1.
United Nations peacekeeping
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It is distinguished from both peacebuilding, peacemaking, and peace enforcement. Peacekeepers monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict areas and assist ex-combatants in implementing the agreements they may have signed. Such assistance comes in forms, including confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law. Accordingly, UN peacekeepers can include soldiers, police officers, the United Nations Charter gives the United Nations Security Council the power and responsibility to take collective action to maintain international peace and security. For this reason, the community usually looks to the Security Council to authorize peacekeeping operations through Chapter VI authorizations. Most of these operations are established and implemented by the United Nations itself, in these cases, peacekeepers remain members of their respective armed forces, and do not constitute an independent UN army, as the UN does not have such a force. Hervé Ladsous has served as the head of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations since 2 September 2011, dPKOs highest level doctrine document, entitled United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, Principles and Guidelines was issued in 2008. Peacekeeping forces are contributed by member states on a voluntary basis, as of 31 December 2013, the total size of the peacekeeping force is 98,200 police, troops, and military experts. European nations contribute nearly 6,000 units to this total, pakistan, India, and Bangladesh are among the largest individual contributors with around 8,000 units each. African nations contributed nearly half the total, almost 44,000 units, every peacekeeping mission is authorized by the Security Council. Once a peace treaty has been negotiated, the parties involved might ask the United Nations for a force to oversee various elements of the agreed upon plan. If the Security Council approves the creation of a mission, then the Department of Peacekeeping Operations begins planning for the necessary elements, at this point, the senior leadership team is selected. The department will then seek contributions from member nations, since the UN has no standing force or supplies, it must form ad hoc coalitions for every task undertaken. Doing so results in both the possibility of failure to form a force, and a general slowdown in procurement once the operation is in the field. You had to make a request for everything you needed, for instance, soldiers everywhere have to eat and drink. In a push system, food and water for the number of soldiers deployed is automatically supplied, in a pull system, you have to ask for those rations, and no common sense seems to ever apply. While the peacekeeping force is being assembled, a variety of activities are being undertaken by UN staff. The exact size and strength of the force must be agreed to by the government of the nation whose territory the conflict is on, the Rules of Engagement must be developed and approved by both the parties involved and the Security Council
2.
Yugoslav Wars
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The Yugoslav Wars were a series of ethnically-based wars and insurgencies fought from 1991 to 2001 inside the territory of the former Yugoslavia. The wars are considered to be a series of separate but related military conflicts which occurred in. The wars ended through peace accords, involving full international recognition of new states, as a result, the JNA began to lose Slovenes, Croats, Kosovar Albanians, Bosniaks, and ethnic Macedonians, and effectively became a Serb army. According to the 1994 United Nations report, the Serb side did not aim to restore Yugoslavia, other irredentist movements have also been brought into connection with the wars, such as Greater Albania and Greater Croatia. Often described as Europes deadliest since World War II, the conflicts have become infamous for the war crimes involved, including cleansing, crimes against humanity. These were the first European conflicts since World War II to be formally judged genocidal in character, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia was established by the UN to prosecute these crimes. According to the International Center for Transitional Justice, the Yugoslav Wars resulted in the deaths of 140,000 people, the Humanitarian Law Center estimates that in the conflicts in former Yugoslav republics at least 130,000 people lost their lives. The war have alternatively been called, Wars in the Balkans Wars/conflicts in the former Yugoslavia, third Balkan War, a term suggested by British journalist Misha Glenny in the title of his book, alluding to the two previous Balkan Wars fought 1912–13. In fact, this term has been applied by some historians to World War I. Yugoslavia Civil War/Yugoslav Civil War/Yugoslavian Civil War/Civil War in Yugoslavia, the nation of Yugoslavia was created in the aftermath of World War I, and was composed mostly of South Slavic Christians, but the nation also had a substantial Muslim minority. In the 1980s, relations among the six republics of the SFRY deteriorated, Slovenia and Croatia desired greater autonomy within the Yugoslav confederation, while Serbia sought to strengthen federal authority. As it became clearer that there was no solution agreeable to all parties, although tensions in Yugoslavia had been mounting since the early 1980s, it was 1990 that proved decisive. In the midst of hardship, Yugoslavia was facing rising nationalism among its various ethnic groups. By the early 1990s, there was no authority at the federal level. The Federal Presidency consisted of the representatives of the six republics, the communist leadership was divided along national lines. The representatives of Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro were replaced with loyalists of the President of Serbia, Serbia secured four out of eight federal presidency votes and was able to heavily influence decision-making at the federal level, since all the other Yugoslav republics only had one vote. While Slovenia and Croatia wanted to allow a multi-party system, Serbia, led by Milošević, demanded a more centralized federation. This prompted the Croatian and Slovene delegations to walk out and thus the break-up of the party, the first of these conflicts, known as the Ten-Day War, was initiated by the JNA on 26 June 1991 after the secession of Slovenia from the federation on 25 June 1991
3.
Bernard Janvier
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Bernard Janvier is a French general. He was commander of the Division Daguet during First Gulf War and he was admitted to the Joint Military school Coëtquidan on 1 October 1958, as Saint-Cyr. He performed the internship application to the School of the Infantry at Camp des Garrigues in Nîmes from 15 September 1960. From 1964 to 1967, he served in Madagascar and the Comoros in the 3rd foreign Infantry regiment, successively as adjutant in combat units and he was promoted to captain on 1 January 1967. Repatriated, he attended the captains at the School of the Infantry in Montpellier, then joined the 33rd promotion of school staff as trainee, from 1 December 1968. He led from 1968 to 1970, a company of the 9th Regiment Airborne Infantry, then from 1970 to 1972, thereafter, he served in the school, the deputy chief functions during general information and general military training for two years. Intern of the 88th promotion War College, September 1974 to May 1976, he served at the end, from June 1976 to August 1978 and it is the battalion commander of 1 October 1974. He received his stripes lieutenant colonel on 1 October 1978, in 1981, he was assigned as a staff officer to the General Inspectorate of the Army. He was promoted to colonel on 1 October 1982 and he participated in Operation Manta in Chad, as commander of the Joint Group from January to May 1984. From 1984 to 1987, he served as Head of the personal section, on 1 August 1987, he was deputy general commanding the 6th Light Armored Division, Nîmes and 1 March 1988, he was admitted in the 1st section of the general officers. On 1 July 1989, he was head of the division organization - logistics to the staff of the armies, in May 1990, he commanded the Shark operation in Port-Gentil in Gabon. From 7 February to 30 April 1991, he commanded the division Brocket in Saudi Arabia, as such, he had under his command 4,300 American soldiers. He was promoted to general on 1 April 1991. General Roquejoffre, commander of the operation Brocket and General Janvier at As Salman 10 March 1991. On 1 May 1991, he was appointed advisor to the Chief of General Staff of the Army before taking command of the 6th DLB, in Nîmes. He was appointed Head of Joint Staff operational planning, effective 6 December 1993 and it is then raised to the rank and title of General of the Army Corps, on 1 July 1994. At the end of the mission, he was available to the Chief of Staff of the Army,19 February 1996. In July 1996 he was appointed Member of the Supreme Council of the Army, on 1 September 1996, he was appointed director of the Institute of Advanced Studies for National Defence and the center of Advanced Military Studies
4.
