1.
United States Capitol
–
The United States Capitol, often called the Capitol Building or Capitol Hill, is the home of the United States Congress, and the seat of the legislative branch of the U. S. federal government. It sits atop Capitol Hill at the end of the National Mall in Washington. Though not at the center of the Federal District, the Capitol forms the origin point for the Districts street-numbering system. The original building was completed in 1800 and was subsequently expanded, like the principal buildings of the executive and judicial branches, the Capitol is built in a distinctive neoclassical style and has a white exterior. Both its east and west elevations are referred to as fronts, though only the east front was intended for the reception of visitors. In 2014, scaffolding was erected around the dome for a project scheduled to be completed by early 2017. All exterior scaffolding was removed by the end of summer 2016, prior to establishing the nations capital in Washington, D. C. the United States Congress and its predecessors had met in Philadelphia, New York City, and a number of other locations. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress brought together delegates from the colonies in Philadelphia, followed by the Second Continental Congress, Congress requested that John Dickinson, the Governor of Pennsylvania, call up the militia to defend Congress from attacks by the protesters. In what became known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Dickinson sympathized with the protesters and refused to remove them from Philadelphia. As a result, Congress was forced to flee to Princeton, New Jersey, on June 21,1783, and met in Annapolis, Maryland, the United States Congress was established upon ratification of the United States Constitution and formally began on March 4,1789. New York City remained home to Congress until July 1790, when the Residence Act was passed to pave the way for a permanent capital. As part of the legislation, Philadelphia was chosen as a capital for ten years, until the nations capital in Washington. Pierre Charles LEnfant was given the task of creating the city plan for the new capital city, in reviewing LEnfants plan, Thomas Jefferson insisted the legislative building be called the Capitol rather than Congress House. The word Capitol comes from Latin and is associated with the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on Capitoline Hill, the connection between the two is not, however, crystal clear. In spring 1792, United States Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed a competition to solicit designs for the Capitol and the Presidents House. The prize for the competition was $500 and a lot in the Federal City, the most promising of the submissions was by Stephen Hallet, a trained French architect. However, Hallets designs were overly fancy, with too much French influence, a late entry by amateur architect William Thornton was submitted on January 31,1793, to much praise for its Grandeur, Simplicity, and Beauty by Washington, along with praise from Thomas Jefferson. Thornton was inspired by the east front of the Louvre, as well as the Paris Pantheon for the portion of the design
United States Capitol
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The west front of the United States Capitol in 2013, before dome restoration scaffolding was erected
United States Capitol
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The east front of the United States Capitol (2013 view)
United States Capitol
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The Capitol at night (2013 view)
United States Capitol
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Design for the U.S. Capitol, "An Elevation for a Capitol", by James Diamond was one of many submitted in the 1792 contest, but not selected.
2.
Thomas U. Walter
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Thomas Ustick Walter was an American architect, the dean of American architecture between the 1820 death of Benjamin Latrobe and the emergence of H. H. Richardson in the 1870s. He was the fourth Architect of the Capitol and responsible for adding the north and south wings, Walter was one of the founders and second president of the American Institute of Architects. Born in 1804 in Philadelphia, Walter was the son of mason and bricklayer Joseph S. Walter, Walter received early training in a variety of fields including masonry, mathematics, physical science, and the fine arts. At 15, Walter entered the office of William Strickland, studying architecture and mechanical drawing, Walter was commissioned by Spruce Street Baptist Church to design its new building at 418 Spruce Street. The 1829 building is home to the Society Hill Synagogue. Walters first major commission was Moyamensing Prison, the Philadelphia County Prison, designed as a humane model in its time, the prison was built between 1832 and 1835. Walter also designed the First Presbyterian Church of West Chester, which opened its doors in January 1834, in March 1834, the Walter-designed Wills Eye Hospital opened on the southwest corner of 18th and Race Streets in Philadelphia. He first came to recognition for his design of Girard College for Orphans in Philadelphia. Walter also designed mansions, banks, churches, the hotel at Brandywine Springs, in 1836, he designed the Bank of Chester County at West Chester, Pennsylvania, a decade later, he designed the 1846 Chester County Courthouse in Greek Revival style. In Lexington, Virginia, he designed the Lexington Presbyterian Church in 1843, the same year he designed the Chapel of the Cross in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. In Norfolk, Virginia, he designed the Norfolk Academy in 1840, the Tabb Street Presbyterian Church was erected at Petersburg, Virginia in 1843. It has also suggested that Walter designed the Second Empire-styled Quarters B and Quarters D at Admirals Row in Brooklyn. Georges Hall, residence of Matthew Newkirk, president of the Philadelphia, Walter also designed the Garrett-Dunn House in Philadelphias Mt. Airy neighborhood, which was destroyed by fire after being struck by lightning on August 2,2009. Among his smaller designs was the 1839 Newkirk Viaduct Monument, commissioned by the PW&B to mark the completion of the first rail line south from Philadelphia, the most famous of Walters constructions is the dome of the U. S. Capitol. By 1850, the expansion of the United States had caused a space shortage in the Capitol. Walter was selected to design extensions for the Capitol and his plan more than doubled the size of the existing building and added the familiar cast-iron dome. There were at least six draftsmen in Walters office, headed by Walters chief assistant, August Schoenborn and it appears that he was responsible for some of the fundamental ideas in the Capitol structure. These included the curved ribs and an ingenious arrangement used to cantilever the base of the columns
Thomas U. Walter
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Thomas U. Walter
Thomas U. Walter
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Girard College, Philadelphia
Thomas U. Walter
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Inauguration of
Abraham Lincoln, March 4, 1861, beneath the unfinished capitol dome
Thomas U. Walter
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Thomas U. Walter, photograph by
Mathew Brady
3.
Bronx, New York
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The Bronx is the northernmost of the five boroughs of New York City, within the U. S. state of New York. Since 1914, the Bronx has had the boundaries as Bronx County, a county of New York. The Bronx is divided by the Bronx River into a section in the west, closer to Manhattan. East and west street addresses are divided by Jerome Avenue—the continuation of Manhattans Fifth Avenue, the West Bronx was annexed to New York City in 1874, and the areas east of the Bronx River in 1895. Bronx County was separated from New York County in 1914, about a quarter of the Bronxs area is open space, including Woodlawn Cemetery, Van Cortlandt Park, Pelham Bay Park, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Bronx Zoo in the boroughs north and center. These open spaces are situated primarily on land reserved in the late 19th century as urban development progressed north. The name Bronx originated with Jonas Bronck, who established the first settlement in the area as part of the New Netherland colony in 1639, the native Lenape were displaced after 1643 by settlers. This cultural mix has made the Bronx a wellspring of both Latin music and hip hop. The Bronx, particularly the South Bronx, saw a decline in population, livable housing, and the quality of life in the late 1960s. Since then the communities have shown significant redevelopment starting in the late 1980s before picking up pace from the 1990s until today, the Bronx was called Rananchqua by the native Siwanoy band of Lenape, while other Native Americans knew the Bronx as Keskeskeck. It was divided by the Aquahung River, the origin of Jonas Bronck is contested. Some sources claim he was a Swedish born emigrant from Komstad, Norra Ljunga parish in Småland, Sweden, who arrived in New Netherland during the spring of 1639. Bronck became the first recorded European settler in the now known as the Bronx and built a farm named Emmanus close to what today is the corner of Willis Avenue. He leased land from the Dutch West India Company on the neck of the mainland north of the Dutch settlement in Harlem. He eventually accumulated 500 acres between the Harlem River and the Aquahung, which known as Broncks River or the Bronx. Dutch and English settlers referred to the area as Broncks Land, the American poet William Bronk was a descendant of Pieter Bronck, either Jonas Broncks son or his younger brother. More recent research indicates that Pieter was probably Jonas nephew or cousin, the Bronx is referred to with the definite article as The Bronx, both legally and colloquially. The region was named after the Bronx River and first appeared in the Annexed District of The Bronx created in 1874 out of part of Westchester County
Bronx, New York
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Yankee Stadium (center) and the
Grand Concourse to its left. To the right of the Stadium is
its former site.
Bronx, New York
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Flag
Bronx, New York
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Seal
Bronx, New York
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Map of the Bronx in 1867
4.
United States Secretary of State
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Secretary of State is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level. The current Secretary of State is former ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson and those that remain include storage and use of the Great Seal of the United States, performance of protocol functions for the White House, and the drafting of certain proclamations. The Secretary also negotiates with the individual States over the extradition of fugitives to foreign countries, under Federal Law, the resignation of a President or of a Vice President is only valid if declared in writing, in an instrument delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. Accordingly, the resignations of President Nixon and of Vice-President Spiro Agnew, domestic issues, were formalized in instruments delivered to the Secretary of State, six Secretaries of State have gone on to be elected President. Former Secretaries of State retain the right to add the title Secretary to their surnames, as the head of the United States Foreign Service, the Secretary of State is responsible for management of the diplomatic service of the United States. The foreign service employs about 12,000 people domestically and internationally, the U. S. Secretary of State has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U. S. soil for any reason. The nature of the means that Secretaries of State engage in travel around the world. The record for most countries visited in a secretarys tenure is 112, second is Madeleine Albright with 96. The record for most air miles traveled in a secretarys tenure is 1.380 million miles, second is Condoleezza Rices 1.059 million miles and third is Clintons 956,733 miles. S
United States Secretary of State
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Incumbent
John Kerry since February 1, 2013
United States Secretary of State
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Seal of the Department of State
5.
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson
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Wren Building (rear), College of William & Mary where Jefferson studied
Thomas Jefferson
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House of Burgesses in Williamsburg, Virginia, where Jefferson served 1769–1775
Thomas Jefferson
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Jefferson's home, Monticello
6.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
President of the United States
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Incumbent
Barack Obama since January 20, 2009 (2009-01-20)
President of the United States
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Presidential Seal
President of the United States
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Obama signing legislation at the
Resolute desk
President of the United States
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Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States, successfully preserved the
Union during the
American Civil War
7.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
George Washington
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George Washington by
Gilbert Stuart, 1797
George Washington
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Washington's birthplace
George Washington
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Washington's map, accompanying his Journal to the Ohio (1753–1754)
George Washington
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A
mezzotint of
Martha Washington, based on a 1757 portrait by
Wollaston
8.
