1.
Robert F. Kennedy Department of Justice Building
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Robert F. Kennedy Department of Justice Building is the Washington, D. C. headquarters of the United States Department of Justice. It is located west of the National Archives Building, east of the Internal Revenue Service Building, north of the National Mall, the building is owned by the General Services Administration. It comprises seven floors and 1,200,000 sq ft and it houses Department of Justice offices, including the office of the United States Attorney General. Completed in 1935, it was renamed after the 64th Attorney General of the United States, Robert F. Kennedy, the Office of the Attorney General was created by the 1st United States Congress by the Judiciary Act of 1789. In 1792, the Congress made the Attorney General a Cabinet-level post, in 1870, President Ulysses S. Grant signed the bill creating the Department of Justice. While plans to provide the Department with its own building were developed as early as 1910, in 1908 and in 1928, Congress authorized the purchase of land in what is now known as the Federal Triangle for departmental offices. In 1930, Congress appropriated $10 million for the construction of a permanent Department of Justice headquarters in the Federal Triangle, the building was constructed from 1931 to 1934. Upon completion in 1935, the building provided a headquarters for the Attorney General. From 1935 to 194168 murals were painted in the building, in 1966, the Department of Justice building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as part of the Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Site. In 1978, the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court was established after the passage of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, from March 1998 to January 2006, major renovations to the building took place, including work on plumbing, electrical wiring, heating and cooling, and elevators. The project included replication of original lighting for the buildings corridors, a new $3.1 million conference center and data room were built, the main library and executive suites were restored, and a new mechanical, electrical and plumbing system was installed. F. The Gilbane Building Company established a rule to halt construction when hazardous material was discovered. An additional complication was security concerns, because of sensitive and classified information in the building, the extensive murals, sculptures, and plaster reliefs in the building were protected with shields during the construction, and temperature, humidity, and dust controls were installed. The cost of the renovations was $142 million, but the project came in $4.2 million under budget, design consultants decided to renovate courtyard plaza and garage structures instead of demolishing them, using 95 percent of existing materials. Cobblestone blocks in the courtyard were removed, cleaned, refurbished, further, only the concrete of questionable integrity around the facilitys garage beams was repaired, instead of having all the concrete replaced. For the plaza deck, the integrity of the structure was tested. Some sections were found to be repairable, preventing them from being rebuilt, finally, the original foundation and structure building was preserved, which saved 110 tons of waste material and decreased the risk of penetrating a sensitive waterproofing membrane system. Ultimately close to $1 million was returned to the GSA, senator from New York and presidential candidate until his assassination in 1968
2.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
3.
Pennsylvania Avenue
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Pennsylvania Avenue is a street in Washington, D. C. that connects the White House and the United States Capitol. Called Americas Main Street, it is the location of official parades and processions, moreover, Pennsylvania Avenue is an important commuter route and is part of the National Highway System. The avenue runs for a total of 5.8 miles inside Washington and it continues within the city for 3.5 miles, from the southeast corner of the Capitol grounds through the Capitol Hill neighborhood, and over the Anacostia River on the John Philip Sousa Bridge. At this point, as a highway, it becomes Southern Maryland Boulevard. At one point in the century, Pennsylvania Avenue was designated DC4. Northwest of the White House, Pennsylvania Avenue runs for 1.4 miles to its end at M Street NW in Georgetown, from 1862 to 1962, streetcars ran the length of the avenue from Georgetown to the Anacostia River. Although Pennsylvania Avenue extends six miles within Washington, D. C. the expanse between the White House and the Capitol constitutes the heart of the nation. Washington called this stretch most magnificent & most convenient, and it has served the country well, laid out by Pierre Charles LEnfant, Pennsylvania Avenue was one of the earliest streets constructed in the Federal City. The first reference to the street as Pennsylvania Avenue comes in a 1791 letter from Thomas Jefferson, one theory is that the street was named for Pennsylvania as consolation for moving the capital from Philadelphia. Both Jefferson and George Washington considered the avenue an important feature of the new capital, after inspecting LEnfants plan, President Washington referred to the thoroughfare as a Grand Avenue. Jefferson concurred, and while the avenue was little more than a wide dirt road ridiculed as The Great Serbonian Bog. At one time Pennsylvania Avenue provided an unobstructed view between the White House and the Capitol, the construction of an expansion to the Treasury Building blocked this view, and supposedly President Andrew Jackson did this on purpose. In November 2012, as part of preparations for the inauguration of Barack Obama. On September 30,1965, portions of the avenue and surrounding area were designated the Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Site, the National Park Service administers this area which includes the United States Navy Memorial, Old Post Office Tower, and Pershing Park. Congress created the Pennsylvania Avenue Development Corporation on October 27,1972 to rehabilitate the street between the Capitol and the White House, an area seen as blighted. In 2010, the District of Columbia designated Pennsylvania Avenue from the terminus of John Philip Sousa Bridge to the Maryland state line to be a D. C. The city spent $430 million to beautify the street and improve the roadway, ever since an impromptu procession formed around Jeffersons second inauguration, every United States president except Ronald Reagan has paraded down the Avenue after taking the oath of office. From William Henry Harrison to Gerald Ford, the funeral corteges of seven of the eight presidents who died in office, franklin Roosevelt was the only president who died in office whose cortege did not follow this route
4.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
7.
Lady Justice
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Lady Justice is an allegorical personification of the moral force in judicial systems. Her attributes are a blindfold, a balance, and a sword and she often appears as a pair with Prudentia, who holds a mirror and a snake. Lady Justice is also known as Iustitia or Justitia after Latin, Iustitia, the Roman goddess of Justice, the personification of justice balancing the scales dates back to the Goddess Maat, and later Isis, of ancient Egypt. The Hellenic deities Themis and Dike were later goddesses of justice, Themis was the embodiment of divine order, law, and custom, in her aspect as the personification of the divine rightness of law. There are three features of Lady Justice, a set of scales, a blindfold, and a sword. Lady Justice is most often depicted with a set of scales typically suspended from her hand, upon which she measures the strengths of a cases support. The depiction dates back to ancient Egypt, where the God Anubis was frequently depicted with a set of scales on which He weighed a deceaseds heart against the Feather of Truth, since the 16th century, Lady Justice has often been depicted wearing a blindfold. The blindfold represents impartiality, the ideal that justice should be applied without regard to wealth, the earliest Roman coins depicted Justitia with the sword in one hand and the scale in the other, but with her eyes uncovered. Justitia was only represented as blind since about the end of the 15th century. The first known representation of blind Justice is Hans Giengs 1543 statue on the Gerechtigkeitsbrunnen in Berne, instead of using the Janus approach, many sculptures simply leave out the blindfold altogether. Another variation is to depict a blindfolded Lady Justice as a human scale, an example of this can be seen at the Shelby County Courthouse in Memphis, Tennessee. The cover of a 2006 issue of Rolling Stone proclaimed TIME TO GO. focusing on the corruption that dominated Congress. The drawing showed a bunch of figures evoking reactionary politics emerging from the Capitol, one of the figures was Lady Justice lifting her blindfold, implying that the then-composition of Congress had politicized the criminal justice system. The last distinctive feature of Lady Justice is her sword, the sword represented authority in ancient times, and conveys the idea that justice can be swift and final. The Greco-Roman garment symbolizes the status of the attitude that embodies justice. Justice in sculpture Justice in painting Lady Justice and her symbols are used in heraldry, especially in the arms of legal government agencies. com
8.