Lewis MacKenzie
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Major-General Lewis Wharton MacKenzie CM, MSC, O. Ont, CD is a retired Canadian general, author and media commentator. MacKenzie is known for establishing and commanding Sector Sarajevo as part of the United Nations Protection Force in the former Yugoslavia in 1992 and he was later a vocal opponent of NATO involvement in the Kosovo War. MacKenzie was born in Truro, Nova Scotia, the son of Eugene and he is named after his great uncle, Liverpool, Nova Scotia schooner captain Lewis Wharton. MacKenzies forefather Israel Wharton fought as a United Empire Loyalist in the American Revolutionary War, taking part in the Battle of Waxhaws, MacKenzie enlisted with The Queens Own Rifles of Canada and was commissioned in 1960. Between peacekeeping missions MacKenzie served as an instructor at the Canadian Forces Command and Staff College and as director of training at St. Hubert. As commander of the Canadian Forces Base in Gagetown, N. B. he was responsible for training officers at the Combat Training Centre. In 1985 he was appointed director of Combat-Related Employment for Women, following his return from the Balkans in October 1992 MacKenzie was appointed commander of the army in Ontario. He retired from the Canadian Forces in 1993, after a 35-year career and he was the first Canadian, military or civilian, to be awarded a second Meritorious Service Cross. The second was Brigadier-General Guy Laroche in October 2010, the Commission observed that MacKenzie testified in an honest and straightforward manner, it did not always accept everything that he said but accepted that he offered the truth as he saw it. It found that his superiors desire to parade his successes as a bona fide hero of the Canadian Forces had impaired his ability to supervise and control matters that were his core responsibilities. The Commission further ruled that MacKenzie had important obligations as a commander, in February 1992, MacKenzie was named chief of staff of the United Nations peacekeeping force in former Yugoslavia, tasked with supervising the cease-fire in Croatia. The force headquarters were located in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, in April 1992 the Bosnian war broke out. MacKenzie created and assumed command of the peacekeeping forces Sector Sarajevo in May 1992 and he used his UN force to open Sarajevo Airport for the delivery of humanitarian aid. Using the media as a means of trying to restore peace. MacKenzie returned from the Balkans in October 1992 in controversial circumstances, as a member of the Canadian armed forces he was precluded from commenting on government policy. After criticising the United Nations’ inability to command, control, and support its peacekeeping forces and he has since written and lectured on his experiences in the former Yugoslavia. He has questioned the numbers killed in the Srebrenica massacre, an event that came after his period of service in the area, many of the men and boys were executed and buried in mass graves. Evidence given at The Hague war crimes tribunal casts serious doubt on the figure of up to 8,000 Bosnian Muslims massacred and that figure includes up to 5,000 who have been classified as missing
5.
Michael Rose (British Army officer)
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General Sir Hugh Michael Mike Rose, KCB, CBE, DSO, QGM is a retired British Army general. As well as Special Air Service Regiment commanding officer, he was Commander UNPROFOR Bosnia in 1994 during the Yugoslav Wars, the stepson of British author John Masters, Rose was educated at Cheltenham College, St. Edmund Hall, Oxford, and the Sorbonne. Rose was confirmed in this rank and promoted to lieutenant on 18 December 1960. Rose was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire on 7 January 1980. Serving in Northern Ireland in 1981 Rose earned a Queens Gallantry Medal, Rose commanded Special Service operations in-theatre during the Falklands War, following which he was promoted to colonel on 30 June 1982, and Mentioned in Despatches. After being promoted brigadier on 31 December 1983, he served as the commander of the 39th Infantry Brigade from 1983 to 1985 and he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in April 1986. From 1987 until 1988, Rose was Commandant of the School of Infantry, and from 1988 until 1989 and he attended the Royal College of Defence Studies. Rose was General Officer Commanding North East District and Commander 2nd Infantry Division based in York from 30 October 1989 to 30 September 1991, from 26 April 1993 to 1994, Rose served as Commander UK Field Army and Inspector-General of the Territorial Army. From 24 January 1994 to 23 January 1995 he was Commander, United Nations Protection Force and his service in this period was recognised on 5 May 1995 when he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order. On 14 March 1995 Rose resumed his appointment as Commander UK Field Army, Rose became Adjutant-General on 7 July 1995, and Aide-de-Camp General to The Queen on 9 September 1995, in which role he served until 31 August 1997. Rose was appointed Colonel of the Regiment of the Coldstream Guards on 23 August 1999, on 10 March 2000 his tenure as Honorary Colonel of the Oxford University Officer Training Corps came to a conclusion, and he was succeeded by General Sir Roger Wheeler. He was called as a witness by Serbia and Montenegro in a case held at the International Court of Justice, Rose is a director of Control Risks Group, a private security and consulting company. He was appointed Deputy Lieutenant for the County of Somerset on 5 August 2003, in 2006 Rose came once again to public attention when he criticised British Prime Minister Tony Blair, and called for his impeachment for leading the country to war in Iraq under false pretences. This highlighted Roses unease about the legality and practicality of the 2003 American-led invasion of Iraq, brendan Simms, Unfinest Hour, Britain and the Destruction of Bosnia, Allen Lane The Penguin Press
6.
Croatian War of Independence
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In Croatia, the war is primarily referred to as the Homeland War and also as the Greater-Serbian Aggression. In Serbian sources, War in Croatia and War in Krajina are used, Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991, but agreed to postpone it with the Brioni Agreement and cut all remaining ties with Yugoslavia on 8 October 1991. The JNA initially tried to keep Croatia within Yugoslavia by occupying all of Croatia, after this failed, Serb forces established the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina within Croatia. During that time, the RSK encompassed 13,913 square kilometers, in 1995, Croatia launched two major offensives known as Operation Flash and Operation Storm, which would effectively end the war in its favor. The remaining United Nations Transitional Authority for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja, the war ended with Croatian victory, as it achieved the goals it had declared at the beginning of the war, independence and preservation of its borders. 21–25% of Croatias economy was ruined, with an estimated US$37 billion in damaged infrastructure, lost output, a total of 20,000 people were killed in the war, and refugees were displaced on both sides. The Serb and Croatian governments began to cooperate with each other but tension remains, in part due to verdicts by the ICTY. Between 2008 and 2012, the ICTY had prosecuted Croatian generals Ante Gotovina, Mladen Markač, Čermak was acquitted outright, and the convictions of Gotovina and Markač were later overturned by an ICTY Appeals Panel. The International Court of Justice dismissed Croatia and Serbia genocide claims in 2015, the Court reaffirmed that serious crimes against civilians had taken place, but ruled that specific genocidal intent was not present. From 1967 to 1972 in Croatia and 1968 and 1981 protests in Kosovo, nationalist doctrines, the suppression by the state of nationalists is believed to have had the effect of identifying nationalism as the primary alternative to communism itself and made it a strong underground movement. A crisis emerged in Yugoslavia with the weakening of the Communist states in Eastern Europe towards the end of the Cold War, in Yugoslavia, the national communist party, officially called the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, had lost its ideological potency. SR Slovenia and SR Croatia wanted to move towards decentralization, the rhetoric was approved by the Serbian political leadership, and accused the Croatian leadership of being blindly nationalistic when it objected. In 1989, political parties were allowed and a number of them had been founded, including the Croatian Democratic Union, led by Franjo Tuđman, who later became the first president of Croatia. In January 1990, the League of Communists broke up on ethnic lines, with the Croatian, at the congress, Serbian delegates accused the Croatian and Slovene delegates of supporting separatism, terrorism and genocide in Kosovo. The Croatian and Slovene delegations, including most of their ethnic Serb members, eventually left in protest, January 1990 also marked the beginning of court cases being brought to Yugoslavias Constitutional Court on the matter of secession. The first was the Slovenian Constitutional Amendments case after Slovenia claimed the right to unilateral secession pursuant to the right of self-determination, the Constitutional Court ruled that secession from the federation was only permitted if there was the unanimous agreement of Yugoslavias republics and autonomous provinces. On 4 March 1990,50,000 Serbs rallied at Petrova Gora, and shouted negative remarks aimed at Tuđman, chanted This is Serbia, the first free elections in Croatia and Slovenia were scheduled for a few months later. The first round of elections in Croatia were held on 22 April, the HDZ based its campaign on greater sovereignty for Croatia, fueling a sentiment among Croats that only the HDZ could protect Croatia from the aspirations of Milošević towards a Greater Serbia
7.
