1.
Cowcatcher
–
In railroading, the pilot is the device mounted at the front of a locomotive to deflect obstacles on the track that might otherwise derail the train. In addition to the pilot, small metal bars called life-guards and they knock away smaller obstacles lying directly on the running surface of the railhead. Historically fenced-off railway systems in Europe relied exclusively on these devices and did not use pilots, trams use in place of the pilot a device called a fender. In snowy areas the pilot also has the function of a snowplow, the pilot was invented by Charles Babbage in the 19th century, during his period of working for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. However, Babbages invention was not built, and it is uncertain whether later users were aware of Babbages idea, on a mainline locomotive, the pilot has to successfully deflect an obstacle hit at speed, the ideal is to push it upwards and sideways out of the way. The locomotive should not lift on impact or the train will follow, the typical shape is a blunt wedge that is shallowly V-shaped in plan. In the later days of locomotives, the front coupler was designed to swing out of the way also, so it could not get caught up. Early diesel locomotives followed the same plan, early shunting locomotives often had a pilot with steps on it to allow yard workers to ride on the locomotive, these were called footboard pilots. In some countries, footboard pilots are outlawed for safety reasons, modern locomotives often have front and rear platforms with safety rails where workers can ride. Most modern European rail vehicles must have pilots with snowplow function, the required strength of the system is 30 kN in the middle of the track and 50 kN near the rails. Where a pilot is not fitted, a different type of anti-climber may be used and this is to prevent one passenger car from riding up over another, or telescoping in a collision. Buffer stop Headstock Notes and News, Pilot Engines, Past, - describes seven other meanings of the word pilot historically used on Britains railways. Hubris and the Cowcatcher by John H. White Jr. Railroad History, pflugerville, Texas, Railway & Locomotive Historical Society, 86–91. CS1 maint, Date format - describes Lorenzo Davies, alleged inventor of the cowcatcher
Cowcatcher
–
Pilot of a 1911 Baldwin steam engine at the
Texas Transportation Museum
Cowcatcher
–
Leading truck and pilot on the
John Bull
Cowcatcher
–
Pilot of a modern locomotive. (
Indian locomotive class WAG-9)
Cowcatcher
–
Lifeguard (circled) on a UK
HST powercar
2.
Flatiron Building
–
The building sits on a triangular block formed by Fifth Avenue, Broadway, and East 22nd Street, with 23rd Street grazing the triangles northern peak. As with numerous other wedge-shaped buildings, the name Flatiron derives from its resemblance to a clothes iron. The neighborhood around it is called the Flatiron District after its signature building, the Flatiron Building was designated a New York City landmark in 1966, added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1989. The site on which the Flatiron Building would stand was bought in 1857 by Amos Eno, Eno tore down the four-story St. Germaine Hotel on the south end of the lot, and replaced it with a seven-story apartment building, the Cumberland. On the remainder of the lot he built four buildings for commercial use. This left four stories of the Cumberlands northern face exposed, which Eno rented out to advertisers, including The New York Times, who installed a sign made up of electric lights. Eno later put a screen on the wall, and projected images onto it from a magic lantern on top of one of his smaller buildings, presenting advertisements. Both the Times and the New York Tribune began using the screen for news bulletins, and on election nights tens of thousands of people would gather in Madison Square, waiting for the latest results. During his life Eno resisted suggestions to sell Enos flatiron, as the site had become known, but after his death in 1899 his assets were liquidated, and the lot went up for sale. Instead, the lot was bought at auction by William Eno, one of Amoss sons, three weeks later, William re-sold the lot to Samuel and Mott Newhouse for $801,000. Black, CEO of the Fuller Company, the Fuller Company was the first true general contractor that dealt with all aspects of building construction except design, and they specialized in building skyscrapers. Black intended to construct a new building on the site, despite the recent deterioration of the surrounding neighborhood. The building, which would be Burnhams first in New York City, the Flatiron Building was designed by Chicagos Daniel Burnham as a vertical Renaissance palazzo with Beaux-Arts styling. Early sketches by Daniel Burnham show a design with an clockface, though Burnham maintained overall control of the design process, he was not directly connected with the details of the structure as built, credit should be shared with his designer Frederick P. Working drawings for the Flatiron Building, however, remain to be located, though renderings were published at the time of construction in American Architect and Architectural Record. Building the Flatiron was made feasible by a change to New York Citys building codes in 1892 and this opened the way for steel-skeleton construction. It was a familiar to the Fuller Company, a contracting firm with considerable expertise in building such tall structures. At the vertex, the tower is only 6.5 feet wide, viewed from above
Flatiron Building
–
Flatiron Building
Flatiron Building
–
Construction phases
Flatiron Building
–
Sur le Flatiron,
Albert Gleizes, gouache and ink (1916)
3.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
–
Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
–
G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
–
Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
–
William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
4.