William Thornton
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Dr. William Thornton was a British-American physician, inventor, painter and architect who designed the United States Capitol, an authentic polymath. He also served as the first Architect of the Capitol and first Superintendent of the United States Patent Office, from an early age William Thornton displayed interest and discernible talent in the arts of design, to employ an 18th-century term that is particularly useful in assessing his career. Thornton was born on Jost Van Dyke in the British Virgin Islands, West Indies, where he was heir to sugar plantations. He was sent to England at age five to be educated, frary Thornton was brought up strictly by his fathers relations, Quakers and merchants, in and near the ancient castle town of Lancaster, in northern Lancashire, England. There was never any question of his pursuing the fine arts professionally—he was to be trained for a useful life, according to the Quaker ways. Thus, despite the fact that he had an income, young Thornton was apprenticed for a term of four years, to a practical physician and apothecary in Ulverston. The earliest of Thorntons known writings, a journal he began during his apprenticeship, records almost as many entries for drawing and sketching as notes on medical treatments and this pattern continued when he enrolled as a medical student in the University of Edinburgh in 1781. He interned at St. Bartholomew Hospital, the architecture of Edinburgh, especially that of the New Town that was being built, surely exerted considerable influence. More direct evidence of his interest in architecture is found in the landscapes and sketches of castles he drew while travelling about Scotland, notably in the Highlands, during these years. In 1783, Thornton went to London to continue his studies, characteristically. The following year he was off to the Continent, carrying a letter of introduction to Benjamin Franklin, written by his mentor, in the summer of 1784, he explored the Highlands with Faujas de St. Fond. He received his degree in 1784 at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland. Thornton then spent time in Paris, before returning to Tortola in 1786, eager to achieve fame in the cause of anti-slavery, he emigrated to the United States of America in the fall of 1786, moving to Philadelphia. Some leaders of the new republic—notably James Madison, with whom he lodged at Mrs. Mary Houses prominent boarding establishment in 1787, however, after moving to the City of Washington, he took advantage of slavery. According to a diary his wife kept in 1800, he frequently shopped for slaves and bought, in 1788, he became an American citizen. Thornton married Anna Maria Brodeau, daughter of a school teacher, in 1789, after briefly practicing medicine and pursuing an interest in steamboats, Thornton submitted a design to the architectural competition for the Library Company of Philadelphias new hall. His design won but was somewhat departed from during actual construction, Library Hall was described as the first building in the modern style to be erected in the new nations leading city. Because a design for the Capitol had not been chosen, he was allowed to compete upon his return to Philadelphia, between July and November 1792, the Washington administration examined closely the designs submitted by the French émigré architect Etienne Sulpice Hallet, and Judge George Turner
William Thornton
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Ruins of the Thornton Plantation at Tortola
William Thornton
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Dr. William Thornton, designer of the United States Capitol
William Thornton
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Thornton's original Capitol Building design
William Thornton
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This elevation of the Temple Portico of
Tudor Place is from a
laser scan project conducted by nonprofit
CyArk. The circular Te Portico that extends into the space of the Saloon is a prominent architectural feature of the house, and one of Thornton's trademarks
9.
Pantheon, Rome
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The Pantheon is a former Roman temple, now a church, in Rome, Italy, on the site of an earlier temple commissioned by Marcus Agrippa during the reign of Augustus. The present building was completed by the emperor Hadrian and probably dedicated about 126 AD and he retained Agrippas original inscription, which has confused its date of construction as the original Pantheon burnt down so it is not certain when the present one was built. The building is circular with a portico of large granite Corinthian columns under a pediment, a rectangular vestibule links the porch to the rotunda, which is under a coffered concrete dome, with a central opening to the sky. Almost two thousand years after it was built, the Pantheons dome is still the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome, the height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same,43.3 metres. Mary and the Martyrs but informally known as Santa Maria Rotonda, the square in front of the Pantheon is called Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is a property, ruled by Italys Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism through the Polo Museale del Lazio. The Pantheons large circular domed cella, with a temple portico front, is unique in Roman architecture. Nevertheless, it became a standard exemplar when classical styles were revived, Pantheon is derived from the Ancient Greek Pantheion meaning of, relating to, or common to all the gods. His uncertainty strongly suggests that Pantheon was merely a nickname, not the name of the building. In fact, the concept of a dedicated to all the gods is questionable. The only definite pantheon recorded earlier than Agrippas was at Antioch in Syria and it seems highly significant that Dio does not quote the simplest explanation for the name—that the Pantheon was dedicated to all the gods. Godfrey and Hemsoll maintain that the word Pantheon need not denote a group of gods, or, indeed, even all the gods. Certainly the word pantheus or pantheos, could be applicable to individual deities…, bearing in mind also that the Greek word θεῖος need not mean of a god but could mean superhuman, or even excellent. It seems likely that the Pantheon and the Basilica of Neptune were Agrippas sacra privata and this less solemn designation would help explain how the building could have so easily lost its original name and purpose in such a relatively short period of time. However, archaeological excavations have shown that the Pantheon of Agrippa had been destroyed except for the façade. Lise Hetland argues that the present construction began in 114, under Trajan and her argument is particularly interesting in light of Heilmeyers argument that, based on stylistic evidence, Apollodorus of Damascus, Trajans architect, was the obvious architect. The form of Agrippas Pantheon is debated and this description was widely accepted until the late 20th century. The only passages referring to the decoration of the Agrippan Pantheon written by an eyewitness are in Plinys Natural History, from him we know that the capitals, too, of the pillars, which were placed by M
Pantheon, Rome
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Pantheon
Pantheon, Rome
Pantheon, Rome
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The Pantheon and the Fontana del Pantheon.
Pantheon, Rome
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The Pantheon dome. The concrete for the
coffered dome was poured in moulds, probably mounted on temporary scaffolding. The oculus is the main source of natural light.
10.
Neoclassical architecture
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Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century. In its purest form, it is a style derived from the architecture of classical antiquity, the Vitruvian principles. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro, Neoclassical architecture is still designed today, but may be labelled New Classical Architecture for contemporary buildings. In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is referred to as Classicism. Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-Louis Boullée, the many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullées ideas and Edmund Burkes conception of the sublime, the baroque style had never truly been to the English taste. The most popular was the four-volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell, the book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book featured the work of Inigo Jones. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain, at the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic architect earl, Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, in 1729, he and William Kent, designed Chiswick House. This House was a reinterpretation of Palladios Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and this severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of the Palladianism. In 1734 William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of Englands finest examples of Palladian architecture with Holkham Hall in Norfolk, the main block of this house followed Palladios dictates quite closely, but Palladios low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. This classicising vein was also detectable, to a degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for S, by the mid 18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of Classical influences, including those from Ancient Greece. The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s, in France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann. The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden. A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire, in France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style, and the second in the styles called Directoire or Empire. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great in St. Petersburg, indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved an audience in the 1760s
Neoclassical architecture
–
The
Cathedral of Vilnius
Neoclassical architecture
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Woburn Abbey, an excellent example of English Palladianism, designed by
Burlington's student
Henry Flitcroft in 1746.
Neoclassical architecture
–
Altes Museum, built by
Karl Friedrich Schinkel in
Berlin.
Neoclassical architecture
–
Château de Malmaison, 1800, room for the
Empress Joséphine, on the cusp between
Directoire style and
Empire style
11.
Portico
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A portico is a porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls. This idea was used in Ancient Greece and has influenced many cultures. Some noteworthy examples of porticos are the East Portico of the United States Capitol, the portico adorning the Pantheon in Rome, porticos are sometimes topped with pediments. Bologna, Italy, is famous for its porticos, in total, there are over 45 km of arcades, some 38 in the city center. The longest portico in the world, about 3.5 km, in Bologna, Italy, porticos stretch for 18 km. Palladio was a pioneer of using temple-fronts for secular buildings, in the UK, the temple-front applied to The Vyne, Hampshire was the first portico applied to an English country house. A pronaos is the area of the portico of a Greek or Roman temple. Roman temples commonly had an open pronaos, usually with only columns and no walls, the word pronaos is Greek for before a temple. In Latin, a pronaos is also referred to as an anticum or prodomus, the different variants of porticos are named by the number of columns they have. The style suffix comes from the Greek στῦλος, column, the tetrastyle has four columns, it was commonly employed by the Greeks and the Etruscans for small structures such as public buildings and amphiprostyles. Roman provincial capitals also manifested tetrastyle construction, such as the Capitoline Temple in Volubilis, the North Portico of the White House is perhaps the most notable four-columned portico in the United States. Hexastyle buildings had six columns and were the standard façade in canonical Greek Doric architecture between the archaic period 600–550 BC up to the Age of Pericles 450–430 BC. With the colonization by the Greeks of Southern Italy, hexastyle was adopted by the Etruscans, Roman taste favoured narrow pseudoperipteral and amphiprostyle buildings with tall columns, raised on podiums for the added pomp and grandeur conferred by considerable height. The Maison Carrée at Nîmes, France, is the best-preserved Roman hexastyle temple surviving from antiquity, octastyle buildings had eight columns, they were considerably rarer than the hexastyle ones in the classical Greek architectural canon. The best-known octastyle buildings surviving from antiquity are the Parthenon in Athens, built during the Age of Pericles, and the Pantheon in Rome. The destroyed Temple of Divus Augustus in Rome, the centre of the Augustan cult, is shown on Roman coins of the 2nd century AD as having built in octastyle. The decastyle has ten columns, as in the temple of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus, the temple of Venus and Rome, built by Hadrian in Rome about 130 A. D. was decastyle, the only known example in Roman architecture. Classical architecture List of classical architecture terms Hypostyle Loggia Stoa Greek architecture, Encyclopædia Britannica,1968 Stierlin, Greece, From Mycenae to the Parthenon, TASCHEN,2004, Editor-in-chief Angelika Taschen, Cologne, ISBN 3-8228-1225-0 Stierlin, Henri
Portico
–
Under the portico of the Pantheon
Portico
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Portico close to piazza Santo Stefano,
Bologna
Portico
–
Temple of Portunus, with its tetrastyle portico of four
Ionic columns
Portico
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The hexastyle Temple of Concord at
Agrigentum (c. 430 B.C.)
12.
Benjamin Henry Latrobe
–
Benjamin Henry Boneval Latrobe was a British subject and neoclassical architect. It is the first Roman Catholic Cathedral constructed in the United States, Latrobe also designed the largest structure in America at the time, the Merchants Exchange in Baltimore. Latrobe emigrated to the U. S. in 1796, initially settling in Virginia where he worked on the Virginia State Penitentiary in Richmond, Latrobe then moved to Philadelphia where he established his practice. Latrobe spent the years of his life in New Orleans, Louisiana working on a waterworks project. Latrobe has been called the Father of American Architecture and he was also the uncle of Charles La Trobe, who was the first Lieutenant-Governor of Victoria in Australia. Latrobe was born on May 1,1764, at the Fulneck Moravian Settlement, near Pudsey in the city of Leeds, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. His parents were the Reverend Benjamin Latrobe, a leader of the Moravian Church who was of Huguenot ancestry, Antes was born in the American colony of Pennsylvania, but was sent to England by her father, a wealthy landowner, to attend a Moravian school at Fulneck. Latrobes father, who was responsible for all Moravian schools and establishments in Britain, had a circle of friends in the higher ranks of society. He stressed the importance of education, scholarship, and the value of exchange, while Latrobes mother instilled in her son a curiosity. From a young age, Benjamin Henry Latrobe enjoyed drawing landscapes and he was a brother of Moravian leader and musical composer Christian Ignatius Latrobe. In 1776, at the age of 12, Latrobe was sent away to a Moravian School at Niesky in Upper Lusatia, near the border of the German principalities of Saxony and Prussia, where his brother was studying. At age 18, he spent several months traveling around Germany, Latrobe may also have served briefly in the Austrian Imperial Army, and suffered some injuries or illness. After recovering, he embarked on a continental Grand Tour, visiting eastern Saxony, Paris, Italy, and other places. Through his education and travels, Latrobe mastered German, French, ancient and modern Greek, and Latin, had advanced ability in Italian and Spanish, Latrobe was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815. His son, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, II, also worked as a civil engineer, in 1827, he joined the newly organized Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and designed the longest, most challenging bridge on its initial route, the curving Thomas Viaduct. Another son, John Hazelhurst Boneval Latrobe, was a civic leader, lawyer, author, historian, artist, inventor, intellectual. Latrobe Park in south Baltimore is named for the family, as is Latrobe Park, New Orleans, Latrobe returned to England in 1784, and was apprenticed to John Smeaton, an engineer known for designing Eddystone Lighthouse. Then in 1787 or 1788, he worked in the office of neoclassical architect S. P. Cockerell for a brief time, in 1790, Latrobe was appointed Surveyor of the Public Offices in London, and established his own private practice in 1791
Benjamin Henry Latrobe
–
Benjamin Henry Latrobe, ca. 1804, portrait by
Charles Willson Peale
Benjamin Henry Latrobe
–
This article is about the elder Benjamin Henry Latrobe. For his son of the same name, see
Benjamin Henry Latrobe, II.
