1.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
2.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
3.
Army Medical Department (United States)
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It was established as the Army Hospital in July 1775 to coordinate the medical care required by the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. The AMEDD is led by the Surgeon General of the U. S. Army, the AMEDD is the U. S. Armys healthcare organization, not a U. S. Army command. It is found in all three branches of the Army, the Active Army, the U. S. Army Reserve, and its headquarters is at Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, Texas, which hosts the AMEDD Center and School. Large numbers of AMEDD senior leaders can also be found in the Washington D. C. area, the Academy of Health Sciences, within the AMEDDC&S, provides training to the officers and enlisted service members of the AMEDD. The current Surgeon General of the U. S. Army is LTG Nadja West and she is also commander of the U. S. Army Medical Command. Congress provided an Army medical organization only in times of war or emergency until 1818, the Army Organization Act of 1950 renamed the Medical Department the Army Medical Service and on June 4,1968 the AMS was renamed the Army Medical Department. A regimental coat of arms was devised for the Medical Department, the 20 white stars on a blue background and the red and white stripes represent the U. S. flag of 1818. The colors Argent and Gules are those associated with the flag of the United States, the rooster is associated with the ancient Greek and Roman god of healing and medicine, Aesculapius. The Ancient Greeks believed that the rooster’s crowing at dawn drove away the disease spreading demons from the temples so that it could be a place of healing. The torse below the rooster shows alternating blue and silver colors which were the colors of the Army in 1818, the Latin motto Experientia et Progressus, is meant to convey the steady and unfailing progress of the Army Medical Department since 1775. The design of the AMEDD regimental insignia is derived from the coat of arms. It is one of the US Army’s 14 regimental corps insignias and these insignias are worn over the right breast pocket on the Army Service Uniform and signify the service member’s branch of service. The new AMEDD insignia was approved on 27 October 2014, the caduceus in its present form was approved in 1902. Today, the AMEDD branch corps insignia is a gold color medal caduceus,1 inch in height, with the exception of the Medical Corps, each Corps is identified by a black enamel letter centered on the caduceus indicative of the specific branch. The insignia for Medical Service Corps is silver, there are currently six special officer branches in the AMEDD. The MC traces its origins to 27 July 1775, when the Continental Congress created “a Hospital”, essentially a Medical Department and corps of physicians, Medical officers in the United States Army were authorized uniforms only in 1816 and were accorded military rank only in 1847. Congress made the designation of Medical Corps official in 1908, although the term had long been in use informally among the AMEDDs regular physicians, today, members of the MC work around the world at all echelons of the Army. The Chief of the MC is a general, whereas the senior Army Medical Department officer is the Surgeon General
4.
United States Department of Defense
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The Department is the largest employer in the world, with nearly 1.3 million active duty servicemen and women as of 2016. Adding to its employees are over 801,000 National Guardsmen and Reservists from the four services and it is headquartered at the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside of Washington, D. C. The Department of Defense is headed by the Secretary of Defense, Military operations are managed by nine regional or functional Unified Combatant Commands. The Department of Defense also operates several joint services schools, including the National Defense University, the history of the defense of the United States started with the Continental Congress in 1775. The creation of the United States Army was enacted on 14 June 1775 and this coincides with the American holiday Flag Day. The Second Continental Congress would charter the United States Navy, on 13 October 1775, today, both the Navy and the Marine Corps are separate military services subordinate to the Department of the Navy. The Preamble of the United States Constitution gave the authority to federal government, to defend its citizens and this first Congress had a huge agenda, that of creating legislation to build a government for the ages. Legislation to create a military defense force stagnated, two separate times, President George Washington went to Congress to remind them of their duty to establish a military. In a special message to Congress on 19 December 1945, the President cited both wasteful military spending and inter-departmental conflicts, deliberations in Congress went on for months focusing heavily on the role of the military in society and the threat of granting too much military power to the executive. The act placed the National Military Establishment under the control of a single Secretary of Defense, the National Military Establishment formally began operations on 18 September, the day after the Senate confirmed James V. Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense. The National Military Establishment was renamed the Department of Defense on 10 August 1949, under the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958, channels of authority within the department were streamlined, while still maintaining the authority of the Military Departments. Also provided in this legislation was a centralized authority, the Advanced Research Projects Agency. The Act moved decision-making authority from the Military Departments to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and it also strengthened the command channel of the military over U. S. forces from the President to the Secretary of Defense. Written and promoted by the Eisenhower administration, it was signed into law 6 August 1958, because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, the statutory authority of the Secretary of Defense is derived from their constitutional authorities. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the Office of the Secretary of Defense is the Secretary and Deputy Secretarys civilian staff. S. Government departments and agencies, foreign governments, and international organizations, OSD also performs oversight and management of the Defense Agencies and Department of Defense Field Activities. OSD also supervises the following Defense Agencies, Several defense agencies are members of the United States Intelligence Community and these are national-level intelligence services that operate under the jurisdiction of the Department of Defense but simultaneously fall under the authorities of the Director of National Intelligence
5.
Officer (armed forces)
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An officer is a member of an armed force or uniformed service who holds a position of authority. In this sense, officers are not enlisted, but hold appointments from their government that typically remain in force indefinitely unless resigned, the proportion of officers varies greatly. Officers typically make up between an eighth and a fifth of modern armed forces personnel, in 2013, officers were the senior 17% of the British armed forces, and the senior 13. 7% of the French armed forces. In 2012, officers made up about 18% of the German armed forces, historically, however, armed forces have generally had much lower proportions of officers. During the First World War, fewer than 5% of British soldiers were officers, in the early twentieth century, the Spanish army had the highest proportion of officers of any European army, at 12. 5%. Within a nations armed forces, armies tend to have a proportion of officers. For example,13. 9% of British army personnel and 22. 2% of the RAF personnel were officers in 2013, having officers is one requirement for combatant status under the laws of war, though these officers need not have obtained an official commission or warrant. Commissioned officers are typically the only persons, in an armed forces environment, a superior officer is an officer with a higher rank than another officer, who is a subordinate officer relative to the superior. Non-commissioned officers in positions of authority can be said to have control or charge rather than command per se, many advanced militaries require university degrees as a prerequisite for commissioning, even from the enlisted ranks. In the Israel Defense Forces, a university degree is a requirement for an officer to advance to the rank of lieutenant colonel, the IDF often sponsors the studies for its majors, while aircrew and naval officers obtain academic degrees as a part of their training programmes. In the United Kingdom, there are three routes of entry for British Armed Forces officers, the first, and primary route are those who receive their commission directly into the officer grades following completion at their relevant military academy. The third route is similar to the second, in that they convert from an enlisted to a commission, but these are taken from the highest ranks of SNCOs. LE officers, whilst holding the same Queens Commission, generally work in different roles from the DE officers, in the infantry, a number of Warrant Officer Class 1s are commissioned as LE officers. For Royal Navy and Royal Air Force officer candidates, a 30-week period at Britannia Royal Naval College or a 30-week period at RAF College Cranwell, Royal Marines officers receive their training in the Command Wing of the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines during a grueling 15-month course. The courses consist of not only tactical and combat training, but also leadership, management, etiquette, until the Cardwell Reforms of 1871, commissions in the British Army were purchased by officers. The Royal Navy, however, operated on a more meritocratic, or at least socially mobile, AOCS also also included the embedded Aviation Reserve Officer Candidate and Naval Aviation Cadet programs. NAVCADs were personnel who held associates degrees, but lacked bachelors degrees, nAVCADs would complete the entire AOCS program, but would not be commissioned until completion of flight training and receiving their wings. After their initial tour, they would be assigned to a college or university full-time for no more than two years in order to complete their bachelors degree
6.
