassical architecture in a monumental and rational Beaux-Arts plan, the remaining population of architects in the U. S. were soon asked by clients to incorporate similar elements into their designs. Initiated in 1906 and published in 1909, Burnham and his co-author Edward H. Bennett prepared The Plan of Chicago and it was the first comprehensive plan for the controlled growth of an American city, and an outgrowth of the City Beautiful movement. The plan included proposals for the lakefront and river and declared that every citizen should be within walking distance of a park. Sponsored by the Commercial Club of Chicago, Burnham donated his services in hopes of furthering his own cause, plans and conceptual designs of the south lakefront from the Exposition came in handy, as he envisioned Chicago being a Paris on the Prairie. French-inspired public works constructions, fountains, and boulevards radiating from a central, City planning projects did not stop at Chicago though. Burnham had previously contributed to plans for such as Cleveland, San Francisco. The Plan for Manila never fully materialized due to the out of World War II
Daniel Burnham
–
Daniel Burnham
Daniel Burnham
–
Court of Honor and Grand Basin —
World's Columbian Exposition
Daniel Burnham
–
Burnham's plan for central Chicago
Daniel Burnham
–
Masonic Temple Building in Chicago
23.
William D. Boyce
–
William Dickson W. D. Boyce was an American newspaper man, entrepreneur, magazine publisher, and explorer. He was the founder of the Boy Scouts of America and the short-lived Lone Scouts of America, born in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, he acquired a love for the outdoors early in his life. After working as a schoolteacher and a miner, Boyce attended Wooster Academy in Ohio before moving to the Midwest. An astute businessman, Boyce successfully established several newspapers, such as The Commercial in Winnipeg, Manitoba, with his first wife, Mary Jane Beacom, he moved to Chicago to pursue his entrepreneurial ambitions. There he established the Mutual Newspaper Publishing Company and the weekly Saturday Blade, with his novel employment of newsboys to boost newspaper sales, Boyces namesake publishing company maintained a circulation of 500,000 copies per week by 1894. Boyce strongly supported worker rights, as demonstrated by his businesses support of labor unions, in 1909, he embarked on a two-month trip to Europe and a large photographic expedition to Africa with photographer George R. Lawrence and cartoonist John T. McCutcheon. Over the next two decades, Boyce led expeditions to South America, Europe, and North Africa, where he visited the newly discovered tomb of King Tutankhamun, Boyce learned about Scouting while passing through London during his first expedition to Africa in 1909. Boyce then read printed material on Scouting, and on his return to the United States, from its start, Boyce focused the Scouting program on teaching self-reliance, citizenship, resourcefulness, patriotism, obedience, cheerfulness, courage, and courtesy in order to make men. In June 1924, five years before Boyces death, a merger was completed between the B. S. A. and the struggling L. S. A, Boyce received many awards and memorials for his efforts in the U. S. Scouting movement, including the famed Silver Buffalo Award, Boyce was born on June 16,1858 in New Texas, Pennsylvania— now Plum Borough —to a Presbyterian farm couple, David and Margaret Jane Bratton Boyce. The Boyces had three children, William Dickson, Mary, and John, during his rural childhood, Boyce acquired a love for the outdoors. He began teaching school at the age of 16 and then worked briefly as a coal miner and he returned to teaching before joining his sister at Wooster Academy in Ohio, which—according to school records—he attended from 1880 to 1881. It is uncertain if he graduated or was expelled and his books on business, travel, and expeditions often used the phrase We pushed on. On January 1,1884, Boyce married Mary Jane Beacom, Boyce called her Betsy, but to many her nickname was Rattlesnake Jane because she matched his skill in poker, was an expert shot, and rode horses cross saddle. They had one son and two daughters, Benjamin Stevens, Happy and Sydney, Boyces personal activities included hunting, yachting, Odd Fellows, Freemasonry, Shriners, golf, country clubs and the Chicago Hussars—an independent equestrian military organization. In 1903, Boyce purchased a mansion on 38 acres in Ottawa, Illinois. Thereafter, he showed little interest in Chicago and its social activities, Boyce and Mary led increasingly separate lives and eventually divorced, which was reported on the front page of the Chicago Tribune because of the prominence he had attained by that time. The divorce was finalized in a Campbell County, South Dakota court in September 1908, both Virginias parents and Boyces son Ben opposed the relationship
William D. Boyce
–
Newschildren, February 1910
William D. Boyce
–
W. D. Boyce
William D. Boyce
–
"The Boyce Building" at 500–510 North Dearborn Street, Chicago
William D. Boyce
–
Entrance to the "Boyce Building" at 500–510 North Dearborn Street, Chicago
24.
Charles D. Barney
–
Charles Dennis Barney was an American stockbroker and founder of Charles D. Barney & Co. one of the predecessors of the brokerage, Barney was born in Sandusky, Ohio, the son of a grain merchant. Barney attended the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan when the American Civil War broke out, barneys older brother was killed and at the end of 1862, Barney was permitted by his family to enlist in the U. S Army. After the war, Barney worked briefly as a clerk at a bank in Sandusky, after two years, Barney moved to Philadelphia, where he married Laura E. D. Barneys brother-in-law, Jay Cooke, Jr. joined the new firm as a minority partner, Barney retired from day-to-day control of the firm in 1906 but remained involved through the 1930s. Barney & Co. and Edward B. Smith & Co. merged to form Smith Barney & Co, Barney died in 1945 at the age of 101 at Elkins Park, Pennsylvania near Philadelphia. At the time of his death, Barney was among the oldest living veterans of the American Civil War, Barney was a director of the Union League of Philadelphia
Charles D. Barney
–
Charles D. Barney & Co. logo c.1922
25.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
Wayback Machine
–
Wayback Machine
26.
Gutenberg Project
–
Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks. It was founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library, most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, as of 3 October 2015, Project Gutenberg reached 50,000 items in its collection. The releases are available in plain text but, wherever possible, other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional, Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence, Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the universitys Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with an unlimited amount of computer time. Hart has said he wanted to back this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge and this particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed that computers would one day be accessible to the general public and he used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project after Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution, by the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort, all of the text was entered manually until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more widely available, which made book scanning more feasible. Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenbergs finances, as the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the projects day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role, the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in best of the Web listings, Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois at the age of 64. In 2000, a corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundations first CEO, also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders, which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet
Gutenberg Project
–
Michael Hart (left) and Gregory Newby (right) of Project Gutenberg, 2006
Gutenberg Project
–
Project Gutenberg
Gutenberg Project
–
Formats
27.
Wikisource
–
Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
Wikisource
–
The original Wikisource logo
Wikisource
–
Screenshot of wikisource.org home page
Wikisource
–
::: Original text
Wikisource
–
::: Action of the modernizing tool
28.
Origins of the American Civil War
–
While most historians agree that conflicts over slavery caused the war, they disagree sharply regarding which kinds of conflict—ideological, economic, political, or social—were most important. Another explanation for secession, and the subsequent formation of the Confederacy, was white Southern nationalism, the primary reason for the North to reject secession was to preserve the Union, a cause based on American nationalism. Most of the debate is about the first question, as to why some southern states decided to secede, Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election without being on the ballot in ten of the Southern states. His victory triggered declarations of secession by seven states of the Deep South. They formed the Confederate States of America after Lincoln was elected, nationalists refused to recognize the declarations of secession. No foreign countrys government ever recognized the Confederacy, the U. S. government under President James Buchanan refused to relinquish its forts that were in territory claimed by the Confederacy. The war itself began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces bombarded Fort Sumter, as a panel of historians emphasized in 2011, while slavery and its various and multifaceted discontents were the primary cause of disunion, it was disunion itself that sparked the war. Thus they were committed to values that could not logically be reconciled, other important factors were partisan politics, abolitionism, Southern nationalism, Northern nationalism, expansionism, economics and modernization in the Antebellum period. The United States had become a nation of two distinct regions and their growth was fed by a high birth rate and large numbers of European immigrants, especially British, Irish and Germans. The heavily rural South had few cities of any size, Slave owners controlled politics and the economy, although about 75% of white Southern families owned no slaves and usually were engaged in subsistence agriculture. Overall, the Northern population was growing more quickly than the Southern population. By the time the 1860 election occurred, the heavily agricultural southern states as a group had fewer Electoral College votes than the rapidly industrializing northern states, Abraham Lincoln was able to win the 1860 Presidential election without even being on the ballot in ten Southern states. Southerners felt a loss of federal concern for Southern pro-slavery political demands, after the Mexican–American War of 1846 to 1848, the issue of slavery in the new territories led to the Compromise of 1850. While the compromise averted an immediate crisis, it did not permanently resolve the issue of the Slave Power. Part of the Compromise of 1850 was the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, requiring that Northerners assist Southerners in reclaiming fugitive slaves, which many Northerners found to be extremely offensive. The compromise that was reached outraged many Northerners, and led to the formation of the Republican Party, the industrializing North and agrarian Midwest became committed to the economic ethos of free-labor industrial capitalism. Arguments that slavery was undesirable for the nation had long existed, after 1840, abolitionists denounced slavery as not only a social evil but a moral wrong. Activists in the new Republican Party, usually Northerners, had another view, Southern defenders of slavery, for their part, increasingly came to contend that black people benefited from slavery
Origins of the American Civil War
–
The
Battle of Fort Sumter was a Confederate attack on a U.S. fort in South Carolina in April 1861. It was the opening battle of the war.