Benjamin Henry Latrobe
–
Bank of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Engraving by
William Russell Birch.
Benjamin Henry Latrobe
–
Latrobe Gate at the
Washington Navy Yard
13.
Pediment
–
The tympanum, the triangular area within the pediment, is often decorated with relief sculpture. The pediment is found in classical Greek temples, renaissance, a prominent example is the Parthenon, where it contains a tympanum decorated with figures in relief sculpture. This architectural element was developed in the architecture of ancient Greece, in Ancient Rome, the Renaissance, and later architectural revivals, the pediment was used as a non-structural element over windows, doors and aedicules. A variant is the segmental or arch pediment, where the normal angular slopes of the cornice are replaced by one in the form of a segment of a circle, both traditional and segmental pediments have broken and open forms. In the broken pediment the raking cornice is left open at the apex, the open pediment is open along the base – often used in Georgian architecture. A further variant is the Swan-necked pediment, where the cornice is in the form of two S-shaped brackets. The decorations in the tympanum frequently extend through these openings, in the form of Alto-relievo sculpture, tondo paintings and these forms were adopted in Mannerist architecture, and applied to furniture designed by Thomas Chippendale. The terms open pediment and broken pediment are often used interchangeably, a pediment is sometimes the top element of a portico
Pediment
–
The upper part of the neoclassical
Greek National Academy building in
Athens, showing the pediment with sculptures
Pediment
–
Swan-neck pediment at the Rev. Ebenezer Gay House,
Suffield, Connecticut, 1742
Pediment
–
Open pediment, Masonic Temple,
Aberdeen,
Scotland 1910.
Pediment
–
Broken segmental pediment at
La Rotonda
14.
Charles Bulfinch
–
Charles Bulfinch was an early American architect, and has been regarded by many as the first native-born American to practice architecture as a profession. Bulfinch split his career between his native Boston and Washington, D. C. where he served as Commissioner of Public Building and built the intermediate United States Capitol rotunda, Bulfinch was born in Boston to Thomas Bulfinch, a prominent physician, and his wife, Susan Apthorp. He was educated at Boston Latin School and Harvard University, from which he graduated with an AB in 1781, Thomas Jefferson became something of a mentor to him in Europe, as he would later be to Robert Mills. Upon his return to the United States in 1787, he became a promoter of the ship Columbia Redivivas voyage around the world under command of Captain Robert Gray and it was the first American ship to circumnavigate the globe. In 1788 he married Hannah Apthorp, his first cousin and their sons include Thomas Bulfinch, author of Bulfinchs Mythology, and Stephen Greenleaf Bulfinch, Unitarian clergyman and author. Bulfinchs first building was the Hollis Street Church and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1791. He built several churches in Boston, of which New North is the last standing, serving from 1791 to 1795 on Bostons board of selectmen, he resigned due to business pressures but returned in 1799. From 1799 to 1817, he was the chairman of Bostons board of selectmen continuously, and served as a paid Police Superintendent, improving the streets, drains. Under his direction, both the infrastructure and civic center of Boston were transformed into a classical style. Bulfinch was responsible for the design of the Boston Common, the remodeling and enlargement of Faneuil Hall, there was no payment for his services as selectman, and he received only $1,400 for designing and overseeing the construction of the State House. In the summer of 1817, Bulfinchs roles as selectman, designer, in this position he was paid a salary of $2,500 per year plus expenses. In 1829 Bulfinch completed the construction of the Capitol,36 years after its cornerstone was laid, during his interval in Washington, Bulfinch also drew plans for the State House in Augusta, Maine, a Unitarian Church and prison in Washington, D. C. In 1827, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Honorary member and he returned to Boston in 1830, where he died on April 15,1844, aged 80, and was buried in Kings Chapel Burial Ground in Boston. His tomb was moved to Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge. In 1943, a United States Liberty ship named the SS Charles Bulfinch was launched, the ship was scrapped in 1971. Bulfinch was known for attaching tunnels to the homes he erected within New England, the tunnel would run 2 to 5 feet within these homes and the chimneys and fireplaces would be built above their terminus. This would alleviate the problem of poor flashing in between the homes and the tunnel and the flue created a draw system bringing fresh air into the tunnel. This advance might have first been realized by General Jonathan Waldo when he restructured the old fort in Salem
Charles Bulfinch
–
Charles Bulfinch
Charles Bulfinch
–
Thomas Bulfinch (father of Charles), ca.1757
Charles Bulfinch
–
Massachusetts State House, completed 1798
Charles Bulfinch
–
Old Connecticut State House, built in 1796
15.
United States Capitol rotunda
–
The United States Capitol rotunda is the central rotunda of the United States Capitol in Washington, D. C. Located below the Capitol dome, it is the tallest part of the Capitol and has described as its symbolic. The rotunda is surrounded by corridors connecting the House of Representatives, to the south of the rotunda is the semi-circular National Statuary Hall, which until 1857 was the House of Representatives chamber. To the northeast of the rotunda is the Old Senate Chamber, used by the Senate until 1859 and by the Supreme Court of the United States until 1935. The rotunda is 96 feet in diameter and rises 48 feet to the top of its walls and 180 feet 3 inches to the canopy of the dome, the dome is surmounted by the American Statue of Freedom. It is also used for ceremonial events authorized by concurrent resolution, the doctor and architect William Thornton was the winner of the contest to design the Capitol in 1793. Thornton had first conceived the idea of a central rotunda, however, due to lack of funds or resources, oft-interrupted construction, and the British attack on Washington during the War of 1812, work on the rotunda did not begin until 1818. The rotunda was designed in the style and was intended to evoke the design of the Pantheon. The sandstone rotunda walls rise 48 feet above the floor, everything above this—the Capitol dome–was designed in 1854 by Thomas U, Walter, the fourth Architect of the Capitol. Walter had also designed the Capitols north and south extensions, in 1862, Walter asked painter Constantino Brumidi to design a picture 65 feet in diameter, painted in fresco, on the concave canopy over the eye of the New Dome of the U. S. Capitol. At this time, Brumidi may have added a watercolor canopy design over Walters tentative 1859 sketch, the dome was being finished in the middle of the American Civil War and was constructed from fireproof cast iron. During the Civil War, the rotunda was used as a hospital for Union soldiers. The dome was completed in 1866. Originally the crypt had an open ceiling into the rotunda, visitors can still see the holes in the stone circle that marked the rim of the open space in the rotunda floor. In January 2013, the Architect of the Capitol announced a four-year, $10 million project to repair and conserve the Capitol Domes exterior, the dome and rotunda, which were last conserved in 1960, are showing significant signs of rust and disrepair. There is a danger that decorative ironwork could fall from the rotunda to the space below, without immediate repair, safety netting will be installed. Eight niches in the rotunda hold large, framed historical paintings, all are oil-on-canvas and measure 12 by 18 feet. Four of these are scenes from the American Revolution, painted by John Trumbull and these are Declaration of Independence, Surrender of General Burgoyne, Surrender of Lord Cornwallis, and General George Washington Resigning his Commission
United States Capitol rotunda
–
Rotunda viewed from behind the statue of
George Washington
United States Capitol rotunda
–
Tour Groups inside the Rotunda.
United States Capitol rotunda
–
Capitol dome
United States Capitol rotunda
–
Capitol rotunda
16.
Oculus
–
An oculus is a circular opening in the centre of a dome or in a wall. Originating in antiquity, it is a feature of Byzantine and Neoclassical architecture and it is also known as an œil de boeuf from the French, or simply a bulls-eye. The oculus was used by the Romans, one of the finest examples being that in the dome of the Pantheon, open to the weather, it allows rain to enter and fall to the floor, where it is carried away through drains. Though the opening looks small, it actually has a diameter of 27 ft allowing it to light the building just as the sun lights the earth, the rain also keeps the building cool during the hot summer months. Pliny in his Natural history call counters also oculus, oculi, the oculus was widely used in the architecture of the Byzantine Empire. It was applied to buildings in Syria in the 5th and 6th centuries, in Constantinoples Myrelaion Church, there are two oculi above the stringcourse on both lateral facades. Early examples of the oculus in Renaissance architecture can be seen in Florence Cathedral, in the nave clerestorey, since the revival of dome construction beginning in the Italian Renaissance, open oculi have been replaced by light-transmitting cupolas and other round windows, openings, and skylights. They can be seen in the pediments of Palladios Villa Rotonda, use of oculus windows became more popular in Baroque architecture. Widely used by Neo-Palladian architects including Colen Campbell, one can be seen in the dome of Thomas Jeffersons Rotunda at the University of Virginia
Oculus
–
The oculus (top) in the dome of the
Pantheon, Rome
Oculus
–
Effect of the view into a cupola through an oculus under natural light (
Wambierzyce, Poland)
Oculus
–
Detail of oculus set in a
cartouche with the head of Mercury (
Beaux-Arts New York and New Jersey Telephone Company Building,
Brooklyn)
Oculus
–
View of an oculus opening into a
cupola in the
Hasht Behesht,
Isfahan (1699)
17.
Abraham Lincoln
–
Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
Abraham Lincoln
–
Lincoln in 1863, aged 54
Abraham Lincoln
–
The young Lincoln in sculpture at Senn Park, Chicago.
Abraham Lincoln
–
1864 photo of President Lincoln with youngest son,
Tad
Abraham Lincoln
–
Lincoln depicted protecting a Native American from his own men in a scene often related about Lincoln's service during the
Black Hawk War.
18.