United States Army Reserve
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The United States Army Reserve is the federal reserve force of the United States Army. Together, the Army Reserve and the Army National Guard constitute the Army element of the Reserve components of the United States Armed Forces. On 30 June 2016, Lieutenant General Charles D. Luckey became the 33rd Chief of Army Reserve, on 23 April 1908 Congress created the Medical Reserve Corps, the official predecessor of the Army Reserve. This organization provided a pool of trained Reserve officers and enlisted men for use in war. The Organized Reserve included the Officers Reserve Corps, Enlisted Reserve Corps, the Organized Reserves were redesignated 25 March 1948 as the Organized Reserve Corps. Recognizing the importance of the Organized Reserve to the World War II effort, Congress authorized retirement, a tentative troop basis for the Organized Reserve Corps, prepared in March 1946, outlined 25 divisions, three armored, five airborne, and 17 infantry. These divisions and all other Organized Reserve Corps units were to be maintained in one of three categories, labeled Class A, Class B, and Class C. The troop basis listed nine divisions as Class A, nine as Class B, eventually the War Department agreed and made the appropriate changes. Although the dispute over Class A units lasted several months, the War Department proceeded with the reorganization of the Organized Reserve Corps divisions during the summer of 1946. That all divisions were to begin as Class C units, progressing to the categories as men and equipment became available. Also, the War Department wanted to take advantage of the pool of trained reserve officers, by that time Army Ground Forces had been reorganized as an army group headquarters that commanded six geographic armies. The armies replaced the nine areas of the prewar era. The First United States Army declined to support a division. After the change, the Organized Reserve Corps had four airborne, the Second Army insisted upon the number 80 for its airborne unit because the division was to be raised in the prewar 80th Divisions area, not that of the 99th. Finally, the 103rd Infantry Division, organized in 1921 in New Mexico, Colorado, and Arizona, was moved to Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, a major problem in forming divisions and other units in the Organized Reserve Corps was adequate housing. While many National Guard units owned their own armories, some dating back to the nineteenth century, although the War Department requested funds for needed facilities, Congress moved slowly in response. During the summer and fall of 1951 the six army commanders in the United States, staff agencies, the army commanders urged that all divisions in the Organized Reserve Corps be infantry divisions because they believed that the reserves could not adequately support armored and airborne training. They thought thirteen, rather than twelve, reserve divisions should be maintained to provide a geographic distribution of the units
7.
Public health
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It is concerned with threats to health based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people, Public health incorporates the interdisciplinary approaches of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health and occupational safety, the focus of public health intervention is to improve health and quality of life through prevention and treatment of disease and other physical and mental health conditions. This is done through surveillance of cases and health indicators, there is a great disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed nations and developing nations. In the developing world, public health infrastructures are still forming, many diseases are preventable through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that the act of hand washing with soap can prevent many contagious diseases. Public health communications programs, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms are examples of public health measures. Measures such as these have contributed greatly to the health of populations, Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and non-governmental organizations. The World Health Organization is the agency that coordinates and acts on global public health issues. Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, for example, in the United States, the front line of public health initiatives are state and local health departments. In Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada is the agency responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response. The Public health system in India is managed by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare of the government of India with state-owned health care facilities. Public health programs providing vaccinations have made strides in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox, antibiotic resistance, also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011. Although the prioritization of pressing public health issues is important, Laurie Garrett argues that there are following consequences, when foreign aid is funnelled into disease-specific programs, the importance of public health in general is disregarded. This public health problem of stovepiping is thought to create a lack of funds to other existing diseases in a given country. For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people suffer from diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by the year 2030, the risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity. The WHO’s latest estimates highlighted that globally approximately 1.5 billion adults were overweight in 2008, the United States is the leading country with 30. 6% of its population being obese
8.
Nurse anesthetist
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A nurse anesthetist or anesthetic nurse is a nurse who specializes in the administration of anesthesia. In the United States, a registered nurse anesthetist is an advanced practice registered nurse who has acquired graduate-level education. The American Association of Nurse Anesthetists is the association that represents more than 90% of the 45,000 nurse anesthetists in the United States. Certification is governed by the National Boards of Certification and Recertification of Nurse Anesthetists, education is governed by the Council on Accreditation of Nurse Anesthesia Educational Programs. Worldwide, in the UK and former commonwealth countries the term anesthetist is used for physicians only and it is the British version for a US anesthesiologist. In order to get into this program, one must obtain a BSN degree in nursing, as well as complete their boards. Graduate programs generally require individuals to have at least a 3.2 GPA in their undergraduate degree, the next step is to have two years experience in a critical care unit, for example the ICU. Nurse anesthetists have been providing anesthesia care in the United States for 150 years, according to the American Association of Nurse Anesthetists, nurse anesthetists are the oldest nurse specialty group in the United States. Additionally, in testament to the roots, today’s nurse anesthetists remain the primary anesthesia providers to U. S. service men and women at home. Among the first American nurses to provide anesthesia was Catherine S. Lawrence, along with other nurses, Lawrence administered anesthesia during the American Civil War. The first official nurse anesthetist is recognized as Sister Mary Bernard, the first school of nurse anesthesia was formed in 1909 at St. Vincent Hospital, Portland, Oregon. Established by Agnes McGee, the course was seven long, and included courses on anatomy and physiology, pharmacology. Within the next decade, approximately 19 schools opened, all consisted of post-graduate anesthesia training for nurses and were about six months in length. These included programs at Mayo Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Barnes Hospital, New York Post-Graduate Hospital, Charity Hospital in New Orleans, Grace Hospital in Detroit, early anesthesia training programs provided education for all levels of health providers. For example, in 1915, chief nurse anesthetist Agatha Hodgins established the Lakeside Hospital School of Anesthesia in Cleveland and this program was open to nurses, physicians, and dentists. The training was six months and the tuition was $50, a diploma was awarded on completion. In its first year, it graduated six physicians, two dentists, and 11 nurses, later, in 1918, it established a system of clinical affiliations with other Cleveland hospitals. Some nurse anesthetists were appointed to medical school faculties to train the students in anesthesia
9.
Family nurse practitioner
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A family nurse practitioner provides continuing and comprehensive healthcare for the individual and family across all ages, genders, diseases, and body systems. Primary care emphasises the nature of health and it is based on knowledge of the patient in the context of the family. Following educational preparation at the masters or doctoral level, FNPs must become board certified by a certification body. Board certification must be maintained by obtaining continuing nursing education credits, in the US, board certification is provided either through the American Nurses Credentialing Center or through the American Association of Nurse Practitioners certification program. FNPs deliver a range of acute, chronic and preventive healthcare services, FNPs also manage chronic illness, often coordinating care provided by specialty physicians. Advanced practice registered nurse Family medicine
10.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
11.