Chain store
–
Chain store or retail chain are retail outlets that share a brand and central management, and usually have standardized business methods and practices. In retail, dining, and many categories, chain businesses have come to dominate the market in many parts of the world. A franchise retail establishment is one form of chain store, in 2004, the worlds largest retail chain, Wal-Mart, became the worlds largest corporation based on gross sales. In the U. S. chain stores began with the founding of The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company in 1859, by the early 1920s, the U. S. boasted three national chains, A&P, Woolworths, and United Cigar Stores. By the 1930s, chain stores had come of age, court decisions against the chains price-cutting appeared as early as 1906, and laws against chain stores began in the 1920s, along with legal countermeasures by chain-store groups. A restaurant chain is a set of related restaurants in different locations that are either under shared corporate ownership or franchising agreements. Typically, the restaurants within a chain are built to a standard format through architectural prototype development, fast food restaurants are the most common, but sit-down restaurant chains also exist. Restaurant chains are found near highways, shopping malls and tourist areas. The displacement of independent businesses by chains has sparked increased collaboration among independent businesses and communities to prevent chain proliferation and these efforts include community-based organizing through Independent Business Alliances and buy local campaigns. In the U. S. trade organizations such as the American Booksellers Association and American Specialty Toy Retailers do national promotion and they dont exclude the chain itself, only the standardized formula the chain uses. The reason these towns regulate chain stores is to protect independent businesses from competition, restaurant Organizational Forms and Community in the US in 2005. Store Wars, The Enactment and Repeal of Anti‐Chain‐Store Legislation in America, American Journal of Sociology 110#2, 446-487. Lebhar, Godfrey Montague, and W. C, matsunaga, Louella. The changing face of Japanese retail, Working in a chain store. Newman, Benjamin J. and John V. Kane, backlash against the Big Box, Local Small Business and Public Opinion toward Business Corporations. The Chain Store in the United States and Canada, American Economic Review 27#1, pp. 87-95 in JSTOR Schragger, the Anti-Chain Store Movement, Localist Ideology, and the Remnants of the Progressive Constitution, 1920-1940. The anti-chain store movement and the politics of consumption, culture of restraint, the British chain store 1920–39. Commercial Cultures, Economies, Practices, Spaces 31
Chain store
–
A
Kmart chain store
Chain store
–
A
Walmart chain store
Chain store
–
A
Cracker Barrel chain restaurant
Chain store
–
A
Subway franchise restaurant
5.
Cigar
–
A cigar is a tightly-rolled bundle of dried and fermented tobacco leaf, rolled in a series of types and sizes, that is ignited so that its smoke may be drawn into the mouth. The origins of cigar smoking are still unknown, in Guatemala, a ceramic pot dating back to the tenth century features a Mayan smoking tobacco leaves tied together with a string. Sikar, the term for smoking used by the Maya, may have inspired the name cigar, the word cigar originated from the Spanish cigarro, which in turn probably derives from the Mayan sicar. There is also a possible derivation, or at least an influence, from the Spanish cigarra, the English word came into general use in 1730. Explorer Christopher Columbus is generally credited with the introduction of tobacco to Europe, Tobacco was widely diffused among all of the islands of the Caribbean and therefore they again encountered it in Cuba where Columbus and his men had settled. His sailors reported that the Taínos on the island of Cuba smoked a primitive form of cigar, later, the hobby spread to Italy and, after Sir Walter Raleighs voyages to the Americas, to Britain. Smoking became familiar throughout Europe—in pipes in Britain—by the mid-16th century, in 1542, tobacco started to be grown commercially in America, when the Spaniards established the first cigar factory on the island of Cuba. Tobacco was originally thought to have medicinal qualities, but there were some who considered it evil and it was denounced by Philip II of Spain and James I of England. Around 1592, the Spanish galleon San Clemente brought 50 kilograms of seed to the Philippines over the Acapulco-Manila trade route. The seed was then distributed among the Roman Catholic missionaries, where the clerics found excellent climates, in the 19th century, cigar smoking was common, while cigarettes were still comparatively rare. In the early 20th century, Rudyard Kipling wrote his famous smoking poem, the cigar business was an important industry and factories employed many people before mechanized manufacturing of cigars became practical. Other manufacturers followed, and Key West became another important cigar manufacturing center, in 1885, Ybor moved again, buying land near the then-small city of Tampa, Florida and building the largest cigar factory in the world at the time in the new company town of Ybor City. Thousands of Cuban and Spanish tabaqueros came to the area from Key West, Cuba, local output peaked in 1929, when workers in Ybor City and West Tampa rolled over 500,000,000 clear Havana cigars, earning the town the nickname Cigar Capital of the World. In New York, cigars were made by working in their own homes. It was reported that as of 1883, cigars were being manufactured in 127 apartment houses in New York, employing 1,962 families and 7,924 individuals. A state statute banning the practice, passed late that year at the urging of trade unions on the basis that the practice suppressed wages, was ruled unconstitutional less than four months later. The industry, which had relocated to Brooklyn and other places on Long Island while the law was in effect, as of 1905, there were 80,000 cigar-making operations in the United States, most of them small, family-operated shops where cigars were rolled and sold immediately. Boxes of hand-rolled cigars bear the phrase totalmente a mano or hecho a mano and these premium hand-rolled cigars are significantly different from the machine-made cigars sold in packs at drugstores or gas stations
Cigar
–
A semi-airtight cigar storage tube and a double guillotine-style cutter
Cigar
–
Indigenous tobacco pipe on display at the regional museum in
San Andrés Tuxtla
Cigar
–
Inside an Ybor City cigar factory c. 1920
Cigar
–
Boy from
the Philippines smoking a cigar, 1931
6.