Copper
–
Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is one of the few metals that occur in nature in directly usable metallic form as opposed to needing extraction from an ore and this led to very early human use, from c.8000 BC. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris, Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives. Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the hemoglobin in fish. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, the adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper, at the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form. The softness of copper partly explains its high conductivity and high thermal conductivity. The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3. 1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air, as with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur. A green layer of verdigris can often be seen on old structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings. Copper tarnishes when exposed to sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides. There are 29 isotopes of copper, 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper, both have a spin of 3⁄2
Copper
–
Native copper (~4 cm in size)
Copper
–
A copper disc (99.95% pure) made by
continuous casting;
etched to reveal
crystallites.
Copper
–
Copper just above its melting point keeps its pink luster color when enough light outshines the orange
incandescence color.
Copper
–
Unoxidized copper wire (left) and oxidized copper wire (right).
19.
Territorial acquisitions of the United States
–
This is a United States territorial acquisitions and conquests list, beginning with American independence. Note that this list primarily concerns land the United States acquired from other nation-states, Territorial acquisitions derived from the displacement of Native Americans are not listed here. The 1783 Treaty of Paris with Great Britain defined the borders of the United States. It generally stretched from the Eastern Seaboard to the Mississippi River in the west, there were ambiguities in the treaty regarding the exact border with Canada to the north that led to disputes that were resolved by the Webster–Ashburton Treaty in 1842. Beginning in the late 18th century, the new nation organized areas west of the Original thirteen states into several United States territories, the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, was negotiated with Napoleon during the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, the territory was acquired from France for $15 million. A small portion of land was ceded to Britain in 1818 in exchange for the Red River Basin. More of this land was ceded to Spain in 1819 with the Florida Purchase, West Florida was declared to be a U. S. possession in 1810 by President James Madison after the territory had declared its independence from Spain. Madison ordered the U. S. Army to take control, six weeks later, the army entered and occupied the capital, St. Francisville, putting an end to the republic after 74 days of independence. Spain did not relinquish its claim to sovereignty until ratification of the Adams-Onís Treaty, general Andrew Jackson personally accepted the delivery of West Florida from its Spanish governor on July 17,1821. The Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819 with Spain resulted in Spains cession of East Florida, Article III of the treaty, when properly surveyed, resulted in the acquisition of a small part of central Colorado. Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842 with Britain split the territory in Maine and New Brunswick and finalized the border with Canada. In 1850 Britain ceded to the U. S. less than one acre of underwater rock in Lake Erie near Buffalo for a lighthouse, Congress approved the annexation of Texas on February 28,1845. On December 29,1845, Texas became the 28th state, Mexico acknowledged the loss of territory in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848. The San Juan Islands were claimed and jointly occupied by the U. S. arbitration led to the sole U. S. possession of the San Juan Islands since 1872. The United States paid $15 million and agreed to pay claims made by American citizens against Mexico which amounted to more than $3 million. In the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, the United States purchased a strip of land along the Mexico–United States border for $10 million, now in New Mexico and this territory was intended for a southern transcontinental railroad. Alaska Purchase from the Russian Empire for $7.2 million on March 30,1867, the land went through several administrative changes before becoming an organized territory on May 11,1912, and the 49th state of the U. S. on January 3,1959. The Kingdom of Hawaii was closely linked by missionary work and trade to the U. S. by the 1880s, in 1893 business leaders overthrew the Queen of Hawaii and sought annexation
Territorial acquisitions of the United States
–
Census Bureau map depicting territorial acquisitions and dates of statehood, probably created in the 1970s or thereabouts
Territorial acquisitions of the United States
–
1833 Eagle Map of the U.S.
Territorial acquisitions of the United States
–
In 1959, 94% of Hawaii's residents voted to relinquish all land claims (proposition 2) to the United States and become a state.
Territorial acquisitions of the United States
–
Post-Spanish–American War map of "Greater America".
20.
List of U.S. states by date of statehood
–
A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent entities that shares its sovereignty with the federal government. Americans are citizens of both the republic and of the state in which they reside, due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government. Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia use the term rather than state in their full official names. Each state has its own constitution grounded in principles, and government consisting of executive, legislative. All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented by two Senators, while Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. The following table is a list of all 50 states and their dates of statehood. These states are presented in the order in which each ratified the 1787 Constitution, the date of admission listed for each subsequent state is the official date set by Act of Congress. The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the states on November 15,1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1,1781, on March 4,1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the present Constitution. S
List of U.S. states by date of statehood
–
U.S. states by date of admission to the Union 1776–1790 1791–1799 1800–1819 1820–1839 1840–1859 1860–1879 1880–1899 1900–1912 1959
21.
United States Congress
–
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
United States Congress
United States Congress
–
United States Congress
United States Congress
–
In 1868, this committee of representatives prosecuted president
Andrew Johnson in his impeachment trial, but the Senate did not convict him.
United States Congress
–
George Washington presiding over the signing of the
United States Constitution.
22.
Montgomery C. Meigs
–
Montgomery Cunningham Meigs was a career United States Army officer and civil engineer, who served as Quartermaster General of the U. S. Army during and after the American Civil War. Seward viewed it as a key factor in Union victory, Meigs was born in Augusta, Georgia, in May 1816. He was the son of Dr. Charles Delucena Meigs and Mary Montgomery Meigs, Montgomery Meigs mother, Mary, was the granddaughter of a Scottish family from Brigend which emigrated to America in 1701. Meigs father apprenticed as a physician in Philadelphia until 1812, at time he moved to Athens. He enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania in 1815, the year he began to practice medicine in Georgia. The Meigs family was wealthy and well-connected, and Charles Meigs was a supporter of the Democratic Party. Meigs had extremely good memory, and his father instilled in him a sense of duty, young Montgomery received schooling at the Franklin Institute. Meigs learned French, German, and Latin, and studied art, literature and he enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania when he was only 15 years old. A hard worker, he was one of the top students at the university, the Meigs family had extensive ties to the military and to West Point, the United States Military Academy. Montgomery Meigs, caught up in the fervor of the time. West Point was also the engineering school in the United States at the time. Through family connections, Meigs won an appointment to West Point and he excelled in his studies at West Point, although he himself said he spent too much time at athletics and outdoor activities. He was among the top three students in French and mathematics, and did well in history and he graduated fifth out of a class of 49 in 1836, and he had more good conduct merits than two-thirds of his classmates. He received a commission as a lieutenant in the 1st U. S. Artillery. In his early assignments, Meigs helped build Fort Mifflin and Fort Delaware and he also served under the command of then-Lt. Robert E. Lee to make improvements on the Mississippi River. Beginning in 1844, Meigs also was involved with the construction of Fort Montgomery on Lake Champlain in upstate New York and his favorite prewar engineering project was the Washington Aqueduct, which he supervised from 1852 to 1860. It involved the construction of the monumental Union Arch Bridge across Cabin John Creek, designed by Alfred Rives, which for 50 years remained the longest single-span masonry arch in the world
Montgomery C. Meigs
–
Montgomery C. Meigs
Montgomery C. Meigs
–
Montgomery C. Meigs in March 1861.
Montgomery C. Meigs
Montgomery C. Meigs
–
The Civil War Unknowns Monument circa 1866, designed by Montgomery Meigs.
23.
Statue of Freedom
–
The Statue of Freedom—also known as Armed Freedom or simply Freedom—is a bronze statue designed by Thomas Crawford that, since 1863, has crowned the dome of the U. S. Capitol in Washington, D. C. Originally named Freedom Triumphant in War and Peace, official U. S. government publications now state that the statue is known as the Statue of Freedom. The statue depicts a figure wearing a military helmet and holding a sheathed sword in her right hand. Freedom is a bronze standing figure 19½ feet tall and weighing approximately 15,000 pounds. Her crest peaks at 288 feet above the east front plaza of the U. S. Capitol. She is an allegorical figure whose right hand holds the hilt of a sheathed sword while a laurel wreath of victory. Her chiton is secured by a brooch inscribed U. S. and is covered by a heavy. She faces east towards the entrance of the building and the rising Sun. She wears a helmet adorned with stars and an eagles head which is itself crowned by an umbrella-like crest of feathers. Although not actually called Columbia, she shares many of her iconic characteristics, Freedom stands atop a cast-iron globe encircled with one of the national mottoes, E pluribus unum. The lower part of the base is decorated with fasces and wreaths, ten bronze points tipped with platinum are attached to her headdress, shoulders, and shield for protection from lightning. A monumental statue for the top of the national Capitol appeared in architect Thomas U, walters original drawing for the new cast-iron dome, which was authorized in 1855. Walters drawing showed the outline of a representing the Goddess of Liberty, Crawford proposed instead an allegorical figure of Freedom Triumphant in War. Crawford was commissioned to design Freedom in 1854 and executed the model for the statue in his studio in Rome. Mississippian senator and U. S. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis was in charge of the Capitol construction, according to David Hackett Fischer in his book Liberty and Freedom, Crawford’s statue was… …very close to Jefferson Davis’s ideas in every way but one…. Above the crown he added a liberty cap, the old Roman symbol of an emancipated slave and it seemed a direct affront to a militant slaveholder, and Jefferson Davis exploded with rage. The northern sculptor and the southern slaveholder had already clashed over a liberty cap in the decoration of the Capitol. Davis sent his aide, Captain Montgomery Meigs, with orders to remove the cap, saying that its history renders it inappropriate to a people who were born free and would not be enslaved
Statue of Freedom
–
Statue of Freedom (1857–62)
Statue of Freedom
–
Not to be confused with
Statue of Liberty.
Statue of Freedom
–
The Statue of Freedom was removed from the dome for five months in 1993.
Statue of Freedom
–
Statue of Freedom' s plaster model cast now resides in the
Capitol Visitor Center.
24.
Cast iron
–
Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its low melting temperature. Carbon ranging from 1. 8–4 wt%, and silicon 1–3 wt% are the main alloying elements of cast iron, Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes the Fe–C–Si system ternary, the principle of cast iron solidification can be understood from the simpler binary iron–carbon phase diagram, cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation, the earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, during the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during the Reformation. The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, cast iron is also used in the construction of buildings. Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the iron, but this also burns out the carbon. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting. Cast iron is melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a furnace or ladle. Cast irons properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants, next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide, a high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of graphite results in an iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength. Sulfur, largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide, the problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide, the manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag
Cast iron
–
A
cast iron pan.
Cast iron
–
Steels and other iron–carbon alloy phases
Cast iron
–
Cast iron drain, waste and vent piping
Cast iron
–
Cast iron plate on grand piano
25.