United States Sanitary Commission
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The United States Sanitary Commission was a private relief agency created by federal legislation on June 18,1861, to support sick and wounded soldiers of the U. S. Army during the American Civil War. It operated across the North, raised an estimated $25 million in Civil War era revenue and in-kind contributions to support the cause, the president was Henry Whitney Bellows, and Frederick Law Olmsted acted as executive secretary. It was modeled on the British Sanitary Commission, set up during the Crimean War, Henry Whitney Bellows, a Massachusetts clergyman, planned the USSC and served as its only president. According to The Wall Street Journal, its first executive secretary was Frederick Law Olmsted, George Templeton Strong, New York lawyer and diarist, helped found the commission and served as treasurer and member of the executive committee. In June 1861, the Sanitary Commission set up its Central Office inside the Treasury Building downtown Washington, by late October 1861, the Central Office and the War Department had received detailed studies and reports from the Sanitary Inspectors of more than four hundred regimental camp inspections. C. Requesting water-beds, small tables for writing in bed, iron wire cradles for protecting wounded limbs, dominoes, checkerboards, Delphinium, the demands of the war soon required more frequent decision-making. This led to the creation of the Standing Committee, which met on a daily basis in New York City where most of its members resided. Also active in the association was Colonel Leavitt Hunt, a New York lawyer and photographer, in January 1864, he wrote to President Abraham Lincolns secretary John George Nicolay asking that Nicolay forward him any documents he might have available with the Presidents signature. Hunts mother, the widow of Vermont congressman Jonathan Hunt, planned to attach Lincolns signature to copies of casts of the Presidents hand. Other fund raising events included the famous 50 pound sack of flour that was auctioned off by Reuel Colt Gridley. By auctioning off the same sack of flour, which was then re-donated to be sold again, arising from a meeting in New York City of the Womens Central Relief Association of New York, the organization was also inspired by the British Sanitary Commission of the Crimean War. They organized Sanitary Fairs in numerous cities to support the Federal army with funds and supplies, dorothea Dix, serving as the commissions superintendent, convinced the medical corps of the value of women working in their hospitals. Over 15,000 women volunteered to work in hospitals, usually in nursing care and they assisted surgeons during procedures, gave medicines, supervised the feedings and cleaned the bedding and clothes. They gave good cheer, wrote letters the men dictated, a representative nurse was Helen L. Gilson of Chelsea, Massachusetts, who served in Sanitary Commission. She supervised supplies, dressed wounds, and cooked special foods for patients on a limited diet and she worked in hospitals after the battles of Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg. She was an administrator, especially at the hospital for black soldiers at City Point. Mary Livermore, Mary Ann Bickerdyke, and Annie Wittenmeyer played leadership roles, after the war some nurses wrote memoirs of their experiences, examples include Dix, Livermore, Sarah Palmer Young, and Sarah Emma Edmonds. Organizing the Sanitary Fairs offered ways for local communities to be part of supporting the war effort of the nation
12.
Dorothea Dix
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During the Civil War, she served as a Superintendent of Army Nurses. Born in the town of Hampden, Maine, she grew up first in Worcester and she was the first child of three born to Joseph Dix and Mary Bigelow, who had deep ancestral roots in Massachusetts Bay Colony. Her father was an itinerant worker as a Methodist preacher, at the age of twelve, she sought refuge with her wealthy grandmother, Dorothea Lynde in Boston to get away from her alcoholic parents and abusive father. About 1821 Dix opened a school in Boston, which was patronized by well-to-do families, soon afterward she also began teaching poor and neglected children out of the barn of her grandmothers house, but she suffered poor health. From 1824 to 1830, she wrote mainly devotional books and stories for children and her Conversations on Common Things reached its sixtieth edition by 1869. Her book The Garland of Flora was, along with Elizabeth Wirts Floras Dictionary, Other books of Dixs include Private Hours, Alice and Ruth, and Prisons and Prison Discipline. After Dixs health forced her to relinquish her school, she began working out as a governess for the family of Dr. W. E. Channing. It was while working with family that Dix traveled to St. Croix. In 1831, she established a school for girls in Boston, operating it until 1836. Dix was encouraged to take a trip to Europe to help aid her health by her physician, when she was there she met the other reformers who inspired her to start working on equal rights for the mentally ill. These reformers were Elizabeth Fry, Samuel Tuke and William Rathbone whom which she lived with during the duration of her trip to Europe, in hopes of a cure, in 1836 she traveled to England, where she met the Rathbone family. They invited her as a guest to Greenbank, their mansion in Liverpool. The Rathbones were Quakers and prominent social reformers, at Greenbank, Dix met their circle of men and women who believed that government should play a direct, active role in social welfare. She was also introduced to the movement for care of the mentally ill in Great Britain. Its members were making deep investigations of madhouses and asylums, publishing their studies in reports to the House of Commons, Reform movements for treatment of the mentally ill were related in this period to other progressive causes, abolitionism, temperance, and voter reforms. After returning to America, in 1840-41 Dix conducted an investigation of care for the insane poor in Massachusetts. In most cases, towns contracted with local individuals to care for ill people who could not care for themselves. Unregulated and underfunded, this resulted in widespread abuse
13.
Clara Barton
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Clarissa Clara Harlowe Barton was a pioneering nurse who founded the American Red Cross. She was a nurse in the American Civil War, a teacher. Barton is noteworthy for doing work at a time when relatively few women worked outside the home. She had a relationship with John J. Elwell and received three proposals throughout her lifetime, but never married, Clara Barton was born on December 25,1821 in North Oxford, Massachusetts. Bartons father was Captain Stephen Barton, a member of the militia and a selectman who inspired his daughter with patriotism. Bartons mother was Sarah Stone Barton, when she was three years old, Clara Barton was sent to school with her brother Stephen, where she excelled in reading and spelling. At school, she became friends with Nancy Fitts, she is the only known friend Clara Barton had as a child due to her extreme timidity. When Clara was 10, she assigned herself the task of nursing her brother David back to health after he fell from the roof of a barn and received a severe injury. Clara learned how to distribute the medication to her brother. She continued to care for David long after doctors had given up and her parents tried to help cure her shyness by sending her to Col. Stones High School, but their strategy turned out to be a disaster. Clara became more timid and depressed and would not eat and she was brought back home to regain her health. Upon her return, her family relocated to help a family member, a cousin of Claras had died and left his wife with four children. The house that the Barton family was to live in needed to be painted and repaired, Clara was persistent in offering assistance, much to the gratitude of her family. After the work was done, Clara was at a loss because she had nothing else to help with and she began to play with her male cousins and, to their surprise, she was good at keeping up with such activities as horseback riding. It was not until after she had injured herself that Claras mother began to question her playing with the boys, Claras mother decided she should focus on more feminine skills. She invited one of Claras female cousins over to develop her femininity. From her cousin, she gained proper social skills as well, to assist Clara with overcoming her shyness, her parents persuaded her to become a schoolteacher. She achieved her first teachers certificate in 1839, at only 17 years old and this profession interested Barton greatly and helped motivate her, she ended up conducting an effective redistricting campaign that allowed the children of workers to receive an education
14.
