1.
Islamism
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Islamism is a concept whose meaning has been debated in both public and academic contexts. It is commonly used interchangeably with the terms political Islam or Islamic fundamentalism and these movements have arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence, redefining politics and even borders according to Robin Wright. Some authors hold the term Islamic activism to be synonymous and preferable to Islamism, Central and prominent figures of modern Islamism include Hasan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb, Abul Ala Maududi, and Ruhollah Khomeini. Some Islamist thinkers emphasize peaceful political processes, whereas Sayyid Qutb in particular called for violence, however, Qutb, unlike modern extremists, denounced the killing of innocents. Following the Arab Spring, some Islamist currents became heavily involved in politics, while others spawned the most aggressive and ambitious Islamist militia to date. A theocratic ideology that seeks to impose any version of Islam over society by law, subsequently, clarified to be, the desire to impose any given interpretation of Islam on society. A movement so broad and flexible it reaches out to everything to everyone in Islam, making it unsustainable. and at the extremes, a violent vehicle for rejectionists and radicals. All who seek to Islamize their environment, whether in relation to their lives in society, their circumstances, or the workplace. Moderate and reformist Islamists who accept and work within the process include parties like the Tunisian Ennahda Movement. Jamaat-e-Islami of Pakistan is basically a socio-political and democratic Vanguard party but has gained political influence through military coup détats in the past. The Islamist groups like Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in Palestine participate in the democratic, following the Arab Spring, Roy has described Islamism as increasingly interdependent with democracy in much of the Arab Muslim world, such that neither can now survive without the other. While Islamist political culture itself may not be democratic, Islamists need democratic elections to maintain their legitimacy, at the same time, their popularity is such that no government can call itself democratic that excludes mainstream Islamist groups. The term, which denoted the religion of Islam, first appeared in English as Islamismus in 1696. The term appears in the U. S. Supreme Court decision in In Re Ross, the term Islamism acquired its contemporary connotations in French academia in the late 1970s and early 1980s. From French, it began to migrate to the English language in the mid-1980s, a 2003 article in Middle East Quarterly states, In summation, the term Islamism enjoyed its first run, lasting from Voltaire to the First World War, as a synonym for Islam. Enlightened scholars and writers generally preferred it to Mohammedanism, eventually both terms yielded to Islam, the Arabic name of the faith, and a word free of either pejorative or comparative associations. To all intents and purposes, Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism have become synonyms in contemporary American usage, the AP Stylebook entry for Islamist now reads as follows, An advocate or supporter of a political movement that favors reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam. Do not use as a synonym for Islamic fighters, militants, extremists or radicals, where possible, be specific and use the name of militant affiliations, al-Qaida-linked, Hezbollah, Taliban, etc
2.
Pancasila (politics)
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Pancasila is the official philosophical foundation of the Indonesian state. Pancasila consists of two Old Javanese words, pañca meaning five, and sīla meaning principles and it comprises five principles held to be inseparable and interrelated, Belief in the absoluteness of God. Democracy guided by the wisdom in the unanimity arising out of deliberations amongst representatives. Social justice for all of the people of Indonesia, in 1945, facing the need to pull together the diverse archipelago, the future President Sukarno promulgated Pancasila as the philosophical foundation of the Indonesian state. Sukarnos political philosophy was mainly a fusion of elements of socialism, nationalism and monotheism, the fifth sila concerning religiosity was promoted to become the first sila. Internationalism, justice and humanity remain as parts of the second sila, the previously first sila about nationalism became the third sila about Indonesian unity. The third and fourth sila about democracy and social welfare become the fourth and fifth sila, Pancasila was thus intended to help solve the conflicting priorities among Muslims, nationalists and Christians. The 1945 Constitution of Indonesia then set forth Pancasila as the embodiment of basic principles of an independent Indonesian state, since its inception, Pancasila has been the subject of differences of opinion. One prime area of concerns the first of the five pillars. During the negotiations concerning this principle the nationalists were concerned that the formulation ought to promote religious freedom, the Muslims wanted a formulation where the religion of Indonesia is Islam. A historical anachronism is found in the Constitution, on 18 August 1945, the group that ratified the Constitution unanimously agreed that the term Allah should be replaced by Tuhan, a more general term which was supported by the Hindus. The word Ketuhanan and Allah is used in the preamble to the Constitution, but the term Allah appears in Article 9, there is an alternative presidential promise in the same article which does not mention God at all. The content of the philosophy has been interpreted by different philosophers. Pancasila has been an object of philosophical discourse since 1945 onwards, the Pancasila philosophers continually reinterpreted the content, so that its meaning varied from time to time. The following are chronological analyses of the content of philosophies of Pancasila, the first draft of Pancasila was formulated by Sukarno, delivered on 1 June 1945 before the Investigating Committee for the Preparation for Independence, without the word Indonesia. The second draft of Pancasila was formulated in the Jakarta Charter by the Committee of Nine, Sukarno accepted the suggestion of the other members of the committee to change the sequence of Pancasila. The fifth Sila of Sukarno become the first Sila of the Jakarta Charter, the first draft of the Pancasila philosophy was formulated by Sukarno on 1 June 1945. Ketuhanan, to him, was indigenous, while Kemanusiaan was inspired by the Hindu concept of Tat Twam Asi, the Islamic concept of fardhukifayah
3.
People's Representative Council
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Together with the Regional Representative Council, a second chamber with limited powers, it makes up a legislative body, the Peoples Consultative Assembly. Currently there are 560 members, following the 2009 elections, all elected, the house has been the subject of frequent public criticism due to perceived high level of fraud and corruption. It met for the first time in 1918, ten of its nineteen members elected by local councils were Indonesians, as were five of the nineteen appointed members. However, it had only advisory powers, although the governor-general had to consult it on financial matters, the body grew in size to 60 members, half of who were elected by a total of 2,228 people. In 1925, the Volksraad gained some legislative powers and it had to agree to the budget and internal legislation, and could sponsor laws of its own. However, it had no power to remove the governor general and it was replaced by a council made up of heads of departments. The Japanese invaded Indonesia in 1942 and this body drew up a constitution for an independent Indonesia over several weeks of meetings. At a session of the Committee on 1 June 1945, Sukarno laid down the principles of Pancasila by which an Indonesia would be governed, on 7 August, the day after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence or PPKI was established. Sukarno was chairman, and Hatta vice-chairman, the two proclaimed the Independence of Indonesia on 17 August. The PPKI also named Sukarno as president and Hatta vice-president, the Central Indonesian National Committee or KNIP was a body appointed to assist the president of the newly independent Indonesia, Sukarno, on 29 August 1945. The day-to-day tasks of the KNIP would be carried out by a Working Committee, during the War of Independence, the entire KNIP was unable to meet regularly. Two months later, the made up of heads of departments that the Dutch had set up to replace the pre-war Volksraad officially became the Provisional Federal Government. This body invited heads of the making up the United States of Indonesia to send delegates to the Federal Conference in Bandung in May 1948. That month, leaders of states and other areas joined together to establish the Federal Consultative Assembly to represent the federal regions, initially Peoples Representative Council had 50 representatives from the Republic of Indonesia and 100 from the 15 component parts of the RIS. The plan was for elections within a year, the KNIP met for the last time on 15 December 1949 to agree to the Republic of Indonesia joining the RIS. On 17 August 1950, the RIS was formally dissolved and the unitary Republic of Indonesia came into being, the provisional Peoples Representative Council met for the first time on 16 August 1950. Of the 236 members, only 204 took their oaths of office on 20 August, and only 170 voted in the election of the speaker, Masyumi was the largest parliamentary party with 49 seats. The PNI had 36 seats and no party had more than 17
4.
Politics of Indonesia
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Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two Peoples Representative Councils, the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The 1945 constitution provided for a separation of executive, legislative. The governmental system has been described as presidential with parliamentary characteristics, a constitutional reform process lasted from 1999 to 2002, with four constitutional amendments producing important changes. Among these are term limits of up to 2 five-year terms for the President and Vice-President, tNI/POLRI representation in the DPR and MPR ended in 2004. Societal group representation in the MPR was eliminated in 2004 through further constitutional change, having served as rubberstamp bodies in the past, the DPR and MPR have gained considerable power and are increasingly assertive in oversight of the executive branch. Through his appointed cabinet, the president retains the authority to conduct the administration of the government, a general election in June 1999 produced the first freely elected national, provincial and regional parliaments in over forty years. Megawatis PDI-P party had won the largest share of the vote in the election, while Golkar. Several other, mostly Islamic parties won shares large enough to be seated in the DPR, further democratic elections took place in 2004 and 2009. The president and vice-president are selected by vote of the citizens for five-year terms, prior to 2004, they were chosen by Peoples Consultative Assembly. The last election was held 9 July 2014, the president heads the Kabinet Kerja which means the cabinet of work. The president appoints a cabinet, who do not have to be elected members of the legislature, the Peoples Consultative Assembly is the legislative branch in Indonesias political system. Following elections in 2004, the MPR became a bicameral parliament, the Regional Representatives Council is the upper house of The Peoples Consultative Assembly. The General Elections Commission is the responsible for running both parliamentary and presidential elections in Indonesia. Article 22E of the Constitution rules that the Commission is national, permanent, prior to the General Election of 2004, KPU was made up of members who were also members of political parties. However, members of KPU must now be non-partisan, the Indonesian Supreme Court is the highest level of the judicial branch. Its judges are appointed by the president, the Constitutional Court rules on constitutional and political matters, while a Judicial Commission oversees the judges. It received international denunciation for its annexation of East Timor in 1978, Indonesia is a founding member of the Association of South East Asian Nations, and thereby a member of both ASEAN+3 and the East Asia Summit
5.
Indonesian language
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Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
6.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
7.