Aesthetics
–
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, in modern English, the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory, one speaks, for example, of the Cubist aesthetic. The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek αἰσθητικός, which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι, for some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object, philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but has also to give a definition of what art is. Art is an entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics, art as knowledge or art as action, any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. Western aesthetics usually refers to Greek philosophers as the earliest source of aesthetic considerations. Plato believed in beauty as a form in which beautiful objects partake and he felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle found that the elements of beauty were order, symmetry. From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aesthetics underwent a revolution into what is often called modernism. German and British thinkers emphasized beauty as the key component of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at absolute beauty. For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of the experiences, a younger sister of logic. For Immanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but similar human truth, however, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. For Friedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature, for Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophy of art is the organon of philosophy concerning the relation between man and nature. So aesthetics began now to be the name for the philosophy of art, Friedrich von Schlegel, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel also gave lectures on aesthetics as philosophy of art after 1800. For Hegel, all culture is a matter of absolute spirit coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage, Art is the first stage in which the absolute spirit is manifest immediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather than subjective revelation of beauty. It is thus for Schopenhauer one way to fight the suffering, the British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps
Aesthetics
–
Bronze sculpture, thought to be either
Poseidon or
Zeus,
National Archaeological Museum of Athens
Aesthetics
–
Cubist painting by
Georges Braque, Violin and Candlestick (1910)
Aesthetics
–
William Hogarth, self-portrait, 1745
Aesthetics
–
Example of the
Dada aesthetic,
Marcel Duchamp 's Fountain 1917
26.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
27.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London
–
Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London
London
London
–
The name London may derive from the
River Thames
28.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
29.
Franklin Pierce
–
Franklin Pierce was the 14th President of the United States. Pierce was a northern Democrat who saw the abolitionist movement as a threat to the unity of the nation. Historians and other scholars generally rank Pierce as among the worst of US Presidents, born in New Hampshire, Pierce served in the U. S. House of Representatives and the Senate until he resigned from the latter in 1842. His private law practice in his state was a success. Pierce took part in the Mexican–American War as a general in the Army. In the 1852 presidential election, Pierce and his running mate William R. King easily defeated the Whig Party ticket of Winfield Scott and William A. Graham. While Pierce was popular and outgoing, his life was a grim affair, with his wife Jane suffering from illness. All of their children died young, their last son being killed in a train accident while the family was traveling shortly before Pierces inauguration. Pierce was a Young America expansionist who signed the Gadsden Purchase of land from Mexico and his popularity in the Northern states declined sharply after he supported the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which nullified the Missouri Compromise, while many whites in the South continued to support him. Passage of the act led to violent conflict over the expansion of slavery in the American West, Pierces administration was further damaged when several of his diplomats issued the Ostend Manifesto, calling for the annexation of Cuba, a document which was roundly criticized. Although Pierce fully expected to be renominated by the Democrats in the 1856 presidential election, he was abandoned by his party and his reputation in the North suffered further during the Civil War as he became a vocal critic of President Abraham Lincoln. Pierce, who had been a heavy drinker for much of his life, Franklin Pierce was born on November 23,1804, in a log cabin in Hillsborough, New Hampshire. He was a descendant of Thomas Pierce, who had moved to the Massachusetts Bay Colony from Norwich, Norfolk, England. Pierces father Benjamin, a Revolutionary War lieutenant, moved from Chelmsford, Massachusetts to Hillsborough after the war, Pierce was the fifth of eight children born to Benjamin and his second wife, Anna Kendrick. Benjamin was by then a prominent Democratic-Republican state legislator, farmer, Pierces father, who sought to ensure that his sons were educated, placed Pierce in a school at Hillsborough Center in childhood and sent him to the town school at Hancock at the age of 12. The boy was not fond of schooling, growing homesick at Hancock, he walked 12 miles back to his home one Sunday. His father fed him dinner and drove him part of the back to school before kicking him out of the carriage. Pierce later cited this moment as the turning-point in my life, later that year he transferred to Phillips Exeter Academy to prepare for college
Franklin Pierce
–
Franklin Pierce
Franklin Pierce
–
The
Franklin Pierce Homestead in
Hillsborough, where Pierce grew up, is now a
National Historic Landmark. He was born in a nearby
log cabin as the homestead was being completed.
Franklin Pierce
–
Novelist
Nathaniel Hawthorne remained lifelong friends with Pierce. He wrote a glowing biography, The Life of Franklin Pierce, in support of Pierce's 1852 presidential campaign.
Franklin Pierce
–
Pious and reserved,
Jane Pierce was her husband's opposite in many ways.
30.
Edward Clark (architect)
–
Edward Clark was an American architect who served as Architect of the Capitol from 1865 to 1902. Clark was born in August 1822 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to James and his grandfather, Michael Clark, was of English stock from Lancashire, England but born in Dublin, Ireland. Michael Clark emigrated to the United States at the end of the American Revolutionary War to avoid persecution in England. Edward Clarks father, James, was one of Michaels three sons, and was not only an architect in Philadelphia but a well-known teacher of architectural drawing. Edward Clarks mother, Mary, was the daughter of John Cottman, Edward Clark was educated in both public and private schools in Philadelphia. He received his training from his uncle, Thomas Clark. He received training in architectural and free-hand drawing from his father, while still in his late teens, Clark was apprenticed to the nationally known Philadelphia architect Thomas U. While an apprentice, he helped Walter design and plan the buildings for Girard College, in 1851, Walter was appointed the Architect of the Capitol and charged with designing and building the United States Capitol dome and the north and south wings of the United States Capitol. Clark accompanied Walter to Washington, D. C. and was Walters chief assistant on the three projects, although Walter was author of the general plan and layout of the dome wings, nearly all the detail work was done by Clark. While architectural and planning work progressed on the dome in the 1850s, patent Office Building and the D. C. During the American Civil War, Clark also designed and oversaw the construction of numerous arsenals, forts, Clark was appointed Capitol architect by President Andrew Johnson upon his mentors resignation on August 30,1865, and completed the extension project in 1868. Clark introduced many improvements to the Capitol, including electricity, steam heat. During Clarks tenure, the Capitol Grounds were greatly enlarged and Frederick Law Olmsted, also during Clarks administration, the Library of Congress moved to its own building, and the west central interior of the Capitol was reconstructed. In 1872, Clark was hired by the state of Iowa to revise plans for the Iowa State Capitol, Clark retained the general plan of the building, and, revised the plans. It was Clarks building which was eventually constructed, Edward Clark loved literature, and owned one of the largest private libraries in the city at the time of his death. Although not a musician himself, he loved music and had one of the largest private music libraries in the region. He spoke French, Italian, and Latin, and his library contained a number of works in architecture written in those languages. An ardent art admirer, he was a friend of William Wilson Corcoran
Edward Clark (architect)
–
Edward Clark
31.
Constantino Brumidi
–
Constantino Brumidi was a Greek-Italian-American historical painter, best known and honored for his fresco work in the Capitol Building in Washington, DC. Brumidi was born in Rome, his father a Greek from Filiatra in the province of Messinia, Greece and he showed his talent for fresco painting at an early age and painted in several Roman palaces, among them being that of Prince Torlonia. Under Gregory XVI he worked for three years in the Vatican, taking up his residence in New York City, the artist painted a number of portraits. He also executed frescoes at Taylors Chapel, Baltimore, Maryland, in 1854 Brumidi went to Mexico, where he painted an allegorical representation of the Holy Trinity in the Mexico City cathedral. On his way back to New York he stopped at Washington D. C. impressed with the opportunity for decoration presented by its vast interior wall spaces, he offered his services for that purpose to Quartermaster General Montgomery C. This offer was accepted, and about the same time Meigs was commissioned as a captain of cavalry and his first art work in the Capitol Building was in the meeting room of the House Committee on Agriculture. At first he received eight dollars a day, which Jefferson Davis, then Secretary of War of the United States and his work attracting much favourable attention, he was given further commissions, and gradually settled into the position of a Government painter. Brumidis Liberty and Union paintings are mounted near the ceiling of the White House entrance hall, Peter and Paul in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, he pictured St. Peter and St. Paul. Brumidi was a capable, if conventional painter, and his black and white modeling in the work at Washington and he decorated the entrance hall of Saleaudo, located at Frederick, Maryland, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. A Brumidi fresco appears behind the altar in St. Ignatius Church in Baltimore, another, of Saint Aloysius Gonzaga receiving communion from Saint Charles Borromeo, hangs over the high altar of St Aloysius Church in Washington, D. C. Brumidi died in Washington, D. C. and was interred at Glenwood Cemetery, when he was buried, his grave was unmarked. The location of Brumidis grave was lost for 72 years and it was rediscovered, and on February 19,1952, a marker was finally placed above it. Forgotten for many years, Brumidis role was rescued from obscurity by Myrtle Cheney Murdock and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. article name needed. Constantino Brumidi, artist of the Capitol, constantino Brumidi, Il Michelangelo Del Capitol - Dossena, Tiziano Thomas, LIdea Magazine N.24, Vol. II,2005, New York
Constantino Brumidi
–
Constantino Brumidi
Constantino Brumidi
–
Grave of Constantino Brumidi, his wife, his son, and his in-laws at Glenwood Cemetery.
Constantino Brumidi
–
General
Henry Knox, first
United States Secretary of War
Constantino Brumidi
–
Brumidi's
fresco Apotheosis of Washington adorns the underside of the dome in the rotunda of the
United States Capitol
32.
Fresco
–
Fresco is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly-laid, or wet lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaster, the fresco technique has been employed since antiquity and is closely associated with Italian Renaissance painting. Buon fresco pigment mixed with water of temperature on a thin layer of wet, fresh plaster, for which the Italian word for plaster. Because of the makeup of the plaster, a binder is not required, as the pigment mixed solely with the water will sink into the intonaco. The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster, after a number of hours, many artists sketched their compositions on this underlayer, which would never be seen, in a red pigment called sinopia, a name also used to refer to these under-paintings. Later, new techniques for transferring paper drawings to the wall were developed. The main lines of a drawing made on paper were pricked over with a point, the paper held against the wall, if the painting was to be done over an existing fresco, the surface would be roughened to provide better adhesion. This area is called the giornata, and the different day stages can usually be seen in a large fresco, buon frescoes are difficult to create because of the deadline associated with the drying plaster. Once a giornata is dried, no more buon fresco can be done, if mistakes have been made, it may also be necessary to remove the whole intonaco for that area—or to change them later, a secco. An indispensable component of this process is the carbonatation of the lime, the eyes of the people of the School of Athens are sunken-in using this technique which causes the eyes to seem deeper and more pensive. Michelangelo used this technique as part of his trademark outlining of his central figures within his frescoes, in a wall-sized fresco, there may be ten to twenty or even more giornate, or separate areas of plaster. After five centuries, the giornate, which were nearly invisible, have sometimes become visible, and in many large-scale frescoes. Additionally, the border between giornate was often covered by an a secco painting, which has fallen off. One of the first painters in the period to use this technique was the Isaac Master in the Upper Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi. A person who creates fresco is called a frescoist, a secco or fresco-secco painting is done on dry plaster. The pigments thus require a medium, such as egg. Blue was a problem, and skies and blue robes were often added a secco, because neither azurite blue nor lapis lazuli. By the end of the century this had largely displaced buon fresco
Fresco
–
Fresco in the church Mariä Verkündigung in Fuchstal,
Bavaria, Germany from Thomas Springer
Fresco
–
Fresco
Sistine Chapel in the
Vatican, Rome, Italy.