International Committee of the Red Cross
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The International Committee of the Red Cross is a humanitarian institution based in Geneva, Switzerland and a three-time Nobel Prize Laureate. State parties to the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977 and 2005 have given the ICRC a mandate to protect victims of international and internal armed conflicts, such victims include war wounded, prisoners, refugees, civilians, and other non-combatants. The ICRC is part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement along with the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and 190 National Societies. It is the oldest and most honoured organization within the Movement and one of the most widely recognized organizations in the world, having won three Nobel Peace Prizes in 1917,1944, and 1963. When he arrived in the town of Solferino on the evening of 24 June, he witnessed the Battle of Solferino. In a single day, about 40,000 soldiers on both sides died or were wounded on the field. Henry Dunant was shocked by the aftermath of the battle, the suffering of the wounded soldiers. He completely abandoned the original intent of his trip and for days he devoted himself to helping with the treatment. He succeeded in organizing an overwhelming level of assistance by motivating the local population to aid without discrimination. Back in his home in Geneva, he decided to write a book entitled A Memory of Solferino which he published with his own money in 1862 and he sent copies of the book to leading political and military figures throughout Europe. In addition, he called for the development of international treaties to guarantee the neutrality and protection of wounded on the battlefield as well as medics. On 9 February 1863 in Geneva, Henry Dunant founded the Committee of the Five as a commission of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare. Their aim was to examine the feasibility of Dunants ideas and to organize a conference about their possible implementation. Eight days later, the five men decided to rename the committee to the International Committee for Relief to the Wounded, in October 1863, the international conference organized by the committee was held in Geneva to develop possible measures to improve medical services on the battle field. The states and kingdoms represented by delegates were Baden, Bavaria, France, Britain, Hanover, Hesse, Italy, the Netherlands, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Sweden. Only one year later, the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries, as well as the United States, Brazil, sixteen countries sent a total of twenty-six delegates to Geneva. On 22 August 1864, the conference adopted the first Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field. Representatives of 12 states and kingdoms signed the convention, Baden, Belgium, Denmark, France, Hesse, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, Switzerland, Spain, and Württemberg
15.
Anita Newcomb McGee
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Dr. Anita Newcomb McGee was an American physician who is remembered for her medical work with the United States military. Anita Newcomb was born in Washington, DC as the daughter of noted astronomer Simon Newcomb and she married geologist and anthropologist W. J. McGee in 1888. Their oldest child, a daughter named Klotho, was born in 1889 and was raised by a private nurse. Her second child, Donald died of meningitis at 9 months and her youngest child, Eric Newcomb, was born in 1902. Her sister, Josepha Newcomb Whitney studied at the Art Students League in New York and she was known for her landscapes. She was active in the suffrage movement and she was chair of the Connecticut Womens Peace Party and President of the New Haven League of Women voters. In 1912, she organized the first Cornwall meeting in support of voting rights for women, in 1922, she was the democratic candidate for state Senate. McGee attended a school in DC, graduating in 1882. She then traveled for three years, attending courses Newnham College, Cambridge England, University of Geneva, Switzerland, McGee received her medical degree from Columbian College in 1892. Dr. McGee won the first prize in dermatology and stood second in medicine at her examination. She followed this with a special course in gynecology at Johns Hopkins University. She was in practice in Washington, DC, from 1892 to 1896 and was one of few woman physicians practicing in the Washington. She also had connections with the military through her father, who held the rank of rear admiral, in 1900 she left her position with the Army, but continued leading the Society of Spanish-American War Nurses, a group she had founded in 1898. She led the effort to build the Spanish-American War Nurses Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery, which was dedicated on May 2,1905. With the start of the Russo-Japanese War, McGee led a group of nine volunteer nurses to Japan, arriving in Yokohama in April 1904, the nurses included, Minnie Cooke, Mary E. Gladwin, Alice Kemmer, Ella B. King, Elizabeth R. Kratz, Adelaide Mackareth, Adele Neeb, Sophia Newell, five came from the Red Cross Society of Philadelphia, the remainder from the Spanish-American War Nurses Society. The Japanese Minister of War appointed McGee Superior of Nurses, giving her rank on par with officers in the Japanese Army and she trained nurses from the Japanese Red Cross and in June 1904 toured the Japanese hospital ship Hakuai Maru. She also inspected the camp established by the Japanese in Matsuyama
16.
United States Navy Nurse Corps
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The United States Navy Nurse Corps was officially established by Congress in 1908, however, unofficially, women had been working as nurses aboard Navy ships and in Navy hospitals for nearly 100 years. The Corps was all-female until 1965, barton became the first to officially recommend that female nurses be added to naval hospital staff. However, it wasnt until 19 June 1861 that a Navy Department circular order finally established the designation of Nurse, fifteen years later, the duties were transferred to the designation Bayman. Although enlisted personnel were referred to as nurses, their duties and responsibilities were more related to those of a hospital corpsman. During the American Civil War, several African American women served as crew aboard the hospital ship Red Rover in the Mississippi River area in the position of nurse. The known names of four nurses are, Alice Kennedy, Sarah Kinno, Ellen Campbell, in addition volunteer nuns from the Catholic Sisters of the Holy Cross served aboard as nurses. During the 1898 Spanish–American War, the Navy employed a modest number of female nurses in its hospitals ashore. After the establishment of the Nurse Corps in 1908 by an Act of Congress, twenty women were selected as the first members and assigned to the Naval Medical School Hospital in Washington, D. C. Unfortunately, the navy did not provide room or board for them, in time, the nurses would come to be known as The Sacred Twenty because they were the first women to serve formally as members of the Navy. The Sacred Twenty, as shown in the photo at the top of page, were Mary H. Elizabeth Leonhardt, Estelle Hine, Ethel R. Parsons, Florence T. Milburn, Boniface T. Small, Victoria White, Isabelle Rose Roy, Margaret D. Murray and they would include three Nurse Corps Superintendents and twelve chief nurses. The Nurse Corps gradually expanded to 160 on the eve of World War I, in addition to normal hospital and clinic duties, the nurses were active in training natives in U. S. overseas possessions as well as the Navys male enlisted medical personnel. For a few months in 1913, Navy nurses saw their first shipboard service, aboard Mayflower, the first permanent shipboard positions came in late 1920, when Relief went into commission with a medical staff that included Navy nurses. The entry of the United States into the First World War brought an expansion of the Nurse Corps. In 1917–18, the Navy deployed five base hospital units to operational areas in France, Scotland and Ireland, also serving overseas were Navy operating teams, including nurses, established for detached duty near the combat frontlines. Some of these teams were loaned to the United States Army during the ground offensives of 1918. During the war,19 Navy nurses died on active duty, three of the four Navy Crosses awarded to wartime Navy nurses were given posthumously to women who sacrificed their lives during the 1918 flu pandemic. The surviving fourth nurse was Lenah H. Sutcliffe Higbee, the superintendent of the corps
17.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
18.