Suharto
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Suharto was the second President of Indonesia, holding the office for 31 years from the ousting of Sukarno in 1967 until his resignation in 1998. Suharto was born in a village, Kemusuk, in the Godean area near the city of Yogyakarta. He grew up in humble circumstances and his Javanese Muslim parents divorced not long after his birth, and he was passed between foster parents for much of his childhood. During the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, Suharto served in Japanese-organised Indonesian security forces, Indonesias independence struggle saw his joining the newly formed Indonesian army. Suharto rose to the rank of major general following Indonesian independence, an attempted coup on 30 September 1965 allegedly backed by the Indonesian Communist Party was countered by Suharto-led troops. The army subsequently led an anti-communist purge which the CIA described as one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century and Suharto wrested power from Indonesias founding president and he was appointed acting president in 1967, replacing Indonesian founding father Sukarno, and elected President the following year. He then mounted a campaign known as De-Soekarnoization in an effort to reduce the former Presidents influence. Support for Suhartos presidency was strong throughout the 1970s and 1980s, by the 1990s, the New Orders authoritarianism and widespread corruption were a source of discontent and, following a severe financial crisis, led to widespread unrest and his resignation in May 1998. Suharto died in 2008 and was given a state funeral, the legacy of Suhartos 31-year rule is debated both in Indonesia and abroad. Under his New Order administration, Suharto constructed a strong, centralised and military-dominated government, an ability to maintain stability over a sprawling and diverse Indonesia and an avowedly anti-Communist stance won him the economic and diplomatic support of the West during the Cold War. For most of his presidency, Indonesia experienced significant economic growth and industrialisation, dramatically improving health, education, plans to bestow Suharto with a National Hero title are currently being considered by the Indonesian government and has been highly debated in Indonesia. According to Transparency International, Suharto is the most corrupt leader in modern history, Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 during the Dutch East Indies era, in a plaited bamboo walled house in the hamlet of Kemusuk, a part of the larger village of Godean. The village is 15 kilometres west of Yogyakarta, the heartland of the Javanese. Born to ethnic Javanese parents, he was the child of his fathers second marriage. His father, Kertosudiro, had two children from his previous marriage, and was a village irrigation official and his mother, Sukirah, a local woman, was distantly related to Sultan Hamengkubuwono V by his first concubine. Five weeks after Suhartos birth, his mother suffered a breakdown and he was placed in the care of his paternal great-aunt. Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suhartos life and both later remarried, at the age of three, Suharto was returned to his mother, who had married a local farmer whom Suharto helped in the rice paddies. Over the following two years, he was back to his mother in Kemusuk by his stepfather and then back again to Wuryantoro by his father
8.
Post-Suharto era
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The Post-Suharto era in Indonesia began with the fall of Suharto in 1998 during which Indonesia has been in a period of transition, an era known in Indonesia as Reformasi. A more open and liberal political-social environment ensued following the resignation of authoritarian President Suharto, the process of reformasi in Indonesia has resulted in a greater degree of freedom of speech, in contrast to the pervasive censorship under the New Order. This has led to an open political debate in the news media. Events that have shaped Indonesia in this include a bombing campaign by Islamic terrorists. The Reformasi of 1998 led to changes in Indonesias various governmental institutions, reforms upon the structures of the judiciary, legislature, and executive office. When Suharto attempted to have Megawati removed as head of party in a back-room deal. This culminated in Black Saturday on 27 July, when the Indonesian military broke up the demonstrations and these further worsened when the 1997 Asian financial crisis reached Indonesia, highlighting the corruption of the New Order. Economic instability from the crisis affected much of the country, in the form of increased prices for staple foods and goods, and lowered standards of living and quality of life. In West Kalimantan, there was violence between Dayaks and Madurese in 1996, in the Sambas riots in 1999 and the Sampit conflict 2001. In the Sambas conflict, both Malays and Dayaks massacred Madurese, growing dissatisfaction with Suhartos authoritarian rule and the rapid erosion of the economy led many, chiefly the younger generation, to renew their protests directly against the New Order. During the years 1997–1998, a riot broke out in Indonesia. People were burning everything within the city including cars, motorcycles, buildings and this was further worsened when many were killed and raped, most of which were Indonesians of Chinese descent. No action was taken by the army or the police, in 1998, Suharto made the decision to stand before the parliament for a re-election and won. The result was considered so outrageous that students occupied the Parliament, Suharto soon stood down from the presidency, and named B. J. Habibie his successor. On Suhartos resignation, Vice-President B. J. Habibie was sworn in as President of Indonesia, as President, Habibie undertook numerous political reforms. In February 1999, Habibies Government passed the Political Parties Law, under this law, political parties were not limited to just three as had been the case under the Suharto regime. Political parties were not required to have Pancasila as their ideology. This resulted in the emergence of political parties and 48 would go on to compete in the 1999 legislative election
9.
Sharia
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Sharia, Sharia law, or Islamic law is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran. In Arabic, the term refers to Gods divine law and is contrasted with fiqh. The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists, traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia, the Quran, sunnah, qiyas, and ijma. Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two branches of law, ʿibādāt and muʿāmalāt, which together comprise a wide range of topics. Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories, mandatory, recommended, permitted, abhorred, thus, some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God’s will. Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists, ottoman rulers achieved additional control over the legal system by promulgating their own legal code and turning muftis into state employees. Non-Muslim communities had legal autonomy, except in cases of interconfessional disputes, in the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education in the Muslim world were brought in line with European practice. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for full implementation of sharia, including reinstatement of hudud corporal punishments, in some cases, this resulted in traditionalist legal reform, while other countries witnessed juridical reinterpretation of sharia advocated by progressive reformers. The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world, attempts to impose it on non-Muslims have caused intercommunal violence in Nigeria and may have contributed to the breakup of Sudan. Some Muslim-minority countries in Asia, Africa and Europe recognize the use of sharia-based family laws for their Muslim populations, there are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and womens rights. The word sharīʿah is used by Arabic-speaking peoples of the Middle East to designate a prophetic religion in its totality, for example, sharīʿat Mūsā means law or religion of Moses and sharīʿatu-nā can mean our religion in reference to any monotheistic faith. Within Islamic discourse, šarīʿah refers to regulations governing the lives of Muslims. For many Muslims, the word means simply justice, and they will consider any law that promotes justice, Muslims of different perspectives agree in their respect for the abstract notion of sharia, but they differ in how they understand the practical implications of the term. Classical sharia, the body of rules and principles elaborated by Islamic jurists during the first centuries of Islam, historical sharia, the body of rules and interpretations developed throughout Islamic history, ranging from personal beliefs to state legislation and varying across an ideological spectrum. Classical sharia has often served as a point of reference for these variants, Contemporary sharia, the full spectrum of rules and interpretations that are developed and practiced at present
10.
Madura Island
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Madura is an Indonesian island off the northeastern coast of Java. The island comprises an area of approximately 4,078.67 km², Madura is administered as part of the East Java province. It is separated from Java by the narrow Strait of Madura, the administered area has a density of 702 people per km², while the island itself is higher at 817/km². In 1624, Sultan Agung of Mataram conquered Madura and the government was brought under the Cakraningrats. The Cakrangingrat family opposed Central Javanese rule and often conquered large parts of Mataram, following the First Javanese War of Succession between Amangkurat III and his uncle, Pangeran Puger, the Dutch gained control of the eastern half of Madura in 1705. However, while Amangkurat was arrested and exiled to Ceylon, Puger took the title of Pakubuwono I, the Cakraningrats agreed to help the Dutch quash the 1740 rebellion in Central Java after the Chinese massacre in 1740. In a 1743 treaty with the Dutch, Pakubuwono I ceded full sovereignty of Madura to the Dutch, Cakraningrat fled to Banjarmasin, took refuge with the English, was robbed and betrayed by the sultan, and captured by the Dutch and exiled to the Cape of Good Hope. The Dutch continued Maduras administrative divisions of four states each with their own regent, Madura has a population of about 3.65 million, most of whom are ethnically Madurese. The main language of Madura is Madurese, one of a family of Austronesian languages, the Madurese are a large ethnic population in Indonesia, numbering around 7 million inhabitants. They come from the island of Madura as well as surrounding islands, such as Gili Raja, Sapudi, Raas, in addition, many Madurese live in the eastern part of East Java, commonly called the Horseshoe, from Pasuruan to the north of Banyuwangi. Madurese are found in Situbondo and Bondowoso, and east of Probolinggo, Jember, Madura has a mix of Sunni majority and large Shia minority. The UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs has provided details of such attacks in 2013, the mainland covers 1,146.93 km2 consisting of 17 districts, while the islands are 946.53 km2, comprising 9 districts, of 128 islands,46 inhabited. Source,2014 estimates On the whole, Madura is one of the poorest regions of the East Java province, unlike Java, the soil is not fertile enough to make it a major agricultural producer. Limited economic opportunities have led to unemployment and poverty. These factors have led to emigration from the island, such that most ethnically Madurese people do not now live on Madura. People from Madura were some of the most numerous participants in government transmigration programs, subsistence agriculture is a mainstay of the economy. Maize is a key crop, on islands many small landholdings. Cattle-raising is also a part of the agricultural economy, providing extra income to peasant farmer families
11.
Nahdlatul Ulama
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Nahdlatul Ulama is a traditionalist Sunni Islam movement in Indonesia following the Shafii school of jurisprudence. NU was established on January 31,1926 in Surabaya as a response to the rise of Wahabism in Saudi Arabia, the NU is the largest independent Islamic organization in the world with membership of 40 million in 2003. NU also as a charitable body funding schools and hospitals as well as organizing communities to alleviate poverty. Nahdatul Ulama follows the ideology of Ahl as-Sunna Wa al-Jamaah, which takes the middle sect between extreme aqli with the extreme naqli, because it is a source of ideas for not only the Quran, the Sunnah, but also the ability of the mind coupled with empirical reality. It referred to this way of thinking of earlier thinkers, such as Abu al-Hasan al-Ashari, then in the following four schools of jurisprudence, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, and Hanbali. While in the field of Sufism, it follows path of Al-Ghazali and it has been described by the media as a progressive, liberal and pluralistic Islamic movement. The Nahdlatul Ulama was established in 1926 as an organization for orthodox Muslims opposed to the modernist policies of the Muhammadiyah organization, the organization was established after The Committee of Hijaz had fulfilled its duty and about to be dissolved. The organization was established by Hasjim Asjari, the head of an Islamic religious school in East Java, the organization expanded, but the base of its support remained in East Java. By 1928, the NU was using the Javanese language in its sermons, in 1937, despite poor relations between the NU and Muhammidayah, the two organizations established the Supreme Islamic Council of Indonesia as a discussion forum. They were joined by most of the other Islamic organizations in existence at the time, in 1942, the Japanese occupied Indonesia and in September a conference of Islamic leaders was held in Jakarta. Just over a year later, the MIAI was dissolved and replaced by the Japanese-sponsored Masyumi, Hasjim Asjari was the notional chairman, but in practice the new organization was led by his son, Wahid Hasyim. Other NU and Muhammadiyah figures held leadership positions, in 1945, Sukarno and Hatta declared Indonesian independence. During the Indonesian war of independence, the NU declared that the fight against the Dutch colonial forces was a holy war, among the guerrilla groups fighting for independence were Hizbullah and Sabillilah, which were led by the NU. Following the recognition of Indonesian independence, a new party called Masyumi was established with the NU as a component of it. The NU leadership at the time had no skills, and was awarded few influential cabinet positions, with the exception of chairman Wahid Hasyim. Two years later, a dispute over the organization of the Haj pilgrimage led to Prime Minister Natsirs opposition to the reappointment of Hasyim as religious affairs minister in the next cabinet. In the ensuing crisis, the NU made a series of demands, including the retention of Hasyim. On 5 April 1952, a few days after the announcement of a new cabinet without Hasyim, the NU decided in principle to leave Masyumi
12.
