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Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
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Maryland Avenue (Washington, D.C.)
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As the capital of the United States, Washington, D. C. has 51 roadways which are named after each state and the territory of Puerto Rico. Many of these roadways are major avenues that serve as the principal traffic arteries. Every state lends its name to an avenue except for California Street, however, avenues named for Arizona, Hawaii, Mississippi, and Puerto Rico connect to no other state-named roadways. Most avenues exist in one or two quadrants, except for Massachusetts and Virginia Avenues, which travel through three of the four quadrants, though they exist in multiple sections, why Is It Named Georgia Avenue
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Southwest, Washington, D.C.
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Southwest is the southwestern quadrant of Washington, D. C. the capital of the United States, and is located south of the National Mall and west of South Capitol Street. It is the smallest quadrant of the city, Southwest is small enough that it is frequently referred to as a neighborhood in and of itself. However, it contains five separate neighborhoods. The Southwest Waterfront, also called Near Southwest, is between I-395 and Fort Lesley J. McNair, Southwest Waterfront is a primarily residential neighborhood. It also is home to several Washington DC marinas, including the Washington Marina, The Capitol Yacht Club, the Gangplank Marina, buzzard Point, a largely undeveloped industrial area between South Capitol Street and Fort McNair. Buzzard Point was the home of the U. S. Coast Guard, the headquarters moved to the former St. Elizabeths Hospital campus elsewhere in DC in 2013. The Bellevue neighborhood occupies all of the Southwest land between South Capitol Street and the Anacostia and Potomac rivers, included is the small Hadley Hospital. The Blue, Orange, and Silver lines of the Washington Metro have the stations in the Southwest Federal Center, Smithsonian, LEnfant Plaza. The Yellow line also stops at LEnfant Plaza, Bolling and Bellevue have no Metrorail service, although the DC Council has considered some versions of the Anacostia streetcar that would extend to Bolling. S. Prior to 1847, much of the Virginia portion of the District of Columbia, after the Civil War, the Southwest Waterfront became a neighborhood for the poorer classes of Washingtonians. Each half was centered on religious establishments, St. Dominics Catholic Church and Talmud Torah Congregation on the west, and Friendship Baptist Church on the east. Waterfront developed into a quite contradictory area, it had a commercial district with grocery stores, shops. However, most of the neighborhood was a poor shantytown of tenements, shacks. These places, some of them in the shadow of the Capitol Building, were frequent subjects of photographs highlighting the stark contrast, in the 1950s, city planners working with the U. S. The seizure of the area, including well maintained properties, was upheld by the United States Supreme Court in Berman v. Parker. Justice William Douglas emphasized the squalor and segregation the area suffered, only a few buildings were left intact, notably the Maine Avenue fish market, the Wheat Row townhouses, the Thomas Law House, and the St. Dominics and Friendship churches. The Southeast/Southwest Freeway was constructed where F Street, SW, had once been, the rebuilt Southwest featured a large concentration of office and residential buildings in the brutalist style that was then popular. It was during this time that most of the Southwest Federal Center was built, the Arena Stage was built a block west of the Mall, and a number of hotels and restaurants were built on the riverfront to attract tourists
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Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Betsy DeVos
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Elisabeth Dee Betsy DeVos /dəˈvɒs/ is an American businesswoman, philanthropist, politician, and activist who is the 11th and current United States Secretary of Education. DeVos is a member of the Republican Party known for her advocacy of school choice, school voucher programs, and charter schools. She was Republican National Committeewoman for Michigan from 1992 to 1997 and served as chairwoman of the Michigan Republican Party from 1996 to 2000, DeVos has been an advocate of the Detroit charter school system and she is a member of the board of the Foundation for Excellence in Education. She has served as chairwoman of the board of the Alliance for School Choice, DeVos is married to Dick DeVos, the former CEO of multi-level marketing company Amway, and is the daughter-in-law of billionaire and Amway co-founder Richard DeVos. Her brother, Erik Prince, a former U. S. Navy SEAL officer, is the founder of Blackwater USA, DeVos is the daughter of Edgar Prince, founder of the Prince Corporation. On November 23,2016, then President-elect Donald Trump announced that he would nominate DeVos to serve as Secretary of Education in his administration. On February 7,2017, DeVos was confirmed by the Senate by a 51–50 margin, DeVos was born Elisabeth Prince on January 8,1958. She grew up in Holland, Michigan, the daughter of Elsa Prince and Edgar Prince, Edgar was the founder of Prince Corporation, an automobile parts supplier based in Holland, Michigan. DeVos was educated at the Holland Christian High School, a school located in her home town of Holland. She graduated from Calvin College in Grand Rapids, Michigan, where she earned a Bachelor of Arts degree, DeVos grew up as a member of the Christian Reformed Church in North America. She has been a member and elder of Mars Hill Bible Church in Grand Rapids, the DeVos family is one of Michigans wealthiest. Betsy DeVoss husband, Richard Marvin Dick DeVos Jr. is a heir to the Amway fortune who ran Amways parent company, Alticor. Dick DeVos is a donor to conservative political campaigns and social causes. Dicks father, Richard Marvin DeVos Sr. co-founded Amway and is also the owner of the Orlando Magic NBA basketball team, Richard DeVos was listed by Forbes in 2016 as having a net worth of $5.1 billion, making him Americas 88th wealthiest individual. Betsy DeVoss brother, Erik Prince, a former U. S. Navy SEAL officer, is the founder of Blackwater USA, Betsy and Dick DeVos have four grown children, two daughters and two sons, Rick, Elissa, Andrea, and Ryan. Rick works for the Windquest Group as a consultant on urban development, since 1982, DeVos has participated in the Michigan Republican Party. She served as a local precinct delegate for the Michigan Republican Party and she was a Republican National Committeewoman for Michigan between 1992 and 1997, and served as chairwoman of the Michigan Republican Party from 1996 to 2000. DeVos resigned the position in 2000 and she said in 2000, It is clear I have never been a rubber stamp
7.
United States Secretary of Education
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The United States Secretary of Education is the head of the U. S. Department of Education. The Secretary advises the President on federal policies, programs, as a member of the Presidents Cabinet, this Secretary is fifteenth in the line of succession to the presidency. The United States Secretary of Education is a member of the Presidents Cabinet and is the fifteenth in the United States presidential line of succession and this Secretary deals with federal influence over education policy, and heads the U. S. Department of Education. Parties Democratic Republican Status As of April 2017, there are eight living former Secretaries of Education, the most recent Secretary of Education to die was Shirley Hufstedler on March 30,2016. – Includes the Secretary of Education
8.
United States Deputy Secretary of Education
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The Deputy Secretary of Education oversees and manages the development of policies in the United States Department of Education. The Deputy Secretary focuses primarily on K–12 education policy, such as No Child Left Behind, the High School Initiative, the Deputy Secretary also has responsibility for carrying out the intergovernmental relations of the Department. The Deputy Secretary becomes Acting Secretary of Education in the event of the Secretarys absence, disability, the Deputy Secretary also oversees the Departments LEP Partnership, the Office for Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization, and the Departments partnership with The History Channel. The Deputy Secretary is appointed by the President and confirmed by the United States Senate, the Deputy Secretary is paid at level II of the Executive Schedule, meaning as of 2006, he or she receives a basic annual salary of $162,000. The incumbent acting Deputy Secretary is James Cole, Jr, previous deputy secretaries include Anthony Wilder Miller, Raymond Simon, Eugene W. Hickok, William D. Hansen, Frank Holleman, Marshall Smith, Madeleine M. Kunin, and David T. Kearns
9.