Jeff Sessions
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Jefferson Beauregard Jeff Sessions III is an American politician and lawyer who is the 84th Attorney General of the United States. Sessions served as the junior United States Senator from Alabama from 1997 until 2017, Sessions was elected Attorney General of Alabama in 1994, and to the U. S. Senate in 1996, being re-elected in 2002,2008, and 2014. During his time in Congress, Sessions was considered one of the most conservative members of the U. S. Senate and he opposed legal and illegal immigration and amnesty and supported expansion of the border fence with Mexico. He supported the legislative efforts of the George W. Bush administration, including the 2001 and 2003 tax cut packages, the Iraq War. He opposed the establishment of the Troubled Asset Relief Program, the 2009 stimulus bill, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as the ranking Republican on the Senate Judiciary Committee, he opposed all three of President Obamas nominees for the Supreme Court. In November 2016, then-President-elect Donald Trump nominated Sessions for US Attorney General and he was confirmed on February 8,2017, with a 52–47 vote in the Senate, and was sworn in on February 9. In his Attorney General confirmation hearings, Sessions said that he did not have contact with Russian officials during the 2016 U. S. presidential campaign, in March 2017, news reports revealed that Sessions had twice met with Russian Ambassador Sergey Kislyak in 2016. Sessions subsequently recused himself from any investigations into Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election while some Democratic lawmakers called for his resignation. He was born in Selma, Alabama, on December 24,1946, the son of Jefferson Beauregard Sessions, Jr. and his father owned a general store in Hybart, Alabama, and then a farm equipment dealership. Both of Sessionss parents were of primarily English ancestry, with some Scots-Irish, in 1964, Sessions became an Eagle Scout, and later, he earned the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award for his many years of service. After attending Wilcox County High School in nearby Camden, Sessions studied at Huntingdon College in Montgomery and he was active in the Young Republicans and was student body president. Sessions attended the University of Alabama School of Law and graduated with a J. D. degree in 1973, Sessions entered private practice in Russellville and later in Mobile, where he now lives. He also served in the Army Reserve in the 1970s with the rank of captain, Sessions was an Assistant US Attorney in the Office of the US Attorney for the Southern District of Alabama beginning in 1975. In 1981, President Reagan nominated him to be the US Attorney for the Southern District of Alabama, the Senate confirmed him and he held that position for 12 years until Bill Clintons Attorney General, Janet Reno, asked for his resignation. Sessionss office filed civil charges in the 1981 killing of Michael Donald. Sessionss office did not prosecute the case, but both men were arrested and convicted, the prosecution stirred charges of selective prosecution of black voter registration. The defendants, known as the Marion Three, were acquitted of all charges by a jury after three hours of deliberation, interviewed in 2009, Sessions said he remained convinced that he did the right thing, but admitted he failed to make the case. In 1986, Reagan nominated Sessions to be a judge of the U. S. District Court for the Southern District of Alabama, Sessionss judicial nomination was recommended and actively backed by Republican Alabama Senator Jeremiah Denton
9.
United States Attorney General
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The United States Attorney General is the head of the United States Department of Justice per 28 U. S. C. §503, concerned with affairs, and is the chief law enforcement officer. The 84th and current Attorney General is Jeff Sessions, who assumed the office on February 9,2017, the attorney general serves as a member of the Cabinet of the President of the United States and is the only cabinet officer who does not have the title Secretary of. The Attorney General is appointed by the President and takes office after confirmation by the United States Senate, the office of Attorney General was established by Congress by the Judiciary Act of 1789. In 1870, the Department of Justice was established to support the general in the discharge of their responsibilities. Parties No party Federalist Democratic-Republican Democratic Whig Republican Status As of April 2017, there are eleven, living former US Attorneys General, the most recent Attorney General to die was Janet Reno on November 7,2016. Barr served as acting general in their capacity as deputy attorney general. 2 Richard L. Thornburgh and Eric Holder served as acting general in their capacity as deputy attorney general. Both subsequently served as general, Thornburgh 1988–1991 and Holder 2009–2015. 4 Assistant Attorney General for the DOJ Civil Division Stuart M. Gerson was acting general from January 20,1993. Gerson was fourth in the line of succession at the Justice Department, during his time as Acting AG, Gerson supported the Brady bill and was in office in the beginnings of the Waco siege. Janet Reno, President Clintons nominee for attorney general, was confirmed on March 12, Acting Attorney General Gersons last day at the Justice Department was March 19. 5 On August 27,2007, President Bush named Solicitor General Paul Clement as the acting attorney general, to take office upon the resignation of Alberto Gonzales. According to administration officials, Clement took that office at 12,01 am September 17,2007, keisler served as acting attorney general until the nomination of Michael Mukasey on November 9,2007. 6 Deputy Attorney General Mark Filip was asked to assume the position of acting attorney general by then President-elect Obama, Filip led the Department while President Obamas nominee, then Attorney-General Designate Eric Holder, awaited confirmation by the United States Senate. Holder was confirmed on February 2,2009, and sworn in the next day, thus ending Filips tenure as the acting attorney general
10.
Rod Rosenstein
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Rod J. Rosenstein is the United States Attorney for the District of Maryland and a former nominee to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit. President Donald Trump nominated Rosenstein to serve as Deputy Attorney General for the United States Department of Justice on January 13,2017, Rosenstein graduated from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, with a B. S. in Economics, summa cum laude in 1986. He earned his J. D. degree cum laude in 1989 from Harvard Law School and he then served as a law clerk to Judge Douglas H. Ginsburg of the U. S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. After his clerkship, Rosenstein joined the U. S. Department of Justice through the Attorney General’s Honors Program. From 1990 to 1993, he prosecuted public corruption cases as an attorney with the Public Integrity Section of the Criminal Division, then led by Assistant Attorney General Robert S. Mueller. During the Clinton Administration, Rosenstein served as Counsel to Deputy Attorney General Philip B, heymann and Special Assistant to Criminal Division Assistant Attorney General Jo Ann Harris. United States Attorney Lynne A. Battaglia hired Rosenstein as an Assistant U. S. Attorney in 1997 and he litigated a wide range of cases, coordinated the credit card fraud and international assistance programs and supervised the law student intern program. He also briefed and argued cases in the U. S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, from 2001 to 2005, Rosenstein served as Principal Deputy Assistant Attorney General for the Tax Division of the U. S. Department of Justice. He coordinated the tax enforcement activities of the Tax Division, the U. S. Attorneys’ Offices and the IRS, President George W. Bush nominated Rosenstein to serve as United States Attorney for the United States District Court for the District of Maryland on May 23,2005. He took office on July 12,2005, after the United States Senate unanimously confirmed his nomination, as United States Attorney, he oversees federal civil and criminal litigation and develops and implements federal law enforcement strategies in Maryland. He also continues personally to litigate cases in the U. S. District Court, the Attorney General appointed Rosenstein to serve on the Advisory Committee of U. S. Attorneys, which evaluates and recommends policies for the Department of Justice. He is vice-chair of the Violent and Organized Crime Subcommittee and a member of the Subcommittees on White Collar Crime, Sentencing Issues and he also serves on the Attorney General’s Anti-Gang Coordination Committee. Rosenstein is on the Board of Directors of the Maryland State’s Attorneys’ Association and he also is a member of the Baltimore City Criminal Justice Coordinating Council. As an adjunct professor, Rosenstein teaches classes on federal criminal prosecution at the University of Maryland School of Law and he also serves on the faculty of a trial advocacy seminar at Georgetown University Law Center. He often speaks about law enforcement issues and government service at public events, Rosenstein is an active member of the Maryland and District of Columbia bars and of numerous federal court bars. He belongs to the Maryland, Federal and American Bar Associations and he is a barrister of the Edward Bennett Williams Inn of Court and a member of the Lawyers’ Round Table of Baltimore. On October 12,2000, President Bill Clinton had nominated African-American federal district court judge Andre M. Davis to replace Murnaghan. The nomination was a part of Clintons effort to integrate the Fourth Circuit, Bush unsuccessfully attempted to fill the seat three times
11.
United States Deputy Attorney General
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The United States Deputy Attorney General is the second-highest-ranking official in the United States Department of Justice. The Deputy Attorney General is appointed by the President of the United States with the advice, the position was created in 1950. The position is presently being held by Dana Boente, following the firing of Sally Yates on January 30,2017 during her tenure as Acting Attorney General. On May 14,2007 Paul McNulty, then Deputy Attorney General, at the time, McNulty was considered the highest-ranking Bush administration casualty in the furor over the firing of U. S. attorneys. On July 18,2007 President Bush announced his appointment of Craig S. Morford as acting Deputy Attorney General. Morford had been serving as the U. S. attorney in Nashville, Tennessee, and was known for his successful prosecution of former Ohio Representative James Traficant on bribery charges
12.
United States federal executive departments
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In brief, they and their organizations are the administrative arms of the President. All departments are listed by their name and only departments with past or present cabinet-level status are listed. The order of succession includes, the Vice President as the first in line, the Speaker of the House, independent agencies of the United States government British government departments Cabinet of the Confederate States of America Relyea, Harold C. Homeland Security, Department Organization and Management, Report for Congress,2002
13.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
14.
Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant
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The presidency of Ulysses S. Grant began on March 4,1869, when Ulysses S. Grant was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on March 4,1877. A Republican, Grant took office as the 18th United States president after defeating Horatio Seymour in the 1868 presidential election and he was easily elected to a second four-year term in office in 1872. His decisive re-election was achieved in the face of a split within the Republican Party that resulted in a party of Liberal Republicans nominating Horace Greeley to oppose him. This action prompted the Democratic Party to cancel its convention, support Greeley as well, the first president elected after the end of the Civil War, Grant was the first since Andrew Jackson to serve two full terms. He was succeeded as president by Republican Rutherford B. Hayes after the contested 1876 presidential election, There were repeated scandals and frauds perpetrated by administration officials as a result. Believing the culprits to be innocent, Grant often attacked their accusers, defenders note Grant established the first Civil Service Commission and ended the moiety system. Reconstruction after the Civil War took precedence during Grants first term of office, within two years the remaining former Confederate states, Georgia, Mississippi, Virginia, and Texas were readmitted into the United States and represented in Congress. Additionally Congress established the Department of Justice and Office of Solicitor General and these actions bolstered the Grant Administrations ability to carry out and enforces federal laws, particularly those that protected African American civil rights. The new Justice Department prosecuted thousands of Ku Klux Klan members under the new laws. He sent federal troops to nine South Carolina counties to suppress Klan violence in 1871. At the beginning of Grants second term the nation was prosperous, the debt, government spending, tariffs, and the federal workforce were reduced. Congress established a defacto deflationary gold standard that reduced the number of greenbacks in the national economy, however, the Panic of 1873 rocked the nation and destroyed much of the economic advancements made in Grants first term. The Panic caused a nationwide economic depression and turned public opinion against Grant. As a result, Democrats regained control of the House in December 1875, Corruption scandals escalated, but reformers appointed by Grant were able to clean up federal departments. The most notable was the appointment of Benjamin Bristow as Secretary of Treasury, bristows investigation led to the indictment of Grants personal secretary, Orville E. Babcock, whom Grant defended at a White House deposition. Grants Secretary of War William W. Belknap, resigned in disgrace in February 1876, impeached by the House for taking kickbacks, the United States was at peace with the world throughout Grants eight years in office, but his handling of foreign policy was uneven. Grants attempt to annex Santo Domingo failed in the Senate and created bitter contention between Grant and Senator Charles Sumner, with the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, the West was wide open to expansionism that sometimes was challenged by hostile Native Americans. Grant aggressively allowed the destruction of the buffalo to keep Indians on their reservations, Grants peace policy reduced Indian battles, but with the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, it led to Col. Custers destruction at the Battle of Little Big Horn
15.
Federal law enforcement in the United States
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The federal government of the United States empowers a wide range of law enforcement agencies to maintain law and public order related to matters affecting the country as a whole. Federal law enforcement authorities have authority given to them under various parts of the United States Code, Federal law enforcement officers enforce various laws, generally at only the federal level. There are exceptions, with agencies and officials enforcing state. Most are limited by the U. S. Code to investigating matters that are explicitly within the power of the federal government, some federal investigative powers have become broader in practice, since the passage of the USA PATRIOT Act in October 2001. The Department of Justice was formerly the largest, and is still the most prominent and it has handled most law enforcement duties at the federal level. This included large agencies such as the U. S. Coast Guard, transportation Security Administration, and the U. S. Federal law enforcement in the United States is well over two hundred years old. For example, the Postal Inspection Service can trace its origins back to 1772, agencies in bold text are law enforcement agencies. Office of Inspector General United States Forest Service, U. S. S. S, compared with 2002, employment of such personnel increased by 13%. Nationwide, there were 36 federal officers per 100,000 residents, outside the District of Columbia, which had 1,662 per 100,000, State ratios ranged from 90 per 100,000 in Arizona to 7 per 100,000 in Iowa. As of 2004, about 3 in 4 federal law enforcement officers working outside the Armed Forces were employed within the Department of Homeland Security or the Department of Justice. Federal officers duties included criminal investigation, police response and patrol, corrections and detention, inspections, court operations, women accounted for 16% of federal officers in 2004, an increase from 14. 8% in 2002. A third of federal officers were members of a racial or ethnic minority in 2004 and this included 17. 7% who were Hispanic or Latino, and 11. 4% who were black or African American. In 2002, racial or ethnic minorities officers comprised 32. 4% of federal officers, twenty-seven federal offices of inspector general employed criminal investigators with arrest and firearm authority in 2004. Overall, these agencies employed 2,867 such officers in the 50 states, law enforcement in the United States This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Government
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Federal Bureau of Investigation
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The Federal Bureau of Investigation is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States, which simultaneously serves as the nations prime federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the U. S. Department of Justice, Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence. A leading U. S. counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, although many of the FBIs functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence. Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint and these overseas offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a domestic function. The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation and its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building, located in Washington, in the fiscal year 2012, the Bureaus total budget was approximately $8.12 billion. In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created an urgent perception that America was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, the Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the breakage of the Oregon land fraud scandal at approximately the turn of the 20th Century, President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General. Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the Secret Service, for personnel, on May 27,1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelts urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Investigation was created on July 26,1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including veterans of the Secret Service. Its first Chief was Stanley Finch, Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureaus first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the White Slave Traffic Act, or Mann Act, in 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition, in the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present-day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI. J. Edgar Hoover served as Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure
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Drug Enforcement Administration
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The Drug Enforcement Administration is a United States federal law enforcement agency under the U. S. Department of Justice, tasked with combating drug smuggling and use within the United States. S. It has sole responsibility for coordinating and pursuing U. S. drug investigations both domestic, and abroad, the Drug Enforcement Administration was established on July 1,1973, by Reorganization Plan No.2 of 1973, signed by President Richard Nixon on July 28. It proposed the creation of a federal agency to enforce the federal drug laws as well as consolidate and coordinate the governments drug control activities. Congress accepted the proposal, as they were concerned with the availability of drugs. From the early 1970s, DEA headquarters was located at 1405 I Street NW in downtown Washington, however, then–Attorney General Edwin Meese determined that the headquarters had to be located in close proximity to the Attorney Generals office. Thus, in 1989, the relocated to 600–700 Army-Navy Drive in the Pentagon City area of Arlington, Virginia. On April 19,1995, Timothy McVeigh attacked the Alfred P, security measures include hydraulic steel roadplates to enforce standoff distance from the building, metal detectors, and guard stations. In February 2003, the DEA established a Digital Evidence Laboratory within its Office of Forensic Sciences, the DEA is headed by an Administrator of Drug Enforcement appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the U. S. Senate. The Administrator reports to the Attorney General through the Deputy Attorney General, the Administrator is assisted by a Deputy Administrator, the Chief of Operations, the Chief Inspector, and three Assistant Administrators. Other senior staff include the financial officer and the Chief Counsel. The Administrator and Deputy Administrator are the only presidentially-appointed personnel in the DEA, DEAs headquarters is located in Arlington, Virginia across from the Pentagon. It maintains its own DEA Academy located on the United States Marine Corps base at Quantico and it maintains 21 domestic field divisions with 227 field offices and 86 foreign offices in 62 countries. With a budget exceeding 2 billion dollars, DEA employs over 10,800 people, becoming a Special Agent or Intelligence Analyst with the DEA is a competitive process. DEA agents starting salary is $49, 746–$55,483, after four years working as an agent, the salary jumps to above $92,592. Upon graduation, recruits earn themselves the title of DEA Special Agent, the DEA excludes from consideration job-applicants who have a history of any use of narcotics or illicit drugs. Investigation usually includes a polygraph test for special-agent, diversion-investigator, exceptions to this policy may be made for applicants who admit to limited youthful and experimental use of marijuana. The DEAs relatively firm stance on this issue contrasts with that of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the DEA Aviation Division or Office of Aviation Operations is an airborne division based in Fort Worth Alliance Airport, Texas. The current OA fleet consists of 106 aircraft and 124 DEA pilots, rapid Response Teams was decommissioned by DEA Administrator Chuck Rosenburg on March 2017 via memorandum
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Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
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Federal Bureau of Prisons