Indonesian legislative election, 1982
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Indonesias fourth legislative election, and the third under the New Order regime, was held on May 4,1982. There were three participants, the two parties and the functional group Golkar. Komisi Pemilihan Umum retrieved January 6,2008 Liddle, R. William Pemilu-Pemilu Orde Baru, LP3ES, Jakarta ISBN 979-8015-88-6 Ricklefs, a history of modern Indonesia since c.1200. ISBN 0-8047-4480-7 Sudibjo, M Pemilihan Umum 1992, Suatu Evaluasi Center for Strategic and International Studies, Jakarta
13.
Sukarno
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Sukarno was the first President of Indonesia, serving in office from 1945 to 1967. Sukarno was the leader of his countrys struggle for Independence from the Netherlands and he was a prominent leader of Indonesias nationalist movement during the Dutch colonial period, and spent over a decade under Dutch detention until released by the invading Japanese forces. Sukarno and his fellow nationalists collaborated to support for the Japanese war effort from the population. Upon Japanese surrender, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945 and he led Indonesians in resisting Dutch re-colonization efforts via diplomatic and military means until the Dutch acknowledgment of Indonesian independence in 1949. The early 1960s saw Sukarno veering Indonesia to the left by providing support and protection to the Indonesian Communist Party to the irritation of the military and he also embarked on a series of aggressive foreign policies under the rubric of anti-imperialism, with aid from the Soviet Union and China. The 30 September Movement led to the destruction of the PKI and his replacement in 1967 by one of his generals, Suharto, the spelling Soekarno, based on Dutch orthography, is still frequently used, mainly because he signed his name in the old spelling. Sukarno himself insisted on a u, not oe, but said that he had told in school to use the Dutch style. He said that it was too difficult to change his signature, official Indonesian presidential decrees from the period 1947–1968, however, printed his name using the 1947 spelling. The Soekarno–Hatta International Airport which serves near Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, Indonesians also remember him as Bung Karno or Pak Karno. Like many Javanese people, he had one name. He is sometimes referred to in accounts as Achmad Sukarno. The first name was added by a British journalist, who felt his readers would be confused over someone with just a single name. He was originally named KusnoJavanese pronunciation, following Javanese custom, he was renamed after surviving a childhood illness. After graduating from a primary school in 1912, he was sent to the Europeesche Lagere School in Mojokerto. Subsequently, in 1916, Sukarno went to a Hogere Burgerschool in Surabaya, where he met Tjokroaminoto, in 1920, Sukarno married Tjokroaminotos daughter Siti Oetari. In 1921, he began to study engineering at the Technische Hoogeschool te Bandoeng. During his study in Bandung, Sukarno became romantically involved with Inggit Garnasih, the wife of Sanoesi, Inggit was 13 years older than Sukarno. In March 1923, Sukarno divorced Siti Oetari to marry Inggit, Sukarno later divorced Inggit and married Fatmawati
14.
Authoritarianism
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Authoritarianism is a form of government characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms. Individual freedoms are subordinate to the state and there is no constitutional accountability under an authoritarian regime, modern dictatorships use an authoritarian concept to form a government. Linz distinguished new forms of authoritarianism from personalistic dictatorships and totalitarian states, several subtypes of authoritarian regimes have been identified by Linz and others. Bureaucratic-military authoritarian regimes are those governed by a coalition of military officers, mark J. Linz also has identified three other subtypes of authoritarian regime, corporatist or organic-statistic, racial and ethnic democracy and post-totalitarian. Examples include the Soviet Eastern bloc states in the mid-1980s, authoritarian regimes are also sometimes subcategorized by whether they are personalistic or populist. Personalistic authoritarian regimes are characterized by arbitrary rule and authority exercised mainly through patronage networks and coercion rather than through institutitions, personalistic authoritarian regimes have been seen in post-colonial Africa. By contrast, populist authoritarian regimes are mobilizational regimes in which a strong, charismatic, examples include Argentina under Perón, Egypt under Nasser, and Venezuela under Chávez and Maduro. Authoritarianism is characterized by highly concentrated and centralized power maintained by political repression and it uses political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people around the goals of the regime. Adam Przeworski has theorized that authoritarian equilibrium rests mainly on lies, fear, authoritarian political systems may be weakened through inadequate performance to demands of the people. Because the legitimacy of the state is dependent on performance, authoritarian states that fail to adapt may collapse, authoritarianism is marked by indefinite political tenure of the ruler or ruling party or other authority. The transition from a system to a more democratic form of government is referred to as democratization. John Duckitt suggests a link between authoritarianism and collectivism, asserting that both stand in opposition to individualism, Duckitt writes that both authoritarianism and collectivism submerge individual rights and goals to group goals, expectations and conformities. Totalitarianism is a version of authoritarianism. Authoritarianism primarily differs from totalitarianism in that social and economic institutions exist that are not under governmental control, building on the work of Yale political scientist Juan Linz, Paul C. Concomitant role conceptions differentiate totalitarians from authoritarians, authoritarians view themselves as individual beings largely content to control, and often maintain, the status quo. The tyrant is less a person than a function to guide. Consequently, the utilisation of power for personal aggrandizement is more evident among authoritarians than totalitarians, lacking the binding appeal of ideology, authoritarians support their rule by a mixture of instilling fear and granting rewards to loyal collaborators, engendering a kleptocracy. Compared to totalitarianism, the state still maintains a certain distinction between state and society
15.
Golkar
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The Party of the Functional Groups is a political party in Indonesia. Golkar was the party from 1973 to 1999, under Suhartos New Order regime. It had been a part of the coalition of President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyonos ruling coalition since 2004. In 2014 Yudhoyono was succeeded by President Joko Widodo, in 1959, President Sukarno introduced his concept of Guided Democracy, in which so-called functional groups would play a role in government in place of political parties. The Indonesian National Armed Forces supported its creation because it believed these groups would balance the strength of the Communist Party of Indonesia. In 1960, Sukarno awarded sectoral groups such as teachers, the Armed Forces, as some of the members of these functional groups were linked to political parties, this gave political influence to the National Armed Forces. By 1968 there were almost 250 organizations under the Sekber umbrella, on November 22,1969 they were organized into seven main organizations, or Kino, namely Soksi, Kosgoro, MKGR, Gerakan Karya Rakyat, Ormas Hankam, Professi, and Gerakan Pembangunan. The Joint Secretariat was one of those organizations that condemned the 30 September Movement in 1965, in March 1968, General Suharto was officially elected by the Peoples Consultative Assembly as Indonesias second president. Because of his background, Suharto was not affiliated to any political parties. Suharto had never expressed much interest in party politics, however, if he were to be elected for a second term as president, he needed to align himself with a political party. Originally, Suharto had shown interest in aligning with the Indonesian National Party — the party of his predecessor, but in seeking to distance himself from the old regime, Suharto settled on Golkar. Suharto then ordered his closest associate, Ali Murtopo, to transform Golkar, under Murtopo, and with Suhartos supervision, Golkar was turned from a federation of NGOs into a political party. Under Suharto, Golkar continued to portray itself as a non-ideological entity and it promised to focus on economic development and stability rather than a specific ideological goal. Golkar also began identifying itself with the government, encouraging civil servants to vote for it as a sign of loyalty to the government. Murtopo claimed that workers were a group, which by rights ought to be subsumed under Golkar. In order to Golkar-ize the nation, Murtopo sometimes used the military, Golkar declared on February 4,1970, that it would participate in the 1971 legislative elections. Suhartos alignment with Golkar paid dividends when Golkar won 62% of the votes, the members of DPR also doubled as members as MPR and thus Suharto was easily re-elected to a second term as President in March 1973. The 1971 legislative election was a success for Golkar and Suharto, strengthened by his re-election, Suharto quickly began tightening his grip on Golkar
16.
Indonesian National Armed Forces
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The Indonesian National Armed Forces, in 2016 comprises approximately 395,500 military personnel including the Army, Navy including the Indonesian Marine Corps, and the Air Force. The Indonesian Armed Forces was formed during the Indonesian National Revolution, under the 1945 Constitution, all citizens are legally entitled and obliged to defend the nation. Conscription is provided for by law, yet the Forces have been able to maintain mandated strength levels without resorting to a draft, most enlisted personnel are recruited in their own home regions and generally train and serve most of their time in units nearby. The Indonesian armed forces are voluntary, the available manpower fit for military service of males aged between 16 and 49 is 75,000,000, with a further 4,500,000 new suitable for service annually. Military spending in the budget was widely estimated 3% of GDP in 2005. Before the formation of the Indonesian Republic, the authority in the Dutch East Indies was held by the Royal Dutch East Indies Army. There were military training centres, military schools and academies in the Dutch East Indies, next to Dutch volunteers and European mercenaries, the KNIL also recruited indigenous, especially Ambonese, Kai Islanders, Timorese, and Minahasan people. Some of the soldiers that had enjoyed Dutch KNIL military academy education would later become important TNI officers. Indonesian nationalism and militarism started to gain momentum and support in World War II during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, on 3 October 1943, the Japanese military formed the Indonesian volunteer army called PETA. The Japanese intended PETA to assist their forces oppose an invasion by the Allies. It also led to the formation of the Indonesian national armed force in 1945, the Indonesian armed forces have seen significant action since their establishment in 1945. Their first conflict was the 1945–1949 Indonesian National Revolution, in which the 1945 Battle of Surabaya was especially important. The decision to create a security corps and not an army, was taken to lessen the probability of the allied forces viewing it as an armed revolution and invading in full force. In January 1946, TRI was formed, in a step to professionalise the army. In June 1947 then, TRI changed its name to TNI which is a merger between the TRI with independent troopers paramilitary peoples struggle across Indonesia. From the 1950s to 1960s the Republic of Indonesia struggled to maintain its unity against local insurgencies, the TNI also helped bring the rebellion of Republic of South Maluku to a close in 1963. Meanwhile, the PRRI/Permesta rebellion holds a place in Indonesian military history because it was led by army officers in Sumatra. From 1961 to 1963, the TNI was involved in the campaign to incorporate Western New Guinea into Indonesia
17.