Retail
–
Retail markets and shops have a very ancient history, dating back to antiquity. Retailing involves the process of selling goods or services to customers through multiple channels of distribution to earn a profit. Retailers satisfy demand is identified through a supply chain, Once the strategic retail plan is in place, retailers devise the retail mix which includes product, price, place, promotion, personnel and presentation. In the digital age, a number of retailers are seeking to reach broader markets by selling through multiple channels. Digital technologies are changing the way that consumers pay for goods. Retailing support services may include the provision of credit, delivery services. Shopping generally refers to the act of buying products, sometimes this is done to obtain final goods, including necessities such as food and clothing, sometimes it takes place as a recreational activity. Recreational shopping often involves window shopping and browsing, it not always result in a purchase. Retail shops occur in a range of types and in many different contexts - from strip shopping centres in residential streets through to large. Shopping streets may restrict traffic to pedestrians only, forms of non-shop retailing include online retailing and mail order. Retail comes from the Old French word tailler, which means to cut off, clip, pare and it was first recorded as a noun with the meaning of a sale in small quantities in 1433. Like in French, the retail in both Dutch and German also refers to the sale of small quantities of items. Also see History of merchants, History of the market place, open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia and Assyria. These markets typically occupied a place in the towns centre, surrounding the market, skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers, occupied premises in alley ways that led to the open market-place. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, in ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, and in ancient Rome the forum. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling, merchants or peddlers, the Phoenicians, noted for their seafaring skills, plied their ships across the Mediterranean, becoming a major trading power by 9th century BCE. The Phoenicians imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine, oil, dried fruit, the Phoenicians extensive trade networks necessitated considerable book-keeping and correspondence. In around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed an alphabet which was much easier to learn that the complex scripts used in ancient Egypt
Retail
–
Macy's Herald Square,
New York City.
Retail
–
Fruit shop in
Naggar,
Himachal Pradesh,
India
Retail
–
San Juan de Dios Market in
Guadalajara, Jalisco
Retail
–
Inside a supermarket in
Russia
7.