United Nations Protection Force
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The United Nations Protection Force, was the first United Nations peacekeeping force in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Yugoslav Wars. The force was formed in February 1992 and its mandate ended in March 1995, UNPROFOR was composed of nearly 39,000 personnel. According to the UN, there were 167 fatalities amongst UNPROFOR personnel during the course of the forces mandate. Of those who died, three were military observers,159 were other military personnel, one was a member of the civilian police, two were international civilian staff and two were local staff. In contrast to that of Croatia, the UNPROFOR mandate for Bosnia and Herzegovina was not to monitor a preexisting cease-fire, the mandate can essentially be divided into four phases, but it is important to note that the old responsibilities continued even as new tasks were added. Phase 1, Aid to Sarajevo - Beginning on 5 June 1992, UNPROFOR would run a security corridor for aid convoys between the airport and the city. In May 1993, Bihać, Sarajevo, Goražde, Žepa, UNPROFOR was responsible for monitoring the zones of separation and weapons control points. In addition, the UNSC increased UNPROFORs authorized strength to monitor weapons exclusion zones, on 31 March 1995, UNPROFOR was restructured into three coordinated peace operations. On 20 December 1995 the forces of UNPROFOR were reflagged under the NATO led Implementation Force whose task was to implement the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia, cedric Thornberry was director of UNPROFOR Civil Affairs at the beginning of the mission in February 1992. By the end of its first mandate in March 1993, UNPROFOR had some success in restoring peace in Croatia, however, civil unrest was such that terror, discrimination and ethnic cleansing were still present. Local Serb forces managed to complete their cleansing of the UNPA areas, started in 1991, the situation was problematic mostly because of the non-cooperation of local Serb authorities, and because of later major Croat military offensives. Additionally, the situation for which UNPROFOR had been designed had significantly changed, the Croat part now refused to negotiate its sovereignty on the UNPAs and Pink Zones, which the Serb part would not accept. Establishment of the Republic of Serbian Krajina further complicated the situation, the Opening of the Sarajevo Airport was conducted by the Canadian Operational Force, which moved within the Theater of Operations from Croatia to the combat zone of Sarajevo. The Canadian Force included the French-speaking Royal 22e Régiment, with the attachment of N Company of the English-speaking 3rd Battalion, the Canadian Contingent was deployed by train from Canadian Forces Base Baden-Soellingen and CFB Lahr, Germany. In spite of hostile actions, Sarajevo international airport had successfully remained open, distribution of humanitarian aid was disrupted due to non-cooperation and even hostile actions of the parties in the field, especially from the Bosnian Serb forces. On 6 July 1993, new tensions arose following the Croatian governments decision to re-open the strategic Maslenica bridge on 18 July – Croatia was cut in half while the bridge was in Serb hands. The UNPROFOR forces mandated to monitor the withdrawal of Croatian forces from the area had been unable to deploy, the Serbs shelled the bridge which was partially destroyed on 2 August. On 12 August, negotiations for a cease-fire began in Geneva, eventually, Croat forces retreated to their positions of before the incursion
8.
Croatia
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Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
9.
United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
10.
Republic of Serbian Krajina
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Established in 1991, it was not recognized internationally. It formally existed from 1991 to 1995, having initiated a year earlier via smaller separatist regions. The name Krajina was adopted from the borderland, the Military Frontier, of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The government of Krajina had de facto control over parts of the territory while control of the outskirts changed with the successes and failures of its military activities. The territory was legally protected by the United Nations Protection Force, the abolition of military rule took place between 1869 and 1871. Subsequently, the Military Frontier was incorporated into Habsburg Croatia in 1881, in 1941 the Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia and in the aftermath the Independent State of Croatia was declared. During this period, individual Croats coalesced around the ruling authorities or around the communist anti-fascist Partisans, Serbs from around the Knin area tended to join the Chetniks, whilst Serbs from the Banovina and Slavonia regions tended to join the Partisans. The Serb-populated regions in Croatia were of concern to the Serbian nationalist movement of the late 1980s. As early as September 1986 the SANU memorandum was published by the Serbian Academy of Arts, among the claims that it makes is that except for the time under the Independent State of Croatia, the Serbs in Croatia have never been as jeopardized as they are today’. Furthermore, a series of Serb nationalist rallies held in Croatia during 1989, at the time, Serbs comprised about 12. 2% of Croatias population,581,663 people declared themselves Serbs in the census of 1991. Serbs became increasingly opposed to the policies of Franjo Tuđman, elected president of Croatia in April 1990, on 30 May 1990, the Serb Democratic Party of Jovan Rašković broke all ties to the Croatian parliament. The following June in Knin, the Serbs—led by the Serb Democratic Party—proclaimed the creation of the Association of Municipalities of Northern Dalmatia and Lika. In August 1990, the Serbs began what became known as the Log Revolution and this effectively cut Croatia in two, separating the coastal region of Dalmatia from the rest of the country. The Croatian constitution was passed in December 1990, which put Serbs in the category with other ethnic minority groups such as Italians, Hungarians. Serbs in Croatia had established a Serbian National Council in July 1990 to coordinate opposition to Croatian independence and their position was that if Croatia could secede from Yugoslavia, then the Serbs could secede from Croatia. Milan Babić, a dentist from the town of Knin, was elected president. The rebel Croatian Serbs established a number of militia units under the leadership of Milan Martić. In August 1990, a referendum was held in Krajina on the question of Serb sovereignty, the resolution was confined exclusively to Serbs so it passed by a majority of 99. 7%
11.
Prevlaka
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Prevlaka is a small peninsula in southern Croatia, near the border with Montenegro, at the entrance to the Bay of Kotor on the eastern Adriatic coast. The territory has functioned in a provisional regime since 2002, the narrow, uninhabited peninsula is 2.6 kilometers long and only 150–500 meters wide, covering the area of 93.33 hectares. Cape Oštro, located at the tip of the peninsula, is the southernmost point of mainland in Croatia. North of the Prevlaka isthmus, just within the Bay of Kotor, the D516 highway connects it to Konavle and the D8, northwards the road connects to Njivice, Sutorina and Igalo. Konavle and the Prevlaka peninsula was bought by the Republic of Ragusa from the Bosnian Kingdom in the early 15th century to protect its eastern flank, ragusans fortified Cape Oštro in 1441. Cape Kobila was the boundary with Sutorina under the Ottoman Empires control since 1699, in July 1807, the Russians and the French struck a deal in the first Treaty of Tilsit for the area to be handed over to the First French Empire. Following Napoleons defeat, former Ragusan territory including Prevlaka came under the rule of the Austrian Empire in 1813, Austrian rule was ratified by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and the territory became part of its newly created internal administrative subdivision, the Kingdom of Dalmatia. It remained as such after the transformation of Austrian Empire into the monarchy of Austria-Hungary following the Congress of Berlin in 1867. Austrian authorities successfully fortified cape Mirište and the islet of Mamula, the authorities reportedly also decided to compensate local farmers for the expropriated land, but no money was paid until the collapse of the dual monarchy. In 1918, after the end of World War I and collapse of Austria-Hungary, Prevlaka became part of the newly created Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. By 1922, once the new state determined its internal administrative subdivisions, dividing its territory into 33 oblasts, during the 1930s, Royal Yugoslav Army further fortified Prevlaka. In 1939, the area got assigned to the newly created Banovina of Croatia subdivision of the Yugoslav kingdom, World War II was the only period since the 15th century when the boundaries of Konavle were modified. In April 1941 Nazi Germany invaded Yugoslavia, conquering it in less than three weeks before proceeding to dismember its territory by creating a handful of locally-administered fascist puppet states. The Bay of Kotor along with its surrounding areas including eastern Konavle, as the World War II dragged on, in summer 1943, in response to the Allied advances in their Italian campaign, Nazi Germany took over the administration of the Bay of Kotor including Prevlaka in 1943. In 1955, the Yugoslav Peoples Army closed down access to Prevlaka because of its coastal artillery installations, during the Yugoslav Wars that followed the breakup of Yugoslavia, the territory was occupied by Yugoslav forces like most of the Dubrovnik region during the siege of Dubrovnik. At one point, the Croatian military gained control over Prevlaka. A resolution to the conflict took shape in 1996 when the United Nations mediated the conflict and established a mission which oversaw the demilitarization. The Konfin/Kobila border crossing has operated since 1999, the UN mission ended in December 2002 and the territory that had previously been part of SR Croatia was returned to the Republic of Croatia
12.