Electoral fraud
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Electoral fraud, election manipulation, or vote rigging is illegal interference with the process of an election. Acts of fraud affect vote counts to bring about a result, whether by increasing the vote share of the favored candidate, depressing the vote share of the rival candidates. What constitutes electoral fraud under law varies from country to country, many kinds of election fraud are outlawed in electoral legislation, but others are in violation of general laws, such as those banning assault, harassment or libel. Show elections, in only one candidate can win, are sometimes classified as electoral fraud. In national elections, successful electoral fraud can have the effect of a coup détat or corruption of democracy, in a narrow election, a small amount of fraud may be enough to change the result. Even if the outcome is not affected, revelation of fraud can have an effect, if not punished. A list of threats to voting systems, or electoral fraud methods considered as sabotage, is kept by the National Institute of Standards, Electoral fraud can occur in advance of voting if the composition of the electorate is altered. The legality of this type of manipulation varies across jurisdictions, deliberate manipulation of election outcomes is widely considered a violation of the principles of democracy. In many cases it is possible for authorities to control the composition of an electorate in order to produce a foregone result. One way of doing this is to move a number of voters into the electorate prior to an election. Many countries prevent this with rules stipulating that a voter must have lived in a district for a minimum period in order to be eligible to vote there. However, such laws can also be used for demographic manipulation as they tend to disenfranchise those with no fixed address, such as the homeless, travelers, Roma, students, another strategy is to permanently move people into an electoral district, usually through public housing. One notable example of this occurred in the City of Westminster in England under Shirley Porter, immigration law may also be used to manipulate electoral demography. A method of manipulating primary contests and other elections of party leaders is related to this, people who support one party may temporarily join another party in order to elect a weak candidate for that partys leadership. The goal ultimately is defeat of the candidate in the general election by the leader of the party that the voter truly supports. The composition of an electorate may also be altered by disenfranchising some classes of people, from the turn of the century into the late 1960s, most African Americans in the southern states of the former Confederacy were disenfranchised by such measures. Compared to most European nations, many states in the US have much more severe laws that prevent convicted felons who have served their sentences from ever voting again, groups may also be disenfranchised by rules which make it impractical or impossible for them to cast a vote. Communities may also be effectively disenfranchised if polling places are situated in areas perceived by voters as unsafe, in some cases voters may be invalidly disenfranchised, which is true electoral fraud
18.
Abdurrahman Wahid
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Abdurrahman Wahid, born Abdurrahman ad-Dakhil, colloquially known as Gus Dur, was an Indonesian Muslim religious and political leader who served as the President of Indonesia from 1999 to 2001. The long-time president of the Nahdlatul Ulama and the founder of the National Awakening Party and his popular nickname Gus Dur, is derived from Gus, a common honorific for a son of kyai, from short-form of bagus, and Dur, short-form of his name, Abdurrahman. Abdurrahman ad-Dakhil Wahid was born on the day of the eighth month of the Islamic calendar in 1940 in Jombang, East Java to Abdul Wahid Hasyim. This led to a belief that he was born on 4 August, instead, using the Islamic calendar to mark his birth date meant that he was born on 4 Shaaban. He was named after Abd ar-Rahman I of the Umayyad Caliphate who brought Islam to Spain and was thus nicknamed ad-Dakhil and his name is stylized in the traditional Arabic naming system as Abdurrahman, son of Wahid. His family is Javanese of mixed Chinese-Arabic origins with some native blood and he was the oldest of his five siblings, and was born into a very prestigious family in the East Java Muslim community. His paternal grandfather, Hasyim Asyari was the founder of Nahdlatul Ulama while his maternal grandfather, Wahids father, Wahid Hasyim, was involved in the nationalist movement and would go on to be Indonesias first Minister of Religious Affairs. At the end of the war in 1949, Wahid moved to Jakarta as his father had been appointed Minister of Religious Affairs and he was educated in Jakarta, going to KRIS Primary School before moving to Matraman Perwari Primary School. Wahid was also encouraged to read books, magazines. He stayed in Jakarta with his family even after his fathers removal as Minister of Religious Affairs in 1952, in April 1953, Wahids father died after being involved in a car crash. In 1954, Wahid began Junior High School and that year, he failed to graduate to the next year and was forced to repeat. His mother then made the decision to him to Yogyakarta to continue his education. In 1957, after graduating from Junior High School, he moved to Magelang to begin Muslim Education at Tegalrejo Pesantren and he completed the pesantren course in two years instead of the usual four. In 1959, he moved back to Jombang to Pesantren Tambakberas, there, while continuing his own education, Wahid also received his first job as a teacher and later on as headmaster of a madrasah affiliated with the pesantren. Wahid also found employment as a journalist for such as Horizon. In 1963, Wahid received a scholarship from the Ministry of Religious Affairs to study at Al Azhar University in Cairo and he left for Egypt in November 1963. Instead of attending classes, Wahid spent 1964 enjoying life in Egypt, Wahid was also involved with the Association of Indonesian Students and became a journalist for the associations magazine. In Egypt, Wahid found employment with the Indonesian Embassy and it was during his stint with the embassy that coup attempt was launched by the 30 September Movement, which the Communist Party of Indonesia was accused of leading
19.
Kaaba
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The Kaaba, also referred as Al Kaaba Al Musharrafah, is a building at the center of Islams most sacred mosque, Al-Masjid al-Haram, in Mecca, al-Hejaz, Saudi Arabia. It is the most sacred site in Islam and it is considered the House of Allah and has a similar role to the Tabernacle and Holy of Holies in Judaism. Wherever they are in the world, Muslims are expected to face the Kaaba when performing salat, from any point in the world, the direction facing the Kaaba is called the qibla. The sanctuary around the Kaaba is called Al-Masjid al-Haram, one of the Five Pillars of Islam requires every Muslim who is able to do so to perform the hajj pilgrimage at least once in their lifetime. Multiple parts of the hajj require pilgrims to make tawaf, the seven times around the Kaaba in a counter-clockwise direction. Tawaf is also performed by pilgrims during the umrah, however, the most significant times are during the hajj, when millions of pilgrims gather to circle the building within a 5-day period. In 2013, the number of pilgrims coming from outside the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to perform hajj was officially reported as 1,379,531. In 2014, Saudi Arabia reported having completed Hajj permits for 1,389,053 international pilgrims and 63,375 for residents. The building is called by names in the Quran and Hadith, such as Bait, Bait ul Haram, Bait Ullah, Bait al-Ateeq. The Arabic word Bait is cognate to the Hebrew Bait, also meaning House, the Arabic word Kaaba means square or cube. The Quran also mentions Bait al-Mamur, the House of God in Heavens which the Kaaba symbolizes, the Kaaba is a stone cube structure made of granite. The Kaaba is approximately 13.1 m high, with sides measuring 11.03 m by 12.86 m, inside the Kaaba, the floor is made of marble and limestone. The interior walls, measuring 13 m by 9 m, are clad with tiled, white marble halfway to the roof, the floor of the interior stands about 2.2 m above the ground area where tawaf is performed. The wall directly adjacent to the entrance of the Kaaba has six tablets inlaid with inscriptions, along the top corners of the walls runs a green cloth embroidered with gold Quranic verses. Caretakers anoint the marble cladding with the same scented oil used to anoint the Black Stone outside, three pillars stand inside the Kaaba, with a small altar or table set between one and the other two. Lamp-like objects hang from the ceiling, the ceiling itself is of a darker colour, similar in hue to the lower trimming. A golden door—the Babut Taubah —on the right opens to an enclosed staircase that leads to a hatch. Both the roof and ceiling are made of stainless steel-capped teak wood, each numbered item in the following list corresponds to features noted in the diagram image
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Mecca
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Mecca or Makkah is a city in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia that is also capital of the Makkah Region. The city is located 70 km inland from Jeddah in a valley at a height of 277 m above sea level. Its resident population in 2012 was roughly 2 million, although more than triple this number every year during the hajj period held in the twelfth Muslim lunar month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Mecca is home to the Kaaba, by majority description Islams holiest site, Mecca was long ruled by Muhammads descendants, the sharifs, acting either as independent rulers or as vassals to larger polities. It was conquered by Ibn Saud in 1925, during this expansion, Mecca has lost some historical structures and archaeological sites, such as the Ajyad Fortress. Today, more than 15 million Muslims visit Mecca annually, including several million during the few days of the Hajj, as a result, Mecca has become one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the Muslim world, despite the fact that non-Muslims are prohibited from entering the city. The Saudi government adopted Makkah as the spelling in the 1980s. The full official name is Makkah al-Mukarramah or Makkatu l-Mukarramah, which means Mecca the Honored, the ancient or early name for the site of Mecca is Bakkah. An Arabic language word, its etymology, like that of Mecca, is obscure, the form Bakkah is used for the name Mecca in the Quran in 3,96, while the form Mecca is used in 48,24. In South Arabic, the language in use in the portion of the Arabian Peninsula at the time of Muhammad. Other references to Mecca in the Quran call it Umm al-Qurā, another name of Mecca is Tihamah. Arab and Islamic tradition holds that the wilderness of Paran, broadly speaking, is the Tihamah, yaqut al-Hamawi, the 12th century Syrian geographer, wrote that Fārān was an arabized Hebrew word. One of the names of Mecca mentioned in the Torah, Mecca is governed by the Municipality of Mecca, a municipal council of fourteen locally elected members headed by a mayor appointed by the Saudi government. As of May 2015, the mayor of the city was Dr. Osama bin Fadhel Al-Bar, Mecca is the capital of the Makkah Region, which includes neighboring Jeddah. The provincial governor was prince Abdul Majeed bin Abdulaziz Al Saud from 2000 until his death in 2007, on 16 May 2007, prince Khalid bin Faisal Al Saud was appointed as the new governor. The early history of Mecca is still disputed, as there are no unambiguous references to it in ancient literature prior to the rise of Islam. The Roman Empire took control of part of the Hejaz in 106 AD, ruling cities such as Hegra, even though detailed descriptions were established of Western Arabia by Rome, such as by Procopius, there are no references of a pilgrimage and trading outpost such as Mecca. The first direct mention of Mecca in external literature occurs in 741 AD in the Byzantine-Arab Chronicle, claims have been made this could be a reference to the Kaaba in Mecca
21.