Mickey Mouse
–
Mickey Mouse is a funny animal cartoon character and the official mascot of The Walt Disney Company. He was created by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks at the Walt Disney Studios in 1928, an anthropomorphic mouse who typically wears red shorts, large yellow shoes, and white gloves, Mickey has become one of the worlds most recognizable characters. Mickey first was seen in a single test screening, Mickey officially debuted in the short film Steamboat Willie, one of the first sound cartoons. He went on to appear in over 130 films, including The Band Concert, Brave Little Tailor, Mickey appeared primarily in short films, but also occasionally in feature-length films. Ten of Mickeys cartoons were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film, one of which, Lend a Paw, in 1978, Mickey became the first cartoon character to have a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Beginning in 1930, Mickey has also featured extensively as a comic strip character. His self-titled newspaper strip, drawn primarily by Floyd Gottfredson, ran for 45 years. Mickey has also appeared in books such as Disney Italys Topolino, MM Mickey Mouse Mystery Magazine, and Wizards of Mickey. He also appears in other such as video games as well as merchandising and is a meetable character at the Disney parks. Mickey generally appears alongside his girlfriend Minnie Mouse, his pet dog Pluto, his friends Donald Duck and Goofy, though originally characterized as a mischievous antihero, Mickey was rebranded over time as an everyman, usually seen as a flawed, but adventurous hero. I only hope that we never lose sight of one thing – that it was all started by a mouse, in the spring of 1928, with the series going strong, Disney asked Mintz for an increase in the budget. Angrily, Disney refused the deal and returned to produce the final Oswald cartoons he contractually owed Mintz, Disney was dismayed at the betrayal by his staff but determined to restart from scratch. The new Disney Studio initially consisted of animator Ub Iwerks and an apprentice artist, Les Clark. One lesson Disney learned from the experience was to always make sure that he owned all rights to the characters produced by his company. In the spring of 1928, Disney asked Ub Iwerks to start drawing up new character ideas, Iwerks tried sketches of various animals, such as dogs and cats, but none of these appealed to Disney. A female cow and male horse were also rejected and they would later turn up as Clarabelle Cow and Horace Horsecollar. A male frog was also rejected and it would later show up in Iwerks own Flip the Frog series. Walt Disney got the inspiration for Mickey Mouse from a mouse at his desk at Laugh-O-Gram Studio in Kansas City
Mickey Mouse
–
Concept art of Mickey from early 1928; the sketches are the earliest known drawings of the character, from the collection of
The Walt Disney Family Museum.
Mickey Mouse
–
Mickey Mouse
Mickey Mouse
–
Mickey's first appearance in
Steamboat Willie (1928).
Mickey Mouse
–
Mickey in
Fantasia (1940).
8.
Shoe tree
–
A shoe tree is a device approximating the shape of a foot that is placed inside a shoe to preserve its shape, stop it from developing creases and thereby extend the life of the shoe. It is an alternative to wadded rags or newspapers. Perhaps more important than maintaining the shape, shoe trees also play a part of wicking away leather-damaging moisture from the inside. This is especially important when shoes are worn without socks, as the sweat absorbed by the leather can lead to lining rot, higher quality shoe trees are made from solid wood, usually cedar, which helps control odor and absorb moisture. Other materials include beech, lime and alderwood, although most shoe tree manufacturers claim that cedarwood is superior, there is really no difference as long as the shoe tree is made of unfinished wood. Among wooden shoe trees, there are three categories, which correspond to price and quality. The cheapest are wooden shoe tree without a full heel, mid-range shoe trees have a full articulated heel and sometimes have ventilation slots in the toe to help moisture evaporate. These are usually made of 3 parts, a heel, a head, and these approximate the shape of your feet, so they are better at maintaining the structural integrity of your shoe compared to generically shaped shoe trees. At the highest range are lasted shoe trees, which accompany the shoes for which they have the same last. Shoe trees may also be made of plastic or stamped metal, with or without a coiled steel spring stem, these are typically cheaper, lighter. Types lacking a flexing steel spring may use extension springs or adjustable two-piece stems having a mechanical action to wedge them in place. Plastic shoe trees maintain the shape of your shoes, but lack the moisture absorbing qualities of wooden shoe trees and you should insert shoe trees once you take your shoes off so that they can absorb the moisture from your sweat and dry out your shoe in the correct shape. This will prevent lining rot and creases from taking hold of your leather and you should also insert shoe trees if you wet your shoes so that they can dry out faster. While some recommend having a pair of trees for every shoe, others believe they are unnecessary once they have done their job of absorbing moisture. Boot trees are trees for boots. Creases that form in the calves of boots can eventually cause zips to break, by investing in a pair of boot trees a repair like this can easily be avoided. A boot tree that’s two sided with a support bracket expands to provide the ideal tension for your boots. Some boot trees come with a trigger that allows easy fitting – and easy hanging
Shoe tree
–
A pair of shoe trees, one shown in use
9.