Origins of the American Civil War
–
President
Andrew Jackson viewed South Carolina's attempts to nullify the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 as being tantamount to treason. The issue of states' rights would play a large role leading up to the Civil War near to 30 years later.
Origins of the American Civil War
–
Picking
cotton in
Georgia.
Origins of the American Civil War
–
Violent repression of slaves was a common theme in abolitionist literature in the North. Above, this famous 1863 photo of a slave,
Gordon, deeply scarred from whipping by an overseer was distributed by abolitionists to illustrate what they saw as the barbarism of Southern society.
29.
Issues of the American Civil War
–
Issues of the American Civil War include questions about the name of the war, the tariff, states rights and the nature of Abraham Lincolns war goals. For more on naming, see Naming the American Civil War, the question of how important the tariff was in causing the war stems from the Nullification Crisis, which was South Carolinas attempt to nullify a tariff and lasted from 1828 to 1832. The tariff was low after 1846, and the issue faded into the background by 1860 when secession began. States rights was the justification for nullification and later secession, the most controversial right claimed by Southern states was the alleged right of Southerners to spread slavery into territories owned by the United States. Historians generally agree that economic conflicts were not a cause of the war. When numerous groups tried at the last minute in 1860–61 to find a compromise to avert war, aside from the economic institution of slavery, no other economic issues brought about the Civil War. The South, Midwest and Northeast had quite different word structures and they traded with each other and each became more prosperous by staying in the Union, a point many businessmen made in 1860–61. Beard in the 1920s made a highly influential argument to the effect that these caused the war. He saw the industrial Northeast forming a coalition with the agrarian Midwest against the Plantation South, critics pointed out that his image of a unified Northeast was incorrect because the region was highly diverse with many different competing economic interests. In 1860–61, most business interests in the Northeast opposed war, after 1950, only a few mainstream historians accepted the Beard interpretation, though it was accepted by libertarian economists. As Historian Kenneth Stamp—who abandoned Beardism after 1950, sums up the scholarly consensus, the Southerners in Congress set the federal tariffs on imported goods, especially the low tariff rates in 1857, this led to resentment by Northern industrialists. Controversy over whether slavery was at the root of the issue dates back at least as far as the Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858. During the debate at Alton, Lincoln said that slavery was the cause of the Nullification crisis over a tariff. John C. Calhoun was an owner who helped develop the positive good theory of slavery. Also, Calhoun said that slavery was the cause of the Nullification Crisis, while most leaders of Southern secession in 1860 mentioned slavery as the cause, Robert Rhett was a free trade extremist who opposed the tariff. However, Rhett was also a slavery extremist who wanted the Constitution of the Confederacy to legalize the African Slave Trade, Republicans also saw support for a Homestead Act, a higher tariff and a transcontinental railroad as a flank attack on the slave power. There were enough Southern Senators in the U. S. Senate to keep the tariff low after 1846, even when the tariff was higher three decades before the war, only South Carolina revolted, and the issue was nullification, not secession. The tariff was much lower by 1861, when the Confederacy was formed it set a very high 15% tariff on all imports, including imports from the United States
Issues of the American Civil War
–
Abraham Lincoln
Issues of the American Civil War
–
Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy
Issues of the American Civil War
–
Frederick Douglass
30.
Bleeding Kansas
–
The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 called for popular sovereignty—that is, the decision about slavery was to be made by the settlers. It would be decided by votes—or more exactly which side had more votes counted by officials, at the heart of the conflict was the question of whether Kansas would allow or outlaw slavery, and thus enter the Union as a slave state or a free state. Pro-slavery forces said every settler had the right to bring his own property, including slaves, anti-slavery free soil forces said the rich slaveholders would buy up all the good farmland and work it with black slaves, leaving little or no opportunity for non-slaveholders. As such, Bleeding Kansas was a conflict between forces in the North and pro-slavery forces from the South over the issue of slavery in the United States. The term Bleeding Kansas was coined by Republican Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, its indicated that compromise was unlikely. Through the Missouri Compromise of 1820, Congress kept a balance of political power between North and South. Immigrants supporting both sides of the arrived in Kansas to establish residency and gain the right to vote. They captured territorial elections, sometimes by fraud and intimidation, in response, Northern abolitionist elements flooded Kansas with free-soilers. Anti-slavery Kansas residents wrote the first Kansas Constitution and elected the Free State legislature in Topeka, the two Territorial governments increased as well as symbolized the strife of Bleeding Kansas. Among the first immigrants to Kansas Territory were citizens of states, notably neighboring Missouri. Pro-slavery forces settled towns including Leavenworth and Atchison, at the same time, citizens of the North, many aided by the New England Emigrant Aid Company, moved to Kansas to make it a free state and settled towns including Lawrence, Topeka and Manhattan. It was rumored in the South that thousands of Northerners were arriving in Kansas, the following year a Congressional committee investigating the election reported that 1729 fraudulent votes were cast compared to 1114 legal votes. In one location only 20 of the 604 voters were residents of the Kansas Territory, in another 35 were residents and 226 non-residents. On March 30,1855, Kansas Territory held the election for its first Territorial Legislature, crucially, this legislature would decide whether Kansas Territory would allow slavery. Due to questions about electoral fraud, Territorial Governor Andrew Reeder invalidated the results in five voting districts, eight of the eleven delegates elected in the special election were Free-State, but this still left the proslavery camp with an overwhelming 29–10 advantage. To help countermand the voting fraud, by the summer of 1855 around 1,200 New England Yankees had emigrated to Kansas Territory. The abolitionist Henry Ward Beecher armed many of them with Sharps rifles, in response to the disputed votes and rising tension, Congress sent a special committee to Kansas Territory in 1856. The committee report concluded that if the election on March 30,1855, had limited to actual settlers it would have elected a Free-State legislature
Bleeding Kansas
–
1855
Free-State poster
Bleeding Kansas
–
Preston Brooks attacking
Charles Sumner in the U.S. Senate in 1856.
31.