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The Federal Bureau of Prisons, is a United States federal law enforcement agency. A subdivision of the U. S. Department of Justice, the system handles inmates who have violated, or are accused of violating, federal law. The BOP also holds inmates who have committed felonies in Washington, the BOP is also responsible for carrying out all judicially ordered federal executions in the United States. The Federal Prison System existed for more than 30 years before the BOP was established, until 1907, prison matters were handled by the Justice Departments General Agent. The General Agent was responsible for Justice Department accounts, oversight of internal operations,325, the Bureau of Prisons was established by the U. S. Congress within the U. S. Department of Justice. The new Prison Bureau was now under the Administration of the 31st President Herbert Hoover and this responsibility covered the administration of the 11 federal prisons in operation at the time. By the end of the year 1930, the system had expanded to 14 institutions with 13,000 inmates. By a decade later in 1940, the Federal prison system had 24 institutions with 24,360 incarcerated, the State of Alaska assumed jurisdiction over its corrections on January 3,1959, using the Alaska Department of Corrections. Prior to statehood, the BOP had correctional jurisdiction over Alaska, the population increase has decelerated since the early 2000s but the federal inmate population continues to grow. National Capital Revitalization and Self-Government Improvement Act of 1997 transferred responsibility for adult felons convicted of violating District of Columbia laws to the BOP. As of 2015, 63% of BOP employees are white, 22% are black, 12% are Hispanic, 2% are Asian, all BOP employees undergo 200 hours of formal training in their first year of employment. Employees must also complete additional 120 hours of training at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glynco, the BOP has five security levels. Federal Prison Camps, the BOP minimum-security facilities, feature a lack of or an amount of perimeter fencing. Low-security Federal Correctional Institutions have double-fenced perimeters, and inmates live in mostly cubicle or dormitory housing, medium-security FCIs and some United States Penitentiaries are classified to hold medium-security inmates. The medium facilities have strengthened perimeters, which often consist of double fences with electronic detection systems, medium-security facilities mostly have cell housing. Most U. S. Penitentiaries are classified as high-security facilities, the perimeters, highly secured, often have reinforced fences or walls. Federal Correctional Complexes are co-locations of BOP facilities with different security levels and/or genders, some units have small, minimum-security camps, known as satellite camps, adjacent to the main facilities. Twenty-eight BOP institutions hold female inmates, as of 2010 about 15% of the inmates under the jurisdiction of the Federal Bureau of Prisons are in facilities operated by third parties
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Law enforcement
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Most law enforcement is conducted by some type of law enforcement agency, with the most typical agency fulfilling this role being the police. Law enforcement agencies tend to be limited to operating within a specified jurisdiction, various specialized segments of society may have their own internal law enforcement arrangements. For example, military organizations may have military police, outline of law enforcement – structured list of topics related to law enforcement, organized by subject area Criminal law Biosecurity Commons
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Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act
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The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, H. R.3355, Pub. L. 103–322 is an Act of Congress dealing with crime and law enforcement, sponsored by Representative Jack Brooks of Texas, the bill was originally written by Senator Joe Biden of Delaware and then was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Bill Clinton. Following the 101 California Street shooting, the 1993 Waco Siege, and other instances of violent crime. One of the most noted sections was the Federal Assault Weapons Ban, the bill also required states to establish registries for sexual offenders by September 1997. The list of features included telescoping or folding stocks, pistol grips, flash suppressors, grenade launchers. This law also banned possession of newly manufactured magazines holding more than ten rounds of ammunition, the ban took effect September 13,1994 and expired on September 13,2004 by a sunset provision. Since the expiration date, there is no ban on the subject firearms or magazines capable of holding more than ten rounds of ammunition. In 2001, Timothy McVeigh was executed for the murder of eight federal law enforcement agents under that title, there is growing advocacy for reinstating Pell Grant funding for all prisoners who would qualify despite their incarceration status. SpearIt has argued, First, there are genuine penal and public benefits that derive from educating prisoners, second, and perhaps more critically, revoking Pell funding fails to advance any of the stated purposes of punishment. Title IV, the Violence Against Women Act, allocated $1.6 billion to help prevent, VAWA was renewed in 2000,2005, and 2013. This includes, The Safe Streets for Women Act, which increased penalties for repeat sex offenders. It also added a rape shield law to the Federal Rules of Evidence Part of VAWA was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in United States v. Morrison. Title XXX, the Drivers Privacy Protection Act, governs the privacy, under Title XVII, known as the Jacob Wetterling Crimes Against Children and Sexually Violent Offender Registration Act, guidelines were established for states to track sex offenders. The Wetterling Act was later amended in 1996 with Megans Law, in 2006, the Wetterling Acts state registres was replaced with a federal registre through the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act. Since 1994, the COPS Office has provided $14 billion in assistance to state, the COPS Office also funds the research and development of guides, tools and training, and provides technical assistance to police departments implementing community policing principles. The law authorized the COPS Office was authorized to hire 100,000 more police officers to patrol the nations streets, the Act authorized the initiation of boot camps for delinquent minors and allocated a substantial amount of money to build new prisons. Fifty new federal offenses were added, including provisions making membership in gangs a crime, some argued that these provisions violated the guarantee of freedom of association in the Bill of Rights. The Act did incorporate elements of H. R, the Act also made drug testing mandatory for those serving on federal supervised release
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President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
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United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
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Cabinet of the United States
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The Cabinet of the United States is composed of the most senior appointed officers of the executive branch of the government serving under the President. Aside from the Attorney General, the heads of the executive departments all receive the title of Secretary, all members of the Cabinet serve at the pleasure of the President, who can dismiss them at will for no cause. There is no definition of the term Cabinet in the United States Constitution. The name comes from a 17th-century usage for a room where advisors would meet. The term principal officers of the departments is also mentioned in the Twenty-fifth Amendment. The executive departments are listed in 5 U. S. C, under the 1967 Federal Anti-Nepotism statute, federal officials are prohibited from appointing their immediate family members to certain governmental positions, including those in the Cabinet. Under the Federal Vacancies Reform Act of 1998, an incoming administration may appoint acting heads of department from employees of the relevant department and these may be existing high-level career employees, from political appointees of the outgoing administration, or sometimes lower-level appointees of the incoming administration. The heads of the departments and all other federal agency heads are nominated by the President. If approved, they receive their commission scroll, are sworn in, an elected Vice President does not require Senate confirmation, nor does the White House Chief of Staff, which is an appointed staff position of the Executive Office of the President. 21 positions, including the heads of the departments and others. §5312, and those 46 positions on Level II pay are listed in 5 U. S. C, as of 2015, Level I annual pay, was set at $203,700. The annual salary of the Vice President is $235,300, the salary level was set by the Government Salary Reform Act of 1989, which also provides an automatic cost of living adjustment for federal employees. For a full list of people nominated for Cabinet positions, see Formation of Donald Trumps Cabinet, the Cabinet includes the Vice President and the heads of 15 executive departments, listed here according to their order of succession to the Presidency. The following officials hold positions that are considered to be Cabinet-level positions, Department of the Navy, headed by the Secretary of the Navy, became a military department within the Department of Defense. Post Office Department, headed by the Postmaster General, reorganized as the United States Postal Service, National Military Establishment, headed by the Secretary of Defense, created by the National Security Act of 1947 and recreated as the Department of Defense in 1949. Department of the Army, headed by the Secretary of the Army, Department of the Air Force, headed by the Secretary of the Air Force, became a military department within the Department of Defense. Secretary of Foreign Affairs, created in July 1781 and renamed Secretary of State in September 1789, Secretary of War, created in 1789 and was renamed as Secretary of the Army by the National Security Act of 1947. The 1949 Amendments to the National Security Act of 1947 made the Secretary of the Army a subordinate to the Secretary of Defense
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Judiciary Act of 1789
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The Judiciary Act of 1789 was a United States federal statute adopted on September 24,1789, in the first session of the First United States Congress. It established the judiciary of the United States. Article III, Section 1 of the Constitution prescribed that the power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court. It made no provision for the composition or procedures of any of the courts, the existence of a separate federal judiciary had been controversial during the debates over the ratification of the Constitution. Anti-Federalists had denounced the judicial power as an instrument of national tyranny. Indeed, of the ten amendments that eventually became the Bill of Rights, even after ratification, some opponents of a strong judiciary urged that the federal court system be limited to a Supreme Court and perhaps local admiralty judges. The Congress, however, decided to establish a system of trial courts with broader jurisdiction. The Senate Journal records that Richard Henry Lee reported the bill out of committee on June 12,1789. The bill passed the Senate 14–6 on July 17,1789, the House passed an amended bill 37–16 on September 17,1789. The Senate struck four of the House amendments and approved the remaining provisions on September 19,1789, the House passed the Senates final version of the bill on September 21,1789. President George Washington signed the Judiciary Act of 1789 into law on September 24,1789, among the nominees were John Jay for Chief Justice of the United States, John Rutledge, William Cushing, Robert H. Harrison, James Wilson, and John Blair Jr. The Act set the number of Supreme Court justices at six, one Chief Justice, the Act also created 13 judicial districts within the 11 states that had then ratified the Constitution. Each state comprised one district, except for Virginia and Massachusetts, Massachusetts was divided into the District of Maine and the District of Massachusetts. Virginia was divided into the District of Kentucky and the District of Virginia and this Act established a circuit court and district court in each judicial district. The circuit courts also had jurisdiction over the district courts. The single-judge district courts had jurisdiction primarily over admiralty cases, petty crimes, notably, the federal trial courts had not yet received original federal question jurisdiction. Congress authorized all people to represent themselves or to be represented by another person. The Act did not prohibit paying a representative to appear in court, Congress authorized persons who were sued by citizens of another state, in the courts of the plaintiffs home state, to remove the lawsuit to the federal circuit court