American Tobacco Company
–
The American Tobacco Company was a tobacco company founded in 1890 by J. B. Duke through a merger between a number of U. S. tobacco manufacturers including Allen and Ginter and Goodwin & Company, the company was one of the original 12 members of the Dow Jones Industrial Average in 1896. The American Tobacco Company dominated the industry by acquiring the Lucky Strike Company, Antitrust action begun in 1907 broke the company into several major companies in 1911. The American Tobacco Company restructured itself in 1969, forming a company called American Brands. American Brands acquired a variety of non-tobacco businesses during the 1970s and 1980s, American Brands subsequently renamed itself Fortune Brands. In 1881, two years after W. Duke Sons & Company entered into the business, James Bonsack invented a cigarette-rolling machine. It produced over 200 cigarettes per minute, the equivalent of what a skilled hand roller could produce in one hour and it cut each cigarette with precision, creating uniformity in the cigarettes it rolled. Public stigma was attached to this uniformity, and Allen & Ginter rejected the machine almost immediately. Duke set a deal with the Bonsack Machine Company in 1884, Duke agreed to produce all cigarettes with his two rented Bonsack machines and in return, Bonsack reduced Duke’s royalties from $0.30 per thousand to $0.20 per thousand. Duke also hired one of Bonsack’s mechanics, resulting in fewer breakdowns of his machines than his competitors’ and this secret contract resulted in a competitive advantage over Duke’s competitors, he was able to lower his prices further than others could. In the 1880s, while Duke was beginning to machine-roll all his cigarettes and his solution was to combine companies and found “one of the first great holding companies in American history. The five constituent companies of American Tobacco, W. Duke & Sons, Allen & Ginter, kimball & Company, Kinney Tobacco, and Goodwin & Company – produced 90% of the cigarettes made in 1890, the first year the American Tobacco Company was listed on the NYSE. With Duke’s innovation, American Tobacco grew its equity from $25,000,000 to $316,000,000, American Tobacco Company quickly became known as the “Tobacco Trust” upon its founding. Duke controlled the market, and his trust caught the attention of legislators in the United States. American Tobacco Company focused solely on making and selling cigarettes, leaving growing of tobacco, nonetheless, Duke aimed to eliminate inefficiencies and middlemen through vertical consolidation. The American Tobacco Company began to expand to Great Britain, China, the company also maintained an interest in producing other tobacco products in case fads shifted, Duke wanted to be sure that he would be prepared with a multitude of tobacco styles. The Tobacco Trust’s international expansion in conjunction with its consolidation of all types of tobacco “ultimately made the Trust so vulnerable to regulation, the Sherman Antitrust Act was passed in 1890, and in 1907, the American Tobacco Company was indicted in violation of it. In 1908, when the Department of Justice filed suit against the company,65 companies and 29 individuals were named in the suit, the Supreme Court ordered the company to dissolve in 1911 on the same day that it ordered the Standard Oil Trust to dissolve
American Tobacco Company
–
Lucky Strike relics marking the American Tobacco Historic District in
Durham, North Carolina.
American Tobacco Company
–
Classic cigarettes by W. Duke & Sons Co. of Durham, NC
American Tobacco Company
–
Ads for tobacco products made in Durham
American Tobacco Company
–
Child laborers at American Tobacco Company in
Wilmington, Delaware, 1910, photo by
Lewis Hine
10.
Real estate
–
Also, the business of real estate, the profession of buying, selling, or renting land, buildings or housing. It is a term used in jurisdictions whose legal system is derived from English common law, such as India, the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Pakistan, Australia. Residential real estate may contain either a family or multifamily structure. Residences can be classified by, if, and how they are connected to neighbouring residences, different types of housing tenure can be used for the same physical type. For example, connected residents might be owned by an entity and leased out. Major categories in North America and Europe Attached / multi-unit dwellings Apartment or Flat – An individual unit in a multi-unit building, the boundaries of the apartment are generally defined by a perimeter of locked or lockable doors. Often seen in apartment buildings. Multi-family house – Often seen in multi-story detached buildings, where each floor is an apartment or unit. Terraced house – A number of single or multi-unit buildings in a row with shared walls. Condominium – Building or complex, similar to apartments, owned by individuals, common grounds and common areas within the complex are owned and shared jointly. There are townhouse or rowhouse style condominiums as well, semi-detached dwellings Duplex – Two units with one shared wall. Single-family detached house Portable dwellings Mobile homes – Potentially a full-time residence which can be movable on wheels, houseboats – A floating home Tents – Usually very temporary, with roof and walls consisting only of fabric-like material. The size of an apartment or house can be described in square feet or meters, in the United States, this includes the area of living space, excluding the garage and other non-living spaces. It can be described roughly by the number of rooms. A studio apartment has a bedroom with no living room. A one-bedroom apartment has a living or dining room separate from the bedroom, Two bedroom, three bedroom, and larger units are common. Major categories in India and the Asian Subcontinent Co-operative Housing Societies Condominiums Chawls Villas Havelis The size is measured in Gaz, Quila, Marla, Beegha, and acre. See List of house types for a listing of housing types and layouts, real estate trends for shifts in the market
Real estate
–
'Single-family detached house'
11.
Great Depression
–
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
Great Depression
–
Dorothea Lange 's
Migrant Mother depicts destitute
pea pickers in
California, centering on
Florence Owens Thompson, age 32, a mother of seven children, in
Nipomo, California, March 1936
Great Depression
–
USA annual real GDP from 1910 to 1960, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–1939) highlighted.
