1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
National Capitol Columns
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The National Capitol Columns is a monument in Washington, D. C. s National Arboretum. It is an arrangement of twenty-two Corinthian columns, originally from the United States Capitol, placed amid 20 acres of open meadow, the columns were quarried from sandstone near Aquia Creek in Virginia and transported to Washington on a barge. Old identification marks from the quarry are visible on some of the stones. They were originally built as part of the east portico of the Capitol in 1828, however, when the dome was completed in 1866, it appeared inadequately supported by the columns, because the iron dome was significantly larger than the dome that the designer envisioned. To correct this visual illusion, an addition to the east side of the Capitol was constructed in 1958, during the 1980s, Arboretum benefactor Ethel Garrett took up the cause of establishing a permanent home for the columns. Russell Page, a designer and close friend of Garretts, visited the Arboretum in September 1984. He determined that the east side of the Ellipse Meadow would be an ideal location, the columns were relocated to this site, and set on a foundation of stones from the steps that were on the east side of the Capitol. A reflecting pool fed by a rivulet of water running down a channel in the steps reflects the columns. A capital, or top portion, of one of the columns is located elsewhere in the meadow, acanthus leaves are clearly visible, and the many layers of paint applied while the column was in place at the Capitol are visible on portions of the stone. While 22 of the original 24 columns stand in the Ellipse Meadow, both are cracked in half and neither have a base or capital
3.
United States Capitol
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The United States Capitol, often called the Capitol Building or Capitol Hill, is the home of the United States Congress, and the seat of the legislative branch of the U. S. federal government. It sits atop Capitol Hill at the end of the National Mall in Washington. Though not at the center of the Federal District, the Capitol forms the origin point for the Districts street-numbering system. The original building was completed in 1800 and was subsequently expanded, like the principal buildings of the executive and judicial branches, the Capitol is built in a distinctive neoclassical style and has a white exterior. Both its east and west elevations are referred to as fronts, though only the east front was intended for the reception of visitors. In 2014, scaffolding was erected around the dome for a project scheduled to be completed by early 2017. All exterior scaffolding was removed by the end of summer 2016, prior to establishing the nations capital in Washington, D. C. the United States Congress and its predecessors had met in Philadelphia, New York City, and a number of other locations. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress brought together delegates from the colonies in Philadelphia, followed by the Second Continental Congress, Congress requested that John Dickinson, the Governor of Pennsylvania, call up the militia to defend Congress from attacks by the protesters. In what became known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Dickinson sympathized with the protesters and refused to remove them from Philadelphia. As a result, Congress was forced to flee to Princeton, New Jersey, on June 21,1783, and met in Annapolis, Maryland, the United States Congress was established upon ratification of the United States Constitution and formally began on March 4,1789. New York City remained home to Congress until July 1790, when the Residence Act was passed to pave the way for a permanent capital. As part of the legislation, Philadelphia was chosen as a capital for ten years, until the nations capital in Washington. Pierre Charles LEnfant was given the task of creating the city plan for the new capital city, in reviewing LEnfants plan, Thomas Jefferson insisted the legislative building be called the Capitol rather than Congress House. The word Capitol comes from Latin and is associated with the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on Capitoline Hill, the connection between the two is not, however, crystal clear. In spring 1792, United States Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed a competition to solicit designs for the Capitol and the Presidents House. The prize for the competition was $500 and a lot in the Federal City, the most promising of the submissions was by Stephen Hallet, a trained French architect. However, Hallets designs were overly fancy, with too much French influence, a late entry by amateur architect William Thornton was submitted on January 31,1793, to much praise for its Grandeur, Simplicity, and Beauty by Washington, along with praise from Thomas Jefferson. Thornton was inspired by the east front of the Louvre, as well as the Paris Pantheon for the portion of the design
4.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Arboretum
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An arboretum in a narrow sense is a collection of trees only. Related collections include a fruticetum, and a viticetum, a collection of vines, more commonly, today, an arboretum is a botanical garden containing living collections of woody plants intended at least partly for scientific study. An arboretum specializing in growing conifers is known as a pinetum, other specialist arboreta include saliceta, populeta, and querceta. The term arboretum was first used in an English publication by John Claudius Loudon in 1833 in The Gardeners Magazine, egyptian Pharaohs planted exotic trees and cared for them, they brought ebony wood from the Sudan, and pine and cedar from Syria. It is reported that Hatshepsut had these trees planted in the courts of her Deir el Bahri mortuary temple complex, Arboreta are special places for the cultivation and display of a wide variety of different kinds of trees and shrubs. Many tree collections have been claimed as the first arboretum, in most cases, however, Arboreta differ from pieces of woodland or plantations because they are botanically significant collections with a variety of examples rather than just a few kinds. Of course there are many tree collections that are older than the eighteenth century in different parts of the world. Loudons Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum,8 vols, Loudon urged that a national arboretum be created and called for arboreta and other systematic collections to be established in public parks, private gardens, country estates and other places. He regarded the Derby Arboretum as the most important landscape-gardening commission of the part of his career because it demonstrated the benefits of a public arboretum. The more lofty trees suffered from the high winds. We walked round the two spirals of this coil of trees and shrubs, viz. from Acer to Quercus. There is no garden scene about London so interesting, a plan of Loddiges arboretum was included in The Encyclopaedia of Gardening,1834 edition. One example of an early European tree collection is the Trsteno Arboretum, the date of its founding is unknown, but it was already in existence by 1492, when a 15 m span aqueduct to irrigate the arboretum was constructed, this aqueduct is still in use. The garden was created by the prominent local Gučetić/Gozze family and it suffered two major disasters in the 1990s but its two unique and ancient Oriental Planes remained standing. Udhagamandalam Arboretum, The Nilgiris, India The arboretum at Ooty was established in 1992 with an aim of conserving native and indigenous trees and it was established during the year 1992 and maintained by Department of Horticulture with Hill Area Development Programme funds. The area is the natural habitats of indigenous and migratory birds. During the year 2005-2006, it was rehabilated with funds provided by the Hill Area Development Programme by providing permanent fencing, a foot path, and other infrastructure facilities. The arboretum is the realization of the dream of William Douglas Cook, the arboretum is now the National Arboretum of New Zealand, and holds some 4,000 different trees, shrubs and climbers
7.