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Bureaucracy
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Bureaucracy means both a body of non-elective government officials and an administrative policy-making group. Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials, today, bureaucracy is the administrative system governing any large institution. The public administration in many countries is an example of a bureaucracy, since being coined, the word bureaucracy has developed negative connotations. Bureaucracies have been criticized as being inefficient, convoluted, or too inflexible to individuals, the dehumanizing effects of excessive bureaucracy became a major theme in the work of German-language writer Franz Kafka and are central to his novels The Trial and The Castle. The elimination of bureaucracy is a key concept in modern managerial theory and has been an issue in some political campaigns. Others have noted the necessity of bureaucracies in modern life, the term bureaucracy is French in origin and combines the French word bureau – desk or office – with the Greek word κράτος kratos – rule or political power. It was coined in the century by the French economist Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay and was a satirical pejorative from the outset. Gournay never wrote the term down but was quoted at length in a letter from a contemporary. Here, too, the sense was pejorative, with Irish novelist Lady Morgan referring to the Bureaucratie, or office tyranny, by which Ireland has so long been governed. By the mid-19th century, the word was being used in a neutral sense. In this sense bureaucracy was seen as a form of management. In the1920s, the definition was expanded by the German sociologist Max Weber to include any system of administration conducted by trained professionals according to fixed rules, although the term bureaucracy was not coined until the mid 18th century, organized and consistent administrative systems are much older. Ancient Egypt also had a class of scribes that administered the civil service bureaucracy. The Roman Empire was administered by a hierarchy of regional proconsuls, the reforms of Diocletian doubled the number of administrative districts and led to a large-scale expansion in Roman bureaucracy. After the Empire split, the Byzantine Empire developed a complicated administrative hierarchy. In Ancient China, the Han dynasty established a complicated bureaucracy based on the teachings of Confucius, who emphasized the importance of ritual in family, relationships, with each subsequent Dynasty, the bureaucracy evolved. During the Song dynasty, the bureaucracy became meritocratic, following the Song reforms, competitive exams were held to determine who could hold which positions. The imperial examination system lasted until 1905, six years before the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, a modern form of bureaucracy evolved in the expanding Department of Excise in the United Kingdom, during the 18th century
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United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
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United States House Committee on the Judiciary
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The U. S. House Committee on the Judiciary, also called the House Judiciary Committee, is a standing committee of the United States House of Representatives. It is charged with overseeing the administration of justice within the courts, administrative agencies. The Judiciary Committee is also the responsible for impeachments of federal officials. Because of the nature of its oversight, committee members usually have a legal background. In the 115th Congress, the chairman of the committee is Republican Bob Goodlatte of Virginia, in prior years, Lamar S. Smith of Texas was the chairman, and prior to that John Conyers served as chairman. The committee was created on June 6,1813 for the purpose of considering legislation related to the judicial system. Res. 95 Chairman, Jim Sensenbrenner, Ranking member, John Conyers The Antitrust Task Force during the 108th Congress existed from March 26,2003, all Judiciary Committee Members also served as members of the Task Force, and conducted hearings and investigations into consolidation of the Bell Telephone Companies. The task force operated like any other subcommittee, except that it only has a six-month term, a longer term for the task force would cause the Judiciary Committee to exceed this limit. Chairman, Adam Schiff, Ranking member, Bob Goodlatte Established in September 2008, the investigation was not completed by the end of the 110th Congress, and it was reestablished after the 111th Congress convened in January 2009. The responsibilities of the Task Force were expanded to include the case of Judge Samuel B, kent, leading to hearings and his subsequent impeachment by the full House of Representatives. The Task force finally voted to impeach Porteous on January 21,2010, administrative Law, Process and Procedure Project The Use and Misuse of Presidential Clemency Power for Executive Branch Officials Equal Justice for Our Military Act of 2009, HR569. Congress holds a hearing to consider granting members of the U. S, armed Forces access to the Supreme Court of the United States. 109-153, A History of the Committee on the Judiciary 1813–2006
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William Lawrence (Ohio Republican)
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William Lawrence was a Republican politician from Ohio. Lawrence was born on June 26,1819 in Mount Pleasant and he attended Tidballs Academy in Knoxville, Tennessee. After teaching at Pennsville and McConnelsville, Ohio, he was graduated in 1838 from Franklin College in New Athens and he was then graduated in 1840 from law school at the University of Cincinnati, and was admitted to the bar. In 1873, Lawrence was awarded the LL. D. from Franklin College, in 1841, Lawrence moved to Bellefontaine, Ohio, and there set up his law practice. From July 15,1841 to July 15,1843 he was law partner of Benjamin Stanton, from 1841 to 1843, he continued his studies, then in the field of medicine. In 1842, he became the Commissioner of Bankruptcy for Logan County, from 1845 to 1847, Lawrence served as the editor of the Logan Gazette, which later became the Bellefontaine Examiner. During this time, Lawrence was elected as the Logan County Prosecutor and he also served as a member of the Ohio House of Representatives, in 1846 and 1847. In 1849, Lawrence was first elected to the Ohio Senate and he returned to the Ohio Senate in 1854. He also served as an editor of Western Law Monthly from 1859 to 1862, in 1860 or 1861, Lawrence built a house along North Main Street in Bellefontaine, today, the William Lawrence House remains largely intact and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1857, Lawrence was appointed Judge of the Court of Common Pleas and of the District Court, in 1862, he entered the Union Army as colonel of the 84th Ohio Infantry, a three-month regiment. In 1863, Lawrence was appointed to serve as the judge for the United States district court in Florida, however. On March 4,1865, William Lawrence was inaugurated as the U. S, Representative for the 4th district of Ohio, having been elected to this office the previous November. Lawrence served in the Thirty-ninth, Fortieth, and Forty-first Congresses, as Representative, Lawrence was among the authors of the bill of impeachment against U. S. President Andrew Johnson in 1868. On February 19,1868, Lawrence authored the bill that created the United States Department of Justice. However, this first bill died in Congress due to the Congresss concern with the impeachment of President Johnson, in the following Congress, the issue was brought back to the table. Representative Thomas Jenckes of Rhode Island introduced a bill to create the Department of Justice on February 25,1870, though Lawrence did not write this bill, it incorporated many of the ideas from Lawrences previous bill, and he gave the bill his full support. On June 22,1870, President Ulysses Grant signed this bill into law. Returning to Bellefontaine in 1871, Lawrence founded the Bellefontaine National Bank and he returned to Congress in 1873, this time from the 8th Ohio Congressional district
30.
United States Attorney
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United States Attorneys represent the United States federal government in United States district court and United States court of appeals. There are 93 U. S. Attorneys located throughout the United States, Puerto Rico, the U. S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands. One U. S. Attorney is assigned to each of the districts, with the exception of Guam. Each U. S. Attorney is the federal law enforcement officer within his or her particular jurisdiction. They supervise district offices with as many as 350 Assistant U. S. Attorneys, an Assistant U. S. Attorney, or federal prosecutor, is a public official who represents the federal government on behalf of the U. S. Attorney in criminal prosecutions. U. S. Attorneys and their offices are part of the Department of Justice, U. S. Attorneys receive oversight, supervision, and administrative support services through the Justice Departments Executive Office for United States Attorneys. Selected U. S. Attorneys participate in the Attorney Generals Advisory Committee of United States Attorneys, the Office of the United States Attorney was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789, along with the office of Attorney General and the United States Marshals Service. The same act also specified the structure of the Supreme Court of the United States and established inferior courts making up the United States Federal Judiciary, thus, the office of U. S. Attorney is older than the Department of Justice. The Judiciary Act of 1789 provided for the appointment in each district of a Person learned in the law to act as attorney for the United States. The U. S. Attorney is appointed by the President of the United States for a term of four years, a U. S. Attorney continues in office, beyond the appointed term, until a successor is appointed and qualified. By law, each United States attorney is subject to removal by the President, the Attorney General has had the authority since 1986 to appoint interim U. S. Attorneys to fill a vacancy. If an appointment expires under subsection, the court for such district may appoint a United States attorney to serve until the vacancy is filled. The order of appointment by the court shall be filed with the clerk of the court, on March 9,2007, President George W. This, in effect, extinguished the 120-day limit on interim U. S. Attorneys, and their appointment had an indefinite term. Related to the dismissal of U. S. attorneys controversy, in March 2007 the Senate, the bill was signed by President George W. Bush, and became law in June 2007. Senator Dianne Feinstein, summarized the history of interim United States Attorney appointments, the U. S. Attorney is both the primary representative and the administrative head of the Office of the U. S. Attorney for the district. The U. S. Attorneys Office is the prosecutor for the United States in criminal law cases. However, they are not the one that can represent the United States in Court. These responsibilities include certain legal, budgetary, administrative, and personnel services, the EOUSA was created on April 6,1953, by Attorney General Order No
31.