Sudharmono
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Sudharmono was Indonesias fifth vice president, and was in office during the period 1988 –1993. Sudharmono was born on 12 March 1927 in Gresik, East Java and he lost both his parents in the space of six months when he was only three. Sudharmono then went to live with his uncle, a serving in the Regency of Jombang. As he grew up however, he would move around a lot, Sudharmono had just completed Junior High School when Indonesia proclaimed its independence from the Netherlands in 1945. After deciding to drop out any further education, Sudharmono assisted in collecting weapons from the Japanese troops in preparation of the formation of an Indonesian Army. As a result of this, he became the Commander of the Ronggolawe Division, after the Dutch retreated in 1949, Sudharmono completed his Secondary Education before going to Jakarta in 1952 to join the Military Law Academy. He completed the course in 1956 before serving in Medan, North Sumatra as an Army Attorney from 1957–1961, in 1962, Sudharmono received his degree in law after completing a course at Military Law University. After this, Sudharmono was appointed Chairman of the Central Government Personnel Orders Unit, during the Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation, President Sukarno formed the Supreme Operations Command, which was a war command immediately under Sukarnos control. In 1963, Sudharmono joined KOTI and was given the role of Joint Centre Operations Member for the Supreme Operations It was from this position that Sudharmono began his rise, in October 1965, Major General Suharto was appointed Army Commander and joined KOTI as its Chief of Staff. Suharto formed a relationship with Sudharmono during these times in Indonesian history. On 11 March 1966, when Suharto received the Emergency Powers from Sukarno, Sudharmono was the one who reproduced copies of the letter to be distributed to other Military Officers. The next day, on 12 March 1966, Sudharmono was also the one to write the decree banning PKI, with Suhartos rise to power, KOTI was disbanded but Sudharmonos administrative skills and the trust that he had earned from Suharto ensured him a position in Suhartos administration. When Suharto became President in 1968, Sudharmono was named Cabinet Secretary as well as Chairman of the Economic Stability Council. In 1970, Sudharmono was moved from the position of Cabinet Secretary to the State Secretary, by the 1980s, Sudharmono had proved his loyalty to Suharto and had also shown that he does not have any ambitions. At the 1983 Golkar Congress, with Suhartos support, Sudharmono was elected as the Chairman of Golkar, as Chairman, Sudharmono conducted many inspection tours of Golkar branches in the regions. Sudharmono also initiated a drive to get more voters to Golkar. The 1987 Legislative Elections was also a one for Golkar as it emerged victorious in the Province of Aceh for the first time. As the MPR convened for its 1988 General Session, it was believed by many that Suharto would be elected to his fifth
22.
Megawati Sukarnoputri
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Megawati is the leader of the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle, one of Indonesias largest political parties. She is the daughter of Indonesias first president, Sukarno, Megawati has been Indonesias only female president and the sixth woman to lead a Muslim-majority country. She is also the first Indonesian leader to be born after Indonesia proclaimed independence, after serving as vice-president to Abdurrahman Wahid, Megawati became president when Wahid was removed from office in 2001. She ran for re-election in the 2004 presidential election, but was defeated by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and she sought a rematch in the 2009 presidential election, losing again to Yudhoyono. Megawati was born in Yogyakarta to Sukarno, who had declared Indonesias independence from the Netherlands in 1945 and Fatmawati, Megawati was Sukarnos second child and first daughter. She grew up in her fathers Merdeka Palace and she danced for her fathers guests and developed a gardening hobby. Megawati was 19 when her father relinquished power in 1966 and was succeeded by a government which came to be led by President Suharto. Sukarnos family was pushed into the background by the new government, Megawati attended Padjadjaran University in Bandung to study agriculture but dropped out in 1967 to be with her father following his fall. In 1970, the year her father died, Megawati went to the University of Indonesia to study psychology and she is a practising Muslim but also follows traditional Javanese beliefs. Sukarnoputri is a patronymic, not a name, Javanese often do not have family names. She is often referred to as simply Megawati or Mega, derived from Sanskrit meaning cloud goddess, in a speech to the students of the Sri Sathya Sai Primary School, she mentioned that Biju Patnaik, former Chief minister of Odisha, India, named her at Sukarnos request. In 1986, Suharto gave the status of Proclamation Hero to Sukarno in a ceremony attended by Megawati, Suhartos acknowledgment enabled the Indonesian Democratic Party, a government-sanctioned party, to campaign on Sukarno nostalgia in the lead-up to the 1987 legislative elections. Up to that time, Megawati had seen herself as a housewife, PDI accepted Megawati to boost their own image. Megawati quickly became popular, her status as Sukarnos daughter offsetting her lack of oratorical skills, although PDI came last in the elections, Megawati was elected to the DPR. Like all members of the DPR she also became a member of the Peoples Consultative Assembly, Megawati was not reelected, but continued as a PDI member. In December 1993, PDI held a National Congress, as was always the case when New Order opposition parties held their congresses, the Government actively interfered. As the Congress approached, three individuals contended for the Chair of PDI, the incumbent, Suryadi, had become critical of the Government. The second was Budi Harjono a Government-friendly figure whom the Government backed and her candidacy received such overwhelming support that her election at the Congress became a formality
23.
Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle
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The Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle is an Indonesian political party, and the party of the current president of Indonesia, Joko Widodo. The PDI-P was founded and is led by Megawati Sukarnoputri, president of Indonesia from 2001 to 2004, and daughter of Sukarno. Megawati was forced out from the leadership of the Indonesian Democratic Party by the government of Indonesia under Suharto in 1996, Megawati formed the PDI-P in 1999, after Suharto resigned and restrictions on political parties were lifted. The partys centre-left ideology is based on the official Indonesian national philosophy and it is a member of the Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats and Progressive Alliance. This result was not recognised by the government, which continued to push for Budi Harjono, its candidate for the chairpersonship. A Special Congress was held where the Government expected to have Harjono elected and her position was consolidated further when a PDI National Assembly ratified the results of the congress. In June 1996, another National Congress was held in the city of Medan, to which Megawati was not invited, with the governments backing, Suryadi, a former hairperson was re-elected as PDIs Chairperson. Megawati refused to acknowledge the results of this congress and continued to see herself as the leader of the PDI. On the morning of 27 July 1996, Suryadi threatened to take back PDIs Headquarters in Jakarta, Suryadis supporters attacked the PDI Headquarters and faced resistance from Megawati supporters who had been stationed there since the National Congress in Medan. In the ensuing clash, Megawatis supporters managed to hold on to the headquarters, a riot ensued — at that stage considered the worst that Jakarta had seen during the New Order years — which was followed by a government crackdown. The government later blamed the riots on the Peoples Democracy Party, despite being overthrown as chairperson by Suryadi and the government, the event lifted Megawatis profile immensely, providing both sympathy and national popularity. The PDI was now divided into two factions, Megawatis faction and Suryadis faction, Megawatis faction had wanted to participate in the 1997 legislative elections, but the government only recognized Suryadis faction. In the elections, Megawati and her supporters threw their support behind the United Development Party, Megawati was elected Chairperson of PDI-P and was nominated for the Indonesian presidency in 1999. PDI-P was by far the most popular political party coming into the 1999 legislative elections, with 33% of the votes, PDI-P emerged with the largest share. As the 1999 MPR General Session loomed closer, it was expected that PDI-P would once again play the dominant role, however, despite winning the Legislative Elections, PDI-P did not have absolute majority. Despite this however, PDI-P never formed a coalition with any of the political parties in the lead up to the 1999 MPR General Session. The closest thing PDI-P had to a coalition was an alliance with Abdurrahman Wahids National Awakening Party. The Presidency looked set to be contested by Megawati and the then incumbent BJ Habibie of Golkar who was looking for a second term, however, MPR Chairman Amien Rais had other ideas as he formed a coalition called the Central Axis which consisted of Muslim Parties
24.
Hamzah Haz
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Hamzah Haz is an Indonesian politician. He was the Chairman of the United Development Party and served as the ninth Vice-President from 2001 until 2004, Hamzah was a newspaper journalist in his home town of Pontianak, on the island of Borneo, and later taught economics at Tanjungpura University. His political career began in 1968 as a member of the West Kalimantan Provincial Representative Council and he later moved to Jakarta, became a member of the Parliament in 1971, first as a member of the muslim Nahdlatul Ulama Party. Hamzah served as Minister for Investment under President B. J. Habibie, Hamzah joined the cabinet of President Abdurrahman Wahid, then became the first to quit Wahids first cabinet, resigning as Minister for Peoples Welfare after just two months. He became a critic of Wahid, but he is also known for his ability to compromise. By the time of Wahids impeachment in the summer of 2001, Hamzah was leader of the PPP, as such, he became the obvious choice for the members of Peoples Consultative Assembly to fill the vacancy of Vice Presidents office, as Megawati Sukarnoputri moved up to the Presidency. In the 2004 presidential election, Hamzah Haz was one of the presidential candidates, the pair finished last among the five candidates, garnering only 3 percent of the total vote. A number of journalists and commentators have written that Haz is seen by many as willing to support for militant Muslim groups as a way of gaining political support from them. Hamzah is also known as an apologist for and friend of Abu Bakar Bashir, Hamzah made a public show of inviting Bashir to dinner while Hamzah was Vice President, and visited Bashirs jihadist pesantren in Pondok Ngruki. Haz denied that Bashir was connected to terrorism up until Bashirs arrest in October 2002, if you want to arrest Abu Bakar Bashir, he was quoted as saying before Bashirs arrest, you will have to deal with me first. According to an October 2002 article in TIME magazine, That clerics like Abubakar have powerful military and political allies is no secret, in 2002, an Australian academic cited Hamzah as the best example of Islamic politicians in Indonesia prepared to play the extremist card to attract extra votes. He has also accused the CIA and the United States of carrying out the Bali bombing. In 2002 Hamzah gave an interview to the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, in a voiceover played during the television interview, an ABC journalist said, Before the Bali bombing, Vice President Hamzah Haz insisted there were no terrorists in Indonesia. The ABC interviewer then told Hamzah, In light of Bali, Hamzah responded, It’s not true that I protect them and I don’t regret what I said, but I said it in the past — it relates to the past. But now if there is a connection we want to know whether it is true that Indonesia has a terrorist network, on 3 September 2003 Haz stated, Actually, who is the terrorist, who is against human rights. The answer is the United States because they attacked Iraq, moreover, it is the terrorist king, waging war. According to the Sydney Morning Herald, Hamzahs statement was an attack that echoed the language of many of the Bali bombers. Soon after Hamzahs remarks, Riza Sihbudi, a political analyst at the Indonesian Institute of Sciences and he should not have spoken like that as he is the Vice-President, Sihbudi said
25.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
26.