Border states (American Civil War)
–
In the context of the American Civil War, the border states were slave states that did not declare a secession from the Union and did not join the Confederacy. To their north they bordered free states of the Union and to their south they bordered Confederate slave states, of the 34 U. S. states in 1861, nineteen were free states and fifteen were slave states. Four slave states never declared a secession, Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, also included as a border state during the war is West Virginia, which was formed from 50 counties of Virginia and became a new state in the Union in 1863. In the border states there was concern with military coercion of the Confederacy. Many if not a majority were definitely opposed to it, when Abraham Lincoln called for troops to march south to recapture Fort Sumter and other national possessions, southern Unionists were dismayed. Secessionists in Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia were successful in getting those states to declare their secession from the U. S. in Virginia, Kentucky and Missouri, there were both pro-Confederate and pro-Union governments. West Virginia was formed in 1862–63 after unionists from the counties of Virginia then occupied by the Union Army had set up a loyalist state government of Virginia. Lincoln recognized this government and allowed them to divide the state, though every slave state except South Carolina contributed white battalions to both the Union and Confederate armies, the split was most severe in these border states. Sometimes men from the family fought on opposite sides. About 170,000 border state men fought in the Union Army and 86,000 in the Confederate Army, besides formal combat between regular armies, the border region saw large-scale guerrilla warfare and numerous violent raids, feuds, and assassinations. Violence was especially severe in eastern Kentucky and western Missouri, the single bloodiest episode was the 1863 Lawrence Massacre in Kansas, in which at least 150 civilian men and boys were killed. It was launched in retaliation for an earlier, smaller raid into Missouri by Union men from Kansas, with geographic, social, political, and economic connections to both the North and the South, the border states were critical to the outcome of the war. They are considered still to delineate the border that separates the North from the South. Reconstruction, as directed by Congress, did not apply to the states because they never seceded from the Union. They did undergo their own process of readjustment and political realignment after passage of amendments abolishing slavery and granting citizenship, after 1880 most of these jurisdictions were dominated by white Democrats, who passed laws to impose the Jim Crow system of legal segregation and second-class citizenship for blacks. Lincoln’s 1863 Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to the border states, of the states that were exempted from the Proclamation, Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee, and West Virginia abolished slavery before the war ended. However, Delaware and Kentucky did not abolish slavery until December 1865, in the border states, slavery was already dying out in urban areas and the regions without cotton, especially in cities that were rapidly industrializing, such as Baltimore, Louisville, and St. Louis. By 1860, more than half of the African Americans in Delaware were free, some slaveholders made a profit by selling surplus slaves to traders for transport to the markets of the Deep South, where the demand was still high for field hands on cotton plantations
Border states (American Civil War)
–
Historical military map of the border southern states. Phelps & Watson, 1866
32.
Compromise of 1850
–
The compromise, drafted by Whig Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky and brokered by Clay and Democratic Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois, reduced sectional conflict. Controversy arose over the Fugitive Slave provision, the Compromise was greeted with relief, although each side disliked specific provisions. Texas surrendered its claim to New Mexico, as well as its claims north of the Missouri Compromise Line and it retained the Texas Panhandle and the federal government took over the states public debt. California was admitted as a state with its current boundaries. In practice, these lands were generally unsuited to plantation agriculture, the slave trade was banned in the District of Columbia. A more stringent Fugitive Slave Law was enacted, the Compromise became possible after the sudden death of President Zachary Taylor, who, although a slave owner, had favored excluding slavery from the Southwest. Whig leader Henry Clay designed a compromise, which failed to pass in early 1850, upon Clays instruction, Douglas then divided Clays bill into several smaller pieces and narrowly won their passage over the opposition of those with stronger views on both sides. A state the size of Texas attracted interest from both residents and pro and anti-slavery camps on a national scale. Texas claimed land north of the 36°30 demarcation line for slavery set by the 1820 Missouri Compromise, the Texas Annexation resolution had required that if any new states were formed out of Texas lands, those north of the Missouri Compromise line would become free states. The eventual Compromise of 1850 preserved the Union, but only for another decade, passed by the House in August 1846 and February 1847 but not the Senate. Later an effort failed to attach the proviso to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the line was again proposed by the Nashville Convention of June 1850. Popular sovereignty, developed by Lewis Cass and Douglas as the eventual Democratic Party position, none of the area would be left as an unorganized or organized territory, avoiding the question of slavery in the territories. Changing Texass borders, Senator Thomas Hart Benton in December 1849 or January 1850, Texass western and northern boundaries would be the 102nd meridian west and 34th parallel north. First draft of the compromise of 1850, Texass northwestern boundary would be a diagonal line from the Rio Grande 20 miles north of El Paso to the Red River at the 100th meridian west. On January 29,1850, Whig Senator Henry Clay gave a speech called for compromise on the issues dividing the Union. However, Clays specific proposals for achieving a compromise, including his idea for Texas boundary, were not adopted in a single bill, upon Clays urging, Senator Stephen A. Douglas, Democrat of Illinois, divided Clays bill into several smaller bills, and passed each separately. When he instructed Douglas, Clay was nearly dead and unable to guide the congressional debate any further, the Compromise of 1850 was formally proposed by Clay and guided to passage by Douglas over Northern Whig and Southern Democrat opposition. Texass boundaries were set at their present form, El Paso, where Texas had established county government, was left in Texas, Slave trade was abolished in Washington, D. C
Compromise of 1850
–
"The United States Senate, A.D. 1850" (engraving by
Peter F. Rothermel):
Henry Clay takes the floor of the
Old Senate Chamber; Vice President
Millard Fillmore presides as
John C. Calhoun (to the left of the Speaker's chair) and
Daniel Webster (seated to the left of Clay) look on.
Compromise of 1850
–
Gold Rush California applies to become free state
Compromise of 1850
–
Map of free and slave states c. 1856
Compromise of 1850
–
Map of Mexico. S. Augustus Mitchell, Philadelphia, 1847. New California is depicted with a north-eastern border at the meridian leading north of the Rio Grande
headwaters.
33.
Dred Scott v. Sandford
–
Dred Scott v. Sandford,60 U. S.393, also known simply as the Dred Scott case, was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court on US labor law and constitutional law. Dred Scott, an man of the negro African race who had been taken by his owners to free states and territories. In a 7–2 decision written by Chief Justice Roger B, Taney, the court denied Scotts request. The decision was only the time that the Supreme Court had ruled an Act of Congress to be unconstitutional. Although Taney hoped that his ruling would finally settle the slavery question, many contemporary lawyers, and most modern legal scholars, consider the ruling regarding slavery in the territories to be dictum, not binding precedent. The decision proved to be an indirect catalyst for the American Civil War and it was functionally superseded by the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, adopted in 1868, which gave African Americans full citizenship. The Supreme Courts decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford is unanimously denounced by scholars, bernard Schwartz says it stands first in any list of the worst Supreme Court decisions—Chief Justice C. E. Hughes called it the Courts greatest self-inflicted wound. Junius P. Rodriguez says it is condemned as the U. S. Supreme Courts worst decision. Historian David Thomas Konig says it was unquestionably, our courts worst decision ever, Dred Scott was born a slave in Virginia in 1795. Little is known of his early years and his owner, Peter Blow, moved to Alabama in 1818, taking his six slaves along to work a farm near Huntsville. In 1830, Blow gave up farming and settled in St. Louis, Missouri, after purchasing Scott, Emerson took him to Fort Armstrong, which was located in Illinois. A free state, Illinois had been free as a territory under the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, in 1836, Emerson moved with Scott from Illinois to Fort Snelling, which was located in the Wisconsin territory in what would become the state of Minnesota. Slavery in the Wisconsin Territory was prohibited by the United States Congress under the Missouri Compromise, during his stay at Fort Snelling, Scott married Harriet Robinson in a civil ceremony by Harriets owner, Major Lawrence Taliaferro, a justice of the peace who was also an Indian agent. The ceremony would have been unnecessary if Dred Scott were a slave, in 1837, the Army ordered Emerson to Jefferson Barracks Military Post, south of St. Louis, Missouri. Emerson left Scott and his wife at Fort Snelling, where he leased their services out for profit, before the end of the year, the Army reassigned Emerson to Fort Jesup in Louisiana, where Emerson married Eliza Irene Sanford in February,1838. Emerson sent for Scott and Harriet, who proceeded to Louisiana to serve their master, while en route to Louisiana, Scotts daughter Eliza was born on a steamboat underway along the Mississippi River between Illinois and what would become Iowa. Because Eliza was born in free territory, she was born as a free person under both federal and state laws. Upon entering Louisiana, the Scotts could have sued for their freedom and this had been the holding in Louisiana state courts for more than 20 years
Dred Scott v. Sandford
–
Portrait of Dred Scott
Dred Scott v. Sandford
–
Cover sheet summarizing the disposition of the case
Dred Scott v. Sandford
–
Chief Justice Roger Taney authored the Court's Majority opinion
Dred Scott v. Sandford
–
Justice
Samuel Nelson
34.