Ulysses S. Grant
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Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States. As Commanding General, Grant worked closely with President Abraham Lincoln to lead the Union Army to victory over the Confederacy in the American Civil War and he implemented Congressional Reconstruction, often at odds with President Andrew Johnson. His presidency has often criticized for tolerating corruption and for the severe economic depression in his second term. Grant graduated in 1843 from the United States Military Academy at West Point, after the war he married Julia Boggs Dent in 1848, their marriage producing four children. Grant initially retired from the Army in 1854 and he struggled financially in civilian life. When the Civil War began in 1861, he rejoined the U. S. Army, in 1862, Grant took control of Kentucky and most of Tennessee, and led Union forces to victory in the Battle of Shiloh, earning a reputation as an aggressive commander. He incorporated displaced African American slaves into the Union war effort, in July 1863, after a series of coordinated battles, Grant defeated Confederate armies and seized Vicksburg, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and dividing the Confederacy in two. After his victories in the Chattanooga Campaign, Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant general, Grant confronted Robert E. Lee in a series of bloody battles, trapping Lees army in their defense of Richmond. Grant coordinated a series of devastating campaigns in other theaters, as well, in April 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, effectively ending the war. Historians have hailed Grants military genius, and his strategies are featured in history textbooks. After the Civil War, Grant led the armys supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states and he also used the army to build the Republican Party in the South. After the disenfranchisement of some former Confederates, Republicans gained majorities, in his second term, the Republican coalitions in the South splintered and were defeated one by one as redeemers regained control using coercion and violence. In May 1875, Grant authorized his Secretary of Treasury Benjamin Bristow to shut down and his peace policy with the Indians initially reduced frontier violence, but is best known for the Great Sioux War of 1876. Grant responded to charges of corruption in executive offices more than any other 19th Century president and he appointed the first Civil Service Commission and signed legislation ending the corrupt moiety system. In foreign policy, Grant sought to trade and influence while remaining at peace with the world. His administration successfully resolved the Alabama claims by the Treaty of Washington with Great Britain, Grant avoided war with Spain over the Virginius Affair, but Congress rejected his attempted annexation of the Dominican Republic. His administration implemented a standard and sought to strengthen the dollar. Grant left office in 1877 and embarked on a two-year diplomatic world tour that captured the nations attention, in 1880, Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining the Republican presidential nomination for a third term
32.
Amos T. Akerman
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Amos Tappan Akerman served as United States Attorney General under President Ulysses S. Grant from 1870 to 1871. A native of New Hampshire, Akerman graduated from Dartmouth College in 1842, upon graduation Akerman worked with young boys as Headmaster in North Carolina and as a tutor in Georgia. Having become interested in law Akerman studied and passed the bar in Georgia in 1850, where he, in a dual role as an attorney and a farmer making a living, Akerman owned eleven slaves. When the Civil War started in 1861, Akerman joined the Confederate Army, after the Civil War ended in 1865, Akerman joined the Republican Party during Reconstruction and became an outspoken attorney advocate for African American civil rights in Georgia. Akerman, upon President Grants appointment as his U. S. Attorney General, gen. Benjamin Bristow in the newly established Department of Justice. Gen. Akerman decided important land grant cases that concerned railroads in a rapidly expanding West, Akerman also ruled on the United States first federal Civil Service Reform law implemented by President Grant and the U. S. Congress. After he resigned office, Akerman continued in his law practice in Georgia and was highly popular in the state. Akerman was born on February 23,1821, in Portsmouth, New Hampshire and he attended Phillips Exeter Academy high school, and then attended Dartmouth College located in Hanover, graduating as a member of the class of 1842 with Phi Beta Kappa honors. Upon graduation, a condition forced Akerman to move south. Akerman quickly got a job as a instructor of a boys academy in Murfreesboro, North Carolina. Akerman was known as a strict teacher, in 1846, Akerman was hired as a tutor for John M. Berriens, children in Savannah, Georgia. Berrien had been President Andrew Jacksons Attorney General and was a prominent Whig, Akerman took advantage of Berriens extensive law library and became fascinated with the field. Akerman passed the Georgia Bar in 1850, moved to Peoria, Illinois where his sister resided, Akerman returned to Georgia and practiced law in Clarksville. Eventually, Akerman opened a law practice in Elberton, Georgia, in addition to practicing law, Akerman also started a farm and owned eleven slaves. In terms of politics Akerman was a Whig, although he was against secession as a solution to the North–South conflicts, Akerman stayed loyal to his adopted state and joined the Confederate States Army in the spring of 1864. Akerman first served in General Robert Toombs brigade and later in the department where it was his job to procure and dispense uniforms, weapons. Akerman was put into service against the Union during Shermans 1864 march through Georgia. S. Akerman was soon appointment as the district attorney of Georgia
33.
Benjamin Bristow
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Benjamin Helm Bristow was the 30th U. S. Treasury Secretary, the first Solicitor General, an American lawyer, a Union military officer, Republican Party politician, reformer, and civil rights advocate. Additionally, Bristow promoted gold standard currency rather than paper, Bristow was one of Grants most popular Cabinet members among reformers. Bristow supported Grants Resumption of Specie Act of 1875, that stabilize the economy during the Panic of 1873. Gen. Bristow advocated African American citizens in Kentucky be allowed to testify in a white mans court case, a native of Kentucky, Bristow was the son of a prominent Whig Unionist and attorney. Having graduated Jefferson College in Pennsylvania in 1851, Bristow studied law and passed the bar in 1853, fighting for the Union, Bristow served in the army during the American Civil War and was promoted to colonel. Wounded at the Battle of Shiloh, Bristow recuperated and would be promoted to lieutenant colonel, in 1863, Bristow was elected Kentucky state Senator, serving only one term. In 1870, Bristow was appointed the United States first U. S, Solicitor General, who aided the U. S. Attorney General by arguing cases before the U. S. Supreme Court. In 1874, Bristow was appointed U. S. Secretary of the Treasury by President Ulysses S. Grant, initially Grant gave Bristow his full support during Bristows popular prosecution of Whiskey Ring. Benjamin Helm Bristow was born in Edwards Hall on June 20,1832 in Elkton, Bristow was the son of Francis M. Bristow and his wife Emily Helm. Francis was a prominent lawyer and Whig member of Congress in 1854–1855, Edwards Hall was the home of his late grandfather, Benjamin Edwards. Bristow graduated at Jefferson College, Washington, Pennsylvania, in 1851, studied law under his father, for a while Bristow worked as a law partner for his father. His father later became a strong anti-slavery Unionist and his fathers political anti-slavery and Whig views strongly influenced Bristows own political outlook. On November 21,1854, Bristow married Abbie S. Briscoe, Benjamin and Abbie had two children one son, William A. Bristow, and one daughter Nannie Bristow. William was an attorney who worked in Bristows New York law firm Bristow, Opdyke, in June 1896 William was in London recovering from typhoid fever. Nannie married Eben S. Sumner a Massachusetts textile businessman and politician, in 1858, Bristow and his wife Abbie moved to Hopkinsville, Kentucky. Bristow practiced law until the outbreak of the Civil War, at the beginning of the Civil War in 1861, Bristow joined the Union Army. On September 21,1861 he was appointed lieutenant colonel of the 25th Kentucky Infantry, in April 1862, he was severely wounded by an exploding shell at the Battle of Shiloh in Tennessee and temporarily forced to retire from field duty in order to recover from his injury. After his recuperation, Bristow returned to service during the summer of 1862
34.