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
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Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono GCB AC DUT is an Indonesian politician and retired Army general officer who was the President of Indonesia from 2004 to 2014. He is currently the chairman of the Democratic Party of Indonesia and President of the Assembly, Yudhoyono won the 2004 presidential election, defeating incumbent President Megawati Sukarnoputri. Widely known in Indonesia by his initials SBY, he was sworn into office on 20 October 2004 and he was born in Tremas, a village in Arjosari, Pacitan Regency, East Java, to a lower-middle-class family and is the son of Raden Soekotjo and Siti Habibah. His name is Javanese, with Sanskrit roots, Susilo comes from the words su-, meaning good and -sila, meaning behaviour, conduct or moral. Bambang is a male name in Javanese, meaning knight. Yudhoyono comes from the words yuddha -meaning battle, fight, and yana, thus his name roughly translates to well behaved knight. Yudhoyono had wanted to join the army since he was a child, in school, he developed a reputation as an academic achiever, excelling in writing poems, short stories, and play-acting. Yudhoyono was also talented in music and sport, reflected when he and his friends established a club called Klub Rajawali. When he was in grade, Yudhoyono visited the Indonesian Armed Forces Academy. After seeing the training there and perhaps inspired by his own fathers career, Yudhoyono became determined to join Indonesian Armed Forces. Yudhoyono planned to enlist after graduating high school in 1968, however. There, he was able to prepare everything for the phase of his education at Akabri. Yudhoyono officially entered AKABRI in 1970 after passing the test in Bandung, Yudhoyono spent three years at Indonesian Armed Forces Academy and became the Commander of the Cadet Corps Division there. He graduated from AKABRI as second lieutenant in 1973, and as the best graduate of the year, after graduating, Yudhoyono joined the Army Strategic Reserve and became a platoon commander in the 330th Airborne Battalion. Aside from leading his troops, Yudhoyono was also tasked with giving the battalion soldiers lessons on general knowledge, Yudhoyonos proficiency in English was one of the reasons why he was sent to the United States to undertake the Airborne and Ranger Courses at Fort Benning in 1975. Yudhoyono returned to Indonesia in 1976 where he became a commander in the 305th Battalion. Yudhoyono had several tours of duty there and, like many other Indonesian officers involved in the occupation of East Timor, was accused of committing war crimes, however, Yudhoyono has never been charged with any specific act. From East Timor, Yudhoyono became a platoon commander in 1977, an operations officer for an airborne brigade from 1977 to 1978
27.
Akbar Tandjung
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Akbar Tandjung is an Indonesian politician who is a former chairman of Golkar party. He was the Speaker of the Peoples Representative Council from 1999 to 2004 and he also held several ministerial posts in the government. He lost the chairmanship to Jusuf Kalla, the countrys vice president. Akbar Tandjung has remained a figure within Golkar. Profile at TokohIndonesia. com Akbar Tandjung Institute
28.
Indonesian legislative election, 2004
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Indonesia held legislative elections on 5 April 2004 for both houses of the Peoples Consultative Assembly, the countrys national legislature. This included all 550 seats in the Peoples Representative Council and 128 seats of the new Regional Representative Council, final results of the popular vote tally showed that Golkar, the former ruling party of the New Order era, received the largest number of votes. It had lost to the Indonesian Democratic Party – Struggle in the 1999 legislative election, the Democratic Party and the Prosperous Justice Party, two of the newest parties to participate in the elections, received a combined 14.8 percent of the popular vote. The election has been described as the most complicated election in the history of democracy, during its 2002 annual session, the Peoples Consultative Assembly added 14 amendments to the Constitution of Indonesia. Included in these amendments were measures to reorganize the legislature, beginning in 2004, the MPR was composed of the existing Peoples Representative Council and a new Regional Representative Council. Because all the seats in the MPR were directly elected, this called for removal of the military from the legislature and this change and an amendment for direct election of the President and Vice President were major steps for Indonesia on the road towards a full democracy. On 13 July 2003, President Megawati Sukarnoputri signed into effect a law outlining the composition of the reorganized MPR, the new DPD was composed of four representatives from each of the 32 provinces of Indonesia, not totaling more than one-third of the members of the DPR. The revised constitution also set membership in the DPR at 550, during the first phases of registration,150 parties were registered with the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights. However, this number was reduced to 50 and then 24 after scrutiny from the newly created General Election Commission, only six parties met this requirement, and the remaining parties were required to merge or reorganize into a new party. The campaign period for parties and candidates began on 11 March and it was split into two phases by Nyepi, the Balinese day of silence. Parties delivered their national agendas indoors between 11 and 25 March, although this was meant to encourage dialogue between parties and their constituents, these events were poorly attended. The International Foundation for Electoral Systems conducted a survey that showed not all voters knew how to vote for candidates of the new DPD. Up to 475,000 candidates were nominated by the parties in the national, provincial. More than 1,200 candidates stood for 128 seats in the DPD, candidates were elected in an open list system. The election results determined which political parties were eligible to submit candidates for Indonesias first direct presidential election, only parties that received five percent of the popular vote or three percent of seats in the Peoples Representative Council could submit candidates. Parties that did not meet these criteria had to join other parties to meet at least one criterion. Election day,5 April, was free of major incidents. Minor violations included officials helping elderly voters cast and submit ballots, two Indonesian election officials were also reported killed when delivering voting equipment in Papua
29.
Indonesian presidential election, 2004
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The first direct presidential election in Indonesia was held in two rounds on July 5 and September 20,2004. Prior to a 2002 amendment to the Constitution of Indonesia, the President and Vice President were elected by the countrys top legislative body, the Peoples Consultative Assembly. If no pair receives the amount of required, the election will continue into the second round with the pairs receiving the highest. The incumbent President, Megawati Sukarnoputri, was elected into office in 2001 after the legislature impeached and removed her predecessor, president Abdurrahman Wahid, Megawatis re-election bid was challenged by four candidates, including incumbent Vice President Hamzah Haz. In the first round, former member and retired General Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono received a plurality of the valid ballots submitted, followed by Megawati. Yudhoyono eventually defeated Megawati with 60.62 percent of the ballots in the second round. He was inaugurated as the sixth President of Indonesia on 20 October 2004, the PDI–P was led by Megawati Sukarnoputri, daughter of Sukarno, Indonesias first president. Megawatis supporters had expected her to be elected President by the MPR and her only opponent at the time was President Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie, who came into office in May 1998, but he withdrew his candidacy after his accountability speech was rejected by the MPR. The PKB, which was led by Abdurrahman Wahid, the leader of Indonesias largest Islamic organization Nahdlatul Ulama, had pledged to support Megawati for President. However, it clear that Megawati did not have enough votes to back her candidacy. Additionally, National Mandate Party leader Amien Rais and his Central Axis, Abdurrahman eventually won the MPRs presidential election, and Megawati was elected as Vice President. As President, he repealed many of the laws enacted during the Suharto era that discriminated against Chinese Indonesians, among these were bans on the use of Chinese characters and display of images relating to Chinese culture. Following this act, many political parties began to reach out to Chinese Indonesians for their votes by displaying Chinese characters on campaign material, following Abdurrahmans impeachment and removal from office by the MPR in July 2001, the legislative body elevated Megawati to the presidency. She would complete the remainder of Abdurrahmans five-year term, ending in October 2004 and this presidential election process would involve political parties nominating a presidential and vice presidential ticket with the option of runoff election. In December 2003, the International Foundation for Electoral Systems began a survey in order to assess the popularity of potential candidates. The survey continued until the start of the first election round on 5 July, the first IFES survey indicated that incumbent President Megawati Sukarnoputri received a plurality of the votes. However, by the time of the April 2004 legislative election, other potential candidates included DPR Speaker Akbar Tanjung and Yogyakarta Sultan Hamengkubuwana X. The results of the election determined which political parties were eligible to submit presidential tickets
30.
Reform Star Party
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The Reform Star Party is an Islamist political party in Indonesia. The movements leader was Zainuddin MZ, an Islamic preacher and chairman of the central leadership. He and other dissatisfied party members planned to establish a new party to be called the PPP Reformasi, after a meeting between the discontents and Hamzah Haz, Hamzah agreed to accommodate the demands of Zainuddins group for a restructuring and regeneration of the PPP leadership. Zainuddin said he did not want to be responsible for the breakup of the PPP. A Team of 7 was established to undertake the changes, on January 8,2002, Zainuddin resigned from the PPP and on January 20 declared the formation of the PPP Reformasi with a logo similar to that of the PPP but with five stars added. As the 2002 Election Law did not allow parties to use existing party names or symbols, the party has been beset by internal conflict. As a result of tension between Zainuddin and Zaenal Maarif, two of the founders, an extraordinary party congress was held in April 2006. This saw the expulsion of Zaenal, who had wanted to party chairman. Subsequently other party members joined other parties, including Zainuddin himself, at the last 2004 Indonesian legislative elections, the party won 2. 4% of the popular vote and 14 out of 550 seats and established its own faction in the Peoples Representative Council. The partys target for the 2009 legislative election was 7 percent, however, it won only 1.2 percent of the votes, less than the 2.5 percent electoral threshold, meaning it lost all its seats in the legislature. In the legislative election held on 9 April 2009, support for the PBR was higher than the national average in the following provinces
31.