Lincoln-Douglas debates
–
At the time, U. S. senators were elected by state legislatures, thus Lincoln and Douglas were trying for their respective parties to win control of the Illinois legislature. The debates previewed the issues that Lincoln would face in the aftermath of his victory in the 1860 presidential election, although Illinois was a free state, the main issue discussed in all seven debates was slavery in the United States. In agreeing to the debates, Lincoln and Douglas decided to hold one debate in each of the nine congressional districts in Illinois. Because both had already spoken in two—Springfield and Chicago—within a day of each other, they decided that their joint appearances would be only in the remaining seven districts. Newspaper coverage of the debates was intense, major papers from Chicago sent stenographers to create complete texts of each debate, which newspapers across the United States reprinted in full, with some partisan edits. In the same way, pro-Lincoln papers edited Lincolns speeches, after losing the election for Senator in Illinois, Lincoln edited the texts of all the debates and had them published in a book. The format for debate was, one candidate spoke for 60 minutes, then the other candidate spoke for 90 minutes. As the incumbent, Douglas spoke first in four of the debates, Stephen Douglas was first elected to the United States Senate in 1846. In 1858, he was seeking re-election for a third term, during his time in the Senate, the issue of slavery was raised several times, particularly with respect to the Compromise of 1850. Decisions about whether slavery was permitted or prohibited within certain states and territories had made previously at a federal level. Douglas was successful with passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854, Abraham Lincoln, like Douglas, had also been elected to Congress in 1846. He served one term in the House of Representatives. During his time in the House, Lincoln disagreed with Douglas and supported the Wilmot Proviso, Lincoln returned to politics in the 1850s to oppose the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and help develop the new Republican party. Before the debates, Lincoln said that Douglas was encouraging his fears of amalgamation of the races with success to drive thousands of people away from the Republican Party. Douglas tried to convince, especially the Democrats, that Lincoln was an abolitionist for saying that the American Declaration of Independence did apply to blacks as well as whites. Lincoln called a self-evident truth the electric cord. that links the hearts of patriotic, Lincoln argued in his House Divided Speech that Douglas was part of a conspiracy to nationalize slavery. Lincoln expressed the fear that the next Dred Scott decision would make Illinois a slave state, both Lincoln and Douglas had opposition. Although Lincoln was a former Whig, the prominent former Whig Judge Theophilus Lyle Dickey said that Lincoln was too tied to the abolitionists
Lincoln-Douglas debates
–
Abraham Lincoln
Lincoln-Douglas debates
–
Stephen A. Douglas
Lincoln-Douglas debates
–
U.S. Postage, 1958 issue, commemorating the Lincoln and Douglas debates.
35.
Missouri Compromise
–
The Missouri Compromise is the title generally attached to the legislation passed by the 16th Congress of the United States on May 8,1820. The measures provided for the admission of the District of Maine as a free to ratify a state constitution that both did not recognize and prohibited slavery within the state. Further, the Compromise provided that the Missouri territory was free to enact a constitution that both recognized as legal and permitted, the institution of chattel slavery. With these actions, the Compromise committed the largest remaining portion of Purchase territory to free soil, however, South of the parallel no slavery restrictions were imposed in the Arkansas Territory, which later became Indian territory, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. There also were not any statements about restrictions or recognition of the institution of slavery at or South of the latitude, President James Monroe signed the legislation on April 6,1820. The compromise bills served to quell the furious sectional debates that had first erupted during the session of the 15th Congress. On February 3,1819, Representative James Tallmadge, Jr. a Jeffersonian Republican from New York State, had submitted two amendments to Missouris request for statehood. The first proposed to prohibit further slave migration into Missouri. At issue among southern legislators was the encroachment by their northern free state colleagues in what they considered a purely sectional concern, nonetheless, the more populous North held a firm numerical advantage in the House. Jeffersonian Republicans in the North ardently maintained that an interpretation of the Constitution required that Congress act to limit the spread of slavery on egalitarian grounds. The slave-holding states were acutely aware that maintaining a balance in the number of states was necessary to ensure political equilibrium in the US Senate. The South sought to enlist Missouri to maintain Southern political preeminence, the Missouri question in the 15th Congress ended in stalemate on March 4,1819, the House sustaining its northern antislavery position, and the Senate blocking a slavery restricted statehood. Antislavery agitation grew in the North in the aftermath of the debates, as the 16th Congress assembled in December 1819, the two houses remained thoroughly polarized over slavery in the Louisiana Purchase territories. Thomas of Illinois added a proviso, excluding slavery from all remaining lands of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 36 30’ parallel. The combined measures passed the Senate, only to be voted down in the House by those Northern representatives who held out for a free Missouri, speaker of the House of Representatives Henry Clay of Kentucky, in a desperate bid to break the deadlock, divided the Senate bills. The legislation extracted by the served to effect a brokered truce or armistice rather than a genuine compromise. The crux of the Compromise was that it circumvented the deepening disaffection among Jeffersonian Republicans, the Era of Good Feelings, closely associated with the administration of President James Monroe, was characterized by the dissolution of national political identities. The end of opposition parties also meant the end of party discipline, rather than produce political harmony, as President James Monroe had hoped, amalgamation had led to intense rivalries among Jeffersonian Republicans
Missouri Compromise
–
The United States in 1819 (the light orange and light green areas were not then part of the United States). The Missouri Compromise prohibited slavery in the
unorganized territory of the Great Plains (upper dark green) and permitted it in Missouri (yellow) and the
Arkansas Territory (lower blue area).
Missouri Compromise
–
Extension of the
Missouri Compromise Line westward was discussed by Congress during the
Texas Annexation in 1845, during the
Compromise of 1850, and as part of the proposed
Crittenden Compromise in 1860, but the line never reached the Pacific.
36.
Secession in the United States
–
Threats and aspirations to secede from the United States, or arguments justifying secession, have been a feature of the countrys politics almost since its birth. Some have argued for secession as a right and others as from a natural right of revolution. In Texas v. White, the United States Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession unconstitutional and this movement collapsed in 1865 with the defeat of Confederate forces by Union armies in the American Civil War. A2008 Zogby International poll found that 22% of Americans believed that any state or region has the right to peaceably secede, a 2014 Reuters/Ipsos poll showed 24% of Americans supported their state seceding from the union if necessary, 53% opposed the idea. Republicans were somewhat more supportive than Democrats, mankind are more disposed to suffer, while Evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the Forms to which they are accustomed. But when a train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing. A design to them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government. He observed that the case can be made that no result of the war was more important than the destruction, once, however, during the founding era, many a public figure. Declared that the states could interpose their powers between their citizens and the power of the government, and talk of secession was not unknown. But according to McDonald, to avoid resorting to the violence that had accompanied the Revolution, in effect, the Constitution completed and perfected the Revolution. Whatever the intentions of the Founders, threats of secession and disunion were a constant in the discourse of Americans preceding the Civil War. Disunion connoted the dissolution of the failure of the Founders efforts to establish a stable. For many Americans in the North and the South, disunion was a nightmare, and yet, for many other Americans, disunion served as the main instrument by which they could achieve their political goals. In late 1777 the Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states, the confederation government was administered de facto by the Congress under the provisions of the approved draft of the Articles until they achieved ratification—and de jure status—in early 1781. In 1786 delegates of five called for a convention of delegates in Philadelphia to amend the Articles—which would require unanimous consent of the thirteen states. The delegates to the Philadelphia Convention convened and deliberated from May to September 1787, instead of pursuing their official charge they returned a draft Constitution, proposed for constructing and administering a new federal—later also known as national—government. In effect, the delegates proposed to abandon and replace the Articles of Confederation rather than amend them, one explanation was that the Articles of Confederation simply failed to protect the vital interests of the individual states. Necessity then, rather than legality, was the factor in abandoning the Articles
Secession in the United States
–
William Lloyd Garrison—"Henceforth, the watchword of every uncompromising abolitionist, of every friend of God and liberty, must be, both in a religious and political sense — 'NO UNION WITH SLAVEHOLDERS'"
37.
Slavery in the United States
–
Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
Slavery in the United States
–
Slave auction block, Green Hill Plantation,
Campbell County, Virginia,
Historic American Buildings Survey
Slavery in the United States
–
An animation showing when United States territories and states forbade or allowed slavery, 1789–1861.
Slavery in the United States
–
Slaves processing tobacco in 17th-century Virginia
Slavery in the United States
–
Slaves on a South Carolina plantation (
The Old Plantation, c. 1790)
38.