Fresco
–
Etruscan fresco of Velia Velcha from the
Tomb of Orcus,
Tarquinia.
Fresco
–
Fresco of "
Sappho " from
Pompeii, c. 50 CE.
33.
Apotheosis of Washington
–
The Apotheosis of Washington is the fresco painted by Greek-Italian artist Constantino Brumidi in 1865 and visible through the oculus of the dome in the rotunda of the United States Capitol Building. The fresco is suspended 180 feet above the floor and covers an area of 4,664 square feet. The figures painted are up to 15 feet tall and are visible from the floor below, the dome was completed in 1863, and Brumidi painted it over the course of 11 months at the end of the Civil War. He was paid $40,000 for the fresco, Brumidi had worked for three years in the Vatican under Pope Gregory XVI, and served several aristocrats as an artist for palaces and villas, including the prince Torlonia. He immigrated to the United States in 1852, and spent much of the last 25 years of his working in the Capitol. In addition to The Apotheosis of Washington he designed the Brumidi Corridors, the Apotheosis of Washington depicts George Washington sitting amongst the heavens in an exalted manner, or in literal terms, ascending and becoming a god. Washington, the first U. S. president and commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, is represented, surrounded by figures from classical mythology. Washington is draped in purple, a color, with a rainbow arch at his feet, flanked by the goddess Victoria to his left. Liberty wears a red Phrygian cap, symbolizing emancipation, from a Roman tradition where sons leaving the home and/or slaves being emancipated would be given a red cap and she holds a fasces in her right hand and an open book in the other. Forming a circle between Liberty and Victory are 13 maidens, each with a star above her head, representing the original 13 colonies. Several of the maidens have their backs turned to Washington, said to represent the colonies that had seceded from the Union at the time of painting, upside down above Washington is the banner E Pluribus Unum meaning out of many, one. The perimeter scenes are not fully visible from the floor of the Capitol, Apotheosis Panthéon, Paris - building with a dome fresco titled The Apotheosis of Saint Genevieve The Apotheosis of Washington, Architect of the Capitol. The Apotheosis of George Washington, Brumidis fresco & Beyond, The University of Virginia, the Telegraph Field, Valentia Island, Ireland. Study for the Apotheosis of George Washington, c, the Italian presence in American art, 1860-1920. Apotheosisofwashington. com, dedicated website with interactive panorama view Presidents Day and the Apotheosis of Washington, Online Library of Liberty
Apotheosis of Washington
–
The Apotheosis of Washington, as seen looking up from the
capitol rotunda
Apotheosis of Washington
–
Upside down above Washington is the banner
E Pluribus Unum meaning "out of many, one".
Apotheosis of Washington
Apotheosis of Washington
–
Science
Minerva, the Roman goddess of crafts and wisdom, is portrayed with helmet and
spear pointing to an
electrical generator creating power stored in
batteries next to a
printing press, representing great American inventions. American scientists and inventors
Benjamin Franklin,
Samuel F. B. Morse, and
Robert Fulton watch. In the left part of the scene a teacher demonstrates the use of dividers.
34.
Cantilever
–
A cantilever is a rigid structural element, such as a beam or a plate, anchored at only one end to a support from which it is protruding. Cantilevers can also be constructed with trusses or slabs, when subjected to a structural load, the cantilever carries the load to the support where it is forced against by a moment and shear stress. Cantilevers are widely found in construction, notably in cantilever bridges and balconies, in cantilever bridges the cantilevers are usually built as pairs, with each cantilever used to support one end of a central section. The Forth Bridge in Scotland is an example of a truss bridge. A cantilever in a timber framed building is called a jetty or forebay. In the southern United States a historic barn type is the barn of log construction. Temporary cantilevers are used in construction. The partially constructed structure creates a cantilever, but the structure does not act as a cantilever. This is very helpful when temporary supports, or falsework, cannot be used to support the structure while it is being built. So some truss arch bridges are built each side as cantilevers until the spans reach each other and are then jacked apart to stress them in compression before final joining. Nearly all cable-stayed bridges are built using cantilevers as this is one of their chief advantages, many box girder bridges are built segmentally, or in short pieces. This type of construction lends itself well to balanced cantilever construction where the bridge is built in both directions from a single support and these structures are highly based on torque and rotational equilibrium. In an architectural application, Frank Lloyd Wrights Fallingwater used cantilevers to project large balconies, the East Stand at Elland Road Stadium in Leeds was, when completed, the largest cantilever stand in the world holding 17,000 spectators. The roof built over the stands at Old Trafford Football Ground uses a cantilever so that no supports will block views of the field, the old, now demolished Miami Stadium had a similar roof over the spectator area. The largest cantilever in Europe is located at St James Park in Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, less obvious examples of cantilevers are free-standing radio towers without guy-wires, and chimneys, which resist being blown over by the wind through cantilever action at their base. Another use of the cantilever is in fixed-wing aircraft design, pioneered by Hugo Junkers in 1915, early aircraft wings typically bore their loads by using two wings in a biplane configuration braced with wires and struts. They were similar to bridges, having been developed by Octave Chanute. The wings were braced with crossed wires so they would stay parallel, the cables and struts generated considerable drag, and there was constant experimentation for ways to eliminate them
Cantilever
–
The
Forth Bridge, a cantilever truss bridge.
Cantilever
Cantilever
–
This concrete bridge temporarily functions as a set of two balanced cantilevers during construction - with further cantilevers jutting out to support
formwork.
Cantilever
–
Howrah Bridge in
India, a cantilever bridge.
35.
Peristyle
–
In Hellenistic Greek and Roman architecture a peristyle is a continuous porch formed by a row of columns surrounding the perimeter of building or a courtyard. Tetrastoon is a rarely used term for this feature. In the Christian ecclesiastical architecture that developed from Roman basilica, a courtyard peristyle, in rural settings a wealthy Roman could surround a villa with terraced gardens, within the city Romans created their gardens inside the domus. Sometimes the lararium, a shrine for the Lares, the gods of the household, was located in this portico, the courtyard might contain flowers and shrubs, fountains, benches, sculptures and even fish ponds. No new peristyle houses were built after A. D.550
Peristyle
–
Reconstruction of a Roman peristylum (peristyle) and peristylium (courtyard) of Pompeii.
Peristyle
–
"In the Peristyle"
John William Waterhouse (1849-1917). Rochdale Art Gallery,
Rochdale,
England.
Peristyle
–
Ceiling decoration in the peristyle hall of the
Medinet Habu
Peristyle
–
Peristyle of the Diocletian palace in Split, Croatia.
R. Adam 1764
36.
Scaffolding
–
Scaffolding is also used in adapted forms for formwork and shoring, grandstand seating, concert stages, access/viewing towers, exhibition stands, ski ramps, half pipes and art projects. There are four types of scaffolding used worldwide today. These are Tube and Coupler components, prefabricated modular system scaffold components, H-frame / facade modular system scaffolds, each type is made from several components which often include, A base jack or plate which is a load-bearing base for the scaffold. The standard, the component with connector joins. The transom, a horizontal cross-section load-bearing component which holds the batten, board, brace diagonal and/or cross section bracing component. Batten or board decking component used to make the working platform, Coupler, a fitting used to join components together. Scaffold tie, used to tie in the scaffold to structures, brackets, used to extend the width of working platforms. Sockets in the walls around the cave paintings at Lascaux, suggest that a scaffold system was used for painting the ceiling. The Berlin Foundry Cup depicts scaffolding in ancient Greece, egyptians, Nubians and Chinese are also recorded as having used scaffolding-like structures to build tall buildings. Early scaffolding was made of wood and secured with rope knots, in days gone by, scaffolding was erected by individual firms with wildly varying standards and sizes. Scaffolding was revolutionized by Daniel Palmer Jones and David Henry Jones, modern day scaffolding standards, practices and processes can be attributed to these men and their companies. With Daniel being the known and patent applicant and holder for many scaffold components still in use today see inventor. He is considered the grandfather of Scaffolding, the history of scaffolding being that of the Jones brothers and their companys Patent Rapid Scaffold Tie Company Ltd, Tubular Scaffolding Company and Scaffolding Great Britain Ltd. David Palmer-Jones patented the Scaffixer, a coupling device far more robust than rope which revolutionized scaffolding construction, in 1913, his company was commissioned for the reconstruction of Buckingham Palace, during which his Scaffixer gained much publicity. Palmer-Jones followed this up with the improved Universal Coupler in 1919 - this soon became the standard coupling and has remained so to this day. With the advancements in metallurgy throughout the early 20th century, saw the introduction of tubular steel water pipes with standardized dimensions, allowing for the industrial interchangeability of parts and improving the structural stability of the scaffold. The use of diagonal bracings also helped to improve stability, especially on tall buildings, the first frame system was brought to market by SGB in 1944 and was used extensively for the postwar reconstruction. The European Standard, BS EN 12811-1, specifies performance requirements and methods of structural and general design for access, requirements given are for scaffold structures that rely on the adjacent structures for stability
Scaffolding
–
Temporary
steel scaffold-constructed platform and stairway (with wooden platform flooring) in use at
New York City 's
Grasmere railway station during 2012-2014 station rehabilitation project.
Scaffolding
–
Bamboo scaffolding used for the construction of the
Four Seasons Hotel Hong Kong.
Scaffolding
–
Repairwork on
Buckingham Palace in 1913, under the scaffolding of Patent Rapid.
Scaffolding
–
A
condominium in periodical (every 10-15 years) large scale repairing/maintenance in Japan under regulation. In most cases the entire building is covered by steel scaffolding and mesh for easy work and safety. Typically it continues 3-5 weeks per planned schedule.
37.
WGBH-TV
–
WGBH-TV, channel 2, is a non-commercial educational PBS member television station located in Boston, Massachusetts. WGBHs studios are located on Guest Street in Boston, and its transmitter is located in Needham, WGBH is one of six local Boston television stations that are available in Canada on satellite provider Bell TV. WGBH-TV produces more than two-thirds of the nationally distributed programs broadcast by PBS and these include shows such as Nova, Frontline, Masterpiece, American Experience, The Victory Garden, and This Old House. WGBH was home to The French Chef featuring Julia Child, the Scarlet Letter mini-series was a major costume drama produced on-location and was the first challenger to the British dominance in such programming in America. It was PBSs highest rated series for many years, since then, the station has co-produced many period dramas with British production companies. Broadcasts with the Boston Symphony established the genre as a staple on television, a Roomful of Music, produced by Greg Harney, featured Pete Seeger and other musicians. WGBHs experiments helped develop the medium of television, WGBH operates a Shaw Broadcast Services satellite uplink facility which provides broadcast television stations from the Boston area to cable and satellite television providers in Canada. As a Canadian company, Shaw is not legally entitled to operate a facility in the United States. As a result, the company pays WGBH to perform service on its behalf. This facility is located at the stations transmitter tower in Needham. Calling for free public lectures for the citizens of Boston, wGBH-FM first signed on the air on October 6,1951, with a live broadcast of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. WRTB never made it on the air, paving the way for the Federal Communications Commission to allocate channel 2 for non-commercial purposes and for WGBH to receive a license to operate on that channel. WGBH-TV went on the air at 5,20 p. m. on May 2,1955, initial funding for starting WGBH-TV, the first public television station in Boston and New Englands first non-commercial television station, came from the Lincoln and Therese Filene Foundation. WGBH-TV and WGBH FM both began operating from a new building on August 29,1963, a new studio facility for the WGBH station was then built at 125 Western Avenue in the Allston neighborhood of Boston, Design Squad Dont Look Now FETCH.7 and WGBH. org. The Scrum Security Mom Julia Child, The French Chef Robert J. Vincent Price, thomas J. MacDonald, Rough Cut - Woodworking with Tommy Mac Michael Dukakis, The Advocates Roger Fisher, The Advocates William A. Reunions were held in 2000 and 2006
WGBH-TV
–
WGBH Guest Street studios (with "digital mural" LED screen).