Dubrovnik
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Dubrovnik is a Croatian city on the Adriatic Sea, in the region of Dalmatia. It is one of the most prominent tourist destinations in the Mediterranean Sea, a seaport, in 1979, the city of Dubrovnik joined the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. After repair and restoration works in the 1990s and early 2000s, the names Dubrovnik and Ragusa co-existed for several centuries. The name Dubrovnik of the Adriatic city is first recorded in the Charter of Ban Kulin. It is mostly explained as a Slavic name of the type, referring to an oak grove or oak forest. The historical name Ragusa is recorded in the Greek form Ῥαούσιν in the 10th century and it was recorded in various forms in the medieval period, Rausia, Lavusa, Labusa, Raugia, Rachusa. Various attempts have been made to etymologize the name, a connection to the name of Sicilian Ragusa has also been proposed. The classical explanation of the name is due to Constantine Porphyrogenituss De Administrando Imperio, the name is explained as a corruption of Lausa, the name of the rocky island on which the city was built. Excavations in 2007 revealed a Byzantine basilica from the 8th century, the size of the old basilica clearly indicates that there was quite a large settlement at the time. There is also evidence for the presence of a settlement in the pre-Christian era, after the fall of the Ostrogothic Kingdom, the town came under the protection of the Byzantine Empire. Dubrovnik in those medieval centuries had a Roman population, after the Crusades, Dubrovnik came under the sovereignty of Venice, which would give its institutions to the Dalmatian city. After a fire destroyed almost the whole city in the night of August 16,1296, by the Peace Treaty of Zadar in 1358, Dubrovnik achieved relative independence as a vassal-state of the Kingdom of Hungary. Between the 14th century and 1808, Dubrovnik ruled itself as a state, although it was a vassal from 1382 to 1804 of the Ottoman Empire. The Republic reached its peak in the 15th and 16th centuries, for centuries, Dubrovnik was an ally of Ancona, the other Adriatic maritime republic rival of Venice, which was the Ottoman Empires chief rival for control of the Adriatic. Ancona and Dubrovnik developed a trade route to the Venetian, starting in Dubrovnik it went on to Ancona, through Florence. The Republic of Ragusa received its own Statutes as early as 1272, statutes which, among other things, codified Roman practice, the Statutes included prescriptions for town planning and the regulation of quarantine. An almshouse was opened in 1347, and the first quarantine hospital was established in 1377, slave trading was abolished in 1418, and an orphanage opened in 1432. A20 km water supply system, instead of a cistern, was constructed in 1438 by the Neapolitan architect and he completed the aqueduct with two public fountains
13.
Sarajevo
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Sarajevo is the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its current administrative limits. The Sarajevo metropolitan area, including Sarajevo Canton and East Sarajevo is home to 688,384 inhabitants, nestled within the greater Sarajevo valley of Bosnia, it is surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans. Due to its long and rich history of religious and cultural variety and it is the only major European city to have a mosque, Catholic church, Orthodox church and synagogue within the same neighbourhood. Although settlement in the area back to prehistoric times, the modern city arose as an Ottoman stronghold in the 15th century. Sarajevo has attracted international attention several times throughout its history, in 1885, Sarajevo was the first city in Europe and the second city in the world to have a full-time electric tram network running through the city, following San Francisco. For nearly four years, from 1992 to 1996, the city suffered the longest siege of a city in the history of warfare during the Bosnian War. Sarajevo has been undergoing reconstruction, and is the fastest growing city in Bosnia. The travel guide series, Lonely Planet, has named Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world, in 2011, Sarajevo was nominated to be the European Capital of Culture in 2014 and will be hosting the European Youth Olympic Festival in 2019. The earliest known name for the large central Bosnian region of todays Sarajevo is Vrhbosna, Sarajevo is a slavicized word based on saray, the Turkish word for palace. The evo portion may come from the term saray ovası first recorded in 1455, the first mention of name Sarajevo was in 1507 letter written by Feriz Beg. The earliest is Šeher, which is the term Isa-Beg Ishaković used to describe the town he was going to build and it is a Turkish word meaning an advanced city of key importance which in turn comes from Persian, شهر shahr. As Sarajevo developed, numerous nicknames came from comparisons to other cities in the Islamic world, the most popular of these was European Jerusalem. Some argue that a correct translation of saray is government office or house. Saray is a word in Turkish for a palace or mansion. Sarajevo is located near the center of the triangular-shaped Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is situated 518 meters above sea level and lies in the Sarajevo valley, the valley itself once formed a vast expanse of greenery, but gave way to urban expansion and development in the post-World War II era. The city is surrounded by forested hills and five major mountains. The last four are known as the Olympic Mountains of Sarajevo
14.
Sarajevo International Airport
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Sarajevo International Airport, also known as Butmir Airport, is the main international airport in Bosnia and Herzegovina, serving Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located 3.3 NM southwest of the Sarajevo railway station in the Ilidža municipality, in 2016,838,966 passengers traveled through the airport, compared to 323,499 in 2001. First regular flights to Sarajevo using an airfield in the suburb of Butmir begin in 1930 when the domestic airliner Aeroput opened a route linking Belgrade to Podgorica through Sarajevo. A year later Aeroput opened a new route which linked Belgrade and Zagreb going through Sarajevo, Split, in 1935 Aeroput operated three times weekly the non-stop route Belgrade – Sarajevo, which was extended to Dubrovnik a year later. The airfield in Butmir remained in use all the way until 1969, the need for a new airport in Sarajevo, with an asphalt-concrete runway, was acknowledged in the mid-1960s when JAT, Yugoslav national carrier at that time, began acquiring jet planes. The construction of the began in 1966 at its present location. Sarajevo Airport opened on 2 June 1969 for domestic traffic, in 1970 Frankfurt became the first international destination served. Most of the time the airport was an airport where passengers embarked for flights to Zagreb. Over time the traffic volume grew from 70,000 to 600,000 passengers a year. At the beginning of the Bosnian War the airport was put under control of Yugoslav Peoples Army. After JNA left, the airport was for a while under control of Bosnian Serb forces, the airport re-opened to civilian air traffic on 16 August 1996 and has since been renovated and slowly returned to its former glory. The High Representative stated that such a renaming might undermine the process by alienating non-Bosniak citizens. In 2005, the European branch of the Airports Council International awarded Sarajevo the award of Best Airport Under 1 Million Passengers, on 26 December 2014, The airport welcomed its 700, 000th passenger on Austrian Airlines flight OS758 to Vienna. In May 2015 work has started on expansion of Sarajevo International Airport, current work is undergoing on expansion of arrival area, adding more passport control check stands and rearranging whole arrival area to make it more passenger friendly. Next to follow is expansion of check in area which include three more check in counters making it total of 15 check in counters. By the end of the year the airport will begin with platform expansion,2017 should be the year in which airport will enter into the reconstruction of the runway and the maneuvering areas. Expansion of the airport at the current level is financed by Sarajevo Airport own funds, on 6 June 2015 Pope Francis visited Sarajevo arriving on an Alitalia Airbus A320-200 from Rome Fiumicino Airport. Welcome ceremony was held at Sarajevo International Airport, the airport served as the home base for the countrys flag carrier, B&H Airlines, until July 2015 when the airline ceased operations
15.