Department of Education Organization Act
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The Department of Education Organization Act is a United States federal law enacted in 1979. Congress established the United States Department of Education with the Department of Education Organization Act, in the Senate,69 voted in favor and 22 voted against separating education from the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. In the House of Representatives,215 voted in favor and 201 voted against, president Carter signed the bill on October 17,1979. Following the establishment of the Department of Education, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare was renamed the Department of Health and Human Services
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Cabinet of the United States
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The Cabinet of the United States is composed of the most senior appointed officers of the executive branch of the government serving under the President. Aside from the Attorney General, the heads of the executive departments all receive the title of Secretary, all members of the Cabinet serve at the pleasure of the President, who can dismiss them at will for no cause. There is no definition of the term Cabinet in the United States Constitution. The name comes from a 17th-century usage for a room where advisors would meet. The term principal officers of the departments is also mentioned in the Twenty-fifth Amendment. The executive departments are listed in 5 U. S. C, under the 1967 Federal Anti-Nepotism statute, federal officials are prohibited from appointing their immediate family members to certain governmental positions, including those in the Cabinet. Under the Federal Vacancies Reform Act of 1998, an incoming administration may appoint acting heads of department from employees of the relevant department and these may be existing high-level career employees, from political appointees of the outgoing administration, or sometimes lower-level appointees of the incoming administration. The heads of the departments and all other federal agency heads are nominated by the President. If approved, they receive their commission scroll, are sworn in, an elected Vice President does not require Senate confirmation, nor does the White House Chief of Staff, which is an appointed staff position of the Executive Office of the President. 21 positions, including the heads of the departments and others. §5312, and those 46 positions on Level II pay are listed in 5 U. S. C, as of 2015, Level I annual pay, was set at $203,700. The annual salary of the Vice President is $235,300, the salary level was set by the Government Salary Reform Act of 1989, which also provides an automatic cost of living adjustment for federal employees. For a full list of people nominated for Cabinet positions, see Formation of Donald Trumps Cabinet, the Cabinet includes the Vice President and the heads of 15 executive departments, listed here according to their order of succession to the Presidency. The following officials hold positions that are considered to be Cabinet-level positions, Department of the Navy, headed by the Secretary of the Navy, became a military department within the Department of Defense. Post Office Department, headed by the Postmaster General, reorganized as the United States Postal Service, National Military Establishment, headed by the Secretary of Defense, created by the National Security Act of 1947 and recreated as the Department of Defense in 1949. Department of the Army, headed by the Secretary of the Army, Department of the Air Force, headed by the Secretary of the Air Force, became a military department within the Department of Defense. Secretary of Foreign Affairs, created in July 1781 and renamed Secretary of State in September 1789, Secretary of War, created in 1789 and was renamed as Secretary of the Army by the National Security Act of 1947. The 1949 Amendments to the National Security Act of 1947 made the Secretary of the Army a subordinate to the Secretary of Defense
11.
Jimmy Carter
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James Earl Jimmy Carter Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center, Carter was a Democrat who was raised in rural Georgia. He was a farmer who served two terms as a Georgia State Senator from 1963 to 1967, and one as the Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975. He was elected President in 1976, defeating incumbent President Gerald Ford in a close election. On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts, during Carters term as President, two new cabinet-level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, were established. He established an energy policy that included conservation, price control. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. On the economic front he confronted persistent stagflation, a combination of inflation, high unemployment. The end of his tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. In response to the Soviet move he ended détente, escalated the Cold War, Carter won the 1980 primary with 51. 13% of the vote but lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan, who won 44 of 50 states. His presidency has drawn medium-low responses from historians, with many considering him to have accomplished more with his post-presidency work and he set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has also traveled extensively to conduct negotiations, observe elections. Additionally, Carter is a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project, since surpassing Herbert Hoover in September 2012, he has been the longest-retired president in American history. He is also the first president to mark the 40th anniversary of his election and inauguration, in reference to current political views, he has criticized some of Israels actions and policies in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and has advocated for a two-state solution. James Earl Carter, Jr. was born on October 1,1924, at the Wise Sanitarium in Plains and he is a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635. Numerous generations of Carters lived as farmers in Georgia. Carter is also a descendant of Thomas Cornell, an ancestor of Cornell Universitys founder and of Richard Nixon, Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carters birth. His father, James Earl Carter, Sr. was a local businessman who ran a general store and had begun to invest in farmland
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United States Department of Energy
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The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States Government concerned with the United States policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material. It also directs research in genomics, the Human Genome Project originated in a DOE initiative, DOE sponsors more research in the physical sciences than any other U. S. federal agency, the majority of which is conducted through its system of National Laboratories. Former Governor of Texas Rick Perry is the current Secretary of Energy and he was confirmed by a 62 to 37 vote in the United States Senate on March 2,2017. In 1942, during World War II, the United States started the Manhattan Project, after the war in 1946, the Atomic Energy Commission was created to control the future of the project. The 1973 oil crisis called attention to the need to consolidate energy policy, on August 4,1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, which created the Department of Energy. Former Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger, who served under Presidents Nixon, a DOE spokesperson denied that phrases had been banned. In December 1999, the FBI was investigating how China obtained plans for a nuclear device. Wen Ho Lee was accused of stealing nuclear secrets from Los Alamos National Laboratory for the Peoples Republic of China, Federal officials, including then-Energy Secretary Bill Richardson, publicly named Lee as a suspect before he was charged with a crime. The U. S. Congress held hearings to investigate the Department of Energys mishandling of his case, republican senators thought that an independent agency should be in charge of nuclear weapons and security issues, not the Department of Energy. All but one of the 59 charges against Lee were eventually dropped because the investigation proved that the plans the Chinese obtained could not have come from Lee. Lee filed suit and won a $1.6 million settlement against the federal government, the department is under the control and supervision of a United States Secretary of Energy, a political appointee of the President of the United States. The Energy Secretary is assisted in managing the department by a United States Deputy Secretary of Energy, also appointed by the president, the department also has three under secretaries, each appointed by the president, who oversee the major areas of the departments work. The president also appoints seven officials with the rank of Assistant Secretary of Energy who have line management responsibility for major elements of the Department. The Energy Secretary assigns their functions and duties. S.4 billion budget request for DOE for fiscal year 2010, including $2.3 billion for the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. The budget aims to expand the use of renewable energy sources while improving energy transmission infrastructure. It also makes significant investments in hybrids and plug-in hybrids, in smart grid technologies, most of the stimulus spending was in the form of grants and contracts. The contractor guarantees the energy improvements will generate savings, and after the contract ends, in loan guarantees, a conditional commitment requires to meet an equity commitment, as well as other conditions, before the loan guarantee is completed. The DOE budget includes $280 million to fund eight Energy Innovation Hubs, yet another hub will develop smart materials that will allow the electrical grid to adapt and respond to changing conditions