Jane Delano
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She started work in 1888 at a Jacksonville, Florida hospital treating victims of a yellow fever epidemic. There, she demonstrated her superior executive and administrative skills and developed innovative nursing procedures for the patients under her care. In 1898, during the Spanish–American War, Jane Delano became a member of the New York Chapter of the American Red Cross and served as the secretary for the enrollment of nurses. Through her efforts, emergency response teams were organized for disaster relief and over 8,000 registered nurses were trained, during the course of the War, more than 20,000 of her nurses played vital roles with the United States military. Jane Delano died in France while on a Red Cross mission, expiring at Base Hospital No.8 in Savenay of Loire-Inferieure, and was interred in a cemetery in the Loire Valley. The mission was to participate in and represent the American Red Cross at the conference of Red Cross workers. At the top of the hill overlooking the nurses section is a memorial to Jane Delano. Military funeral services, prior to burial, were held Saturday, a number of representatives of the American Red Cross, Army officers of the Army Medical Corps, and a delegation of uniformed nurses attended the funeral. A detachment of Army troops and a band from Fort Myers acted as an escort for the body when it was taken to the grave from the vault at Arlington Cemetery. All present stood silent as taps was given over the grave of Miss Delano and she applied her great energy and used her powerful influence among the nurses of the country to secure enrollments in the American Red Cross. Through her great efforts and devotion to duty eighteen thousand seven hundred, thus she was a great factor in assisting the Medical Department in caring for the sick and wounded. Delano has been honored many times for her dedication to humanity, American Red Cross Textbook on Elementary Hygiene and Home. Philadelphia, P. Blakistons Son & Co, the Story of the American Nurses Association. Kansas City, MO, American Nurses Association, clarke, Mary A. Memories of Jane A. Delano. Bio with Army Nurse Corp Association Arlington National Cemetery Works by Jane Delano at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Jane Delano at Internet Archive
19.
Battle of the Bulge
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The Battle of the Bulge was the last major German offensive campaign of World War II. It was launched through the densely forested Ardennes region of Wallonia in Belgium, France, the surprise attack caught the Allied forces completely off guard. American forces bore the brunt of the attack and incurred their highest casualties of any operation during the war, the battle also severely depleted Germanys armoured forces on the Western Front, and they were largely unable to replace them. German personnel and later, Luftwaffe aircraft, also sustained heavy losses, the Germans officially referred to the offensive as Unternehmen Wacht am Rhein, while the Allies designated it the Ardennes Counteroffensive. The phrase Battle of the Bulge was coined by contemporary press to describe the bulge in German front lines on wartime news maps, once that was accomplished, the German dictator Adolf Hitler believed he could fully concentrate on the Soviets on the Eastern Front. The offensive was planned by the German forces with utmost secrecy, with minimal radio traffic and movements of troops, intercepted German communications indicating a substantial German offensive preparation were not acted upon by the Allies. The Germans achieved total surprise on the morning of 16 December 1944, due to a combination of Allied overconfidence, preoccupation with Allied offensive plans, and poor aerial reconnaissance. The Germans attacked a weakly defended section of the Allied line, columns of armor and infantry that were supposed to advance along parallel routes found themselves on the same roads. This, and terrain that favored the defenders, threw the German advance behind schedule, improved weather conditions permitted air attacks on German forces and supply lines, which sealed the failure of the offensive. In the wake of the defeat, many experienced German units were left severely depleted of men and equipment, the Germans initial attack involved 406,000 men,1,214 tanks, tank destroyers, and assault guns, and 4,224 artillery pieces. These were reinforced a couple of later, bringing the offensives total strength to around 450,000 troops. Between 67,200 and 125,000 of their men were killed, missing, for the Americans, out of 610,000 troops involved in the battle,89,000 were casualties. While some sources report that up to 19,000 were killed, British historian Antony Beevor reports the number killed as 8,407. It was the largest and bloodiest battle fought by the United States in World War II, after the breakout from Normandy at the end of July 1944 and the Allied landings in southern France on 15 August 1944, the Allies advanced toward Germany more quickly than anticipated. The Allies were faced with several military logistics issues, - troops were fatigued by weeks of continuous combat supply lines were stretched extremely thin supplies were dangerously depleted. General Dwight D. Eisenhower and his staff chose to hold the Ardennes region which was occupied by the U. S, the Allies chose to defend the Ardennes with as few troops as possible due to the favorable terrain and limited Allied operational objectives in the area. They also had intelligence that the Wehrmacht was using the area across the German border as an area for its troops. The speed of the Allied advance coupled with a lack of deep-water ports presented the Allies with enormous supply problems
20.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
21.
Flying Tigers
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The shark-faced nose art of the Flying Tigers remains among the most recognizable image of any individual combat aircraft or combat unit of World War II. The group consisted of three squadrons of around 30 aircraft each. It trained in Burma before the American entry into World War II with the mission of defending China against Japanese forces, the group of volunteers were officially members of the Chinese Air Force. The members of the group had contracts with salaries ranging from $250 a month for a mechanic to $750 for a squadron commander, while it accepted some civilian volunteers for its headquarters and ground crew, the AVG recruited most of its staff from the U. S. military. The group first saw combat on 20 December 1941,12 days after Pearl Harbor, AVG pilots earned official credit, and received combat bonuses, for destroying 296 enemy aircraft, while losing only 14 pilots in combat. The combat records of the AVG still exist and researchers have found them credible, on 4 July 1942 the AVG was disbanded. It was replaced by the 23rd Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Forces, fourteenth Air Force with General Chennault as commander. The 23rd FG went on to achieve combat success, while retaining the nose art on the left-over P-40s. Chiang then asked for American combat aircraft and pilots, sending Chennault to Washington as adviser to Chinas ambassador and Chiangs brother-in-law, T. V. Soong. Since the U. S. was not at war, the Special Air Unit could not be organized overtly, the resulting clandestine operation was organized in large part by Lauchlin Currie, a young economist in the White House, and by Roosevelt intimate Thomas G. Corcoran. Financing was handled by China Defense Supplies – primarily Tommy Corcorans creation – with money loaned by the U. S. government, purchases were then made by the Chinese under the Cash and Carry provision of the Neutrality Act of 1939. Previously in the 1930s, a number of American pilots including Annapolis graduate Frank Tinker had flown combat during the Spanish Civil War on the Republican side, members were organized into the Yankee Squadron. He also laid the groundwork for a bomber group and a second fighter group. Of the pilots,60 came from the Navy and Marine Corps and 40 from the Army Air Corps, although sometimes considered a mercenary unit, the AVG was closely associated with the U. S. military. Most histories of the Flying Tigers say that on 15 April 1941, however, Flying Tigers historian Daniel Ford could find no evidence that such an order ever existed, and he argued that a wink and a nod was more the presidents style. In any event, the AVG was organized and in part directed out of the White House, during the summer and fall 1941, some 300 men carrying civilian passports boarded ships destined for Burma. They were initially based at a British airfield in Toungoo for training while their aircraft were assembled and they called Chennault the Old Man due to his much older age and leathery exterior obtained from years flying open cockpit pursuit aircraft in the Army Air Corps. Most believed that he had flown as a pilot in China
22.