United Nations Security Council
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The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946. Like the UN as a whole, the Security Council was created following World War II to address the failings of an international organization. The Security Council consists of fifteen members, the great powers that were the victors of World War II—the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, Republic of China, and the United States—serve as the bodys five permanent members. These permanent members can veto any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the admission of new member states or candidates for Secretary-General, the Security Council also has 10 non-permanent members, elected on a regional basis to serve two-year terms. The bodys presidency rotates monthly among its members, Security Council resolutions are typically enforced by UN peacekeepers, military forces voluntarily provided by member states and funded independently of the main UN budget. As of 2016,103,510 peacekeeping soldiers and 16,471 civilians are deployed on 16 peacekeeping operations and 1 special political mission. Following the catastrophic loss of life in World War I, the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between the nations, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. The term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. The most contentious issue at Dumbarton and in successive talks proved to be the rights of permanent members. At the conference, H. V. Evatt of the Australian delegation pushed to further restrict the power of Security Council permanent members. Due to the fear that rejecting the strong veto would cause the conferences failure, the UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five then-permanent members of the Security Council and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. On 17 January 1946, the Security Council met for the first time at Church House, Westminster, in London, United Kingdom. The Security Council was largely paralysed in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and USSR and their allies, and the Council generally was only able to intervene in unrelated conflicts. Cold War divisions also paralysed the Security Councils Military Staff Committee, the committee continued to exist on paper but largely abandoned its work in the mid-1950s. By the 1970s, the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its budget for peacekeeping. After the Cold War, the UN saw an expansion in its peacekeeping duties. Between 1988 and 2000, the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled, undersecretary-General Brian Urquhart later described the hopes raised by these successes as a false renaissance for the organization, given the more troubled missions that followed. In 1994, the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide in the face of Security Council indecision, in the late 1990s, UN-authorised international interventions took a wider variety of forms
16.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
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Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland, and it is a member of the United Nations Development Group. The UNHCR has won two Nobel Peace Prizes, once in 1954 and again in 1981, following the demise of the League of Nations and the formation of the United Nations the international community was acutely aware of the refugee crisis following the end of World War II. In 1947, the International Refugee Organization was founded by the United Nations, the IRO was the first international agency to deal comprehensively with all aspects of refugees lives. Preceding this was the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, which was established in 1944 to address the millions of people displaced across Europe as a result of World War II. In the late 1940s, the IRO fell out of favor, however, the organization was only intended to operate for 3 years, from January 1951, due to the disagreement of many UN member states over the implications of a permanent body. UNHCRs mandate was set out in its statute, annexed to resolution 428 of the United Nations General Assembly of 1950. This mandate has been broadened by numerous resolutions of the General Assembly and its Economic. According to UNHCR, mandate is to provide, on a non-political and humanitarian basis, international protection to refugees, soon after the signing of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, it became clear that refugees were not solely restricted to Europe. In 1956, UNHCR was involved in coordinating the response to the uprising in Hungary, the responses marked the beginning of a wider, global mandate in refugee protection and humanitarian assistance. By the end of the decade, two-thirds of UNHCRs budget was focused on operations in Africa and in just one decade, the organizations focus had shifted from an almost exclusive focus on Europe. In 1967, the Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees was ratified to remove the geographical and temporal restrictions of UNHCR under the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees. In the 1970s, UNHCR refugee operations continued to spread around the globe, adding to the woes in Asia was the Vietnam war, with millions fleeing the war-torn country. The 1980s saw new challenges for UNHCR, with member states unwilling to resettle refugees due to the sharp rise in refugee numbers over the 1970s. Often, these refugees were not fleeing wars between states, but inter-ethnic conflict in newly independent states, the targeting of civilians as military strategy added to the displacement in many nations, so even minor conflicts could result in a large number of displaced persons. As a result, the UNHCR became more involved with assistance programs within refugee camps. The end of the Cold War marked continued inter-ethnic conflict and contributed heavily to refugee flight, UNHCR was established on 14 December 1950 and succeeded the earlier United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. The agency is mandated to lead and co-ordinate international action to protect refugees and its primary purpose is to safeguard the rights and well-being of refugees. UNHCR maintains a database of information, ProGres, which was created during the Kosovo War in the 1990s
17.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 819
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This was the first instance of a civilian safe area being declared in the world. It also demanded that Federal Republic of Yugoslavia cease supplying weapons, military equipment and other services to Bosnian Serb paramilitary units in Bosnia,147 peacekeepers were later deployed to reassure Bosnian Serb General Ratko Mladic that the town would not be used as a base to attack his forces. It also reaffirmed that the acquisition of territory by threat or use of force, particularly through ethnic cleansing, is unlawful, the Council condemned the abhorrent campaign of ethnic cleansing by the Bosnian Serb paramilitaries and its actions of forcing the evacuation of the civilian population from Srebrenica. It then urged the Secretary-General and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees to reinforce the existing operations in the region. The safe area would later be extended to other towns including Tuzla, Žepa, Bihać, Goražde, breakup of Yugoslavia Bosnian Genocide Bosnian War Croatian War of Independence List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 801 to 900 Yugoslav Wars Text of the Resolution at undocs. org
18.
Srebrenica
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Srebrenica is a town in the easternmost Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Srebrenica is a mountain town, its main industry being salt mining. During the Bosnian War, the town was the site of a July 1995 massacre of the towns Bosniak population, determined to have been a crime of genocide. On 24 March 2007, Srebrenicas municipal assembly adopted a resolution demanding independence from the Republika Srpska entity, the municipality is further subdivided into the following local communities, The borders of the municipality in the 1953 and 1961 census were different. In 1953, Muslims by nationality had been yet to emerge as an ethnicity leading Slavic Muslims to identify as Yugoslavs, as Yugoslav was itself not adopted in 1948, they were all classified as other. In 2003, Bosnian Serbs comprised 95% of the population of Srebrenica, before 1992, there was a metal factory in the town, and lead, zinc, and gold mines nearby. The towns name means mine, the same meaning of its old Latin name Argentaria. Before the war, Srebrenica also had a big spa and the town prospered from tourism, nowadays, Srebrenica has some tourism but a lot less developed than before the war. Currently, a pension, motel and a hostel are operating in the town, during the Roman times, there was a settlement of Domavia, known to have been near a mine. Silver ore from there was moved to the mints in Salona in the southwest, in the 13th and 14th century the region was part of the Banate of Bosnia, and, subsequently, the Bosnian Kingdom. The earliest reference to the name Srebrenica was in 1376, by time it was already an important centre for trade in the western Balkans. During the 14th century, many German miners moved into the area, there were often armed conflicts about Srebrenica because of its mines. According to Czech historian Konstantin Josef Jireček, from 1410 to 1460, Srebrenica switched hands several times, being Serbian five times, Bosnian four times, the mines of Bosnian Podrinje and Usora were part of the Serbian Despotate prior to the Ottoman conquest. The area of Osat was liberated for a time during the First Serbian Uprising. Upon the breakout of the uprising, Metropolitan Hadži Melentije Stevanović contacted Vasić, after participated in battles on the Drina, Vasić asked Karađorđe for an army to liberate Osat, Lazar Mutap was dispatched and the region came under rebel rule. In 1808, the Ottomans cleared out Osat, and by 1813, during the Second World War, the Ustaše massacred hundreds of Serbs in villages surrounding Srebrenica. The town of Srebrenica came to prominence as a result of events during the Bosnian War. The Bosnian Muslim/Bosniak majority population of the Drina Valley posed an obstacle to the achievement of these objectives
19.
Srebrenica massacre
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The killings were perpetrated by units of the Bosnian Serb Army of Republika Srpska under the command of General Ratko Mladić. The Scorpions, a unit from Serbia, who had been part of the Serbian Interior Ministry until 1991. In April 1993 the United Nations had declared the besieged enclave of Srebrenica—in the Drina Valley of northeastern Bosnia—a safe area under UN protection, however, in July 1995, UNPROFORs 370 Dutchbat soldiers in Srebrenica failed to prevent the towns capture by the VRS—and the subsequent massacre. In 2004, in a ruling on the case of Prosecutor v. The ruling was upheld by the International Court of Justice in 2007. The Preliminary List of People Missing or Killed in Srebrenica compiled by the Bosnian Federal Commission of Missing Persons contains 8,373 names, in April 2013, Serbian President Tomislav Nikolić officially apologised for the massacre, although he stopped short of calling it genocide. In 2013 and 2014, the Netherlands was found liable in its own supreme court, on 8 July 2015, Russia, at the request of the Republika Srpska and Serbia, vetoed a UN resolution condemning the Srebrenica massacre as genocide. Serbia called the resolution anti-Serb, while both European and US governments affirmed that the crimes were genocide, on 9 July 2015, both the European Parliament and the U. S. Congress adopted resolutions reaffirming the description of the crime as genocide. The multiethnic Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was mainly inhabited by Muslim Bosniaks, Orthodox Serbs, following a declaration of national sovereignty on 15 October 1991 as the former Yugoslavia began to disintegrate, a referendum for independence was held on 29 February 1992. The result, in favour of independence, was rejected by the representatives of the Bosnian Serbs who had boycotted the referendum. The Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was formally recognised by the European Community and they thus proceeded with the ethnic cleansing of Bosniaks from Bosniak ethnic territories in Eastern Bosnia and Central Podrinje. Men and women were separated, with many of the men detained in the former KP Dom prison, in neighbouring Bratunac, Bosniaks were either killed or forced to flee to Srebrenica, resulting in 1,156 deaths, according to Bosnian government data. Thousands of Bosniaks were also killed in Foča, Zvornik, Cerska, each onslaught followed a similar pattern. Serb soldiers and paramilitaries surrounded a Bosnian Muslim village or hamlet, called upon the population to surrender their weapons, in most cases, they then entered the village or hamlet, expelled or killed the population, who offered no significant resistance, and destroyed their homes. During this period, Srebrenica was subjected to shelling from all directions on a daily basis. Potočari in particular was a target for Serb artillery and infantry because it was a sensitive point in the defence line around Srebrenica. Other Bosnian Muslim settlements were attacked as well. All this resulted in a number of refugees and casualties
20.