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Education in the United States
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Education in the United States is provided by public, private, and home schools. Funding comes from the state, local, and federal government, private schools are generally free to determine their own curriculum and staffing policies, with voluntary accreditation available through independent regional accreditation authorities. About 87% of school-age children attend schools, about 10% attend private schools. Education is compulsory over an age range starting between five and eight and ending somewhere between ages sixteen and eighteen, depending on the state and this requirement can be satisfied in public schools, state-certified private schools, or an approved home school program. In most schools, education is divided into three levels, elementary school, middle or junior school, and high school. Children are usually divided by age groups into grades, ranging from kindergarten and first grade for the youngest children, there are also a large number and wide variety of publicly and privately administered institutions of higher education throughout the country. Post-secondary education, divided into college, as the first tertiary degree, the United States spends more per student on education than any other country. In 2014, the Pearson/Economist Intelligence Unit rated US education as 14th best in the world, just behind Russia. In 2015 the Programme for International Student Assessment rated U. S. high school students #40 globally in Math and #24 in Science and Reading. ”King, Jr. acknowledged the results in conceding U. S. students were well behind their peers. According to a report published by the U. S. News & World Report, of the top ten colleges and universities in the world, government-supported and free public schools for all began to be established after the American Revolution. Between 1750 and 1870 parochial schools appeared as ad hoc efforts by parishes, historically, many parochial elementary schools were developed which were open to all children in the parish, mainly Catholics, but also Lutherans, Calvinists and Orthodox Jews. Nonsectarian Common schools designed by Horace Mann were opened, which taught the three Rs and also history and geography, States passed laws to make schooling compulsory between 1852 and 1917. They also used federal funding designated by the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up land grant colleges specializing in agriculture, by 1870, every state had free elementary schools, albeit only in urban centers. His movement spread to many other Southern states to small colleges for Colored or Negro students entitled A. & M. or A. & T. some of which later developed into state universities. By 1910,72 percent of children attended school, private schools spread during this time, as well as colleges and — in the rural centers — land grant colleges also. Between 1910 and 1940 the high school movement resulted in increasing public high school enrollment. By 1930,100 percent of children attended school, during World War II, enrollment in high schools and colleges plunged as many high school and college students dropped out to take war jobs. The 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v, in 1965, the far-reaching Elementary and Secondary Education Act, passed as a part of President Lyndon B
14.
No Child Left Behind Act
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The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 was a U. S. Act of Congress that reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and it supported standards-based education reform based on the premise that setting high standards and establishing measurable goals could improve individual outcomes in education. The Act required states to develop assessments in basic skills, to receive federal school funding, states had to give these assessments to all students at select grade levels. The act did not assert a national achievement standard – each state developed its own standards, the bill passed in the Congress with bipartisan support. By 2015, criticism from right, left, and center had accumulated so much that a bipartisan Congress stripped away the national features of No Child Left Behind and its replacement, the Every Student Succeeds Act, turned the remnants over to the states. The legislation was proposed by President George W. Bush on January 23,2001 and it was coauthored by Representatives John Boehner, George Miller, and Senators Edward Kennedy and Judd Gregg. The United States House of Representatives passed the bill on May 23,2001, President Bush signed it into law on January 8,2002. No Child Left Behind requires all public schools receiving federal funding to administer a statewide standardized test annually to all students, schools that receive Title I funding through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 must make Adequate Yearly Progress in test scores. If the schools results are poor, then steps are taken to improve the school. Schools that miss AYP for a consecutive year are publicly labeled as In Need of Improvement. Students have the option to transfer to a school within the school district. Missing AYP in the third year forces the school to offer free tutoring, a fifth year of failure results in planning to restructure the entire school, the plan is implemented if the school unsuccessfully hits its AYP targets for the sixth consecutive year. Common options include closing the school, turning the school into a school, hiring a private company to run the school. The objectives must be set with the goal of having all students at the proficient level or above within 12 years, AYP must be primarily based on state assessments, but must also include one additional academic indicator. The AYP objectives must be assessed at the school level, schools that failed to meet their AYP objective for two consecutive years are identified for improvement. School AYP results must be reported separately for each group of students identified above so that it can be determined whether each student group met the AYP objective, at least 95% of each group must participate in state assessments. States may aggregate up to three years of data in making AYP determinations, the act requires states to provide highly qualified teachers to all students. Each state sets its own standards for what counts as highly qualified, similarly, the act requires states to set one high, challenging standard for its students
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United States Interagency Council on Homelessness
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USICH is advised by a Council, which includes the heads of its 19 federal member agencies. The immediate past chair was Department of Health and Human Services Secretary Sylvia Mathews Burwell, USICH is made up of a small team headquartered in Washington, DC, led by Executive Director Matthew Doherty. Policy staff work closely with each of the 19 Federal Agencies that make up the Council to make progress on the goals and strategies of Opening Doors. In 2010, the released the first federal strategic plan to end homelessness in the United States which includes four goals To finish the job of ending chronic homelessness by 2015. To prevent and end homelessness among Veterans by 2015, to prevent and end homelessness for families, youth, and children by 2020. To set a path to ending all types of homelessness, the Interagency Council on the Homeless was authorized by Title II of the landmark Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act enacted on July 22,1987. In 2002, Council members voted to approve changing the name of the agency to the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness, the most recent reauthorization of USICH occurred in 2009 with enactment of the Homeless Emergency Assistance and Rapid Transition to Housing Act. The Council originally included the heads of 16 Federal agencies, five additional agencies were subsequently added by Council vote or statutory amendments, while two agencies are now inactive. The current members of the Council include the heads of the following 19 Departments and agencies and it is estimated that 550,000 women and men are without shelter each night in the United States. As a result, Opening Doors was drafted and serves as the nation’s first comprehensive national strategy for ending homelessness. This strategic plan, entitled Opening Doors, Federal Strategic Plan to Prevent and End Homelessness, was presented on June 22,2010 to President Obama’s staff, the strategy also presents cost-effective strategies for states, local and the federal government. Opening Doors serves as a roadmap for joint action by the 19 federal agencies of USICH, along with state and local partners in both the private and public sectors. Aside from the four main goals listed above, objectives were created around five main themes in order to specify how the strategy will work to address the issue of homelessness. Objective 2, Strengthen the capacity of public and private organizations by increasing knowledge about collaboration, homelessness, Increase access to stable and affordable housing Objective 3, Provide affordable housing to people experiencing or most at risk of homelessness. Objective 4, Provide permanent supportive housing to prevent and end chronic homelessness, Increase economic security Objective 5, Increase meaningful and sustainable employment for people experiencing or most at risk of homelessness. Objective 6, Improve access to programs and services to reduce people’s financial vulnerability to homelessness. Objective 8, Advance health and housing stability for youth aging out of such as foster care. Objective 9, Advance health and housing stability for people experiencing homelessness who have frequent contact with hospitals, retool the Homeless Crisis Response System Objective 10, Transform homeless services to crisis response systems that prevent homelessness and rapidly return people who experience homelessness