Great Depression
–
Crowd gathering at the intersection of
Wall Street and Broad Street after the
1929 crash
Great Depression
–
Crowds outside the
Bank of United States in New York after its failure in 1931
12.
Bankruptcy
–
Bankruptcy is a legal status of a person or other entity that cannot repay the debts it owes to creditors. In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, Bankruptcy is not the only legal status that an insolvent person may have, and the term bankruptcy is therefore not a synonym for insolvency. In some countries, including the United Kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals, in the United States, bankruptcy is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings. In France, the cognate French word banqueroute is used solely for cases of fraudulent bankruptcy, in Ancient Greece, bankruptcy did not exist. If a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into debt slavery, until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour. Many city-states in ancient Greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years, debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not enjoy. However, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime. An exception to rule was Athens, which by the laws of Solon forbade enslavement for debt, as a consequence. The Statute of Bankrupts of 1542 was the first statute under English law dealing with bankruptcy or insolvency, Bankruptcy is also documented in East Asia. According to al-Maqrizi, the Yassa of Genghis Khan contained a provision that mandated the death penalty for anyone who became bankrupt three times, a failure of a nation to meet bond repayments has been seen on many occasions. Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557,1560,1575 and 1596, at the edge of Europe, Egypt, Russia, and Turkey have histories of chronic default as well. For private households, it is argued to be insufficient to merely dismiss debts after a certain period and it is important to assess the underlying problems and to minimize the risk of financial distress to re-occur. In most EU Member States, debt discharge is conditioned by a partial payment obligation, in the United States, discharge is conditioned to a lesser extent. The spectrum is broad in the EU, with the UK coming closest to the US system, the Other Member States do not provide the option of a debt discharge. It is almost impossible to discharge student loan debt by filing bankruptcy, unlike most other debtors, the individual with student debt must give a series of reasons and tests to prove that the debtor could not pay the debt. If the person were to file bankruptcy, he or she is encouraged to do so under Chapter 13. In order to avoid bankruptcy, one could negotiate with the lender to lower monthly payments, student loan bankruptcy is considered a last resort. However, some find themselves being forced to file bankruptcy, as the lender refused to lower payments
Bankruptcy
–
Notice of closure attached to the door of a Computer Shop outlet the day after its parent company declared "bankruptcy" (strictly, put into administration) in the
United Kingdom
Bankruptcy
–
Insolvency
Bankruptcy
–
Bankruptcy according to
Salvation Army,
Switzerland.
Bankruptcy
–
In 2013, Detroit filed the
largest municipal bankruptcy case in U.S. history.
13.
Drug store
–
Pharmacy is the science and technique of preparing and dispensing drugs. It is a profession that links health sciences with chemical sciences and aims to ensure the safe. Pharmacists, therefore, are the experts on drug therapy and are the health professionals who optimize use of medication for the benefit of the patients. An establishment in which pharmacy is practiced is called a pharmacy or a chemists, often, collaborative teams from various disciplines work together toward the introduction of new therapeutics and methods for patient care. However, pharmacy is not a basic or biomedical science in its typical form, medicinal chemistry is also a distinct branch of synthetic chemistry combining pharmacology, organic chemistry, and chemical biology. Pharmacology is sometimes considered as the 4th discipline of pharmacy, although pharmacology is essential to the study of pharmacy, it is not specific to pharmacy. Both disciplines are distinct. Those who wish to practice both pharmacy and pharmacology receive separate training and degrees unique to either discipline, pharmacoinformatics is considered another new discipline, for systematic drug discovery and development with efficiency and safety. The World Health Organization estimates that there are at least 2.6 million pharmacists, pharmacists are healthcare professionals with specialised education and training who perform various roles to ensure optimal health outcomes for their patients through the quality use of medicines. Pharmacists may also be small-business proprietors, owning the pharmacy in which they practice, pharmacists are represented internationally by the International Pharmaceutical Federation. In some cases, the body is also the registering body. The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists in geriatric pharmacy practice, the American Board of Applied Toxicology certifies pharmacists and other medical professionals in applied toxicology. A Pharmacy Technician in the UK has recently referred to by some as a professional. Legislation requires the supervision of certain pharmacy technicians activities by a pharmacist, the majority of pharmacy technicians work in community pharmacies. In hospital pharmacies, pharmacy technicians may be managed by other senior pharmacy technicians, Pharmacy technicians are registered with the General Pharmaceutical Council. The GPhC is the regulator of pharmacists, pharmacy technicians and pharmacy premises, in the US, pharmacy technicians perform their duties under supervision of pharmacists. The earliest known compilation of medicinal substances was the Sushruta Samhita, however, the earliest text as preserved dates to the 3rd or 4th century AD. Many Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets record prescriptions for medicine, Ancient Egyptian pharmacological knowledge was recorded in various papyri such as the Ebers Papyrus of 1550 BC, and the Edwin Smith Papyrus of the 16th century BC. In Ancient Greece, Diocles of Carystus was one of several men studying the properties of plants
Drug store
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The Apothecary or The Chemist by
Gabriël Metsu (c. 1651–67)
Drug store
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Pharmacy
Drug store
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Pharmacy,
tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (14th century)
Drug store
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Physician and Pharmacist, illustration from Medicinarius (1505) by
Hieronymus Brunschwig.