Ku Klux Klan
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Historically the KKK used terrorism, both physical assault and murder, against groups or individuals whom they opposed. All three movements have called for the purification of American society, and all are considered right-wing extremist organizations, the first Klan flourished in the Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. It sought to overthrow the Republican state governments in the South during the Reconstruction Era, with numerous chapters across the South, it was suppressed around 1871, through federal law enforcement. Members made their own, often colorful, costumes, robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be terrifying, the second group was founded in 1915, and it flourished nationwide in the early and mid-1920s, particularly in urban areas of the Midwest and West. This second organization adopted a white costume and used code words which were similar to those used by the first Klan, while adding cross burnings. The third and current manifestation of the KKK emerged after 1950, in the form of small, local and they have focused on opposition to the Civil Rights Movement, often using violence and murder to suppress activists. It is classified as a group by the Anti-Defamation League. As of 2016, the Anti-Defamation League puts total Klan membership nationwide at around 3,000, the second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent references to Americas Anglo-Saxon blood, hearkening back to 19th-century nativism. Although members of the KKK swear to uphold Christian morality, virtually every Christian denomination has officially denounced the KKK, the manual of rituals was printed by Laps D. McCord of Pulaski. According to The Cyclopædia of Fraternities, Beginning in April,1867, the members had conjured up a veritable Frankenstein. Although there was little organizational structure above the level, similar groups rose across the South and adopted the same name. Klan groups spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement promoting resistance, for example, Confederate veteran John W. Morton founded a chapter in Nashville, Tennessee. As a secret vigilante group, the Klan targeted freedmen and their allies, it sought to restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including murder, against black and white Republicans. In 1870 and 1871, the government passed the Enforcement Acts. The first Klan had mixed results in terms of achieving its objectives and it seriously weakened the black political establishment through its use of assassinations and threats of violence, it drove some people out of politics. Rable argues that the Klan was a failure and therefore was discarded by the Democratic leaders of the South. He says, the Klan declined in strength in part because of weaknesses, its lack of central organization. More fundamentally, it declined because it failed to achieve its central objective – the overthrow of Republican state governments in the South, for instance, the Red Shirts are credited with helping elect Wade Hampton as governor in South Carolina
35.
Albany, New York
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Albany is the capital of the U. S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. Roughly 150 miles north of New York City, Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River, the population of the City of Albany was 97,856 according to the 2010 census. With a Census-estimated population of 98,4242013, the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States. Fortune 500 companies that have offices in Albany include American Express, J. P. Morgan and Chase, Merrill Lynch, General Electric, Verizon, Goldman Sachs, International Paper, and Key Bank. In the 21st century, the Capital District has emerged as an anchor of Tech Valley. This was the first European settlement in the state, settled by Dutch colonists who built Fort Nassau for fur trading in 1614 and they formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples, two major Native American nations in the region. The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange, in 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements, renaming the city as Albany, in honor of the then Duke of Albany, the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The city was chartered in 1686 under English rule. It became the capital of New York State in 1797, following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War, Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies, and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. Its charter is possibly the longest-running instrument of government in the Western Hemisphere. During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th, Albany was a center of trade, Albanys main exports at the time were beer, lumber, published works, and ironworks. Beginning in 1810, Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States, in the 20th century, the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world, the precursor of todays Albany International Airport. During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital and it marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities. In the early 21st century, Albany has experienced growth in the high-technology industry, Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century, with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services. The city has rebounded from the decline of the 1970s and 1980s. Albany is known for its history, commerce, culture, architecture. Albany won the All-America City Award in both 1991 and 2009, Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. The Hudson River area was inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Mohican, who called it Pempotowwuthut-Muhhcanneuw
36.
George Henry Williams
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George Henry Williams was an American judge and politician. He served as Chief Justice of the Oregon Supreme Court, was the 32nd Attorney General of the United States, and was elected Oregons U. S. Senator, Williams was the first presidential Cabinet member to be appointed from the Pacific Coast. As attorney general under President Ulysses S. Grant, Williams continued the prosecutions that shut down the Ku Klux Klan and he had to contend with controversial election disputes in Reconstructed southern states. President Grant and Williams legally recognized P. B. S. Pinchback as the first African American state governor, Williams ruled that the Virginius, a gun-running ship captured by Spain during the Virginius Affair, did not have the right to bear the U. S. flag. However, he argued that Spain did not have the right to execute American crew members, after his resignation, Williams took part in counting Florida ballots for Rutherford B. Hayes in settling the controversial presidential election of 1876. Williams returned to Oregon, resumed law practice, and was elected Portlands mayor. Williams advocated womens suffrage and that marriage and divorce proceedings needed to be handled by the courts rather than the church. Williams, at the age of 83, was indicted while Mayor of Portland for not enforcing gambling restriction statutes, on May 28,1905, Mayor Williams made a speech at the opening ceremony of the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition. Williams was the second to last surviving member of the Grant Administration. George Henry Willams was born in upstate New York, New Lebanon, Columbia County, at an early age his family moved to Onondaga County, where was educated in public and private schools, including Pompey Academy, he did not attend college. Williams studied law under Honorable Daniel Scott having passed the bar in 1844 at the age of 21, in the same year Williams moved west, and practiced law in the Iowa Territory. After Iowa was admitted to statehood, Williams was elected judge in 1847. In 1853, Williams was appointed Chief Justice of the Oregon Territory by President Franklin Pierce, in 1857, at the Oregon Constitutional Convention, Williams urged that slavery be made illegal in Oregon as a requirement for statehood. Williams advocated unsuccessfully that womens property not be subject to their husbands debts, in the early years of the Oregon Supreme Court, the three justices also rode circuit and acted as trial level judges. As a presiding judge while riding circuit, Williams presided over the Holmes v. Ford case that freed a family since slavery was illegal in the territory. In 1857, he was a member of the Oregon Constitutional Convention held before the establishment of Oregon as a U. S. state, Williams remained on the court until 1858 when he resigned from the bench. He then moved to Portland, Oregon, where he resumed the practice of law, Williams, a Democrat, supported Stephen Douglas during the Presidential Election of 1860. Williams attended the Oregon Union convention of 1862, having opposed slavery, in 1864 Williams, having changed over to the Republican Party, was elected to the United States Senate, he served one term, from 1865 to 1871
37.
Solicitor General of the United States
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The United States Solicitor General is the third-highest-ranking official in the U. S. Department of Justice. The United States Solicitor General is the appointed to represent the federal government of the United States before the Supreme Court of the United States. The current Acting Solicitor General, Jeffrey Wall, took office on March 10,2017, the Solicitor General determines the legal position that the United States will take in the Supreme Court. In the federal courts of appeal, the Office of the Solicitor General reviews cases decided against the United States and determines whether the government will seek review in the Supreme Court. The Office of the Solicitor General also reviews cases decided against the United States in the district courts. The Solicitor General is assisted by four Deputy Solicitors General and seventeen Assistants to the Solicitor General, three of the deputies are career attorneys in the Department of Justice. The remaining deputy is known as the Principal Deputy, sometimes called the deputy and, like the Solicitor General. The current Principal Deputy is Jeffrey B, Wall, who succeeded Noel J. Francisco after Francisco was nominated to be Solicitor General in March 2017. The other deputies currently are Michael Dreeben, Edwin Kneedler, the Solicitor General or one of the deputies typically argues the most important cases in the Supreme Court. Cases not argued by the Solicitor General may be argued by one of the assistants or another government attorney, the Solicitors General tend to argue 6–9 cases per Supreme Court term, while deputies argue 4–5 cases and assistants each argue 2–3 cases. As the most frequent advocate before the Court, the Office of the Solicitor General generally argues dozens of each term. As a result, the Solicitor General tends to remain particularly comfortable during oral arguments that other advocates would find intimidating, other than the justices themselves, the Solicitor General is among the most influential and knowledgeable members of the legal community with regard to Supreme Court litigation. Five Solicitors General have later served on the Supreme Court, William Howard Taft, Stanley Forman Reed, Robert H. Jackson, Thurgood Marshall, some who have had other positions in the office of the Solicitor General have also later been appointed to the Supreme Court. Only one former Solicitor General has been nominated to the Supreme Court unsuccessfully, eight other Solicitors General have served on the United States Courts of Appeals. Within the Justice Department, the Solicitor General exerts significant influence on all appeals brought by the department, the Solicitor General is the only U. S. officer that is statutorily required to be learned in law. Whenever the DOJ wins at the stage and the losing party appeals. However, if the DOJ is the party at the trial stage. For example, should the tort division lose a jury trial in district court
38.