Indonesian legislative election, 2009
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Legislative elections were held in Indonesia on 9 April 2009 for 132 seats of the Regional Representative Council and 560 seats of the Peoples Representative Council. A total of 38 parties met the requirements to be allowed to participate in the national elections, the Democratic Party of President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono won the largest share of the vote, followed by the Golkar Party and the Indonesian Democratic Party – Struggle. On 5 October 2004, three regencies were carved out of the province of South Sulawesi to form West Sulawesi as the 33rd province of Indonesia, because this occurred after the 2004 legislative election, West Sulawesi was not represented in the Regional Representative Council during the 2004–2009 period. There were talks on increasing the number of seats in the Peoples Representative Council as early as September 2007, in a meeting of a committee to draft changes to the Constitution, various factions within the government proposed an increase to between 560 and 600 seats total. On 18 February 2008, the agreed on a 10-seat increase in the Council to 560 total seats in order to accommodate for the new province of West Sulawesi. In accordance with General Election Commission Regulation No, 20/2008, the first phase of the election was finalizing the list of voters. This was completed on 24 October 2008 with 170,022,239 people announced as eligible voters. However, a later, the Commission announced that due to errors in entering data, and after eliminating multiple counting. It changed the final count once again on 12 March 2009 to 171,265,442 national, however, TV advertising was permitted to continue. The legislative election took place on 9 April, and results were announced one month later, the new members of the Regional Representative Council and the Peoples Representative Council will be sworn in on 1 October. Over 60 parties registered for the elections, but only 34 originally met the eligibility requirements, however, on 15 August 2008, following a successful legal challenge, another four parties were permitted to join the contest, making 38 in total. A total of 11,219 candidates vied for seats in the Peoples Representative Council, among the requirements for parties is that 30 percent of candidates are women. The Constitutional Court also lifted the restriction on former members of the Indonesian Communist Party to stand as candidates in the legislative election. The introduction of a parliamentary threshold also meant that only parties receiving more than 2.5 percent of the vote would be seated in the Peoples Representative Council. Although the election began on 12 July 2008, before 16 March it was limited to invitation-only meetings, advertisements in the media. The public campaign ran until 5 April 2009, participants in the campaign were banned from calling into question the ideological or constitutional basis of the state as well as its form as a unitary republic. In contrast to previous elections that were closed list, Indonesia instituted an open list system for this election. Individuals campaigned not only as members of their party but also on their own merits
32.
Java
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Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of over 141 million or 145 million as of 2015 Census released in December 2015, the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java and it was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s, Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Formed mostly as the result of eruptions, Java is the 13th largest island in the world. A chain of mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island, Javanese, Sundanese, of these, Javanese is the dominant, it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian as their first or second language, while the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four provinces, West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, the origins of the name Java are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time. There are other sources, the word jaú and its variations mean beyond or distant. And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous, Yawadvipa is mentioned in Indias earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Ramas army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa and it was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name yāvaka dvīpa. Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram, another source states that the Java word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, Iawa that meaning home. The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia composed around 150 CE Roman Empire, Iabadiu is said to mean barley island, to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java, and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa, Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south and it is the worlds 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes
33.
Constitution of Indonesia
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The Constitution of Indonesia is the basis for the government of the Indonesia. The constitution was written in June, July and August 1945 and it was abrogated by the Federal Constitution of 1949 and the Provisional Constitution of 1950, but restored on 5 July 1959. The 1945 Constitution then set forth the Pancasila, the five nationalist principles devised by Sukarno and it provides for a limited separation of executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The governmental system has been described as presidential with parliamentary characteristics, the Japanese invaded the Netherlands East Indies in 1942, defeated the Dutch colonial regime, and occupied it for the duration of the Second World War. Indonesia then fell under the jurisdiction of the Japanese Southern Expeditionary Army, based in Saigon, on 29 April 1945, the 16th Army established Badan Penyelidik Usaha-usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia, for Java. The 25th Army later established a BPUPKI for Sumatra, No such organisation existed for the remainder of Indonesia. The BPUPKI in Java, when established, consisted of 62 members and it was chaired by Dr Radjiman Wedyodiningrat. The future president Sukarno and vice-president Mohammad Hatta were among its members and they met in the building that had been used by the Dutch colonial quasi-parliament, the Volksraad in central Jakarta. It held two sessions,29 May –1 June and 10–17 July 1945, the first session discussed general matters, including the philosophy of the state for future independent Indonesia, Pancasila. The philosophy was formulated by nine members of BPUPKI, Soekarno, Hatta, Yamin, Maramis, Soebardjo, Wahid Hasjim, Muzakkir, Agus Salim and Abikoesno. The outcome was something of a compromise, and included an obligation for Muslims to follow syariah Islamic law, the second session produced a provisional constitution made up of 37 articles,4 transitory provision and 2 additional provision. The nation would be a state and a republic. On 26 July 1945, the Allies called for the surrender of Japan in the Potsdam Declaration. The Japanese authorities, realising they would lose the war, began to make firm plans for Indonesian independence. On 6 August, a bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. On 7 August, the Nanpo Gun headquarters announced that an Indonesian leader could enact a body called the Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia, the dropping of a second atomic bomb, on Nagasaki, on 9 August prompted the Japanese to surrender unconditionally on 15 August 1945. Sukarno and Hatta declared independence on 17 August 1945, and the PPKI met the following day, in the meeting chaired by Sukarno, the 27 members, including Hatta, Supomo, Wachid Hasjim, Sam Ratulangi and Subardjo, began to discuss the proposed constitution article by article. The Committee made some changes, including the removal of 7 words from the text of Jakarta Charter which stated the obligation for Muslims to follow syariah Islamic law
34.
Indonesian legislative election, 1977
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Indonesias third legislative election, and the second under the New Order regime, was held on May 2,1977. There were three participants, the two parties and the functional group Golkar. Liddle, R. William Pemilu-Pemilu Orde Baru, LP3ES, Jakarta ISBN 979-8015-88-6 Ricklefs, a history of modern Indonesia since c.1200. ISBN 0-8047-4480-7 Sudibjo, M Pemilihan Umum 1992, Suatu Evaluasi Center for Strategic and International Studies, Jakarta
35.
Indonesian legislative election, 1987
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Indonesias fifth legislative election, and the fourth under the New Order government, was held on 23 April 1987. There were three participants, the two parties and the functional group Golkar. Like all the New Order elections, it was a victory for Golkar. It managed to position itself as the party of the little people, later that year, the government obliged all political parties to adopt the state philosophy Pancasila as their ideological basis. In 1987, the NU leadership declared that its members and supporters were not obliged to vote for the PPP and this had the effect of increasing the influence of the NU, which had been much diminished within the PPP. The priority of Golkar was to secure a majority of the vote in the devoutly Islamic province of Aceh. In order to achieve this, Golkar made use of two servants, the managing director of state oil company Pertamina and the head of the State Logistics agency. Local companies, much more dependent on government contracts then in the past, were the biggest donors. However, the factor for Golkar was the political leadership of Aceh governor Ibrahim Hasan. He traveled around the province telling people that a Golkar victory would bring about development without sacrificing traditional values. In the final days of the campaign, thousands of supporters of the Indonesian Democratic Party paraded in Jakarta carrying portraits of former president Sukarno. During the campaign, the PDI had tried to take a stand against corruption, as a result of the withdrawal of the NU, the PPP lost more than 40% of its 1982 vote, with Golkar seeing the most benefit. The PPP vote fell in 24 or the 27 provinces, the PDI share of the vote rose by 3%, with its share up by more than a third over 1982. Most of the came in western Java, and in Jakarta. Golkar, meanwhile, achieved its aim in Aceh, and for the first time won a majority of the vote in Jakarta. This would be the case for election until the 1998 collapse of the New Order. After the election the next item on the agenda was the election of the president and vice-president by the Peoples Consultative Assembly. This added up to 80% of the membership, the only question was who would Suharto appoint as vice-president
36.
Indonesian legislative election, 1992
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Indonesias sixth legislative election, and the fifth under the New Order regime, was held on June 9,1992. Although the share of the vote won by Golkar declined, in 1973, the government obliged the nine political parties of the time to fuse themselves into the Islamic United Development Party and the nationalist Indonesian Democratic Party. The only other participant for all the elections held during the New Order regime was Golkar, long before the election campaign, the PPP had decided on President Suharto as its presidential candidate for the 1993-1998 term. Since its 1996 Congress, the PDI had striven to increase party unity and it tried to position itself as the party of the little people to take advantage of public dissatisfaction. It also tried to portray itself as the most nationalistic party and raised such as social inequality. It also faced demands for more openness and to human rights. The election campaign lasted from May 10 to June 3, on May 9, Interior Minister and Election Board chairman Rudini stated that all election participants had the same standing, rights and obligations during the campaign. The following day, the governor of Yogyakarta banned the use of two-wheeled vehicles for campaigning, two days later, PPP and PDI members removed their flags from the streets of Yogya and replaced them with white flags as a protest against the ban. On May 22, around 3,000 students bearing white flags, the demonstration ended after representatives were allowed to meet with the chairman of the local legislature. This became known as the Yogya Incident, on June 1, an interior ministry official announced that 23 people had died during the campaign, all as a result of traffic accidents. A further 194 had been injured, golkars campaign began with a rally in Surabaya, East Java. On May 23, party spokesman Sarwono Kusumaatmadja said that it was difficult to bring about change without risking the unity of the nation, golkars campaign ended where it had begun, in Surabaya. On the same day, PPP chairman Ismail Hasan Metareum said that te party would work to improve the lot of the disadvantaged by building a pro-people economy and bringing about social justice. On May 29, he said the PPP must win a majority of the vote in Jakarta, on May 10 in Surabaya, PDI chairman Soerjadi said the election was a way of preventing authoritarian government, and limiting power. Soerjadi called for the 1985 law on parties to be amended to allow the political parties to organize down to the village level. He also demanded tougher sentences for those convicted of corruption and an end to monopolies, polls opened at 8am local time and closed at 2pm. After counting of votes at the stations, results were sent to the central election agency. The results were announced on June 29
37.