Tuzla
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Tuzla is a city in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the seat of the Tuzla Canton and is the economic, scientific, cultural, educational, health, after Sarajevo and Banja Luka, Tuzla is the third largest city in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Preliminary results from the 2013 Census indicate that the municipality has a population of 120,441, Tuzla is an educational center and is home to two universities. The city of Tuzla is home to Europes only salt lake as part of its park and has more than 100,000 people visiting its shores every year. The history of the city back to the 9th century. The name Tuzla is the Ottoman Turkish word for mine, tuzla. Archaeological evidence suggests that Tuzla was a rich Neolithic settlement, being inhabited continuously for more than 6,000 years, Tuzla is one of the oldest European sustained settlements. During the period of the Roman Republic, Tuzla was ruled by the Illyrian tribe Breuci, the city was first mentioned in 950 by Constantine Porphyrogenitus in his De Administrando Imperio as a fort named Salines. The name Soli was used in the Middle Ages and it means salts in Bosnian and the citys present name means place of salt in Ottoman Turkish. During the Middle Ages it belonged mostly to the medieval Kingdom of Bosnia and it remained under Ottoman rule for nearly 400 years, where it was administered as part of the Sanjak of Zvornik. In 1878 it was annexed by Austria-Hungary, after the dissolution of the monarchy it became the part of the newly formed Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The Husino uprising took place in 1920, in December 1944, the city was unsuccessfully attacked by Chetnik forces of Draža Mihailović along with the Serbian Assault Corps. After the war it developed into an industrial and cultural centre during the Communist period in the former Yugoslavia. In the 1990 elections the Reformists won control of the municipality being the municipality in Bosnia where non-nationalists won. During the Bosnian war for independence between 1992–95 the town was the municipality not governed by nationalist authorities. After Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence and was recognized by the United Nations the city was besieged by nationalist Serbian forces, a few days later Serbian forces attacked Tuzla. The town was not spared the atrocities of the Bosnian war,1992 Yugoslav Peoples Army column incident in Tuzla was an attack on the 92nd Yugoslav Peoples Army Motorized Brigade in the city of Tuzla that took place on 15 May 1992. The incident occurred at the junction of Brčanska Malta as the JNA was undergoing an agreed-upon withdrawal from the city
21.
Implementation Force
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NATO was responsible for carrying out the Dayton Peace Accords. The Dayton Peace Accords were started on November 22,1995 by the presidents of Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia, on behalf of Serbia, the actual signing happened in Paris on December 14,1995. The peace accords contained a General Framework Agreement and eleven supporting annexes with maps, iFORs specific role was to implement the military Annexes of The General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. IFOR relieved the UN peacekeeping force UNPROFOR, which had arrived in 1992. Almost 60,000 NATO soldiers in addition to forces from non-NATO nations were deployed to Bosnia, Operation Decisive Endeavor, beginning 6 December 1995, was a subcomponent of Joint Endeavor. The Dayton Agreement resulted from a series of events. Admiral Leighton W. Smith, Jr. acted as the Joint Force Commander for the operation and he commanded the operation from HQs in Zagreb and later from March 1996 from the Residency in Sarajevo. This was NATOs first ever out-of-area land deployment, the Land Components part of the operation was known as Operation Firm Endeavour. At its height, IFOR involved troops from 32 countries and numbered some 54,000 soldiers in-country, the tasks of the Land Component were carried out by three Multi National Divisions, Multi-National Division, Mostar - French led. Also known as the Division salamandre, mND-SE included two French brigades, one Spanish brigade, one Italian brigade, and Egyptian, Jordanian and Ukrainian units, as well as a Moroccan task force. The divisional headquarters was provided in rotation by divisions including the 7th Armoured Division, Multi-National Division, Banja Luka - British led. The British codename for their armed forces involvement in IFOR was Operation Resolute, mND-SW included a British brigade as well as Canadian and Dutch units. Division headquarters was provided by 3 Division then 1st Armoured Division, Multi-National Division, Tuzla - American led. The US Army 1st Armored Division under the command of Major General William L. Nash and they began to deploy on 18 December 1995. MND-N was composed of two U. S. Brigades, a Russian brigade, a Turkish brigade, and the Nordic-Polish Brigade, a Russian brigade, initially under the command of Colonel Aleksandr Ivanovich Lentsov, was part of the Task Force Eagle effort. The 1AD 1st Brigade was commanded by Colonel Gregory Fontenot and covered the northwest, the 1AD 2d Brigade, led by Col John Batiste, constituted the southern flank of the US sector, based in Camp Lisa, about 20 km east of Kladanj. Task Force 2-68 Armor, based in Baumholder, Germany, was based in Camp Linda and this was the Southern boundary of the US Sector. The 1AD returned in late 1996 to Germany, one of MND-Ns components was the Nordic-Polish Brigade which was a multinational brigade of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Sweden and USA
22.
Dayton Agreement
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These accords put an end to the 3 1⁄2-year-long Bosnian War, one of the Yugoslav Wars. During September and October 1995, world powers, gathered in the Contact Group, the conference took place from 1–21 November 1995. The peace conference was led by U. S, a key participant in the US delegation was General Wesley Clark. The head of the UK team was Pauline Neville-Jones, political director of the Foreign, the UK military representative was Col Arundell David Leakey. Paul Williams, through the Public International Law & Policy Group served as counsel to the Bosnian Government delegation during the negotiations. Curbing the participants ability to negotiate via the media was an important consideration. Richard Holbrooke wanted to prevent posturing through early leaks to the press, the agreements main purpose is to promote peace and stability in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and to endorse regional balance in and around the former Yugoslavia, thus in a regional perspective. A key component of this was the delineation of the Inter-Entity Boundary Line, the State of Bosnia Herzegovina was set as of the Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and of the Republika Srpska. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state, as opposed to a confederation, no entity or entities could ever be separated from Bosnia. Although highly decentralised in its Entities, it would retain a central government, with a rotating State Presidency, a central bank. The agreement mandated a wide range of organizations to monitor, oversee. The NATO-led IFOR was responsible for implementing military aspects of the agreement and deployed on 20 December 1995, the Office of the High Representative was charged with the task of civil implementation. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe was charged with organising the first free elections in 1996. The Court also rejected the other request stating, This was one of the cases in which the Court had to deal with the question of the legal nature of the Constitution. In later decisions the Court confirmed this by using other annexes of the agreement as a direct base for the analysis. The Court used the same reasoning to dismiss the claim in a later case. Before the Dayton agreement Bosnian Serbs controlled about 46% of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosniaks 28%, Bosnian Serbs got large tracts of mountainous territories back, but they were pressured to surrender Sarajevo and some vital Eastern Bosnian/Herzegovian positions. All in all by changing quality to quantity their percentage grew to 49% from a bit more than 46% prior to Dayton
23.