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Conservatism in the United States
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Historians argue that the conservative tradition has played a major role in American politics and culture since the 1790s. However they have stressed that a conservative movement has played a key role in politics only since the 1950s. The recent movement is based in the Republican Party, though some Democrats were also important figures early in the movements history, the history of American conservatism has been marked by tensions and competing ideologies. Fiscal conservatives and libertarians favor small government, low taxes, limited regulation, Social conservatives see traditional social values as threatened by secularism, they tend to support voluntary school prayer and oppose abortion and same sex marriage. Some also want the teaching of intelligent design or creationism allowed, the 21st century has seen an increasingly fervent conservative support for Second Amendment rights of private citizens to own firearms. Neoconservatives want to expand American ideals throughout the world, paleoconservatives advocate restrictions on immigration, non-interventionist foreign policy, and stand in opposition to multiculturalism. Nationwide most factions, except some libertarians, support a unilateral foreign policy, the conservative movement of the 1950s attempted to bring together these divergent strands, stressing the need for unity to prevent the spread of godless communism. All other activities of government tend to diminish freedom and hamper progress, the growth of government must be fought relentlessly. In this great social conflict of the era, we are, without reservations and we believe that truth is neither arrived at nor illuminated by monitoring election results, binding though these are for other purposes, but by other means, including a study of human experience. On this point we are, without reservations, on the conservative side, President Ronald Reagan set the conservative standard in the 1980s, in the 2010s the Republican leaders typically claim fealty to it. For example, most of the Republican candidates in 2012 claimed to be standardbearers of Reagans ideological legacy, the 1980s and beyond became known as the Reagan Era. Typically, conservative politicians and spokesmen in the 21st century proclaim their devotion to Reagans ideals and policies on most social, economic and they support a strong policy of law and order to control crime, including long jail terms for repeat offenders. Most conservatives support the death penalty for particularly egregious crimes, the law and order issue was a major factor weakening liberalism in the 1960s. From 2001 to 2008, Republican President George W. Bush stressed cutting taxes and minimizing regulation of industry and banking, Conservatives generally advocate the use of American military power to fight terrorists and promote democracy in the Middle East. According to a 2014 poll, 38% of American voters identify as conservative or very conservative, 34% as moderate, although the study does show some distinction between the concentration of moderates and conservatives or liberals between the Republican and Democratic parties. Among Democrats, 44% are self-identified liberals, 19% as conservatives, for Republicans 70% self-identified as conservative, 24% as moderate, and 5% as liberal. Conservatism appears to be growing stronger at the state level, the trend is most pronounced among the least well-off, least educated, most blue collar, most economically hard-hit states. Conservatives generally believe that government action is not the solution to problems as poverty and inequality
17.
States rights
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The balance of federal powers and those powers held by the states as defined in the Supremacy Clause of the U. S. Constitution was first addressed in the case of McCulloch v. Maryland, the Supremacy Clause of the U. S. The Articles gave the government very little, if any. Gutzman argued that Governor Edmund Randolph designed the protest in the name of moderation, Gutzman argues that in 1798, Madison espoused states rights to defeat national legislation that he maintained was a threat to republicanism. During 1831–33, the South Carolina Nullifiers quoted Madison in their defense of states rights, the most vociferous supporters of states rights, such as John Randolph of Roanoke, were called Old Republicans into the 1820s and 1830s. Tate undertook a literary criticism of a book by John Taylor of Caroline. Tate argues it is structured as a forensic historiography modeled on the techniques of 18th-century Whig lawyers, Taylor believed that evidence from American history gave proof of state sovereignty within the union, against the arguments of nationalists such as U. S. Another states rights dispute occurred over the War of 1812, at the Hartford Convention of 1814–15, New England Federalists voiced opposition to President Madisons war, and discussed secession from the Union. One major and continuous strain on the union, from roughly 1820 through the Civil War, was the issue of trade, heavily dependent upon international trade, the almost entirely agricultural and export-oriented South imported most of its manufactured goods from Europe or obtained them from the North. The North, by contrast, had a growing industrial economy that viewed foreign trade as competition. Trade barriers, especially protective tariffs, were viewed as harmful to the Southern economy, in 1828, the Congress passed protective tariffs to benefit trade in the northern states, but that were detrimental to the South. Southerners vocally expressed their opposition in documents such as the South Carolina Exposition and Protest in 1828. Exposition and Protest was the work of South Carolina senator and former vice president John C, calhoun, formerly an advocate of protective tariffs and internal improvements at federal expense. South Carolinas Nullification Ordinance declared that both the tariff of 1828 and the tariff of 1832 were null and void within the borders of South Carolina. This action initiated the Nullification Crisis, over the following decades, another central dispute over states rights moved to the forefront. In contrast, opponents of slavery argued that the rights were violated both by that decision and by the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. Exactly which—and whose—states rights were the casus belli in the Civil War remain in controversy, a major Southern argument in the 1850s was that banning slavery in the territories discriminated against states that allowed slavery, making them second-class states. In 1857 the Supreme Court sided with the states rights supporters, Southern states sometimes argued against states rights
18.
Pell Grant
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A Pell Grant is a subsidy the U. S. federal government provides for students who need it to pay for college. The Pell Grant is named after Democratic U. S, senator Claiborne Pell of Rhode Island, and was originally known as the Basic Educational Opportunity Grant. A Pell Grant is generally considered the foundation of a financial aid package. The Federal Pell Grant program is administered by the United States Department of Education, which determines the financial need and through it. Pell Grants were created by the Higher Education Act of 1965 and these federal funded grants are not like loans, and need not be repaid. Students may use their grants at any one of approximately 5,400 participating postsecondary institutions and these federally funded grants help about 5.4 million full-time and part-time college and vocational school students nationally. As of 2016, eight of the top ten colleges were public or non-profit institutions, today, the Pell Grant program assists undergraduates of low-income families, who are actively attending universities and or other secondary institutions. However, before the Pell Grant became what it is today, in 1965, Congress passed the Higher Education Act of 1965. President Lyndon B. Johnson implemented the HEA as a part of his administrations agenda to assist and it was the initial legislation to benefit lower- and middle-income students. The HEA program included not only grants but also low interest loans to students who did not qualify for grants, universities and other institutions, such as vocational schools, benefited as well from the HEA program, by receiving federal aid to improve the quality of the education process. Student aid programs administered by the US Department of Education are contained in Title IV of the HEA, in 1972, Title IX Higher Education Amendments were a response to the distribution of aid in the current grant. Senator Claiborne Pell set forth the initial movements to reform the HEA, Opportunity Grant Program were intended to serve as the floor or foundation of an undergraduate students financial aid package. Other financial aid, to the extent that it was available, most changes to the federal student aid program result from a process called reauthorization. Congress has reauthorized campus-based programs every five or six years, beginning in 1972. ”A provision of this Act overturned a section of the Higher Education Act of 1965, which created the Pell Grant for postsecondary education. The provision reads, “No basic grant shall be awarded under this subpart to any individual who is incarcerated in any Federal or State penal institution. ”Prisoners first became eligible for grant funding in 1972. As the principal design of the Pell Grant was to help individuals attain post-secondary education. The grant aimed to reach those who might not otherwise have an opportunity to enroll in study or vocational training programs. Including prisoners for funding was based on the notion that higher education improved inmates, reduced recidivism, Education represents an opportunity to take the straight and narrow, to break the cycle
19.