Claire Lee Chennault
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Claire Lee Chennault was an American military aviator best known for his leadership of the Flying Tigers and the Republic of China Air Force in World War II. Chennault was an advocate of pursuit or fighter-interceptor aircraft during the 1930s when the U. S. Army Air Corps was focused primarily on high-altitude bombardment. Chennault retired from the United States Army in 1937, and went to work as an adviser and trainer in China. Starting in early 1941, Chennault commanded the 1st American Volunteer Group, one mission which never came to fruition was the bombing of Japanese cities, the bombers did not arrive before Pearl Harbor. He headed both the group and the uniformed U. S. Air Force units that replaced it in 1942. He feuded constantly with General Joseph Stilwell, the U. S. Army commander in China, Chennaults surname is of French origin and it is often pronounced as Shen-O. However, his American family pronounced the surname as Shen-Awlt, Chennault was born in Commerce, Texas, to John Stonewall Jackson Chennault and Jessie Chennault. He grew up in the Louisianan towns of Gilbert and Waterproof and he began misrepresenting his year of birth as either 1889 or 1890, possibly because he was too young to attend college after he graduated from high school, so his father added three years to his age. Chennault attended Louisiana State University between 1909 and 1910 and underwent ROTC training and he and Nell moved to West Carroll Parish where he served as principal of Kilbourne School from 1913 -1915. At the onset of World War I, he graduated from Officers School at Fort Benjamin Harrison in Indiana and he learned to fly in the Army Air Service during World War I. Following the war he graduated from pilot training at Ellington Field, Texas, on April 23,1922. Chennault became the Chief of Pursuit Section at Air Corps Tactical School in the 1930s, into the mid-1930s Chennault led and represented the 1st Pursuit Group of the Montgomery, Alabama-based Army Air Corps aerobatic team the Three Musketeers. The group performed at the 1928 National Air Races, in 1932, as a pursuit aviation instructor at Maxwell Field, Chennault re-organized the team as Three Men on the Flying Trapeze. As a civilian, he then was induced to go to China, Chennault arrived in China in June 1937. He had a contract at a salary of $1,000 per month. Soong Mei-ling, or Madame Chiang as she was known to Americans, was in charge of the Aeronautical Commission and his duties also included organizing the International Squadron of mercenary pilots. They reported to the Chinese Ambassador to the United States, Hu Shih, Chennaults mission to Washington ultimately brought up the idea of creating an American Volunteer Group of pilots and mechanics to serve in China. By then Dr. Soong had already begun negotiations for an increase in aid with U. S. Secretary of Commerce
23.
Free China (Second Sino-Japanese War)
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The term came into more frequent use after the Battle of Nanjing, when Chiang Kai-shek evacuated the government of the Republic of China to Chungking. Many civilians from Japanese-controlled areas of China fled to Free China, patrick Yu, a celebrated Hong Kong trial lawyer, recalled in his memoirs how a Japanese civilian in Hong Kong helped his family escape from Hong Kong to Guangxi via Macau. Conflict between the Communists and Nationalists continued in the area of Free China, the most severe example being the New Fourth Army Incident. The term Free area of the Republic of China was later reused by the Nationalist government after their retreat to Taiwan to contrast their territory with that of the Peoples Republic of China, the China of Chiang Kai-shek, A Political Study. See chapter 2, Escape to Free China, a Seventh Child and the Law. Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press
24.
Battle of Hong Kong
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The Battle of Hong Kong, also known as the Defence of Hong Kong and the Fall of Hong Kong, was one of the first battles of the Pacific War in World War II. On the same morning as the attack on Pearl Harbor, forces of the Empire of Japan attacked the British Crown colony of Hong Kong, the attack was in violation of international law as Japan had not declared war against the British Empire. The Japanese attack was met with resistance from the Hong Kong garrison, composed of local troops as well as British. Within a week the defenders abandoned the mainland and less than two weeks later, with their position on the island untenable, the colony surrendered. Britain first thought of Japan as a threat with the ending of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in the early 1920s, on 21 October 1938 the Japanese occupied Canton and Hong Kong was surrounded. British defence studies concluded that Hong Kong would be hard to defend in the event of a Japanese attack. Key sites of the defence of Hong Kong included the Wong Nai Chung Gap, Lye Moon Passage, the Shing Mun Redoubt, by 1940, the British determined to reduce the Hong Kong Garrison to only a symbolic size. Winston Churchill and the staff named Hong Kong as an outpost. C Force, as it was known, arrived on 16 November on board the troopship Awatea, a total of 96 officers, two Auxiliary Services supervisors and 1,877 other ranks disembarked. Included were two officers and two nurses, two Canadian Dental Corps officers with assistants, three chaplains and a detachment of the Canadian Postal Corps. The Royal Rifles had served only in the Dominion of Newfoundland and Saint John, New Brunswick, prior to posting to Hong Kong, the Japanese attack began shortly after 08,00 on 8 December 1941, fewer than eight hours after the Attack on Pearl Harbor. The colony had no significant air defence, an earlier request for a fighter squadron had been rejected and the nearest fully operational RAF base was in Kota Bharu, Malaya, nearly 2,250 kilometres away. Hong Kong also lacked adequate naval defences, three destroyers were to withdraw to Singapore Naval Base. The Japanese bombed Kai Tak Airport on 8 December, two of the three Wildebeest and the two Walrus were destroyed by 12 Japanese bombers. The attack also destroyed several aircraft including all but two of the aircraft used by the air unit of the Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Corp. The RAF and air personnel from then on fought as ground troops. Two of the Royal Navys three remaining destroyers were ordered to leave Hong Kong for Singapore, only one destroyer, HMS Thracian, several gunboats and a flotilla of motor torpedo boats remained. The crews evacuated 275 persons including Mme Sun Yat-Sen, the widow of Sun Yat-sen, the Commonwealth forces decided against holding the Sham Chun River and instead established three battalions on the Gin Drinkers Line across the hills
25.
British Hong Kong
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British Hong Kong was the period during which Hong Kong was under British Crown rule from 1841 to 1997. It was established as a Crown colony and later designated a British Dependent Territory in 1981, Hong Kong Island was ceded to Great Britain by the Qing dynasty of China after the First Anglo-Chinese War. The Kowloon Peninsula was added to the colony after the Second Anglo-Chinese War, finally, in 1898, the New Territories were added under a 99-year lease. The transfer has been credited as marking the end of the British Empire, in 1836, the Manchu Qing government undertook a major policy review of the opium trade. Lin Zexu volunteered to take on the task of suppressing opium, in March 1839, he became Special Imperial Commissioner in Canton, where he ordered the foreign traders to surrender their opium stock. He confined the British to the Canton Factories and cut off their supplies, Chief Superintendent of Trade, Charles Elliot, complied with Lins demands to secure a safe exit for the British, with the costs involved to be resolved between the two governments. When Elliot promised that the British government would pay for their stock, the merchants surrendered their 20,283 chests of opium. In September 1839, the British Cabinet decided that the Chinese should be made to pay for the destruction of British property, an expeditionary force was placed under Elliot and his cousin, Rear Admiral George Elliot, as joint plenipotentiaries in 1840. Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston stressed to the Chinese Imperial Government that the British Government did not question Chinas right to prohibit opium, but it objected to the way this was handled. He viewed the sudden strict enforcement as laying a trap for the traders. In 1841, Elliot negotiated with Lins successor, Qishan, in the Convention of Chuenpi during the First Opium War, on 20 January, Elliot announced the conclusion of preliminary arrangements, which included the cession of Hong Kong Island and its harbour to the British Crown. On 26 January, the Union Jack was raised on Hong Kong and Commodore James Bremer, commander-in-chief of British forces in China, on 29 August 1842, the cession was formally ratified in the Treaty of Nanking, which ceded Hong Kong in perpetuity to Britain. The treaty failed to satisfy British expectations of an expansion of trade and profit. In October 1856, Chinese authorities in Canton detained the Arrow, the Consul in Canton, Harry Parkes, claimed the hauling down of the flag and arrest of the crew were an insult of very grave character. Parkes and Sir John Bowring, the 4th Governor of Hong Kong, in March 1857, Palmerston appointed Lord Elgin as Plenipotentiary with the aim of securing a new and satisfactory treaty. A French expeditionary force joined the British to avenge the execution of a French missionary in 1856, in 1860, the capture of the Taku Forts and occupation of Beijing led to the Treaty of Tientsin and Convention of Peking. In the Treaty of Tientsin, the Chinese accepted British demands to open ports, navigate the Yangtze River. During the conflict, the British occupied the Kowloon Peninsula, where the land was valuable training and resting ground
26.