Yugoslav People's Army
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The Yugoslav Peoples Army, also referred to as the Yugoslav National Army or simply by the initialism JNA, was the military of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The origins of the JNA can be found in the Yugoslav Partisan units of World War II, after the Yugoslav Partisans liberated the country from the Axis Powers, that date was officially celebrated as the Day of the Army in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In March 1945, the NOVJ was renamed the Yugoslav Army and, on its 10th anniversary, on 22 December 1951, the JNA consisted of the ground forces, air force and navy. The regions were, Belgrade, Zagreb, Skopje and Split Naval Region, of the JNAs 180,000 soldiers, more than 100,000 were conscripts. In 1990, the army had completed a major overhaul of its basic force structure. It eliminated its old divisional infantry organization and established the brigade as the largest operational unit, the army converted ten of twelve infantry divisions into twenty-nine tank, mechanized and mountain infantry brigades with integral artillery, air defense and anti-tank regiments. One airborne brigade was organized before 1990, the change created many senior field command positions that would develop relatively young and talented officers. The brigade structure had advantages at a time of declining manpower, the arms industry was dominant in the Yugoslavian economy. With annual exports of $3 billion, it was twice as large as the second largest industry and it had modern infrastructure with underground air bases and control centres in several mountains. The biggest and best known installation was the Željava Air Base, also known as the Bihać Underground Integrated Radar Control and Surveillance Centre and Air Base, in Bosnia, another important manufacturer was Utva in Serbia. The Yugoslav military-industrial complex produced tanks, armored vehicles, various pieces, anti-aircraft weapons, as well as various types of infantry weapons. The ground forces led in number of personnel, in 1991 there were about 140,000 active-duty soldiers, and over a million trained reservists could be mobilized in wartime. Each of the Yugoslav constituent republics had its own territorial defence forces which in wartime were subordinate to supreme command as an part of the defence system. The territorial defence was made up of conscripts, they were occasionally called up for war exercises. The ground forces were organised into infantry, armour, artillery, the Yugoslav Air Force had about 32,000 personnel including 4,000 conscripts, and operated over 400 aircraft and 200 helicopters. It was responsible for transport, reconnaissance, and rotary-wing aircraft as well as the air defence system. The primary air force missions were to contest enemy efforts to establish air supremacy over Yugoslavia and to support the operations of the ground forces. Most aircraft were produced in Yugoslavia, missiles were produced domestically and supplied by the Soviet Union
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Ethnic cleansing
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Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic or religious groups from a given territory by a more powerful ethnic group, with the intent of making it ethnically homogeneous. The forces applied may be forms of forced migration, intimidation, as well as mass murder. An antecedent to the term is the Greek word andrapodismos, which was used in ancient texts to describe atrocities that accompanied Alexander the Greats conquest of Thebes in 335 BC. In the early 1900s, regional variants of the term could be found among the Czechs, the Poles, the French, a 1913 Carnegie Endowment report condemning the actions of all participants in the Balkan Wars contained various new terms to describe brutalities committed toward ethnic groups. During World War II, the euphemism čišćenje terena was used by the Croatian Ustaše to describe military actions in which non-Croats were purposely killed or otherwise uprooted from their homes. Viktor Gutić, a senior Ustaše leader, was one of the first Croatian nationalists on record to use the term as a euphemism for committing atrocities against Serbs. This process was repeated on a larger scale in 1939–41. During The Holocaust, Nazi Germany pursued a policy of ensuring that Europe was cleansed of Jews, according to Israeli historian Benny Morris, the term cleansing was used in Israeli military documents dating to the 1948 Israeli–Arab war, referring to the expulsion of Arabs from Israel. In the 1980s, the Soviets used the term ethnic cleansing to describe the violence in Nagorno-Karabakh. At around the time, the Yugoslav media used it to describe what they alleged was an Albanian nationalist plot to force all Serbs to leave Kosovo. It was widely popularized by the Western media during the Bosnian War, the first recorded mention of its use in the Western media can be traced back to an article in The New York Times dated 15 April 1992, in a quote by an anonymous Western diplomat. Those practices constitute crimes against humanity and can be assimilated to specific war crimes, furthermore, such acts could also fall within the meaning of the Genocide Convention. As a category, ethnic cleansing encompasses a continuum or spectrum of policies, in the words of Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, thnic cleansing defies easy definition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population exchange while at the other it merges with deportation, at the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a given territory. The term ethnic cleansing has frequently employed to refer to the events in Bosnia. General Assembly resolution 47/121 referred in its Preamble to the abhorrent policy of ethnic cleansing and it can only be a form of genocide within the meaning of the Convention, if it corresponds to or falls within one of the categories of acts prohibited by Article II of the Convention. The expulsion of a group or part of a group does not in itself suffice for genocide, there is no international treaty that specifies a specific crime of ethnic cleansing. There are however situations, such as the expulsion of Germans after World War II, timothy V. Waters argues that if similar circumstances arise in the future, this precedent would allow the ethnic cleansing of other populations under international law
25.
Royal 22nd Regiment
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The mostly francophone regiment comprises three Regular Force battalions, two Primary Reserve battalions, and a band, making it the largest regiment in the Canadian Army. The maison-mère or home of the regiment is La Citadelle in Quebec City and is where the museum is housed. The regimental headquarters is located in Quebec City, with all three of its regular battalions stationed at Canadian Forces Base Valcartier in Quebec, the regiment serves as the local infantry regiment for Quebec where it draws most of its recruits. The first contingent of 30,000 volunteers, which became the 1st Canadian Division of the Canadian Expeditionary Force, were grouped into numbered battalions, regardless of origin. The existing reserve regiments were not mobilized, due to the belief of the Defence Minister, Sam Hughes, in the process, the new structure failed to create French-speaking units, such as those that had existed in the reserves. Over 1000 French-Canadian volunteers were scattered into different English-speaking units, the second contingent was based, more logically, on battalions raised and trained in the various military districts in which they had been recruited, but still on an impersonal numbered basis. In September 1914, French Canadian pharmaceutical entrepreneur Arthur Mignault communicated with Prime Minister Robert Borden, Mignault offered the government $50,000 to pursue this end. Borden had recently committed his country into the providing of half a million soldiers to the Allied cause, Borden eagerly accepted Mignaults proposal and accordingly, on 14 October 1914, the 22nd Battalion, CEF, was authorized. Mignault participated in the recruitment campaign, which resulted in a remarkable success, Arthur Mignault is as such considered the founder of the 22nd regiment. The 22nd went to France as part of the 5th Canadian Brigade and the 2nd Canadian Division in September 1915, two members of the 22nd were awarded the Victoria Cross in that war, Lieutenant Jean Brillant and Corporal Joseph Kaeble. After the war, the 22nd Battalion was disbanded on 20 May 1919, sharing the fate of the other numbered battalions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force. Initially the regiment, which was given the guard of the Citadelle of Quebec, was simply the 22nd Regiment, in 1928, the anomaly of a French-language unit with an English name was resolved, and the regiment became the Royal 22e Régiment in both languages. However, the English version of the R22eR is still seen occasionally, in 1940, the regiment became the first Francophone Canadian unit to mount the Kings Guard in London and was the first of the three current Regular Force infantry regiments to do so. During the Korean War, 1951–1953, the regiment expanded to three battalions, each serving in turn as part of the Canadian brigade in the 1st Commonwealth Division, thus the Van Doos represented one-third of Canadas infantry contingent throughout the war. The regiment also served during the Oka Crisis, during the life of the Canadian Airborne Regiment the 1er Commando was manned as a French-speaking sub-unit by soldiers of the Royal 22nd Regiment. In the 1950s, the Canadian Army promoted a scheme of administratively associating reserve infantry regiments with a regular one, however, in 1968, Les Fusiliers du St-Laurent dropped the subsidiary title, and ended their administrative association with the R22eR. The 64th Voltigeurs de Beauharnois were called out on service from 9 to 29 April. The battalion served on the Huntingdon frontier, details of the 64th Châteauguay and Beauharnois Regiment were placed on active service on 6 August 1914 for local protective duty
26.