Indonesian legislative election, 1997
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Legislative elections were held in Indonesia on 29 May 1997. There were actually three elections in one as voters were electing members of two levels of government as well as the House of Representatives. This was to be the last election of President Suhartos New Order regime, like the preceding New Order elections, it was won outright by the Golkar organization. The 27-day campaign ran from April 27 to May 23, with a period of five days before polling day. The mass media tended to favour a particular election participant, for example Suara Karya newspaper only reported on Golkar campaign activities, on the other hand, the daily Media Indonesia was rather more balanced, but overall, Golkar campaign speakers received far more coverage. In the later stages of the campaign, media coverage was dominated by reports of campaign violence, Suara Karya in particular reported three times as many violent incidents involving the PPP than any other paper. Not a single election participant started the campaign by announcing or focusing on its main themes, the campaign was dominated by sloganistic issues with very little substance. For example, all three election participants promised to address such as poverty and corruption, but none actually said how they would do this. In fact, Kristiadi says that the difference between this campaign and the previous one in 1992 was that there was less use of verses from the Koran to try. Following the governments forced replacement of PDI leader Megawati Sukarnoputri by Soeryadi at the partys 1996 Medan conference, meanwhile, many of Megawatis supporters gravitated towards the PPP, in a phenomenon known as the Mega-Bintang coalition. Bintang means star, and was the symbol of the PPP and this was an entirely unexpected occurrence. Megawati was seen as representing secular politics, while the PPP was an Islamic party, PPP officials explicitly rejected the term coalition, and said the increase in their support was a symbol of the revival of their party. However, posters and symbols carried by Megawati supporters made it clear what the Mega-Bintang coalition really meant, the government then banned the use of Mega-Bintang posters and symbols, saying it was contrary to election regulation. This ban was used by the security forces as an excuse to remove all such symbols, there were also other reports of known PPP and PDI supporters being intimidated. Source, Kristiadi et al Table 35 p161 Kristiadi, J. Legowo, T. A. Budi Harjanto, pemilihan Umum 1997, Perkiraan, Harapan dan Evaluasi, Centre for Strategic and International Studies, Jakarta, ISBN 979-8026-64-0
38.
Indonesian legislative election, 1999
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The Indonesian legislative election,1999, held on June 7,1999, was the first election since the end of the New Order and the first free election in Indonesia since 1955. With the ending of restrictions on political activity following the fall of Suharto, a further 38 seats were reserved for the armed forces. Under the New Order, only two political parties merged in 1973 plus the functional group Golkar had been allowed to participate in elections. With the start of the Reform Era, more than 100 new political parties emerged, New elections were called for 1999 and 148 parties registered with the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights. Within each province, parties were awarded seats in proportion to their share of the vote, the largest number of seats was in East Java province, with 82, while the lowest was in Bengkulu and East Timor with 4 each. Voters chose parties, not people as the candidate list was closed, the official election campaign began on May 19,1999 and ended on June 4 to allow two rest days before the vote itself. It was divided into three stages, with different parties being allowed to campaign on different days, however, before the campaign there was violence between supporters of rival parties. On the first day of the campaign, there was a parade of party vehicles in Central Jakarta, the Golkar float was attacked and damaged The traffic circle in front of the Hotel Indonesia was a popular spot for rallies. Meanwhile, there was an increase of people heading for Singapore to escape possible violence as polling day neared, as well as rallies, the major parties took out full color advertisements in newspapers. Each party was given air time TV for statements by lone spokespeople. There were also ads in the newspapers urging people to use their vote, at one minute past midnight on June 5, all party flags, banners and posters began to be removed as the campaign officially ended. International observers continued to arrive to oversee the election, among them former US president Jimmy Carter, in the last few days before the vote on June 7, newspapers carried advertisements sponsored by the Indonesian Election Committee explaining how to vote and urging people to do so. On the day itself, polls opened at 8am, people cast their vote by piercing the party symbol on the ballot paper and then dipped a finger in indelible ink to prevent repeat voting. When the votes were counted, each paper was held up for onlookers to see. There was independent monitoring down to the level of polling stations by Indonesians as well as by 100 observers, one way the public could access the latest results was by sending a Short message service text to a specific number. The sender then received information about provincial or party results, on June 9, Carters team reported that although there had been shortcomings and allegations of financial abuses, they did not appear to have had a major impact on the polling day activities. The count was slow, with taking several weeks to count. These comprised the representatives of 17 of the parties and the five government representatives, eventually, later that same day President Jusuf Habibie in a live TV broadcast declared the results were valid
39.
Indonesian legislative election, 2014
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For eligible voters residing outside Indonesia, elections were held on 5 or 6 April 2014 based on the decision of electoral commission of each different countries. A total of 46 parties registered to take part in the election nationwide, candidates for the DPR and DPRDI/II stand on a party platform. The ballot papers had a section for each of the parties with the party number, under the symbols, that parties candidates were listed. Voters could vote for just the party, or one of the candidates by punching a hole in the paper with the tool provided. Candidates for the DPD stood on a basis, so voters simply needed to punch a hole in the candidates picture. For the Peoples Representative Council election each province was divided into one and eleven electoral districts depending on population. Each of these districts elected between three and ten members by proportional representation with a 3. 5% national threshold. Once the votes were counted, the General Elections Commission eliminated any party that had failed to obtain an 3. 5% share of the national vote and it then allocated seats in the Peoples Representative Council via a two-stage process. First the number of votes to secure one DPR seat in each district was calculated by dividing the number of valid votes by the number of seats to be elected in each district. Each partys vote in each district was divided by this amount to determine the number of seats won outright, any party with less than this amount won no seats in this first stage. The remaining votes were used to determine which party won any seats so far unallocated by awarding these seats to the parties with the largest remainders until all seats were allocated. For the Regional Representative Council each province, regardlesa of size and population, the candidates for DPD stood independently. Voters were given one and only one vote, the system used is Single Non-Transferable Vote. Only parties with at least 25 percent of the vote or that control 20 percent of seats in the DPR were able to nominate candidates for the presidential election. Parties that did not achieve this percentage had to form a coalition with parties to make up the required percentage share to nominate a candidate. Numerous opinion polls have been done by many different pollsters to gauge the voting intention of the electorate, however, many of them are regarded to be unreliable. The quality of polling in Indonesia varies considerably, further, some of the polling institutions provide little information about their polling methods. The data set out below should therefore be treated with care, indonesian Democratic Party – Struggle won the election by 18. 95% votes, followed by Golkar with 14. 75% votes and Great Indonesia Movement Party with 11. 81% vote
40.
Indonesian presidential election, 2009
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Presidential elections were held in Indonesia on 8 July 2009. The elections returned a president and vice president for the 2009–2014 period, Yudhoyono was officially declared the victor of the election on 23 July 2009, by the General Election Commission. This was the election in which Indonesians elected their President. In 2004, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono defeated incumbent Megawati Sukarnoputri in a run-off election, polls through early January 2009 saw Yudhoyono leading a large field of potential presidential candidates. Incumbent Vice President Jusuf Kalla announced in February 2009 that he would not be returning as a presidential candidate with Yudhoyono. Instead, he was ready to challenge Yudhoyono should Golkar, the party which he chaired, on 17 February, the Constitutional Court ruled that independent candidates would not be allowed to run in the election. Following legislative elections held on 9 April, coalitions of political parties began to emerge in order to nominate candidates for President and Vice President. Under the 2008 Presidential Election Law, the candidates must be nominated by a party or coalition that won at least 25% of the vote or 112 of 560 seats of the Peoples Representative Council. Indonesias Constitutional Court also ruled that independent candidates would not be allowed to run, candidates had to officially register with the General Election Commission by midnight of 16 May in order to appear on the ballots. However, talks were broken off on 13 April 2009, with Golkar reportedly more interested in continuing the coalition with Yudhoyono rather than risk being cut off from power completely. Yudhoyono was also in talks with Islamist parties in a bid to form a coalition controlling more than half the seats in parliament. By late April 2009, Golkar was in talks with smaller parties to gain the votes it lacked to be able to nominate Kalla as a presidential candidate. Two parties who had been considering joining the coalition, the National Mandate Party, shortly after the ten-party coalition was announced, incumbent Vice President Kalla announced a joint ticket with former Indonesian military leader Wiranto. The PDI–P selected former president Megawati as its candidate on 7 May. On 12 May 2009, Yudhoyono chose Boediono, the governor of Bank Indonesia, four parties which had planned to form a coalition with Yudhoyonos Democratic Party had expected that the vice presidential nominee would come from one of their parties. Although they threatened to form their own coalition with Gerindra and present their own candidate, the remaining three parties eventually agreed to support the Yudhoyono–Boediono ticket and attended the nomination ceremony in Bandung on 15 May. Nominees for president and vice president registered their candidacy at the central General Election Commission office in Jakarta on 16 May, candidates underwent physical and psychological evaluations at Gatot Subroto Army Hospital following registration. Personality tests were conducted using the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
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Boediono
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Boediono was the Vice President of Indonesia from 2009 to 2014. He became Vice President in 2009 after winning the 2009 presidential election together with President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, Boediono received his early education in primary school in Blitar, East Java. In the early 1960s he began university studies at Gadjah Mada University in Yogyakarta before winning a scholarship to study at the University of Western Australia in Perth. Later, he undertook further studies towards his degree from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania which he completed in 1979. He also worked in the Indonesia Project at the Australian National University in the early 1970s as a assistant in economics. Boediono was listed as one of the Wharton Schools 125 Influential People, Boediono was a Bank of Indonesia deputy governor in charge of fiscal monetary policy from 1997 to 1998 and served as State Minister of National Planning and Development from 1998 to October 1999. Following the removal of Abdurrahman Wahid from the presidency in 2001, under his leadership, the economy grew by 4% in 2002. President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono appointed Boediono as Coordinating Minister for the Economy during his first cabinet reshuffle in 2005, Bakrie had come under suspicion for having conflicts of interest. In 2008, a commission of the Peoples Representative Council elected Boediono Governor of the Indonesian central bank, Bank Indonesia, after he was selected by Yudhoyono as a running mate in the 2009 presidential election, Boediono submitted his resignation from the central bank post. Boediono is also a professor of economics at Gadjah Mada University where he has various courses on macroeconomics. Kumpulan esai ekonomi, PT Gramedia, Jakarta, primus Inter Pares, Chapter 11 in Moh. Arsjad Anwar, Aris Ananta, Ari Kuncoro, Kesan Para Sahabat tentang Widjojo Nitisastro, Penerbit Buku Kompas, professor Mubyarto, 1938–2005, Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies,41. Managing the Indonesian economy, some lessons from the past, Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies,41, Kebijakan fiskal, sekarang dan selanjutnya, in Subiyantoro, Heru and Riphat Singgih, Kebijakan fiskal, Penerbit Buku Kompas, Jakarta. The IMF support program in Indonesia, comparing its implementation under three presidents, Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies,38, addressing the social impacts, speech delivered to the meeting on Development cooperation, responding to the Asian crisis, Sydney,5 March. Price changes, in S. Ichimura, Indonesian economic development, Issues and analysis, Japanese International Cooperation Agency, paper presented to the second convention of the East Asian Economic Association, Bandung. Demand for Money in Indonesia,1975 -1984, Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies,21, an economic survey of D. I Aceh, Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies,10. An economic survey of North Sulawesi, Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies,8, list of Vice Presidents of Indonesia Official website
99 seats, Governing coalition
5 seats, Governing coalition
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