Anna Chennault
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She was a prominent Asian-American politician of the Republican Party. On June 23,1925, Chen was born in Beijing, in 1935, her father, a diplomat, was sent to be the Chinese consul in Mexicali, Mexico and he could not afford to take his large family to Mexico on his salary. Fearing war between Japan and China was brewing, he sent his wife and children to the British Crown Colony of Hong Kong to live with his mother, in 1938, Chens mother died, and as an older sister she become a surrogate mother to her younger sisters. On the morning of 8 December 1941, Chen was attending class at St. Pauls high school when she was forced to cover when the Japanese bombed the school. Chen together with her five sisters all fled Hong Kong to escape the Japanese to Guilin in free China, Chen attended Lingnan university, which was normally based in Hong Kong, but which had relocated to free China. As refugees, Chen and her sisters all lived in poverty during the war years, Chen Xiangmei received a bachelors degree in Chinese from Lingnan University in 1944. She was a war correspondent for the Central News Agency from 1944 to 1948 and wrote for the Hsin Ming Daily News in Shanghai, from 1944 to 1949. She is the sister of Cynthia Chan, who was a U. S. Army nurse in the Flying Tiger group under General Claire Chennault in Kunming. While visiting Cynthia Chan in Kunming, she met Chennault, after the interview, Chen had tea with Chennault, whose gentlemanly behavior and Southern charm left her feeling awed as she later remembered. Chen Xiangmei and Chennault, who was more than 30 years her senior, Anna Chennault has two children, Claire Anna and Cynthia Louise. After the war her husband was somewhat of a celebrity, a heavy smoker, he died in 1958 of lung cancer. C. C where his second marriage was recognized as legal. She was a correspondent for the Central News Agency and the U. S. correspondent for the Hsin Shen Daily News. She was a broadcaster for the Voice of America from 1963 to 1966, in 1960, Chennault had her first political experience when she campaigned for Richard Nixon, being used as the Republican principle campaigner amongst Chinese-Americans. She was president of Chinese Refugee Relief from 1962 to 1970 and has served as president of the General Claire Chennault Foundation after 1960, Chennault served as a national committeewoman for the District of Columbia of the Republican Party and led the National Republican Asian Assembly. She has assisted many Chinese Americans to become active in politics, Chennault, Get her away from me, Hillings, shes a chatterbox. Yet according to records of President Lyndon B. beyond the bounds of justifiable political combat and she arranged the contact with South Vietnamese Ambassador Bui Diem whom Richard Nixon met in secret in July 1968 in New York. It was through Chennaults intercession that Republicans advised Saigon to refuse participation in the talks, records of FBI wiretaps show that Chennault phoned Bui Diem on November 2 with the message hold on, we are gonna win. Before the elections President Johnson “suspected Richard Nixon, of sabotage that he called treason”
27.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
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James Duhig
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Sir James Duhig KCMG was an Irish-born Australian Roman Catholic religious leader. He was the Archbishop of Brisbane for 48 years from 1917 until his death in 1965, at the time of his death he was the longest-serving bishop in the Catholic Church. Duhig was born in Broadford, County Limerick but emigrated with his family to Australia as a young boy and he completed his education at St. Josephs College, Gregory Terrace, Queensland. After that, he worked for the Cooperative Butchering Company, after undertaking his studies for the priesthood at the Irish College and Pontifical Urbaniana University, both in Rome, Duhig was ordained a priest in 1896 and his profile grew rapidly. On 10 December 1905, he became the youngest bishop in the Catholic Church when he was consecrated Bishop of Rockhampton, on 26 February 1912, he was transferred to Brisbane, where he became the coadjutor archbishop to the elderly Archbishop Robert Dunne. On 13 January 1917 he succeeded as Archbishop of Brisbane, a position he held for 48 years until his death in 1965 and these buildings are a prominent feature of the Brisbane landscape to this day. His most ambitious project, the Cathedral of the Holy Name in Fortitude Valley, was a casualty of the Great Depression which destroyed the value of the investments that were to finance the project, Duhig played an active role in public life. In 1937 Duhig successfully proposed that the River Road should be renamed Coronation Drive, Duhig played a major role in the development of the University of Queensland, being a member of the university senate from 1916 until his death in 1965. He established St Leos College, where a lecture is given in his honour. The university recognised Duhigs contribution by naming the Duhig Library after him, Duhig published the following works, Duhig, James, Crowded years, Angus and Robertson, retrieved 2 September 2016 Boland, T. P. James Duhig
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Cathedral of St Stephen, Brisbane
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The Cathedral of St Stephen is the heritage-listed cathedral church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Brisbane and seat of its archbishop. The cathedral is located on a site bounded by Elizabeth, Charlotte and Edward Streets, in the Australian city of Brisbane, built between 1864 and 1922, with extensions made in 1989, the cathedral was established with James Quinn as its first bishop. Quinn planned to construct a cathedral to accommodate a growing congregation. On 26 December 1863, the Feast of St Stephen, Quinn laid the stone for a grand cathedral designed by Benjamin Backhouse. Backhouses original design was changed and downsized numerous times over the course of the cathedrals completion, St Stephens is a gothic revival cathedral with a cruciform shape in plan. Of particular note is the glass window by Harry Clarke, known as the Mayne window. The cathedral is made predominantly of Brisbane tuff and freestone, the Blessed Sacrament Chapel is made from reinforced concrete and the restored spires from glass reinforced concrete. Inside the cathedral the stained glass windows are illuminated by the sun and cast coloured patterns on the floor. The lightweight plaster ceilings arc gracefully overhead, there is a noted contrast between the interior and exterior qualities of space. The interior has a cool and refreshing quality, by the 1980s the cathedral had fallen into a state of disrepair. The interior layout of the building was unsuitable for the new Catholic liturgy. As part of the refurbishment the cathedral grounds were enlarged and a carpark was built under the extended east end of the cathedral, the last stage of the cathedral restoration was completed in 2000 when the Jubilee Pipe Organ was installed above the sanctuary. In addition to the cathedral, the site contains buildings that support the cathedral. St Stephens Chapel stands immediately to the south of the cathedral, the chapel was designed by English architect Augustus Pugin and built between 1847 and 1850. The first Mass was celebrated in the building on 12 May 1850. In June 1859 it became the cathedral for the first Bishop of Brisbane and it is the oldest Catholic church in Queensland. Old St Stephens School is a three level building facing Charlotte Street and this building was the location of St Stephens School until the 1960s. The building now contains offices for the Archdiocese of Brisbane, the Francis Rush Centre was completed in July 2005
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Women's Army Corps