14.
Assets
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In financial accounting, an asset is an economic resource. Anything tangible or intangible that can be owned or controlled to produce value, simply stated, assets represent value of ownership that can be converted into cash. The balance sheet of a firm records the value of the assets owned by that firm. It covers money and other valuables belonging to an individual or to a business, one can classify assets into two major asset classes, tangible assets and intangible assets. Tangible assets contain various subclasses, including current assets and fixed assets, current assets include inventory, while fixed assets include such items as buildings and equipment. Intangible assets are resources and rights that have a value to the firm because they give the firm some kind of advantage in the marketplace. Examples of intangible assets include goodwill, copyrights, trademarks, patents and computer programs, an asset is a resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity. One of the most widely accepted accounting definitions of asset is the one used by the International Accounting Standards Board, employees are not considered assets like machinery is, even though they can generate future economic benefits. This is because an entity does not have sufficient control over its employees to satisfy the Frameworks definition of an asset, similarly, in economics an asset is any form in which wealth can be held. The accounting equation is the structure of the balance sheet. It relates assets, liabilities, and owners equity, Assets = Liabilities + Capital Liabilities = Assets − Capital Equity = Assets − Liabilities Assets are listed on the balance sheet. On a companys balance sheet certain divisions are required by generally accepted accounting principles, Assets can be divided into e. g. current assets and fixed assets, often with further subdivisions such as cash, receivables and inventory. Assets are formally controlled and managed within larger organizations via the use of asset tracking tools and these monitor the purchasing, upgrading, servicing, licensing, disposal etc. of both physical and non-physical assets. Current assets are cash and other assets expected to be converted to cash or consumed either in a year or in the operating cycle and these assets are continually turned over in the course of a business during normal business activity. There are 5 major items included into current assets, Cash and cash equivalents – it is the most liquid asset, which includes currency, deposit accounts, short-term investments – include securities bought and held for sale in the near future to generate income on short-term price differences. Receivables – usually reported as net of allowance for non-collectable accounts, inventory – trading these assets is a normal business of a company. The inventory value reported on the sheet is usually the historical cost or fair market value. This is known as the lower of cost or market rule, prepaid expenses – these are expenses paid in cash and recorded as assets before they are used or consumed
Assets
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Accounting
15.
Cadence Industries
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Cadence Industries Corporation was an American conglomerate owned by Martin Marty S. Ackerman. From 1968 through 1986, Perfect and Cadence were the parent company of the publisher of Marvel Comics, Hudson was a mail-order pharmaceuticals firm, and Equality Plastics, a consumer-products distributor. Perfect Film sold off Whelan drugstores and the Pathe Films Lab, in early 1968, Perfect Film purchased Popular Library, a paperback book company. In 1968, Perfect Film loaned $5 million to Curtis Publishing Company, publisher of the Saturday Evening Post, at the request of Curtis primary loan holder, in June and July 1968, Perfect Film sold US$40 million worth of securities, more than double the companys long-term debt. That fall, it bought out publisher Martin Goodman — owner of Magazine Management Company and it placed its other corporations as subsidiaries of that. Perfect Film purchased the Desilu Studios complex in 1968, in March 1969, Perfect Film and Commonwealth United Corporation had tentatively agreed to a merger of Commonwealth and Plume and Atwood. Despite attempts to revive the Saturday Evening Post s circulation, and with the lack of a purchaser, Perfect Film purchased Curtis Circulation Company that same year from Curtis Publishing. Also in 1969, OSF Industries purchased Desilu Studios from the corporation, Ackerman left Perfect Film In 1969. Perfect Film sold Popular Library in 1970 to Fawcett Publications In July 1970, under president and CEO Sheldon Feinberg, the Company renamed itself Cadence Industries in 1973. In 1981, Cadences Hudson Pharmaceutical Corporation hired Venet Advertising to advertise the companys Hudson Vitamins unit, when Cadence Industries was liquidated in 1986, it sold Marvel Entertainment Group to New World Pictures and Curtis Circulation was sold to Joseph M. Walsh and Hachette Distribution Services
Cadence Industries
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Perfect Film & Chemical stock certificate logo
16.