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
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The Elementary and Secondary Education Act was passed as a part of United States President Lyndon B. Johnsons War on Poverty and has been the most far-reaching federal legislation affecting education ever passed by the United States Congress, the act was an extensive statute that funded primary and secondary education. It also emphasizes equal access to education and establishes high standards, in addition, the bill aimed to shorten the achievement gaps between students by providing each child with fair and equal opportunities to achieve an exceptional education. As mandated in the act, the funds are authorized for development, instructional materials, for resources to support educational programs. The act was authorized through 1965, however, the government has reauthorized the act every five years since its enactment. The reauthorization of ESEA by President George W. Bush was known as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, ESEA was reauthorized on December 10,2015 as the Every Student Succeeds Act by President Barack Obama. The ESEA also allows military recruiters access to 11th and 12th grade students names, addresses, on January 23,2017, House Bill 610 was introduced to repeal this act. On January 12,1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson urged Congressional action to improve opportunities for Americas children. Shortly thereafter, Carl D. Perkins, the chair of the General Education Subcommittee of the House Committee on Education and Labor introduced H. R.2362. With the Johnson administrations support, and after significant wrangling over the structure of the funding formula committee. Following a failed attempt to derail the bill by Representative Howard K. Smith, the House passed H. R.2362 on March 26,1965 in a 263-153 roll-call vote. As the Senate prepared to consider the bill, S.370, Democratic leaders urged their colleagues to pass it without amendment. S.370 was assigned to the Senate Labor and Public Welfare Committee, during the Senate debates, several amendments were introduced, though none passed. The Senate passed the bill in a 73-18 vote on April 7,1965, President Johnson signed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act into law two days later on April 9,1965. S. Department of Education to distribute funding to schools and school districts with a percentage of students from low-income families. Funding is distributed first to state agencies which then allocate funds to local educational agencies which in turn dispense funds to public schools in need. Title I also helps children from families that have migrated to the United States, the act appropriates money for educational purposes for the next five fiscal years until it is reauthorized. S. Title I mandates services both to public school students and eligible private school students
20.
Special education in the United States
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The EAHCA was later modified to strengthen protections to students with disabilities and renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. IDEA requires states to provide education and related services consistent with federal standards as a condition of receiving federal funds. IDEA entitles every student to a free and appropriate education in the least restrictive environment. The students plan, to include the items, are recorded in a written Individualized Education Program. The childs placement is determined by annual assessment, based on the childs IEP. The school is required to develop and implement an IEP that meets the standards of federal, parents have the option of refusing Special Education services for their child. Under IDEA, students with disabilities are entitled to receive educational services through their local school district from age 3 to age 18 or 21. In addition to goals, the goals documented in the IEP may address self-care, social skills, physical, speech. The program placement is an part of the process. Special education programs at the level are structured upon a cooperative federalism model. The Court explains, IDEA is frequently described as a model of cooperative federalism, little Rock School Dist. v. Mauney,183 F. 3d 816,830. Board of Ed. of Hendrick Hudson Central School Dist, westchester Cty. v. Rowley,458 U. S.176,183. For example, the Act mandates cooperation and reporting between state and federal educational authorities, participating States must certify to the Secretary of Education that they have policies and procedures that will effectively meet the Acts conditions. State educational agencies, in turn, must ensure that local schools, local educational agencies can receive IDEA funds only if they certify to a state educational agency that they are acting in accordance with the States policies and procedures. Disputes over the application of the law begin at the school district. Although students should be educated in their LRE according to the law, there is something else we have to explore when it comes to a students LRE. A students behavior is key to the LRE, if behavior is not appropriate in that LRE, then it can be addressed with restrictions and Behavior Intervention Plan. This plan will have to be merged with the IEP to ensure a successful learning environment, Special education related services include speech and language therapy, occupational therapy and physical therapy
21.
History of education in the United States
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The first American schools in the thirteen original colonies opened in the 17th century. Boston Latin School was founded in 1635 and is both the first public school and oldest existing school in the United States, the first free taxpayer-supported public school in North America, the Mather School, was opened in Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1639. At first, the rudiments of literacy and arithmetic were taught inside the family, literacy rates were much higher in New England because much of the population had been deeply involved in the Protestant Reformation and learned to read in order to read the Scriptures. Literacy was much lower in the South, where the Anglican Church was the established church, single working-class people formed a large part of the population in the early years, arriving as indentured servants. The planter class did not support public education but arranged for private tutors for their children, by the mid-19th century, the role of the schools in New England had expanded to such an extent that they took over many of the educational tasks traditionally handled by parents. All the New England colonies required towns to set up schools, in 1642 the Massachusetts Bay Colony made proper education compulsory, other New England colonies followed this example. Similar statutes were adopted in colonies in the 1640s and 1650s. The schools were all male and all white, with few facilities for girls, in the 18th century, common schools were established, students of all ages were under the control of one teacher in one room. Although they were supplied at the local level, they were not free. Students families were charged tuition or rate bills, the larger towns in New England opened grammar schools, the forerunner of the modern high school. The most famous was the Boston Latin School, which is still in operation as a high school. Hopkins School in New Haven, Connecticut, was another, by the 1780s, most had been replaced by private academies. By the early 19th century New England operated a network of high schools, now called prep schools, typified by Phillips Andover Academy, Phillips Exeter Academy. They became the major feeders for Ivy League colleges in the mid-19th century and these prep schools became coeducational in the 1970s, and remain highly prestigious in the 21st century. Residents of the Upper South, centered on the Chesapeake Bay, in late 17th century Maryland, the Catholic Jesuits operated some schools for Catholic students. Generally the planter class hired tutors for the education of their children or sent them to private schools, during the colonial years, some sent their sons to England or Scotland for schooling. In March 1620, George Thorpe sailed from Bristol for Virginia and he became a deputy in charge of 10,000 acres of land to be set aside for a university and Indian school. The plans for the school for Native Americans ended when George Thorpe was killed in the Indian Massacre of 1622, in Virginia, rudimentary schooling for the poor and paupers was provided by the local parish
22.