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The Womens Army Corps was the womens branch of the United States Army. It was created as a unit, the Womens Army Auxiliary Corps on 15 May 1942 by Public Law 554. Its first director was Oveta Culp Hobby, a prominent society woman in Texas, the WAC was disbanded in 1978, and all units were integrated with male units. The WAACs organization was designed by numerous Army bureaus coordinated by Lt. Col. Gilman C. Mudgett, the first WAAC Pre-Planner, however, nearly all of his plans were discarded or greatly modified before going into operation because he expected a corps of only 11,000 women. Without the support of the War Department, Representative Edith Nourse Rogers of Massachusetts introduced a bill on 28 May 1941, providing for a women’s army auxiliary corps. The bill was held up for months by the Bureau of the Budget but was resurrected after the United States entered the war, a section authorizing the enlistment of 150,000 volunteers was temporarily limited by executive order to 25,000. The WAAC was modeled after comparable British units, especially the ATS, in 1942, the first contingent of 800 members of the Womens Army Auxiliary Corps began basic training at Fort Des Moines Provisional Army Officer Training School, Iowa. The women were fitted for uniforms, interviewed, assigned to companies and barracks, the WAAC were first trained in three major specialties. The brightest and nimblest were trained as switchboard operators, next came the mechanics, who had to have a high degree of mechanical aptitude and problem solving ability. WAC armorers maintained and repaired small arms and heavy weapons, the bakers were usually the lowest scoring recruits and were stereotyped as being the least intelligent and able by their fellow WAACs. This was later expanded to dozens of specialties like Postal Clerk, Driver, Stenographer, the WAC provided enlisted seamstresses to tailor WAC uniforms to their wearer - a service they also provided to male officers. A physical training manual titled You Must Be Fit was published by the War Department in July 1943, the manual begins by naming the responsibility of the women, Your Job, To Replace Men. It cited the commitment of women to the war effort in England, Russia, Germany and Japan, the fitness manual was state-of-the-art for its day, with sections on warming up, and progressive body-weight strength-building exercises for the arms, legs, stomach, and neck and back. Inept publicity and the appearance of the WAAC/WAC uniform, especially in comparison to that of the other services. The United States Army Air Forces became an early and staunch supporter of military status for women in the Army. About 150,000 American women eventually served in the WAAC and WAC during World War II and they were the first women other than nurses to serve with the Army. While conservative opinion in the leadership of the Army and public opinion generally was opposed to women serving in uniform
31.
Women Airforce Service Pilots
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The Women Airforce Service Pilots, called Womens Army Service Pilots in some sources, was a paramilitary aviation organization. The WASPs predecessors, the Womens Flying Training Detachment and the Womens Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron organized separately in September 1942 and they were the pioneering organizations of civilian female pilots, employed to fly military aircraft under the direction of the United States Army Air Forces during World War II. The WFTD and WAFS were merged on August 5,1943, the female pilots of the WASP ended up numbering 1,074, each freeing a male pilot for combat service and duties. They flew over 60 million miles in every type of military aircraft, the WASP was granted veteran status in 1977, and given the Congressional Gold Medal in 2009. Over 25,000 women applied, however, only 1,074 were accepted into the WASPs, the accepted women all had prior experience and pilots licences. Of those accepted, the majority were white, aside from white women, due to the existing climate of racial discrimination, the only African American applicant was asked to withdraw her application. Their motivation was to free male pilots for combat roles by employing qualified female pilots to aircraft from factories to military bases. But he essentially promised the command to Cochran, should such a force be needed in the future, while the U. S. was not yet fighting in World War II, Cochran had gone to England to volunteer to fly for the Air Transport Auxiliary. The ATA had been using female pilots since January 1940, and was starting to train new pilots. The American women who flew in the ATA were the first American women to fly military aircraft and they flew the Royal Air Forces frontline aircraft—Spitfires, Typhoons, Hudsons, Mitchells, Blenheims, Oxfords, Walruses, and Sea Otters—in non-combat roles, but in combat-like conditions. Most of these served in the ATA during the war. Only three members returned to the U. S. to participate in the WASP program, the U. S. was building its air power and military presence in anticipation of direct involvement in the conflict, and had belatedly begun to drastically expand its men in uniform. This period led to the increase in activity for the U. S. Army Air Forces. To those most involved within the new Ferrying Division of the Air Transport Command, Col. William H. Tunner was in charge of acquiring civilian ferry pilots. He decided to integrate a civilian force of female pilots into the AAF, after speaking with Major Robert M. Love, ATC staff officer, Cochran had committed to go to Great Britain in March 1942 for the trial program of female pilots with the ATA. She used her association with the President and Mrs. Roosevelt to lobby Arnold to reject any plan that did not commission women, ironically, Tunners proposal called for commissioning women in the WAACs, but was turned down after review by Arnold. By the mid-summer of 1942, Arnold was willing to consider the prior proposals seriously, the Womens Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron was headed by Mrs. Love, and went into operation on September 10,1942. Soon, the Air Transport Command began using women to ferry planes from factory to airfields, Cochran returned to the United States on September 10,1942, as the new organization was being publicized, and immediately confronted Arnold for an explanation
32.
Florence A. Blanchfield
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Florence Aby Blanchfield was United States Army Colonel and superintendent of the Army Nursing Corps, from 1943 to 1947. She was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal in 1945, and the Florence Nightingale Medal by the International Red Cross in 1951, in 1947 Blanchfield became the first woman to receive a military commission in the regular army. Florence Aby Blanchfield was born in Shepherdstown, West Virginia, the fourth of eight children of Mary Louvenia, a nurse, and Joseph Plunkett Blanchfield and she grew up in Oranda, Virginia, attending public school until 1898, when she attended the private Oranda Institute. In addition to having a mother who was a nurse, Blanchfields two sisters also became nurses, and her grandfather and an uncle were physicians. She graduated from Southside Hospital Training School in 1906 and she then studied with Howard Atwood Kelly, at Johns Hopkins Hospital. Blanchfield was operating room supervisor at Southside Hospital and Montefiore Hospital, Pittsburgh, in 1909, she was superintendent of a training school at Suburban General Hospital, in Bellevue, Pennsylvania. In 1913, she worked as an operating room nurse and an anesthetist at the Ancon Hospital in the Panama Canal Zone. During World War I, she enlisted in the US Army Nurse Corps, and served as acting chief nurse, in Angers and she was assigned to many military hospitals. She returned to life for a period after the end of the War. In 1935, she was assigned to Washington D. C. to the office of the superintendent and she became assistant superintendent in 1939, acting superintendent in 1942, and served as superintendent from 1 June 1943 until September 1947. She was instrumental in gaining full rank for nurses, by the Army and this was preceded by temporary full commissioned status granted in 1944. During World War II, she saw the rapid growth of the ANC from several hundred members to more than 50,000. In 1947 she became the first woman to receive a commission in the regular army. For her accomplishments on behalf of the ANC, she was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal in 1945, Blanchfield was also awarded the Florence Nightingale Medal by the International Red Cross and West Virginias Distinguished Service Medal. She is buried in Arlington National Cemetery in section 21, site 641, Colonel Florence A. Blanchfield Army Community Hospital at Fort Campbell, Kentucky was named for her in 1982. Col. Florence Blanchfield, Advocate for Military Nurses, Working Nurse, Suzanne Ridgway, Florence Aby Blanchfield, West Virginia Encyclopedia
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Army.