Mail-order
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Mail order is the buying of goods or services by mail delivery. The buyer places an order for the products with the merchant through some remote method such as through a telephone call or web site. Then, the products are delivered to the customer, some merchants also allow the goods to be shipped directly to a third party consumer, which is an effective way to send a gift to an out-of-town recipient. A mail order catalogue is a publication containing a list of general merchandise from a company, companies who publish and operate mail order catalogues are referred to as cataloguers within the industry. Cataloguers buy or manufacture goods then market those goods to prospects, cataloguers may rent names from list brokers or cooperative databases. The catalogue itself is published in a fashion as any magazine publication and distributed through a variety of means, usually via a postal service. Sometimes supermarket products do mail order promotions, whereby people can send in the UPC plus shipping and handling to get a product made especially for the company, in 1498, the publisher Aldus Manutius of Venice printed a catalogue of the books he was printing. In 1667, the English gardener, William Lucas, published a seed catalogue, Catalogues spread to colonial America, where Benjamin Franklin is believed to have been the first cataloguer in British America. In 1744 he produced a catalogue of scientific and academic books. The Welsh entrepreneur Pryce Pryce-Jones set up the first modern mail order in 1861, starting off as an apprentice to a local draper in Newtown, Wales, he took over the business in 1856 and renamed it the Royal Welsh Warehouse, selling local Welsh flannel. The establishment of the Uniform Penny Post in 1840, and the extension of the network to Newtown. In 1861, Pryce-Jones hit upon a method of selling his wares. He distributed catalogues of his wares across the country, allowing people to choose the items they wished and order them via post, he would then dispatch the goods to the customer via the railways. It was a way of meeting the needs of customers in isolated rural locations who were either too busy or unable to get into Newtown to shop directly. This was the worlds first mail order business, an idea which would change the nature of retail in the coming century, the further expansion of the railways in the years that followed allowed Pryce Jones to greatly expand his customer base and his business grew rapidly. He supplied his products to a variety of famous clientele, including Florence Nightingale and Queen Victoria. He also began exporting drapery to the US and British colonies, by 1880, he had more than 100,000 customers and his success was rewarded in 1887 with a knighthood. In 1845, Tiffanys Blue Book was the first mail-order catalogue in the United States, in 1872, Aaron Montgomery Ward of Chicago produced a mail-order catalogue for his Montgomery Ward mail order business
Mail-order
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The cover of the first
Eaton's catalog, published in 1884. The Eaton's catalog would continue to be published until 1976.
Mail-order
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Cover of a mail-order catalogue for scientific equipment.
Mail-order
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Sears, Roebuck and Company catalog, 1918
Mail-order
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The Outlook, American magazine advertisement from 1916 offering mail delivery of fish and seafood.
17.
Vitamin
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A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts. For example, ascorbic acid is a vitamin for humans, supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems, but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people. Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present, Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each vitamin refers to a number of compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin generic descriptor title, such as vitamin A, which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the form of the vitamin in the body. Some, such as vitamin D, have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation. The largest number of vitamins, the B complex vitamins, function as cofactors or the precursors for them. In this role, vitamins may be bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups, For example. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, for example, folic acid may carry methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins best-known function, study of structural activity, function and their role in maintaining health is called vitaminology. Each vitamin is typically used in reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions. Vitamins are essential for the growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop from the nutrients it absorbs and it requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin, bone, if there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage, for the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume, examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin, from the amino acid tryptophan. In those who are healthy, there is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to cancer or heart disease
Vitamin
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A bottle of high potency B-complex vitamin supplement pills.
Vitamin
–
500 mg calcium supplement tablets, with vitamin D, made from
calcium carbonate,
maltodextrin,
mineral oil,
hypromellose,
glycerin,
cholecalciferol,
polyethylene glycol, and
carnauba wax.
Vitamin
–
The
Ancient Egyptians knew that feeding a person
liver would help cure
night blindness.
18.
Time (magazine)
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Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
Time (magazine)
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The first issue of Time (March 3, 1923), featuring
Speaker Joseph G. Cannon.
Time (magazine)
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Bibi Aisha on the Cover of Time.
Time (magazine)
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Time Magazine red X covers: from left to right, Adolf Hitler, Saddam Hussein, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, and Osama bin Laden.