United States Department of the Interior
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The United States Department of the Interior is the United States federal executive department of the U. S. About 75% of federal land is managed by the department. The Department is administered by the United States Secretary of the Interior, the current Secretary is Ryan Zinke. The Inspector General position is vacant, with Mary Kendall serving as acting Inspector General. Despite its name, the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the ministries of other nations. In the United States, national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily, the Department of the Interior has often been humorously called The Department of Everything Else because of its broad range of responsibilities. A department for domestic concern was first considered by the 1st United States Congress in 1789, the idea of a separate domestic department continued to percolate for a half-century and was supported by Presidents from James Madison to James Polk. The 1846–48 Mexican–American War gave the new steam as the responsibilities of federal government grew. Polks Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, became a champion of creating the new department. In 1849, Walker stated in his report that several federal offices were placed in departments with which they had little to do. Walker argued that these and other bureaus should be together in a new Department of the Interior. A bill authorizing its creation of the Department passed the House of Representatives on February 15,1849, the Department was established on March 3,1849, the eve of President Zachary Taylors inauguration, when the Senate voted 31 to 25 to create the Department. Its passage was delayed by Democrats in Congress who were reluctant to create more patronage posts for the incoming Whig administration to fill, the first Secretary of the Interior was Thomas Ewing. Many of the concerns the Department originally dealt with were gradually transferred to other Departments. Other agencies became separate Departments, such as the Bureau of Agriculture, however, land and natural resource management, American Indian affairs, wildlife conservation, and territorial affairs remain the responsibilities of the Department of the Interior. As of mid-2004, the Department managed 507 million acres of surface land, energy projects on federally managed lands and offshore areas supply about 28% of the nations energy production. Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with Native Americans, the current acting Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Tribe in Wisconsin. Several cases have sought accounting of such funds from the departments of Interior, in addition, some Native American nations have sued the government over water-rights issues and their treaties with the US
39.
United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth
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The United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth is a medium-security United States federal prison for male inmates in northeast Kansas. It is operated by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, a division of the United States Department of Justice and it also includes a satellite federal prison camp for minimum-security male offenders. USP Leavenworth is located 25 miles northwest of Kansas City, Kansas, the civilian USP Leavenworth is the oldest of three major prisons built on federal land in Leavenworth County, Kansas. It is often confused with, but separate from the United States Disciplinary Barracks, the USDB is 4 miles north and is the sole maximum-security penal facility of the United States Military. Prisoners from the original USDB were used to build the civilian penitentiary, in addition, the militarys medium security Joint Regional Correctional Facility, located southwest of the new USDB, opened in 2010. The USDB and JRCF operate independently from the USP-Leavenworth, the prison was described by Pete Earley, the only writer at that time who had ever been granted unlimited access to the prison, in his book, The Hot House. The prisons history has also covered in the pictorial history titled U. S. Penitentiary Leavenworth by Kenneth M. LaMaster. USP Leavenworth was the largest maximum-security federal prison in the United States from 1903 until 2005 when it was downgraded to a medium-security facility, USP Leavenworth was one of three first generation federal prisons which were built in the early 1900s. Prior to its construction, federal prisoners were held at state prisons, in 1895, Congress authorized the construction of the federal prison system. The other two were Atlanta and McNeil Island, the prison follows a format popularized at the Auburn Correctional Facility in New York where the cell blocks were in a large rectangular building. The rectangular building was focused on indoor group labor with a staff continually patrolling, the St. Louis, Missouri architecture firm of Eames and Young designed both Leavenworth and the United States Penitentiary, Atlanta. Leavenworths prison cells are back to back in the middle of the structure facing the walls, the prisons walls are 40 feet high,40 feet below the surface and 3,030 feet long and enclose 22.8 acres. Its domed main building was nicknamed the Big Top or Big House, the domed Disciplinary Barracks two miles to the north was nicknamed the Little Top until it was torn down in 2004 and replaced with a newer structure. 1827, Colonel Henry Leavenworth chose site for new fort,1875, Fort chosen as the site for a military prison. Within a year, Fort Leavenworth housed more than 300 prisoners in a remodeled,1894, Secretary of War conceded to the House Appropriations Committee that War Department could do without the military prison. 1895 July 1, Congress transferred the military prison from the War Department to the US Department of Justice, the Department of Justice took over the plant and inaugurated the United States Penitentiary. Commandant of the prison, James V. Pope. Warden of the USP, James W. French,1896, House Judiciary Committee recommended that the facility be replaced
40.
West Virginia
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West Virginia /ˌwɛst vərˈdʒɪnjə/ is a state located in the Appalachian region of the Southern United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Ohio to the northwest, Pennsylvania to the north, West Virginia is the 9th smallest by area, is ranked 38th in population, and has the second lowest household income of the 50 United States. The capital and largest city is Charleston, West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20,1863, and was a key Civil War border state. The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States, the unique position of West Virginia means that it is often included in several geographical regions, including the Mid-Atlantic, the Upland South, and the Southeastern United States. It is the state that is entirely within the area served by the Appalachian Regional Commission. The state is noted for its mountains and rolling hills, its historically significant logging and coal mining industries and it is one of the most densely karstic areas in the world, making it a choice area for recreational caving and scientific research. The karst lands contribute to much of the states cool trout waters and it is also known for a wide range of outdoor recreational opportunities, including skiing, whitewater rafting, fishing, hiking, backpacking, mountain biking, and hunting. Many ancient man-made earthen mounds from various mound builder cultures survive, especially in the areas of Moundsville, South Charleston. The artifacts uncovered in these give evidence of village societies and they had a tribal trade system culture that crafted cold-worked copper pieces. The Iroquois drove out other American Indian tribes from the region to reserve the upper Ohio Valley as a ground in the 1670s. Siouan language tribes such as the Moneton had also recorded in the area previously. West Virginia was originally part of the British Virginia Colony from 1607 to 1776, residents of the western and northern counties set up a separate government under Francis Pierpont in 1861, which they called the restored government. Most voted to separate from Virginia and the new state was admitted to the Union in 1863, in 1864 a state constitutional convention drafted a constitution, which was ratified by the legislature without putting it to popular vote. West Virginia abolished slavery and temporarily disfranchised men who had held Confederate office or fought for the Confederacy, West Virginias history has been profoundly affected by its mountainous terrain, numerous and vast river valleys, and rich natural resources. These were all factors driving its economy and the lifestyles of its residents, a 2010 analysis of a local stalagmite revealed that Native Americans were burning forests to clear land as early as 100 BC. Some regional late-prehistoric Eastern Woodland tribes were involved in hunting and fishing, practicing the slash. Another group progressed to the more time-consuming, advanced companion crop fields method of gardening, also continuing from ancient indigenous people of the state, field space and time was given to tobacco growing through to early historic. Maize did not make a contribution to the diet until after 1150 BP
41.
Federal Prison Camp, Alderson
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The Federal Prison Camp, Alderson is a minimum-security United States federal prison for female inmates in West Virginia. It is operated by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, a division of the United States Department of Justice, FPC Alderson is located in two West Virginia counties, near the town of Alderson. A portion of the prison is located in unincorporated Monroe County, while the portion of the prison. Four other area towns, Hinton, Lewisburg, Ronceverte, in the 1920s, there was a shortage of federal prison space for female inmates. Women offenders either were given alternative punishments or were housed alone within all-male institutions, Prison staff and fellow inmates sexually exploited girls and women who were incarcerated in these facilities. Mabel Walker Willebrandt, the Assistant U. S. Attorney General, FPC Alderson, which opened in 1927, was the first federal womens prison in the United States. It was opened during a movement in the 1920s to help reform female offenders. Harris, was chosen by Mabel Willebrandt, serving as a model for prison reform at the time, it was styled after a boarding school offering education with no armed guards. The facility followed a model with no fenced grounds. The prison consisted of primarily work-oriented facilities designed for federal offenders. It originally consisted of fourteen cottages built in a pattern on two-tiered slopes. The offenders segregated by race in the cottages and each building contained a kitchen, the vast majority of the women were imprisoned for drug and alcohol charges imposed during the Prohibition era. FPC Alderson is a 159-acre facility and is the largest employer in the Alderson, while there is no barbed wire on the fence surrounding the camp, the prisoners have schedules and each one must work. Inmates get holidays off except those who work in the powerhouse, from its beginning, Aldersons staff members have maintained a focus on vocational training and personal growth experiences, with craft-shop activities an integral part of vocational training. Free time is spent walking around the sidewalk that is set between the two dorms as this is within bounds for the inmates, since 2004 inmates are no longer free to roam the entire campus and are restricted in areas of the prison. They also play recreational activities such as volleyball, most of the inmates at FPC Alderson have been convicted of non-violent or white-collar crime. Many are in the program and have come from other prisons to attend the program at Alderson. They sleep in beds in two large dormitories
42.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