Emancipation Proclamation
–
The Emancipation Proclamation was a presidential proclamation and executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1,1863. It purported to change the legal status of more than 3 million enslaved people in the designated areas of the South from slave to free. It had the effect that as soon as a slave escaped the control of the Confederate government, by running away or through advances of federal troops. Eventually it reached and liberated all of the designated slaves and it was issued as a war measure during the American Civil War, directed to all of the areas in rebellion and all segments of the executive branch of the United States. It proclaimed the freedom of slaves in ten states, because it was issued under the Presidents authority to suppress rebellion, it necessarily excluded areas not in rebellion – it applied to more than 3 million of the 4 million slaves at the time. The Proclamation was based on the constitutional authority as commander in chief of the armed forces. The Proclamation was issued in January 1863 after U, the Proclamation did not compensate the owners, did not outlaw slavery, and did not grant citizenship to the ex-slaves. It made the eradication of slavery a war goal, in addition to the goal of reuniting the Union. Around 20,000 to 50,000 slaves in regions where rebellion had already been subdued were immediately emancipated. Prior to the Proclamation, in accordance with the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, also specifically excluded were some regions already controlled by the Union army. On September 22,1862, Lincoln issued a warning that he would order the emancipation of all slaves in any state that did not end its rebellion against the Union by January 1,1863. None of the Confederate states restored themselves to the Union, and Lincolns order was signed, the Emancipation Proclamation outraged white Southerners who envisioned a race war. It angered some Northern Democrats, energized anti-slavery forces, and undermined elements in Europe that wanted to intervene to help the Confederacy, the Proclamation lifted the spirits of African Americans both free and slave. It led many slaves to escape from their masters and get to Union lines to obtain their freedom, the Emancipation Proclamation broadened the goals of the Civil War. While slavery had been an issue that led to the war. The Proclamation made freeing the slaves an explicit goal of the Union war effort, establishing the abolition of slavery as one of the two primary war goals served to deter intervention by Britain and France. The Emancipation Proclamation was never challenged in court, to ensure the abolition of slavery in all of the U. S. Lincoln pushed for passage of the Thirteenth Amendment. Congress passed it by the necessary two-thirds vote on January 31,1865, the United States Constitution of 1787 did not use the word slavery but included several provisions about unfree persons
Emancipation Proclamation
–
Henry Louis Stephens, untitled watercolor (c. 1863) of a black man reading a newspaper with headline "Presidential Proclamation/Slavery".
Emancipation Proclamation
Emancipation Proclamation
–
Abraham Lincoln,
Brooklyn Museum
Emancipation Proclamation
–
The moment portrayed by
Lee Lawrie in
Lincoln, Nebraska
39.
Fugitive slave laws
–
The fugitive slave laws were laws passed by the United States Congress in 1793 and 1850 to provide for the return of slaves who escaped from one state into another state or territory. The idea of the slave law was derived from the Fugitive Slave Clause which is in the United States Constitution. The Articles of Confederation of the New England Confederation of 1643 contained a clause that provided for the return of fugitive slaves, both Africans and Native Americans were slaves in the New England colonies even in the 18th century. As the colonies grew and settlers expanded into areas, slavery continued in the English territories and in former Dutch territories like New Amsterdam. Serious attempts at formulating a uniform policy for the recapture of escaped slaves began under the Articles of Confederation of the United States in 1785. There were two attempts at implementing a fugitive slave law in the Congress of the Confederation in order to provide slave owners with a way of recapturing escaped slaves. The Ordinance of 1784 was drafted by a Congressional committee headed by Thomas Jefferson and this was removed prior to final enactment of the ordinance on 23 April 1784. The unsuccessful resolution was the first attempt to include a fugitive slave provision in U. S. legislation. While the original 1784 ordinance applied to all U. S. territory that was not a part of any existing state, Congress made a further attempt to address the concerns of slave owners over runaway slaves in 1787 by passing the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. They correctly predicted that slavery would be permitted south of the Ohio River under the Southwest Ordinance of 1790, in terms of the actual law, it did not ban slavery in practice, and it continued almost until the start of the Civil War. Kings phrasing from the 1785 attempt was incorporated in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 when it was enacted on 13 July 1787, article 6 has the provision for runaway slaves, Art. Article IV of the Constitution required the government to go after runaway slaves. Section 3 is the part that deals with fugitive or runaway slaves, the said fugitive from labor to the State or Territory from which he or she fled. Section 4 makes assisting runaways and fugitives a crime and outlines the punishment for those who assisted runaway slaves,4. That any person who shall knowingly and willingly obstruct or hinder such claimant. shall. forfeit and pay the sum of five hundred dollars. In 1840, New York and Vermont extended the right of trial by jury to fugitives, both the fact of the escape and the identity of the fugitive were determined on purely ex parte testimony. If a slave was brought in and returned to the master, the personal liberty laws forbade justices and judges to take cognizance of claims, extended the Habeas corpus act and the privilege of jury trial to fugitives, and punished false testimony severely. In 1854, the Supreme Court of Wisconsin went so far as to declare the Fugitive Slave Law unconstitutional and these state laws were one of the grievances that South Carolina would later use to justify its secession from the Union. Attempts to carry into effect the law of 1850 aroused much bitterness, the arrests of Thomas Sims and of Shadrach Minkins in Boston in 1851, of Jerry M
Fugitive slave laws
–
Slavery in the 13 Colonies – 1770. Numbers show actual and estimated enslaved population by colony. Colors show enslaved population as a percentage of each colony's total population. Boundaries shown are based on 1860 state boundaries, not those of 1770 colonies.
Fugitive slave laws
–
Rufus King's failed resolution to re-implement the slavery prohibition in the Ordinance of 1784.
Fugitive slave laws
–
Massachusetts had abolished slavery in 1783, but the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 required government officials to assist slavecatchers in capturing fugitives within the state.
40.
Slave Power
–
The Slave Power or Slaveocracy was the perceived political power in the U. S. federal government held by slave owners during the 1840s and 1850s, prior to the Civil War. Antislavery campaigners during this period bitterly complained about what they saw as disproportionate, the argument was widely used by the Republican Party that formed in 1854–55 to oppose the expansion of slavery. The main issue expressed by the slave power was distrust of the political power of the slave-owning class. Those who differed on other issues could unite to attack the slaveocracy. By 1854 the Free Soil Party had largely merged into the new Republican party, the term was popularized by antislavery writers such as John Gorham Palfrey, Josiah Quincy III, Horace Bushnell, James Shepherd Pike, and Horace Greeley. Politicians who emphasized the theme included John Quincy Adams, Henry Wilson, Abraham Lincoln used the concept after 1854 but not the term. They showed through a combination of emotive argument and hard statistical data that the South had long held a level of power in the United States. Historian Allan Nevins contends that all groups. Fear fed hatred, and hatred fed fear, the existence of a Slave Power was dismissed by Southerners at the time, and rejected as false by many historians of the 1920s and 1930s, who stressed the internal divisions in the South before 1850. It was standard rhetoric for all factions of the Republican party, the Free Soil Party first raised this warning in 1848, arguing that the annexation of Texas as a slave state was a terrible mistake. The Free Soilers rhetoric was taken up by the Republican party as it emerged in 1854, the Republicans also argued that slavery was economically inefficient, compared to free labor, and was a deterrent to the long-term modernization of America. Worse, said the Republicans, the Slave Power, deeply entrenched in the South, was seizing control of the White House, the Congress. Senator and governor Salmon P. Chase of Ohio was an enemy of the Slave Power. Southern power derived from a combination of factors, the three-fifths clause gave the South additional representation at the national level. Parity in the Senate was critical, whereby a new state was admitted in tandem with a new free state. Regional unity across party lines was essential on key votes, in the Democratic party, a presidential candidate had to carry the national convention by a two-thirds vote to get nominated. However, the North was adding population—and House seats—much faster than the South, with the implacable Republicans gaining every year, the secession option became more and more attractive to the South. Secession was suicidal, as some leaders realized—and as John Quincy Adams had long prophesied, secession, argued James Henry Hammond of South Carolina, reminded him of the Japanese who when insulted rip open their own bowels
Slave Power
–
Slavery
41.