Education reform
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Education reform is the name given to the goal of changing public education. Historically, reforms have taken different forms because the motivations of reformers have differed, however, since the 1980s, education reform has been focused on changing the existing system from one focused on inputs to one focused on outputs. In the United States, education reform acknowledges and encourages public education as the source of K-12 education for American youth. Education reformers desire to make public education into a market, where accountability creates high-stakes from curriculum standards tied to standardized tests, as a result of this input-output system, equality has been conceptualized as an end point, which is often evidenced by an achievement gap among diverse populations. This conceptualization of education reform is based on the market-logic of competition, as a consequence, competition creates inequality which has continued to drive the market-logic of equality at an end point by reproduce the achievement gap among diverse youth. Overall, education reform has and continues to be used as a substitute for needed reforms in the United States. The one constant for all forms of education includes the idea that small changes in education will have large social returns in citizen health, wealth. For example, a stated motivation has been to reduce cost to students, from ancient times until the 1800s, one goal was to reduce the expense of a classical education. Ideally, classical education is undertaken with a highly educated full-time personal tutor, historically, this was available only to the most wealthy. Encyclopedias, public libraries and grammar schools are examples of innovations intended to lower the cost of a classical education, related reforms attempted to develop similar classical results by concentrating on why, and which questions neglected by classical education. Abstract, introspective answers to these questions can theoretically compress large amounts of facts into relatively few principles and this path was taken by some Transcendentalist educators, such as Amos Bronson Alcott. In the early age, Victorian schools were reformed to teach commercially useful topics, such as modern languages and mathematics, rather than classical subjects, such as Latin. Many reformers focused on reforming society by reforming education on scientific, humanistic, pragmatic or democratic principles. John Dewey and Anton Makarenko are prominent examples of such reformers, some reformers incorporated several motivations, e. g. Maria Montessori, who both educated for peace, and to meet the needs of the child. Reform has taken many forms and directions, throughout history and the present day, the meaning and methods of education have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society. Changes may be implemented by individual educators and/or by broad-based school organization and/or by curriculum changes with performance evaluations, Plato believed that children would never learn unless they wanted to learn. Compulsory learning never sticks in the mind, an educational debate in the time of the Roman Empire arose after Christianity had achieved broad acceptance. Though educational reform occurred on a level at various points throughout history
23.
Primary education in the United States
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Primary education in the United States refers to the first eight years of formal education in most jurisdictions, often in elementary school. Preschool programs, which are formal and usually not mandated by law, are generally not considered part of primary education. The first year of education is commonly referred to as kindergarten. Subsequent years are usually numbered being referred to as first grade, second grade, elementary schools normally continue through sixth grade, which the students normally complete when they are age 11 or 12. In 2001, there were 92,858 elementary schools in the United States, some private schools, and some public schools, are offering pre-kindergarten as part of elementary school. The first three to five years of a life can be the most critical period of their education. Since 1965, the government has promoted the growth of state-funded programs such as Head Start. In 2007, it served over 22 million preschool-aged children and their families, Head Start works to educate the whole child in addition to providing health and nutrition services to low-income families. Students may attend either a 6-year or 7-year public or private elementary school, elementary school usually runs from kindergarten through either grade 5 or grade 6, depending on the region. Upon successful completion of their elementary education students then proceed to middle school, additionally, students may have the option of attending elementary schools that include all eight primary grades. In this case the student will proceed to High School. In most U. S. elementary schools, students have all their classes from one or two homeroom teachers. In some elementary schools, when funding and supplies are adequate, additional teachers are hired to students in areas such as Art. Education in the United States Education in New York City Homeschooling in the United States Secondary education in the United States Primary education Primary school
24.
Secondary education in the United States
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The United States historically had a demand for general skills rather than specific training/apprenticeships. It recommended twelve years of instruction, consisting of eight years of education followed by four years of high school. At the turn of the 20th Century, it was common for high schools to have entrance examinations which restricted entrance to fewer than 5 percent of the population in preparation for college, most were expected to be ready for a job or a family after junior high school. The first public schools started around the 1830s and 40s within the wealthier areas of similar income levels. There was a shift towards local decision making by school districts, the shift from theoretical to a more practical approach in curriculum also resulted in an increase of skilled blue-collar workers. The open enrollment nature and relatively relaxed standards, such as ease of repeating a grade, there was an increase in educational attainment, primarily from the grass-roots movement of building and staffing public high schools. In 1954 the Supreme Court case Brown v. By 1955, in 1965 the far-reaching Elementary and Secondary Education Act, passed as a part of President Lyndon B. Johnsons War on Poverty, provided funds for primary and secondary education while explicitly forbidding the establishment of a national curriculum and it emphasized equal access to education and established high standards and accountability. The bill also aimed to shorten the achievement gaps between students by providing every child with fair and equal opportunities to achieve an exceptional education, after 1980, the growth in educational attainment decreased, which caused the growth of the educated workforce to slow down. Pressure to allow people and organizations to create new Charter schools developed during the 1980s and were embraced by the American Federation of Teachers in 1988. These would be legally and financially autonomous public school free from state laws and district regulations. Minnesota was the first state to pass a school law in 1991. By 2009 charter schools were operating in 41 states and 59% of these had waiting lists, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 required all public schools receiving federal funding to administer a statewide standardized test annually to all students. Standards-based education has been embraced in most states which changed the measurement of success to academic achievement, by 2006, two-thirds of students lived in states with effective standards requiring passing tests to ensure that all graduates had achieved these standards. Great indirect authority is, however, exercised through federal funding of national programs, the U. S. government may also propose, but cannot enforce national goals, objectives and standards, which generally lie beyond its jurisdiction. Many high schools in the United States offer a choice of vocational or college prep curriculum, the level of specialization allowed varies depending on both the state and district the school is located in. Many states require that courses in the areas of English, science, social studies. The majority of high schools require four English credits to graduate, generally, three science courses are required
25.
Higher education in the United States
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Higher education in the United States is an optional final stage of formal learning following secondary education. These may be public universities, private universities, liberal arts colleges, community colleges, according to the National Student Clearinghouse, US college enrollment has declined for five consecutive years and is projected to continue declining for the next two decades. Unlike Tertiary education system of UK, American education is unique in the world to place emphasis on Liberal Arts education in its higher education curriculum. As of 2012, the latest figures available in 2015, the US has a total of 4,726 Title IV-eligible, the US had 21 million students in higher education, roughly 5. 7% of the total population. About 13 million of these students were enrolled full-time which was 81,000 students lower than 2010. Colleges and universities in the U. S. vary in terms of goals, some may emphasize a vocational, business, engineering, many combine some or all of the above, being a comprehensive university. Almost all colleges and universities are coeducational, during a dramatic transition in the 1970s, all but a handful of mens colleges started accepting women. Over 80 percent of the colleges of the 1960s have closed or merged. Over 100 historically black colleges and universities operate, both private and public, Higher education has led to the creation of accreditation organizations, independent of the government, to vouch for the quality of competing degrees. Accrediting agencies have been criticized for possible conflicts of interest that lead to favorable results, non-accredited institutions exist, such as Bible colleges, but the students are not eligible for federal loans. Community colleges are often, though, not always two-year colleges and they have open admissions, with generally lower tuition than other state or private schools. Graduates receive the associates degree such as an Associate of Arts upon graduating, many students earn an associate degree at a two-year institution, before transferring to a four-year institution to study another two years to earn a bachelors degree. Four-year colleges usually have a number of students, offer a greater range of studies. They are either primarily undergraduate institutions or the institution of a university. Some states, such as Washington, now offer schools simply known as colleges, the elevation in status comes from a cooperation between the community college and local universities. There are two distinctions between colleges and community colleges that arise from this arrangement. The second primary difference is that colleges, in cooperation with university, some colleges go so far as to offer particular, specialized 4-year bachelors degrees, on behalf of the university. Four-year institutions in the U. S. emphasizing the arts are liberal arts colleges, entirely undergraduate institutions
26.