WGBH-TV
–
WGBH newsroom.
38.
Winston-Salem Journal
–
The Winston-Salem Journal is an American daily newspaper primarily serving the city of Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and its county, Forsyth County, North Carolina. It also features coverage of Northwestern North Carolina and circulates as far west as Tennessee, the paper is owned by Berkshire Hathaway. The Journal was founded in 1897, the Journal is primarily distributed through Forsyth County and the county seat of Winston-Salem. However, the paper also is distributed in Alleghany County, Ashe County, Davidson County, Davie County, Stokes County, Surry County, Wilkes County, Watauga County, the newspaper has an online presence called JournalNow. The Journals television partner is WGHP of High Point, North Carolina, the newspaper also produces a weekly entertainment and social tabloid called Relish. The Journal also publishes a monthly city magazine called Winston-Salem Monthly, the publication also produces a semi-annual weddings publication named Carolina Weddings Magazine. In 2004, the paper refused to endorse a presidential candidate, the paper endorsed Democratic President Barack Obama for 2012 presidential election even though it endorsed Obamas opponent Republican Senator John McCain in 2008. Its editorial-page had not endorsed a Democratic Party presidential candidate since Lyndon Johnson in 1964, the Winston-Salem Journal, started by Charles Landon Knight, began publishing in the afternoons on April 3,1897. The areas other newspaper, the Twin City Sentinel, also was an afternoon paper, Knight moved out of the area and the Journal had several owners before publisher D. A. Fawcett made it a morning paper starting January 2,1902. Later that summer, the Journal began publishing on Sundays, after which Fawcetts church removed him from its membership, the elder Leslie, an artist and the son of an engraver, made the Journal the states first newspaper to have photographs. Owen Moon bought the Journal in 1925 and the Sentinel, owned by Frank A, gannett of the New York newspaper chain, in 1927. The Sentinel began as the Twin City Daily on May 4,1885, the Twin City Daily, in turn, took over the Sentinel. The Journal And Sentinel moved into a new building on North Marshall Street in 1927, editor Santford Martin advocated improvements in the roads, especially in the forgotten provinces of Northwest North Carolina. WSJS, an AM radio station, and later WSJS-FM and WSJS-TV, attorney Gordon Gray bought the newspapers on April 30,1937. His commitment to serving communities throughout the coverage area continued even after Media General Inc. purchased the newspapers in 1969. In March 1985, at a time when many afternoon newspapers could not compete and this meant a stronger morning newspaper, and an increase in circulation from 73,000 to over 94,000, with Sunday circulation of 106,000. In September 1994, the Journal moved some of its operations into a new 140,000 square feet building on East 5th Street, other publications from the Journal serve older adults, people with pets, families with children in Forsyth County schools, prospective brides and young parents. In August 2007, the Journal reported it was changing its business section
Winston-Salem Journal
–
Front page on August 28, 2011
39.
Associated Press
–
The Associated Press is an American multinational nonprofit news agency headquartered in New York City that operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association. The AP is owned by its contributing newspapers and radio and television stations in the United States, all of which stories to the AP. Most of the AP staff are members and are represented by the Newspaper Guild, which operates under the Communications Workers of America. As of 2007, news collected by the AP was published and republished by more than 1,700 newspapers, in addition to more than 5,000 television, the photograph library of the AP consists of over 10 million images. The AP operates 243 news bureaus in 120 countries and it also operates the AP Radio Network, which provides newscasts twice hourly for broadcast and satellite radio and television stations. Many newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States are AP subscribers, as part of their cooperative agreement with the AP, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute their local news reports. The AP employs the inverted pyramid formula for writing that enables the news outlets to edit a story to fit its available publication area without losing the storys essentials. Cutbacks at rival United Press International in 1993 left the AP as the United States primary news service, although UPI still produces and distributes stories and photos daily. Other English-language news services, such as the BBC, Reuters, some historians believe that the Tribune joined at this time, documents show it was a member in 1849. The New York Times became a member shortly after its founding in September 1851, initially known as the New York Associated Press, the organization faced competition from the Western Associated Press, which criticized its monopolistic news gathering and price setting practices. The revelations led to the demise of the NYAP and in December 1892, when the AP was founded, news became a salable commodity. The invention of the press allowed the New York Tribune in the 1870s to print 18,000 papers per hour. During the Civil War and Spanish–American War, there was a new incentive to print vivid, Melville Stone, who had founded the Chicago Daily News in 1875, served as AP General Manager from 1893 to 1921. He embraced the standards of accuracy, impartiality, and integrity, the cooperative grew rapidly under the leadership of Kent Cooper, who built up bureau staff in South America, Europe and, the Middle East. He introduced the telegraph typewriter or teletypewriter into newsrooms in 1914, in 1935, AP launched the Wirephoto network, which allowed transmission of news photographs over leased private telephone lines on the day they were taken. This gave AP a major advantage over other media outlets. While the first network was only between New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, eventually AP had its network across the whole United States, in 1945, the Supreme Court of the United States held in Associated Press v. The decision facilitated the growth of its main rival United Press International, AP entered the broadcast field in 1941 when it began distributing news to radio stations, it created its own radio network in 1974
Associated Press
–
The AP headquarters in October 2008, located at
450 West 33rd Street, in
New York City.
Associated Press
–
Associated Press
Associated Press
–
Logo on the former AP Building in New York City
Associated Press
–
The APTN Building in London
40.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
41.
United States Capitol Complex
–
The United States Capitol Complex is a group of about a dozen buildings and facilities in Washington, D. C. that are used by the United States government. The buildings and grounds within the complex are managed and supervised by the Architect of the Capitol and these include the National Statuary Hall Collection and the Statue of Freedom among many others. The westernmost part of the grounds is the Capitol Reflecting Pool, which reflects the Capitol, construction of the Capitol began in 1793. When built, it was the existing building for the use by the nations legislature. In addition to Congress, the building was designed to house the Library of Congress, the Supreme Court, the district courts. Following the completion of the building and as the nation grew, the Capitol and its grounds were enlarged accordingly, and by 1892 the building had reached essentially its present size and appearance. Even with the enlargements, Congress eventually grew too big for the building and these new buildings were heated and provided with electricity by the new Capitol Power Plant which opened in 1910 and is still used today. The 1930s was a decade of construction within the growing Capitol Complex. The Supreme Court at last found a permanent home when its own building was completed in 1935, the last building constructed within the complex in this decade was the Library of Congress Annex, now named the John Adams Building, which opened in 1939. Within twenty years, attention returned to the need for congressional office space, this led to the construction of a second building for the Senate. The Houses third building, the Rayburn House Office Building, opened in 1965, a third building for the Library of Congress, the James Madison Memorial Building, opened in 1980 and the Senates third building, the Hart Senate Office Building, was occupied in 1982. The most recent large structure within the Capitol complex is the Thurgood Marshall Federal Judiciary Building, renovations to the Botanic Garden Conservatory began in September 1997 and continued for four years until December 2001 when the building reopened. The newest addition to the Capitol Complex is the Capitol Visitor Center, despite many delays, the Center opened in December 2008, and includes an exhibition gallery, two theaters, a dining facility, and gift shops. The budget for construction of the Center was $584 million
United States Capitol Complex
–
Aerial view of the United States Capitol Complex from the northwest
United States Capitol Complex
–
Map of the United States Capitol Complex
United States Capitol Complex
–
Daguerreotype of the Capitol, c. 1846
United States Capitol Complex
–
Aerial view of the United States Capitol Complex, c. 1923
42.
Cannon House Office Building
–
The Cannon House Office Building, completed in 1908, is the oldest congressional office building as well as a significant example of the Beaux-Arts style of architecture. It occupies a site south of the United States Capitol bounded by Independence Avenue, First Street, New Jersey Avenue, in 1962 the building was named for former Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Joseph Gurney Cannon. The first congressional office buildings were constructed immediately after the turn of the 20th century to relieve overcrowding in the United States Capitol, previously, members who wanted office space had to rent quarters or borrow space in committee rooms. In March 1901 Congress authorized Architect of the Capitol Edward Clark to draw plans for office buildings for both the House and Senate adjacent to the Capitol grounds. In March 1903 the acquisition of sites and construction of the buildings were authorized, in April 1904 the prominent New York City architectural firm of Carrère and Hastings was retained. Thomas Hastings took charge of the House Office Building project, while John Carrère oversaw the construction of an almost identical office building for the United States Senate and their Beaux Arts designs were restrained complements to the Capitol. The Cannon Building was occupied during the 60th Congress in December 1907, originally there were 397 offices and fourteen committee rooms in the Cannon Building, the 1932 remodeling resulted in 85 two- or three-room suites,10 single rooms, and 23 committee rooms. Architecturally, the elevations are divided into a base and a colonnade with an entablature. The colonnades with thirty-four Doric columns that face the Capitol are echoed by pilasters on the sides of the building, the Cannon Building is faced with marble and limestone, while the Senates the Russell Buildings base and terrace are gray granite. Both the Cannon Building and the Russell Building are connected to the Capitol by underground passages, of special architectural interest is the rotunda. Eighteen Corinthian columns support an entablature and a dome, whose glazed oculus floods the rotunda with natural light. Twin marble staircases lead from the rotunda to an imposing Caucus Room, which features Corinthian pilasters, an entablature. The Cannon Tunnel connects the Cannon House Office Building to the Capitol, the tunnel is lined with artwork from the annual Congressional Art Competition for high school students. Branching off the entrance to Cannon Tunnel is a tunnel to the Longworth House Office Building, and entrances to a cafeteria, shoe shiner/cobbler. Unlike the tunnels from the Capitol to the Senate Office Buildings and the Rayburn tunnel, the Cannon Tunnel has no subway line, in January 2015, a top-to-bottom renovation of the Cannon House Office Building began. Completion is expected to take ten years and cost $752.7 million, initially, renovation will be focused on upgrading the building utilities, but will progress on to a wing-by-wing exterior and interior reconstruction. According to Bill Weidemeyer, the building is plagued by safety, health, many of the buildings systems are original from the 1908 construction. This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document Cannon House Office Building, Cannon Renewal Project FAQs, Architect of the Capitol Ghosts of DC blog, Three Bits of Trivia About the Cannon House Office Building
Cannon House Office Building
–
The Cannon House Office Building viewed from near Independence Avenue and New Jersey Avenue SE
Cannon House Office Building
–
View of building from
Capitol dome
Cannon House Office Building
–
Cannon Building rotunda
43.