Treatment of slaves in the United States
–
The treatment of slaves in the United States varied by time and place, but was generally brutal and degrading. Whipping and sexual abuse, including rape, were common, teaching slaves to read was discouraged or prohibited, so as to hinder aspirations for escape or rebellion. Slaves were punished by whipping, shackling, beating, mutilation, punishment was most often meted out in response to disobedience or perceived infractions, but masters or overseers sometimes abused slaves to assert dominance. Pregnancy was not a barrier to punishment, methods were devised to administer lashings without harming the baby, Slave masters would dig a hole big enough for the womans stomach to lie in and proceed with the lashings. The mistreatment of slaves frequently included rape and the abuse of women. The sexual abuse of slaves was partially rooted in historical Southern culture, an 1850 publication provided slaveholders with guidance on how to produce the ideal slave, Maintain strict discipline and unconditional submission. Create a sense of inferiority, so that slaves know their place. Teach servants to take interest in their masters enterprise, deprive access to education and recreation, to ensure that slaves remain uneducated, helpless and dependent. According to historians David Brion Davis and Eugene Genovese, treatment of slaves was harsh, during work and outside of it, slaves suffered physical abuse, since the government allowed it. Treatment was usually harsher on large plantations, which were managed by overseers. Small slaveholders worked together with their slaves and sometimes treated them more humanely, besides slaves being vastly overworked, they suffered brandings, shootings, floggings, and even worse punishments. Flogging was an often used to describe the average lashing or whipping a slave would receive for misbehaving. Many times a slave would also simply be put through wanton cruelties or unprovoked violent beatings or punishments, Some slavery advocates asserted that many slaves were content with their situation. Slaveholders feared slave rebellions and attempts of escape, most of them sought to minimize slaves exposure to the outside world to reduce the risk of rebellion. The desired result was to eliminate slaves dreams and aspirations, restrict access to information about other slaves and rebellions, education of slaves was generally discouraged for fear that knowledge and literacy would cause rebelliousness. During the mid-19th century, some states outlawed the education of slaves. In 1841, Virginia punished violations of law by 20 lashes to the slave and a $100 fine to the teacher, and North Carolina by 39 lashes to the slave. In Kentucky, education of slaves was legal but almost nonexistent, Some Missouri slaveholders educated their slaves or permitted them to do so themselves
Treatment of slaves in the United States
–
Scars of
Peter, a whipped Louisiana slave, photographed in April 1863 and later distributed by abolitionists.
Treatment of slaves in the United States
–
Bill of sale for the auction of the "Negro Boy Jacob" for "Eighty Dollars and a half" to satisfy a money judgment against the "property" of his owner, Prettyman Boyce. October 10, 1807
Treatment of slaves in the United States
–
Plantation slave cabins, South Carolina Low Country
Treatment of slaves in the United States
–
Slave Market, Public Square,
Louisville, Georgia
42.
Abolitionism in the United States
–
Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States. In the Americas and western Europe, abolitionism was a movement to end the Atlantic slave trade, in the 17th century, English Quakers and Evangelicals condemned slavery as un-Christian. At that time, most slaves were Africans, but thousands of Native Americans were also enslaved, in the 18th century, as many as six million Africans were transported to the Americas as slaves, at least a third of them on British ships to North America. Abolition was part of the message of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s in the Thirteen Colonies, in the same period, rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment criticized slavery for violating human rights. A member of the British Parliament, James Edward Oglethorpe, was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, founder of the Province of Georgia, Oglethorpe banned slavery on humanistic grounds. He argued against it in Parliament and eventually encouraged his friends Granville Sharp, soon after his death in 1785, Sharp and More joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Although anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, colonies and emerging nations, notably in the southern United States, continued to use and uphold traditions of slavery. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, in other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans. During the ensuing decades, the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states, britain banned the importation of African slaves in its colonies in 1807 and abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833. The United States criminalized the international trade in 1808 and made slavery unconstitutional in 1865 as a result of the American Civil War. Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States. He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln, U. S. President during the Civil War, or the Republican Party, the first Americans who made a public protest against slavery were the Mennonites of Germantown, Pennsylvania. Soon after, in April 1688, Quakers in the town wrote a two-page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church. The Quaker establishment never took action, the Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester, Pennsylvania, made its first protest in 1711. Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack, being opposed by leaders as William Burling, Benjamin Lay, Ralph Sandiford, William Southby. Slavery was banned in the Province of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733, the colonys founder, James Edward Oglethorpe, fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony. In 1739, he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm, If we allow slaves we act against the principles by which we associated together. Whereas, now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa, by setting men upon using arts to buy, the struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery, occurring between 1740 and 1742
Abolitionism in the United States
–
Collection box for
Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society. Circa 1850.
Abolitionism in the United States
–
Uncle Tom's Cabin inflamed public opinion in the North and in Britain against the personified evils of slavery.
Abolitionism in the United States
–
Thomas Paine (1737–1805), whose 1775 article "African Slavery in America" was one of the first articles in the United States which advocated abolishing slavery and freeing the slaves.
Abolitionism in the United States
–
John Jay (1745–1829), who founded the
New York Manumission Society in 1785.
43.
Susan B. Anthony
–
Susan Brownell Anthony was an American social reformer and womens rights activist who played a pivotal role in the womens suffrage movement. Born into a Quaker family committed to equality, she collected anti-slavery petitions at the age of 17. In 1856, she became the New York state agent for the American Anti-Slavery Society, in 1851, she met Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who became her lifelong friend and co-worker in social reform activities, primarily in the field of womens rights. In 1852, they founded the New York Womens State Temperance Society after Anthony was prevented from speaking at a temperance conference because she was female, in 1866, they initiated the American Equal Rights Association, which campaigned for equal rights for both women and African Americans. In 1868, they began publishing a womens rights newspaper called The Revolution, in 1869, they founded the National Woman Suffrage Association as part of a split in the womens movement. In 1876, Anthony and Stanton began working with Matilda Joslyn Gage on what eventually grew into the six-volume History of Woman Suffrage, the interests of Anthony and Stanton diverged somewhat in later years, but the two remained close friends. In 1872, Anthony was arrested for voting in her hometown of Rochester, New York, although she refused to pay the fine, the authorities declined to take further action. In 1878, Anthony and Stanton arranged for Congress to be presented with an amendment giving women the right to vote, popularly known as the Anthony Amendment and introduced by Sen. Aaron A. Sargent, it became the Nineteenth Amendment to the U. S. Anthony traveled extensively in support of suffrage, giving as many as 75 to 100 speeches per year. She worked internationally for womens rights, playing a key role in creating the International Council of Women and she also helped to bring about the Worlds Congress of Representative Women at the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. When she first began campaigning for rights, Anthony was harshly ridiculed and accused of trying to destroy the institution of marriage. Public perception of her changed radically during her lifetime, however and her 80th birthday was celebrated in the White House at the invitation of President William McKinley. She became the first actual woman to be depicted on U. S. coinage when her portrait appeared on the 1979 dollar coin. Susan Brownell Anthony was born on February 15,1820, to Daniel Anthony and Lucy Read in Adams, Massachusetts and her family shared a passion for social reform. Her brothers Daniel and Merritt moved to Kansas to support the movement there. Merritt fought with John Brown against pro-slavery forces during the Bleeding Kansas crisis, Daniel eventually owned a newspaper and became mayor of Leavenworth. Anthonys sister Mary, with whom she shared a home in years, became a public school principal in Rochester. Anthonys father was an abolitionist and a temperance advocate, a Quaker, he had a difficult relationship with his traditionalist congregation, which rebuked him for marrying a non-Quaker and then disowned him for allowing a dance school to operate in his home
Susan B. Anthony
–
Headmistress Susan B. Anthony in 1848 at age 28
Susan B. Anthony
–
Portrait of Susan B. Anthony that was used in the
History of Woman Suffrage
Susan B. Anthony
–
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Susan B. Anthony
–
Susan B. Anthony
44.