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009
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Developed in response to the Great Recession, the ARRAs primary objective was to save existing jobs and create new ones as soon as possible. Other objectives were to provide relief programs for those most affected by the recession and invest in infrastructure, education, health. The approximate cost of the stimulus package was estimated to be $787 billion at the time of passage. Since its inception, the impact of the stimulus has been a subject of disagreement, studies on its effects have produced a range of conclusions, from strongly positive to strongly negative and all reactions in between. IGM Forum asked the question to leading economists in 2014. This new poll found 82% of leading economists strongly agreed or agreed that unemployment was lower in 2010 than it would have been without the stimulus. Revisiting the question about the benefits outweighing the costs, 56% strongly agreed or agreed that it did, 23% were uncertain, both the House and the Senate versions of the bills were primarily written by Democratic Congressional committee leaders and their staffs. Because work on the bills started before President Obama officially took office on January 20,2009, the House version of the bill, H. R.1, was introduced on January 26,2009. It was sponsored by Democrat David Obey, the House Appropriations Committee chairman, on January 23, Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi said that the bill was on track to be presented to President Obama for him to sign into law before February 16,2009. Although 206 amendments were scheduled for floor votes, they were combined into only 11, on January 28,2009, the House passed the bill by a 244–188 vote. All but 11 Democrats voted for the bill, and 177 Republicans voted against it, the senate version of the bill, S.1, was introduced on January 6,2009, and later substituted as an amendment to the House bill, S. Amdt. It was sponsored by Harry Reid, the Majority Leader, co-sponsored by 16 other Democrats and Joe Lieberman, the Senate then began consideration of the bill starting with the $275 billion tax provisions in the week of February 2,2009. Republicans proposed several amendments to the bill directed at increasing the share of tax cuts, the Senate called a special Saturday debate session for February 7 at the urging of President Obama. The Senate voted, 61–36 on February 9 to end debate on the bill, on February 10, the Senate voted 61–37 All the Democrats voted in favor, but only three Republicans voted in favor. Specter switched to the Democratic Party later in the year, at one point, the Senate bill stood at $838 billion. Senate Republicans forced a near unprecedented level of changes in the House bill, the biggest losers were states and the low income workers with major gains for the elderly and high income tax-payers. Additional debt costs would add about $350 billion or more over 10 years, many provisions were set to expire in two years. The House had more funds appropriated for education, infrastructure and for aid to low income workers, direct cash payments Senate – $17 billion to give one-time $300 payments to recipients of Supplemental Security Income and Social Security, and veterans receiving disability and pensions
27.
Federal Security Agency
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The Federal Security Agency was an independent agency of the United States government established in 1939 pursuant to the Reorganization Act of 1939. For a time, the agency oversaw food and drug safety as well as funding and the administration of public health programs. The Reorganization Act of 1939 authorized the President of the United States to devise a plan to reorganize the executive branch of government, pursuant to the Act, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Reorganization Plan No.1 of 1939 on April 25,1939. The reorganization plan was designed to reduce the number of reporting directly to the president. The reorganization plan created the Federal Security Agency, included in the FSA were the Social Security Board, the U. S. Public Health Service, the Food and Drug Administration, the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Office of Education, the National Youth Administration and its first director was Paul V. McNutt. Secretly, the FSA was also an agency from 1942 to 1944 for the War Research Service. President Harry S. Truman attempted to make the FSA a department of the federal government, in 1949, the United States Congress enacted the Reorganization Act of 1949. Subsequently, President Dwight D. Eisenhower promulgated Reorganization Plan No.1 of 1953, the Federal Security Agency was abolished and most of its functions were transferred to the newly formed United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Paul V. McNutt, Portrait of a Hoosier Statesman, compilation of the Social Security Laws. Vol. I, Including the Social Security Act, as Amended, oral History Interview with Oscar R. Ewing. Reorganization Plan No.1 of 1939, Reorganization Plan No.1 of 1953. Title 5 - Government Organization and Employees, transmitted to the U. S. Senate and U. S. House of Representatives, March 12,1953. Social Security Administration U. S. Dept. of Education U. S. Dept. of Health and Human Services U. S. Food and Drug Administration
28.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
29.
United States Constitution
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The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government. Article Seven establishes the procedure used by the thirteen States to ratify it. In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty, the majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures, Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. All four pages of the original U. S, according to the United States Senate, The Constitutions first three words—We the People—affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. From September 5,1774 to March 1,1781, the Continental Congress functioned as the government of the United States. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Continental Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a governing body. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States and it was drafted by the Second Continental Congress from mid-1776 through late-1777, and ratification by all 13 states was completed by early 1781. Under the Articles of Confederation, the governments power was quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers, implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. The Continental Congress could print money but the currency was worthless, Congress could borrow money, but couldnt pay it back. No state paid all their U. S. taxes, some paid nothing, some few paid an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. No interest was paid on debt owed foreign governments, by 1786, the United States would default on outstanding debts as their dates came due. Internationally, the Articles of Confederation did little to enhance the United States ability to defend its sovereignty, most of the troops in the 625-man United States Army were deployed facing – but not threatening – British forts on American soil. They had not been paid, some were deserting and others threatening mutiny, spain closed New Orleans to American commerce, U. S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom, if any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response. Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the sentiments and interests of the various states
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Taxing and Spending Clause
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The Taxing and Spending Clause, Article I, Section 8, Clause 1 of the United States Constitution, grants the federal government of the United States its power of taxation. Taken together, these purposes have traditionally held to imply. Under the Articles, Congress was forced to rely on requisitions upon the governments of its member states, some states were not giving Congress the funds for which it asked by either paying only in part, or by altogether ignoring the request from Congress. The Congress recognized this limitation and proposed amendments to the Articles in an effort to supersede it, however, nothing ever came of those proposals until the Philadelphia Convention. The power to tax is a concurrent power of the federal government, the taxation power has been perceived over time to be very broad, but has also, on occasion, been curtailed by the courts. United States v. Butler stated that the clause also granted a substantive power, to appropriate, not subject to the limitations imposed by the other enumerated powers of Congress. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts, as argued under the Articles, the lack of a power to tax renders government impotent. Typically, the power is used to raise revenues for the support of government. In 1922, the Supreme Court struck down a 1919 tax on labor in Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co. commonly referred to as the Child Labor Tax Case. The Court had previously held that Congress did not have the power to regulate labor. With the power to tax implicitly comes the power to spend the revenues raised thereby in order to meet the objectives and goals of the government. To what extent this power ought to be utilized by the Congress has been the source of continued dispute and debate since the inception of the federal government, however, interpretations recognizing an implicit power to spend have been questioned. The Supreme Court has also found that, in addition to the power to use taxes to punish disfavored conduct, in South Dakota v. Dole, the Court upheld a federal law which withheld highway funds from states that did not raise their legal drinking age to 21. Several Constitutional provisions address the taxation and spending authority of Congress, the Constitution provides in the Origination Clause that all bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of Representatives. Additionally, Representatives are regarded the most accountable to the people, the dispute over the clause arises from two distinct disagreements. The first concerns whether the General Welfare Clause grants an independent spending power or is a restriction upon the taxing power, the second disagreement pertains to what exactly is meant by the phrase general welfare. Further, Jefferson himself later described the distinction between the parties over this view as almost the only landmark which now divides the federalists from the republicans, associate Justice Joseph Story relied heavily upon The Federalist as a source for his Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States. In that work, Story excoriated both the Madisonian view and a previous, strongly nationalistic view of Hamiltons which was rejected at the Philadelphia Convention