United States House of Representatives
–
The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
United States House of Representatives
–
United States House of Representatives
United States House of Representatives
–
Seal of the House
United States House of Representatives
–
Republican
Thomas Brackett Reed, occasionally ridiculed as "Czar Reed", was a U.S. Representative from
Maine, and
Speaker of the House from 1889 to 1891 and from 1895 to 1899.
United States House of Representatives
–
House Speaker
Nancy Pelosi, Majority Leader
Steny Hoyer, and Education and Labor Committee Chairman
George Miller confer with President
Barack Obama at the
Oval Office in 2009.
44.
Ford House Office Building
–
The Ford House Office Building is one of the four office buildings containing U. S. House of Representatives staff in Washington, D. C. on Capitol Hill. Instead, it primarily houses committee staff and other offices, including the Architect of the Capitol, prior to the construction of the Ford Building, the site was the home to the Bell School and Zion Wesley Chapel. Construction of the began in 1939 as part of the Works Progress Administration program. The building originally housed the United States Census Bureau from 1940 to 1942, over the years, it was used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation to house its Latent Print Unit. Thousands of fingerprint records were housed in the building, requiring manual search techniques to find a match, the unit was one of the first to move to the FBIs J. Edgar Hoover Building upon its completion in 1974. Following the FBIs departure, the building was purchased by the Architect of the Capitol and was renamed House Annex-2, in the late 1980s, the Democratic and Republican parties were each permitted to rename a House Annex building. Ford House Office Building Architect of the Capitol
Ford House Office Building
–
Ford House Office Building
Ford House Office Building
–
Presidency
45.
Longworth House Office Building
–
The Longworth House Office Building is one of three office buildings used by the United States House of Representatives. The building is located south of the Capitol, bounded by Independence Avenue, New Jersey Avenue, C Street S. E. and South Capitol Street, the building was named in 1962 in honor of the former Speaker of the House, Nicholas Longworth of Ohio. He served as Speaker from 1925 until Republicans lost their majority in 1931, the year he died. Plans to provide the House of Representatives with an office building were begun in 1925. Severe overcrowding in the Cannon House Office Building led to the renovation of the Cannon Building and it is the smallest House office building, with a floor area of just under 600,000 square feet. Under the direction of Architect of the Capitol David Lynn, preliminary designs for the building were prepared by a firm known as The Allied Architects of Washington Inc. The principal architects were Frank Upman, Gilbert LaCoste Rodier, Nathan C and they produced two schemes for a simple, dignified building in harmony with the rest of the Capitol Complex. In January 1929 Congress authorized $8.4 million for acquiring and clearing the site, the foundations were completed in December 1930, and the building was accepted for occupancy in April 1933. It is currently the meeting room for the House Ways and Means Committee, because of its position on a sloping site, the rusticated base of the Longworth Building varies in height from two to four stories. Above this granite base stand the three floors, which are faced with white marble. Ionic columns supporting a well-proportioned entablature are used for the buildings five porticoes, two additional stories are partially hidden by a marble balustrade. It presents a more restrained appearance than the neighboring Cannon Building. The Longworth Building takes its place along with the National Gallery of Art, three Bits of Trivia About the Longworth House Office Building - Ghosts of DC blog post 3D SketchUp model of the Longworth House Office Building for use in Google Earth
Longworth House Office Building
–
The Longworth House Office Building
Longworth House Office Building
–
View of Longworth from United States Capitol dome
46.
Rayburn House Office Building
–
Rayburn is named after former Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn. It was completed in 1965 and at 2.375 million square feet is the largest congressional office building, Rayburn was completed in early 1965 and is home to the offices of 169 Representatives. Earlier efforts to space for the House of Representatives had included the construction of the Cannon House Office Building. In March 1955, House Speaker Sam Rayburn introduced an amendment for a third House office building, although no site had been identified, no study had been done. The cornerstone was laid in May 1962, and full occupancy began in February 1965, the Architect of the Capitol, J. The Capitol Subway System, a transportation system, connects the building to the Capitol. Pedestrian tunnels also connect the Rayburn building to the Capitol and to the Longworth House Office Building and this system allows the Rayburn building to be connected to most of the Congressional office buildings on Capitol Hill via tunnel. For construction of the Rayburn House Office Building, the Congressional bill appropriated $2 million plus such additional sums as may be necessary, such additional sums eventually totaled $88 million. Congressional leaders inserted a gymnasium into the plans, a fact that was not publicly known at the time of construction. Also in the third floor basement is a shooting range run by the U. S. Capitol Police, the raid led to members of both parties questioning the constitutionality of the action, and a subsequent hearing by the House Judiciary Committee. On May 26,2006, at 10,30 am local time, the Capitol complex was sealed off, and staff in the building were told to stay in their offices after the building was put into lockdown by the United States Capitol Police. Some parts of the lockdown were removed, though other areas remained sealed, congressman Jim Saxton was reportedly the source of the false alarm, after he mistook construction sounds in the garage for gunfire. Congressional office buildings Cannon House Office Building Ford House Office Building Longworth House Office Building The Rayburn House Office Building, media related to Rayburn House Office Building at Wikimedia Commons
Rayburn House Office Building
–
View of Rayburn Office from United States Capitol dome.
Rayburn House Office Building
–
A statue of Rayburn near the ground level courtyard
47.
United States Senate
–
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
United States Senate
–
United States Senate
United States Senate
–
Seal of the U.S. Senate
United States Senate
–
The Senate side of the
United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.
United States Senate
–
A typical Senate desk
48.
United States Senate chamber
–
The United States Senate Chamber is a room in the north wing of the United States Capitol that serves as the legislative chamber of the United States Senate, since January 4,1859. The Senate first convened in its current meeting place after utilizing Federal Hall, Congress Hall, the Senate floor itself is overlooked on all four sides by a gallery on the second floor. The Senate floor itself is 80 by 113 feet, the Senate convened, beginning in 1790, in a second-floor chamber in Congress Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania until moving into the Old Supreme Court Chamber in the Capitol building in 1800. From 1810 to 1859, the Senate utilized the Old Senate Chamber for legislative functions, during this time, the Senate nearly doubled in size as new states were admitted to the Union. In light of the size of both houses of congress, two new wings were added on to the United States Capitol. Beginning in 1851, the Capitol underwent several expansions including the new wings and their respective chambers, in addition to expanding the space available for the Senates use, the chambers designers were concerned that the room have acoustical and line-of-sight qualities comparable to those of a theater. The construction of the began in 1851 and continued until senators began utilizing the room for legislative business in 1859. The general design of the chamber, a rectangular, two-story room in the center of the Capitols north wing and this platform, semi-circular in shape, faces a raised rostrum in the front of the room. On all four sides of the second level, a visitors gallery overlooks the Senate floor. The Senate first allowed visitors to observe proceedings in 1795, the galleries for observing the Senate, including a womens gallery, became popular destinations for tourists and residents alike throughout the nineteenth century. Above the presiding officers desk at the rostrum was the press gallery, here, reporters are able to observe and cover the proceedings of the Senate. Because of the chambers theater-like qualities and size, numerous requests were made, in 1863, the chamber was used for a presentation of a narrative poem about a Union Army soldier, William Scott, who had fallen asleep at his post and was sentenced to be shot. Among the audience for the performance was the then-President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln, in 1923, practicing physician and former commissioner of the New York City Board of Health Royal Copeland began his first term in the Senate. In June 1924, the Senate voted to adopt a measure by Copeland to improve the conditions of the Senate Chamber. On May 16, however, Copeland requested the postponement of his proposal in light of a new ventilation system that received the endorsement of experts in public health. The manufactured weather ventilation system, designed by Carrier Corporation, was completed in 1929 - the Senates first air conditioning system, in 1949-1950, the Senate Chamber underwent a reconstruction that involved the removal of the skylight and a redesign of the rooms walls. In place of the chambers original cast-iron pilasters, newer red Levanto marble pilasters were installed, the wooden rostrum was replaced with a newer, larger version made of marble. The iron and glass ceiling, including the skylight, was replaced with a ceiling of stainless steel and this redesign, in addition to improving the acoustic properties of the room, was to update the rooms mid-nineteenth century decor, which was then out of date
United States Senate chamber
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Class photo of the
111th United States Senate inside the chamber, 2010.
United States Senate chamber
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US Senate chamber c1873
United States Senate chamber
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North wing of the Capitol, containing the Senate Chamber.
United States Senate chamber
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The
trial of
President Bill Clinton
49.
Old Senate Chamber
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It was designed in Neoclassical style and is elaborately decorated. Restored in 1976 as part of United States Bicentennial celebrations, it is preserved as a museum and for the Senates use. Located north of the Capitol rotunda on the floor of the north wing of the Capitol. The chamber is overlooked by two visitors galleries, directly above this gallery hangs an 1823 porthole portrait of George Washington by Rembrandt Peale, which was purchased for display in the chamber in 1832 upon the centennial of Washingtons birth. The second gallery is the Ladies Gallery, which follows the western wall and is much larger. The Ladies Gallery is supported by 12 steel columns encased in cast-iron forms with Corinthian capitals, the gallery has a wrought-iron balcony railing follows the contour of the gallery and is backed by crimson fabric that accentuates the decorative metalwork. On the dais in the center of the room is a table with richly turned and carved legs. The crimson fabric is hung from a valence from a canopy overhead. The valence is below a carved eagle and shield. Directly in front of the Vice Presidents desk one tier down is a desk of similar design. A glass screen between the dais and a small lobby allowed Senators to relax but remain within earshot of the floor, in addition, there are two fireplace mantels on the east wall behind the screen, which are among the original pieces of the chamber that remain today. Two other mantels on the north and south ends are replicas, as the originals were replaced with stoves when the chamber was converted for the use of the Supreme Court of the United States. Radiating off the dais are desks and chairs for 64 Senators, the desks and chairs are located on four semicircular graduated platforms. When the Senate moved to its current chamber in 1859, it took the furniture with it. Many of the original remain in use today, including the Daniel Webster. The desks and chairs that are in the chamber today are replicas reproduced from a circa 1819 design by the New York City cabinetmaker Thomas Constantine, like the originals, the furniture is mahogany. Behind the last row of desks is a low paneled wall separating the center of the chamber from a visitors area, the area has red-upholstered sofas and was originally reserved for privileged visitors who gained admittance to the Chamber through the special invitation of a Senator. On either side of the doorway are niches for coal- or wood-burning stoves
Old Senate Chamber
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The restored Old Senate Chamber
Old Senate Chamber
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View of Chamber from southwest
Old Senate Chamber
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Famous political cartoon of Brooks' attack on Sumner by J.L. Magee