3rd Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment
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3rd Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment is a regular force light infantry battalion of the Canadian Forces. As of 2011,3 RCR was designated Canadas first airmobile battalion, after seeing the unit in the reconstitution phase of the army training operations framework cycle, it was prepared once again for deployment. It stood up as the core of Task Force 3–08 Battle Group in January 2008,3 RCR redeployed to Canada in April and May 2009. Most recently, O Company deployed as a component of the Task Force 1-10 BG, the Royal Canadian Regiment was formed 21 December 1883, under the name of the Infantry School Corps. The regiment was known by a variety of names until The Royal Canadian Regiment became official, there have been three occasions when there have been more than one battalion of The RCR. First was during the time of the Boer War, when 2nd Battalion, 3rd battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment of Infantry occupied Wellington Barracks in Halifax, NS and conducted garrison duties there. Second was at the end of the Second World War when a second battalion. Finally, during the Korean War, 3rd battalion was formed on 10 January 1951,3 RCR served in Korea from March 1953 until March 1954. During a reorganisation of the Canadian Army in the early 1950s,3 RCR ceased being on the regular order of battle. 3 RCR was the designation of the battalion of The RCR. It served in Baden, Germany, until 1984, when it was replaced by 2nd Battalion Princess Patricias Canadian Light Infantry and it then was based in Winnipeg as part of 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group. It then returned to Germany in 1988, where it stayed until 1993 and it was then designated a so-called 10/90 battalion and was based at CFB Borden. Early in May the battalion withstood a strong enemy assault on its position about Hill 187, the attack was repulsed, but the engagement cost the Canadians heavy casualties –26 killed,27 wounded and seven taken prisoner. In 1954 two London, Ontario, Militia regiments, the Canadian Fusiliers and The Oxford Rifles were amalgamated and redesignated The London and this unit thus became the reserve component of The RCR. In 1958, it was renamed 3rd Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment,3 RCR was one of two infantry battalions that formed Canadas commitment to NATO. It assumed duties from 3 Mechanised Commando, Canadian Airborne Regiment in 1977 and it was stationed in Baden-Söllingen, Germany, as part of 4 CMBG. It remained there until 1984, when it was replaced by 2nd Battalion,3 RCR was then stationed in Winnipeg, Manitoba. In 1988,3 RCR was once again rotated to Germany, at this time, it deployed with four rifle companies instead of the usual three rifle companies
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The Royal Canadian Regiment
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The Royal Canadian Regiment is an infantry regiment of the Canadian Army. The regiment consists of four battalions, three in the Regular Force and one in the Primary Reserve, the RCR is the senior infantry regiment in the Regular Force, but its 4th Battalion is ranked 11th in the order of precedence among infantry regiments in the Primary Reserve. In 1887 a fourth Company was authorized and the year was established at London. Now consisting of three Regular Force battalions and one Reserve Force battalion, the four battalions are now stationed in Ontario. With many of its soldiers drawn from Ontario and the Atlantic Provinces in recent decades, the RCR maintains a Regimental Headquarters in Petawawa, Ontario, which has no operational command role but handles regimental affairs outside the responsibility of the individual Battalions. The Royal Canadian Regiment Museum is located within historic Wolseley Hall in London, Wolseley Barracks in London has been continuously occupied by some element of the regiment since construction of Wolseley Hall was completed in 1888. At various times Wolseley Barracks has been the home of the Regimental Headquarters, the 1st and 2nd Battalions, the Royal Canadian Regiment has been awarded a total of 58 battle honours. In the list below, battle honours in capitals were awarded for participation in operations and campaigns. Battle honours in bold type are emblazoned on the regimental colours, the RCR was also assigned the perpetuation of The Loyal London Volunteers which was accompanied by a non-emblazonable Honorary Distinction. The regiment itself was formed as the Infantry School Corps on 21 December 1883 and these school corps were created as regular units that would train the Canadian militia. The first companies stood up in Fredericton NB, St Jean-sur-Richelieu QC, the Infantry School Corps first battle honours were earned during the North-West Rebellion in 1885, where it fought at Batoche and Cut Knife Creek. The regiment later provided personnel to the Yukon Field Force, which assisted the North-West Mounted Police in the Yukon during the Gold Rush. The Regiment was then in the South African War, its overseas deployment was delayed by an assignment in Bermuda from September 1914 until August 1915. Upon returning to Nova Scotia, its members attested for service with the Canadian Expeditionary Force. The regiments name was changed to The Royal Canadian Regiment of Infantry in 1893, William Dillon Otter, formerly of The Queens Own Rifles of Canada, was the first Commanding Officer. He would later become the first Canadian-born Chief of the General Staff, during the South African War, the 2nd Battalion was raised from across the country to contribute Canadas First Contingent in this war, with Otter in command. This battalion was disbanded in 1900 upon its return to Canada. The 3rd Battalion was also raised at this time, in 1900 and this date has since been celebrated by the Regiment as Paardeberg Day
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Maslenica
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Maslenica is a port and village in Zadar County, Dalmatia, Croatia. Its geographical coordinates are 44°13N, 15°32E and it is situated in Novigrad Sea, the gulf of Novigrad. Waters are quite clear due to the Zrmanja river which flows into this gulf, the town was built 1000 years ago. Maslenica was damaged under the Croatian War of Independence in the 1990s, most notably, a heavily traveled bridge, the Maslenica Bridge on the Adriatic Highway was destroyed. In 2006, the bridge was rebuilt on the same spot, in the meantime, an additional bridge, also known as Maslenica Bridge had been built slightly north. Operation Maslenica got its name from the village
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Scott O'Grady
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Scott Francis OGrady is a former United States Air Force fighter pilot. On June 2,1995, he was shot down over Bosnia and Herzegovina by an SA-6 mobile SAM launcher, after nearly a week of evading the Serbs he was eventually rescued by Marines. Previously he took part in the Banja Luka incident where he fired upon six enemy aircraft, the 2001 film Behind Enemy Lines is loosely based upon his experiences. The Bosnian War was an armed conflict that took place in Bosnia. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, after pressure, had decided to intervene in the Bosnian War after allegations of war crimes against civilians were made by various media organizations. As part of operation, two F-16s from the 555th Fighter Squadron based at Aviano Air Base, Italy, were patrolling the skies above Bosnia on June 2,1995. On the ground, a Bosnian Serb Army 2K12 Kub surface-to-air missile battery near Mrkonjić Grad was readying to fire its missiles on NATO aircraft, the Serbs had moved the mobile tracked missile battery and laid a trap. They switched on their missile radars sparingly, giving F-16 fighters little warning, waiting until a plane was directly overhead, where the aircrafts warning and countermeasures would be at their weakest, they fired two missiles. In the cockpit, OGradys instruments alerted him that a missile was coming but, because he was flying through an overcast, the first missile exploded between the two aircraft. The second struck the F-16 piloted by OGrady and his wingman, Captain Bob Wright, saw OGradys plane burst into flames and break in two. Wright did not see a parachute, but OGrady survived by ejecting from the aircraft, OGrady landed among a Bosnian-Serb population he assumed to be unfriendly and, within a minute, he secured a 29-pound survival bag from under his seat, ran, and hid. During the next six days, he put to use the lessons learned during a 17-day Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape training session he had undertaken near his hometown of Spokane, WA. He ate leaves, grass, and bugs, and stored the little rainwater he could collect with a sponge in plastic bags. OGrady delayed radioing for help, as the U. S. Air Force had taught him that downed pilots are often captured after calling for help too soon, on his 4th full day on the ground, he signaled his location using his radios limited battery power. NATO planes conducting sorties in the Balkans had been picking up beeper snippets that they thought could be coming from OGrady, a NATO official was quoted as saying I was dumbfounded he said that. I mean, why not just announce to the bad guys, We think hes alive and kicking, just after midnight on June 8, he spoke into the radio. An F-16 pilot from the 555th responded and, after confirming his identity, at 4,40, Admiral Leighton Smith, commander of NATO Southern Forces, called US Marine Colonel Martin Berndt aboard the USS Kearsarge with orders to execute. Two CH-53 Sea Stallions with 51 Marines from the 3rd Battalion 8th Marines within the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit, the two helicopters were accompanied by two Marine AH-1W SuperCobra helicopter gunships and a pair of Marine AV-8B Harrier jump jets
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General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
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The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a single-engine supersonic multirole fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force. Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it evolved into a successful all-weather multirole aircraft, over 4,500 aircraft have been built since production was approved in 1976. Although no longer being purchased by the U. S. Air Force, in 1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation, which in turn became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger with Martin Marietta. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon and 11 locations for mounting weapons, the F-16 has also been procured to serve in the air forces of 25 other nations. As of 2015, it is the second most common operational military aircraft in the world. Experiences in the Vietnam War revealed the need for air superiority fighters, boyds work called for a small, lightweight aircraft that could maneuver with the minimum possible energy loss, and which also incorporated an increased thrust-to-weight ratio. Air Force F-X proponents remained hostile to the concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program, however, the Air Forces leadership understood that its budget would not allow it to purchase enough F-15 aircraft to satisfy all of its missions. The Advanced Day Fighter concept, renamed F-XX, gained political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard. As a result, in May 1971, the Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with Boyd a key member and this was the region where USAF studies predicted most future air combat would occur. The anticipated average flyaway cost of a version was $3 million. This production plan, though, was only notional as the USAF had no plans to procure the winner. Five companies responded and in 1972, the Air Staff selected General Dynamics Model 401 and Northrops P-600 for the prototype development. GD and Northrop were awarded contracts worth $37.9 million and $39.8 million to produce the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively, with first flights of both prototypes planned for early 1974. To overcome resistance in the Air Force hierarchy, the Fighter Mafia, the high/low mix would allow the USAF to be able to afford sufficient fighters for its overall fighter force structure requirements. The mix gained broad acceptance by the time of the flyoff, defining the relationship of the LWF. The YF-16 was developed by a team of General Dynamics engineers led by Robert H. Widmer. The first YF-16 was rolled out on 13 December 1973, and its 90-minute maiden flight was made at the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB, California and its actual first flight occurred accidentally during a high-speed taxi test on 20 January 1974. The test pilot, Phil Oestricher, decided to lift off to avoid a potential crash, the slight damage was quickly repaired and the official first flight occurred on time