John Brown (abolitionist)
–
John Brown was an American abolitionist who believed armed insurrection was the only way to overthrow the institution of slavery in the United States. Brown first gained attention when he led groups of volunteers during the Bleeding Kansas crisis of 1856. Dissatisfied with the pacifism of the organized abolitionist movement, he said, during the Kansas campaign, Brown commanded forces at the Battle of Black Jack and the Battle of Osawatomie. He and his supporters killed five pro-slavery supporters in the Pottawatomie massacre of May 1856 in response to the sacking of Lawrence by pro-slavery forces, in 1859, Brown led a raid on the federal armory at Harpers Ferry, to start a liberation movement among the slaves there. During the raid, he seized the armory, seven people were killed and he intended to arm slaves with weapons from the arsenal, but the attack failed. Within 36 hours, Browns men had fled or been killed or captured by local farmers, militiamen. Marines led by Robert E. Lee and he was tried for treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia, the murder of five men and inciting a slave insurrection. He was found guilty on all counts and was hanged, Historians agree that the Harpers Ferry raid escalated tensions that, a year later, led to the Souths secession and Civil War. David Potter has said the effect of Browns raid was greater than the philosophical effect of the Lincoln–Douglas debates. Some writers, including Bruce Olds, describe him as a zealot, others. Oates, regard him as one of the most perceptive human beings of his generation, David S. John Browns Body was a popular Union marching song during the Civil War and made him a martyr. Browns actions prior to the Civil War as an abolitionist, and he is sometimes memorialized as a heroic martyr and a visionary, and sometimes vilified as a madman and a terrorist. John Brown was born May 9,1800, in Torrington and he was the fourth of the eight children of Owen Brown and Ruth Mills and grandson of Capt. Brown could trace his ancestry back to 17th-century English Puritans, in 1805, the family moved to Hudson, Ohio, where Owen Brown opened a tannery. Browns personal religion is well documented in the papers of the Rev Clarence Gee. Browns father had as an apprentice Jesse R. Grant, father of Ulysses S. Grant, at 16, Brown left his family and went to Plainfield, Massachusetts, where he enrolled in a preparatory program. Shortly afterward, he transferred to the Morris Academy in Litchfield and he hoped to become a Congregationalist minister, but money ran out and he suffered from eye inflammations, which forced him to give up the academy and return to Ohio. In Hudson, he worked briefly at his fathers tannery before opening a successful tannery of his own outside of town with his adopted brother, in 1820, Brown married Dianthe Lusk
John Brown (abolitionist)
–
An 1846
daguerreotype of Brown.
John Brown (abolitionist)
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Remains of Brown's tannery in Pennsylvania
John Brown (abolitionist)
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John Brown in 1846 in
Springfield, Massachusetts, holding the flag of Subterranean Pass Way, his militant counterpart to the Underground Railroad.
John Brown (abolitionist)
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John Brown's Farm, North Elba, New York
45.
Frederick Douglass
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Frederick Douglass was an African-American social reformer, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman. In his time, he was described by abolitionists as a living counter-example to slaveholders arguments that slaves lacked the capacity to function as independent American citizens. Northerners at the found it hard to believe that such a great orator had once been a slave. After the Civil War, Douglass remained an active campaigner against slavery and wrote his last autobiography, Life, First published in 1881 and revised in 1892, three years before his death, it covered events during and after the Civil War. Douglass also actively supported womens suffrage, and held public offices. Douglass was a believer in the equality of all peoples, whether black, female, Native American. He was also a believer in dialogue and in making alliances across racial and ideological divides, one biographer argues, The most influential African American of the nineteenth century, Douglass made a career of agitating the American conscience. He spoke and wrote on behalf of a variety of causes, womens rights, temperance, peace, land reform, free public education. But he devoted the bulk of his time, immense talent and these were the central concerns of his long reform career. Douglass understood that the struggle for emancipation and equality demanded forceful, persistent, and he recognized that African Americans must play a conspicuous role in that struggle. Less than a month before his death, when a black man solicited his advice to an African American just starting out in the world, Douglass replied without hesitation. Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey was born into slavery on the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake Bay in Talbot County, the plantation was between Hillsboro and Cordova, his birthplace was likely his grandmothers shack east of Tappers Corner, and west of Tuckahoe Creek. The exact date of his birth is unknown, and he chose to celebrate his birthday on February 14. In his first autobiography, Douglass stated, I have no knowledge of my age. Douglass was of mixed race, which likely included Native American on his mothers side and he was given his name by his mother, Harriet Bailey. After escaping to the North years later, he took the surname Douglass and he wrote of his earliest times with his mother, The opinion was. Whispered that my master was my father, but of the correctness of this opinion I know nothing and my mother and I were separated when I was but an infant. It common custom, in the part of Maryland from which I ran away, … I do not recollect ever seeing my mother by the light of day
Frederick Douglass
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Douglass, circa 1874
Frederick Douglass
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Anna Murray-Douglass, Douglass's wife for 44 years
Frederick Douglass
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The
home and meetinghouse of the Johnsons, where Douglass and his wife lived in New Bedford, Massachusetts
Frederick Douglass
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William Lloyd Garrison, abolitionist and one of Douglass's first friends in the North
46.
William Lloyd Garrison
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William Lloyd Garrison was a prominent American abolitionist, journalist, suffragist, and social reformer. He was one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society and he promoted immediate emancipation of slaves in the United States. In the 1870s, Garrison became a prominent voice for the suffrage movement. Garrison was born on December 10,1805, in Newburyport, Massachusetts, under An Act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen, Abijah Garrison, a merchant sailing pilot and master, had obtained American papers and moved his family to Newburyport in 1806. Embargo Act of 1807, intended to injure Great Britain, caused a decline in American commercial shipping, the elder Garrison became unemployed and deserted the family in 1808. Garrisons mother was Frances Maria Lloyd, reported to have tall, charming. She started referring to their son William as Lloyd, his middle name and she died in 1823, in the town of Springfield, Massachusetts. Garrison sold home-made lemonade and candy as a youth, and also delivered wood to support the family. In 1818, at 13, Garrison began working as a compositor for the Newburyport Herald. He soon began writing articles, often under the pseudonym Aristides, Aristides was an Athenian statesman and general nicknamed the Just. After his apprenticeship ended, Garrison and a printer named Isaac Knapp bought their own newspaper in 1826. One of their regular contributors was poet and abolitionist John Greenleaf Whittier, in this early work as a small town newspaper writer, Garrison acquired skills he would later use as a nationally known writer, speaker and newspaper publisher. In 1828, he was appointed editor of the National Philanthropist in Boston, Massachusetts, at the age of 25, Garrison joined the anti-slavery movement, later crediting the 1826 book of Presbyterian Reverend John Rankin, Letters on Slavery, for attracting him to the cause. For a brief time he associated with the American Colonization Society. Although some members of the society encouraged granting freedom to slaves, Southern members thought reducing the threat of free blacks in society would help preserve the institution of slavery. By late 1829–1830, Garrison rejected colonization, publicly apologized for his error, Garrison began writing for and became co-editor with Benjamin Lundy of the Quaker newspaper Genius of Universal Emancipation in Baltimore, Maryland. With his experience as a printer and newspaper editor, Garrison changed the layout of the paper, Lundy was freed to spend more time touring as an anti-slavery speaker. Garrison initially shared Lundys gradualist views, but while working for the Genius, Lundy and Garrison continued to work together on the paper in spite of their differing views
William Lloyd Garrison
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Portrait of William Lloyd Garrison by
Nathaniel Jocelyn, oil on panel, 1833,
National Portrait Gallery, Washington, D.C.
William Lloyd Garrison
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William Lloyd Garrison, engraving from 1879 newspaper
William Lloyd Garrison
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Garrison and fellow abolitionists
George Thompson and
Wendell Phillips, seated at table,
daguerreotype, ca. 1850–1851
William Lloyd Garrison
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Photograph of Garrison
47.
Elijah Parish Lovejoy
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Elijah Parish Lovejoy was an American Presbyterian minister, journalist, newspaper editor and abolitionist. He was murdered by a mob in Alton, Illinois, during their attack on Godfrey and Gillmans warehouse to destroy his press. He attended Waterville College in his state of Maine. From 1824 until his 1826 graduation, while still an undergraduate, he served as headmaster of Colby’s associated high school. He traveled west and in 1827 settled in St. Louis and he worked as an editor of an anti-Jacksonian newspaper, the St. Louis Observer and ran a school. Five years later, he studied at the Princeton Theological Seminary in New Jersey, returning to St. Louis, he set up a church and resumed work as editor of the Observer. His editorials criticized slavery and other church denominations, in May 1836, after anti-abolitionist opponents in St. Louis destroyed his printing press for the third time, Lovejoy left the city and moved across the river to Alton in the free state of Illinois. In 1837 he started the Alton Observer, also an abolitionist paper, on November 7,1837, a pro-slavery mob attacked the warehouse where Lovejoy had his fourth printing press. Lovejoy and his supporters exchanged gunfire with the mob, which shot him. He died on the spot and was hailed as a martyr by abolitionists across the country. After his death, his brother Owen Lovejoy entered politics and became the leader of the Illinois abolitionists, Lovejoy was born at his grandfathers frontier farmhouse near Albion, Maine, as the first of the nine children of Elizabeth Lovejoy and Daniel Lovejoy. Lovejoys father was a Congregational preacher and farmer and his mother, Daniel Lovejoy named his son Elijah Parish in honor of his close friend and mentor, Elijah Parish, a minister who was also involved in politics. Due to his own lack of an education, he encouraged his sons—Daniel, Joseph Cammett, Owen, John, as a result, Elijah was taught to read the Bible and other theological texts at an early age. After completing his studies in public schools, Lovejoy attended the Academy at Monmouth. After becoming proficient enough in Latin and mathematics, he enrolled at Waterville College in Waterville, Maine and he excelled in his studies, and upon faculty recommendation, he became a teacher in the colleges preparatory division. Lovejoy received financial support from minister Benjamin Tappan to continue his attendance at Waterville College and his cousin Nathan A. Farwell later served as a U. S. In September 1826, Lovejoy graduated from Waterville College with first-class honors at the top of his class, during the winter and spring, he taught at China Academy. Dissatisfied with daily teaching, Lovejoy thought about moving to the South or Western United States and his former teachers at Waterville College advised him that he would best serve God in the West
Elijah Parish Lovejoy
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Elijah Parish Lovejoy
Elijah Parish Lovejoy
Elijah Parish Lovejoy
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Wood engraving of the pro-slavery mob setting fire to Gilman & Godfrey 's warehouse.