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National Education Association
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The National Education Association is the largest labor union in the United States. It represents public school teachers and other personnel, faculty and staffers at colleges and universities, retired educators. The NEA has just under 3 million members and is headquartered in Washington, the NEA had a budget of more than $341 million for the 2012–2013 fiscal year. Lily Eskelsen García is the NEAs current president, the NEA, originally on the conservative side of U. S. politics, by the 1970s emerged as a factor in modern liberalism. While the NEA has a position of non-partisan, it typically supports the Democratic Party. Conservatives, libertarians, and parents rights groups have criticized the NEAs liberal positions, State affiliates of the NEA regularly lobby state legislators for funding, seek to influence education policy, and file legal actions. At the national level, the NEA lobbies the United States Congress, from 1989 through the 2014 election cycle, the NEA spent over $92 million on political campaign contributions, 97% of which went to Democrats. The NEA has a membership of just under 3 million people, the NEA is incorporated as a professional association in a few states and as a labor union in most. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code and it is not a member of the AFL–CIO, but is part of Education International, the global federation of teachers unions. NEA members set the policies through the Representative Assembly. The executive officers of the NEA are Lily Eskelsen García, Rebecca Pringle and these three posts are elected by the Representative Assembly. The Board of Directors and Executive Committee are responsible for the general policies, the Board of Directors consists of one director from each state affiliate, six directors for the retired members, and three directors for the student members. The board also includes representatives of ethnic minorities, administrators, classroom teachers in higher education. The NEA was founded in Philadelphia in 1857 as the National Teachers Association, zalmon Richards was elected the NTAs first president and presided over the organizations first annual meeting in 1858. The union was chartered by Congress in 1906, NEA officially merged with the American Teachers Association, the historically black teachers association founded as the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools, in 1966. However, five NEA state affiliates have merged with their AFT counterparts, mergers occurred in Florida, Minnesota, Montana, New York and North Dakota. North Dakota United formed in 2013, before the 1960s, only a small portion of public school teachers were unionized. That began to change in 1959, when Wisconsin became the first state to pass a collective bargaining law for public employees, over the next 20 years, most other states adopted similar laws
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American Federation of Teachers
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The American Federation of Teachers is an American labor union that primarily represents teachers. The union was founded in Chicago in 1916, with Margaret Haley credited as its founder, a precursor to the group, the American Federation of Teachers and Students, was founded in 1900. The AFTs affiliations include the union federation since its founding, the old American Federation of Labor until 1955. AFT was founded in Chicago, Illinois, on April 15,1916, by 1919, AFT had 100 local affiliates and a membership of approximately 11,000 teachers, which amounted to 1. 5% of the nations teaching force. In its early days, AFT distinguished itself from the National Education Association by its exclusion of school administrators from membership, facing opposition from politicians and boards of education, membership in AFT declined to 7,000 by 1930. During this period, the organization had impact on local or national education policy. AFT membership climbed during the Great Depression, reaching 33,000 by 1939, during the 1930s, AFT, whose members had historically been primary school teachers, saw influential college professors join the union. Also during the 1930s, the Communist Party gained influence within the AFT, in 1941, under pressure from the AFL, the union ejected three local unions in New York City and Philadelphia for being communist-dominated. The charter revocations represented nearly a third of the national membership. The 1940s were marked by a series of strikes, including 57 strikes that occurred from 1946 through 1949. By 1947, AFT had a membership of 42,000, the 1960s and 1970s also saw numerous teacher strikes, including 1,000 strikes involving more than 823,000 teachers between 1960 and 1974. AFT membership was 59,000 in 1960,200,000 in 1970, since 1977, AFT has published a quarterly magazine for teachers covering various issues about children and education called American Educator. In 1998, the membership of the NEA rejected a merger with AFT. The AFTs membership is half that of the NEAs, Albert Shanker In 1974, Albert Shanker was elected president of AFT. He served in this role until his death on February 22,1997, for 27 years, Shanker wrote a weekly column entitled Where We Stand that ran as an advertisement in The New York Times. Shanker was an advocate of charter schools. He also called for a competency test for teachers, merit pay for teachers. During his tenure as AFT president, Shanker was jailed twice for leading illegal strikes, Sandra Feldman Sandra Feldman served as AFTs president from 1997 to 2004
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Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
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United States presidential election, 1980
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The United States presidential election of 1980 was the 49th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 4,1980. W, Bush, a former Congressman and CIA Director from Texas who would eventually win the presidency eight years later, as well as Republican Congressman John B. Anderson, who ran as an independent, aged 69 at the time, Reagan became the oldest person to ever take the oval office, a record that was later surpassed by Republican Donald Trump, aged 70,35 years later. Carter, after defeating Edward M. Ted Kennedy, the long-time U. S, Senator from Massachusetts and brother of former president John F. Kennedy for the Democratic nomination, attacked Reagan as a dangerous right-wing extremist. This election marked the beginning of what is called the Reagan Revolution or Reagan Era, throughout the 1970s, the United States underwent a wrenching period of low economic growth, high inflation and interest rates, and intermittent energy crises. In the spring and summer of 1979 inflation was on the rise, Carter left for the presidential retreat of Camp David. For more than a week, a veil of secrecy enveloped the proceedings, dozens of prominent Democratic Party leaders—members of Congress, governors, labor leaders, academics and clergy—were summoned to the mountaintop retreat to confer with the beleaguered president. On July 15,1979, Carter gave a televised address in which he identified what he believed to be a crisis of confidence among the American people. This came to be known as his speech, although Carter never used the word in the speech. Many expected Senator Ted Kennedy to successfully challenge Carter in the upcoming Democratic Primary, kennedys official announcement was scheduled for early November. A television interview with Roger Mudd of CBS a few days before the announcement went badly, however. Kennedy gave an incoherent and repetitive answer to the question of why he was running, and the polls, embassy in Tehran on November 4,1979. Carters calm approach towards handling this crisis resulted in his approval ratings jump in the 60-percent range in some polls, by the beginning of the election season, the prolonged Iran hostage crisis had sharpened public perceptions of a national crisis. Carters critics saw him as a leader who had failed to solve the worsening economic problems at home. His supporters defended the president as a decent, well-intentioned man being unfairly criticized for problems that had been building for years, Democratic candidates, Jimmy Carter, President of the United States Ted Kennedy, U. S. Brown withdrew on April 2. Carter and Kennedy faced off in 34 primaries and this was the most tumultuous primary race that an elected incumbent president had encountered since President Taft, during the highly contentious election of 1912. During the summer of 1980, there was a short-lived Draft Muskie movement, one poll showed that Muskie would be a more popular alternative to Carter than Kennedy, implying that the attraction was not so much to Kennedy as to the fact that he was not Carter. Muskie was polling even with Ronald Reagan at the time, while Carter was seven points behind, although the underground Draft Muskie campaign failed, it became a political legend
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Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