Elijah Parish Lovejoy
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The 110-foot tall Elijah P. Lovejoy monument, in Alton, IL
48.
J. Sella Martin
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John Sella Martin was a noted abolitionist in Boston, Massachusetts and a pastor, who had escaped from slavery in Alabama. He was a leading African-American preacher and activist for equality before the American Civil War, when he returned, he preached in Presbyterian churches in Washington, DC. After the American Civil War, Martin returned to the South, working during the Reconstruction era in education in Alabama and he became a politician in Louisiana and in 1872 was elected to the state legislature from Caddo Parish. In that year, the election was fiercely disputed. Martin had a position with the US Post Office and also wrote for the Louisianian newspaper. John Sella Martin was born into slavery in 1832 in Charlotte and his mother was a slave, and his father was her white master. This gave rise to many slaves, some of majority-white ancestry. At the age of six Martin, his mother and his sister were taken to Columbus. His mother and sister were purchased by one man and John Sella Martin was purchased by Horace King and his new owner was an old bachelor. Martin served him in the capacity of a valet de chambre until the age of eighteen. They resided together in one of the hotels in Columbus. He met travelers from throughout the United States and Canada staying at the hotel, when Martin was sixteen his owner went blind, and Martin was entrusted with helping him carry out his personal affairs, he gave the youth a home-school type education. When his master died, Martin, was set free by his will, but his masters relatives successfully contested the will, forcing Martin to remain in bondage. They had him sold during settlement of the estate, and he was taken to Mobile, after escaping slavery in Alabama in 1856 at the age of 24, Martin made his way to the North, first reaching Canada. He finally settled in Boston, Massachusetts, considered a center of freedom for blacks and it had a strong, biracial abolitionist movement. He entered the ministry and became minister of the First Independent Baptist Church in the Beacon Hill section of that city and he was active in the abolitionist movement and worked to achieve equality of the races. Martin was well-received by abolitionist leaders and admired for his speaking skills and they say that the negroes are very well contented in. Uppose it were the fact the man was contented. to see his wife sold on the auction-block or his daughter violated
J. Sella Martin
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Abolitionist, preacher and escaped slave.
49.
Lysander Spooner
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He is also known for competing with the U. S. Post Office with his American Letter Mail Company, which closed after legal problems with the federal government, Spooner was born on a farm in Athol, Massachusetts, on January 19,1808, and died on May 14,1887, in Boston. Spooners activism began with his career as a lawyer, which itself violated Massachusetts law, Spooner had studied law under the prominent lawyers and politicians John Davis and Charles Allen, but he had never attended college. According to the laws of the state, college graduates were required to study with an attorney for three years, while non-graduates were required to do so for five years. With the encouragement of his mentors, Spooner set up his practice in Worcester after only three years, defying the courts. He regarded the three-year privilege for college graduates as a discrimination against the poor. He argued that no one has yet ever dared advocate, in direct terms, in 1836, the legislature abolished the restriction. He opposed all licensing requirements for lawyers, doctors or anyone else that was prevented from being employed by such requirements, to prevent a person from doing business with a person without a professional license he saw as a violation of the natural right to contract. After a disappointing legal career and a career in real estate speculation in Ohio. Being an advocate of self-employment and opponent of government regulation of business, postal rates were notoriously high in the 1840s, and in 1844, Spooner founded the American Letter Mail Company, which had offices in various cities, including Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. Stamps could be purchased and then attached to letters which could be sent to any of its offices, from here agents were dispatched who traveled on railroads and steamboats, and carried the letters in hand bags. Letters were transferred to messengers in the cities along the routes who then delivered the letters to the addressees and this was a challenge to the United States Post Offices monopoly. As he had done when challenging the rules of the Massachusetts Bar Association, although Spooner had finally found commercial success with his mail company, legal challenges by the government eventually exhausted his financial resources. A law enacted in 1851 that strengthened the governments monopoly finally put him out of business. The lasting legacy of Spooners challenge to the service was the three-cent stamp. Spooner attained his greatest fame as a figure in the abolitionist movement and his most famous work, a book titled The Unconstitutionality of Slavery, was published in 1845. Spooners book contributed to a controversy among abolitionists over whether the United States Constitution supported the institution of slavery, the disunionist faction, led by William Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips, argued the Constitution legally recognized and enforced the oppression of slaves. More generally, Wendell Phillips disputed Spooners notion that any unjust law should be legally void by judges
Lysander Spooner
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Lysander Spooner
50.
George Luther Stearns
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George Luther Stearns was an American industrialist and merchant, as well as an abolitionist and a noted recruiter of blacks for the Union Army during the American Civil War. George L. Stearns was born in Medford, Massachusetts on January 8,1809, isaac moved to Watertown on the Charles River where he died in 1671. The American Stearns family grew, moving northward and westward, working as farmers, teachers, George Luther Stearns father, Dr. Luther Stearns entered Dartmouth College at age seventeen but graduated from Harvard in 1791. He worked as a tutor at Harvard and eventually studied medicine, Luther married Mary Hall of Brattleboro, VT when she was 16 on December 29,1799. They moved to Medford, MA to be nearer her relatives, Dr. Stearns later opened a celebrated preparatory school for boys with students from the South and West Indies. Dr. Stearns died of pneumonia on April 27,1820, in order to earn money, young George sometimes tended the locks on the Middlesex Canal in town. At the age of 15, he entered the force to support his family. In early life he engaged in the business of ship-chandlery, and after a prosperous career undertook the manufacture of sheet and pipe-lead, doing business in Boston and he was married to Mary Elizabeth Preston on October 12,1843, by Rev. Frederick H. Hedge. Stearns was one of the financiers of the Emigrant Aid Company which facilitated the settlement of Kansas by antislavery homesteaders. He identified himself with the cause, became a Free-soiler in 1848. Stearns was one of the Secret Six who aided John Brown in Kansas, Stearns physically owned the pikes and 200 Sharps rifles brought to Harpers Ferry by Brown and his followers. Following Browns arrest, Stearns briefly fled to Canada, but returned to Medford to face inquiry following Browns death, soon after the opening of the Civil War, Stearns advocated the enlistment of African-Americans in the Union Army. Massachusetts Governor John Andrew asked Stearns to recruit the first two Northern state-sponsored black infantry regiments, the 54th and 55th Massachusetts regiments and the 5th cavalry were largely recruited through his instrumentality. He recruited over 13,000 African-Americans, established schools for their children and he was the founder of the Nation, Commonwealth, and Right of Way newspapers for the dissemination of his ideas. After President Abraham Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, Stearns worked tirelessly for the rights of blacks. Among his many admirers and friends were Louisa May Alcott, Henry David Thoreau, Charles Sumner, Frederick Douglass and he helped found the Freedmens Bureau to support emancipated blacks. Stearns died of pneumonia in New York City, New York on April 9,1867, ralph Waldo Emerson gave the eulogy at his funeral at the First Parish Church in Medford. John G. Whittier published a poem in honor of Stearns in the May 1867 edition of the Atlantic Monthly entitled G. L. S
George Luther Stearns
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George Luther Stearns