United States Department of Agriculture
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Approximately 80% of USDAs $140 billion budget goes to the Food and Nutrition Service program. The largest component of the FNS budget is the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, after the resignation of Thomas Vilsack on January 13,2017 and the departure of President Barack Obama from office on January 20,2017, the acting Secretary of Agriculture is Michael Young. Activities in this include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, which provides healthy food to over 40 million low-income. The USDA also is concerned with assisting farmers and food producers with the sale of crops and it plays a role in overseas aid programs by providing surplus foods to developing countries. This aid can go through USAID, foreign governments, international bodies such as World Food Program, the Agricultural Act of 1949, section 416 and Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, also known as Food for Peace, provides the legal basis of such actions. The USDA is a partner of the World Cocoa Foundation, early in its history, the economy of the United States was largely agrarian. Officials in the government had long sought new and improved varieties of seeds, plants. In 1837 Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, a Yale-educated attorney interested in improving agriculture, became Commissioner of Patents and he began collecting and distributing new varieties of seeds and plants through members of the Congress and agricultural societies. In 1839, Congress established the Agricultural Division within the Patent Office and allotted $1,000 for the collection of agricultural statistics, Ellsworth was called the Father of the Department of Agriculture. In 1849, the Patent Office was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior, in the ensuing years, agitation for a separate bureau of agriculture within the department or a separate department devoted to agriculture kept recurring. Lincoln called it the peoples department, in the 1880s, varied advocacy groups were lobbying for Cabinet representation. Business interests sought a Department of Commerce and Industry, and farmers tried to raise the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet rank, finally, on February 9,1889, President Grover Cleveland signed a bill into law elevating the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet level. In 1887, the Hatch Act provided for the funding of agricultural experiment stations in each state. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 then funded cooperative extension services in each state to teach agriculture, home economics, with these and similar provisions, the USDA reached out to every county of every state. During the Great Depression, farming remained a way of life for millions of Americans. The Department of Agricultures Bureau of Home Economics, established in 1923, published shopping advice and recipes to stretch family budgets and make food go farther. USDA helped ensure that continued to be produced and distributed to those who needed it, assisted with loans for small landowners. The Department of Agriculture was authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2015 of $139.7 billion, the Washington Post reports that he said There are days when I have literally nothing to do, he recalled thinking as he weighed his decision to quit
8.
Agricultural Research Service
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The Agricultural Research Service is the principal in-house research agency of the United States Department of Agriculture. ARS is one of four agencies in USDAs Research, Education, ARS research focuses on solving problems affecting Americans every day. ARS has more than 2,200 permanent scientists working on approximately 1,100 research projects at more than 100 locations across the country, innovation and commercialization are the heart of these facilities, which have given life to hundreds of products, processes and technologies. ARSs Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center in Beltsville, ARS operates the U. S. Horticultural Research Laboratory in Fort Pierce, Florida, and the U. S. National Poultry Research Center in Athens, Georgia. ARS also has six major human nutrition research centers focus on solving a wide spectrum of human nutrition questions by providing authoritative. The centers are located in Arkansas, Maryland, Texas, North Dakota, Massachusetts, ARS scientists at these centers study the role of food and dietary components in human health from conception to advanced old age. ARS research complements the work of state colleges and universities, agricultural experiment stations, other federal and state agencies, ARS research may often focus on regional issues that have national implications, and where there is a clear federal role. ARS disseminates much of its results through scientific journals, technical publications, Agricultural Research magazine. Information is also distributed through ARSs National Agricultural Library, ARS has more than 150 librarians and other information specialists who work at two NAL locations—the Abraham Lincoln Building in Beltsville, Maryland, and the DC Reference Center in Washington, D. C. NAL provides reference and information services, document delivery, interlibrary loan, ARS maintains a culture collection also called NRRL. S. Horticultural Research Laboratory National Interagency Confederation for Biological Research Agricultural Research Service, archived from the original on October 14,2004. Archived from the original on 6 October 2005, - An online catalog from the Agricultural Research Service Information Staff. Archived from the original on 1 September 2009, archived from the original on 26 August 2009. National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, archived from the original on 31 August 2009. Archived from the original on 3 September 2009, archived from the original on 2 September 2009. Archived from the original on 16 November 2008, official website Agricultural Research Service in the Federal Register
9.
Act of Congress
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An Act of Congress is a statute enacted by the United States Congress. It can either be a Public Law, relating to the public, or a Private Law. The term can be used in countries with a legislature named Congress. In the United States, Acts of Congress are designated as public laws, relating to the general public, or private laws. Since 1957, all Acts of Congress have been designated as Public Law X-Y or Private Law X-Y, for example, P. L. 111-5 was the fifth enacted public law of the 111th United States Congress. Public laws are often abbreviated as Pub. L. When the legislation of those two kinds is proposed, it is called public bill and private bill respectively, the word act, as used in the term Act of Congress, is a common, not a proper noun. The capitalization of the act is deprecated by some dictionaries. Some writers, in particular the U. S. Code and this is likely a result of the more liberal use of capital letters in legal contexts, which has its roots in the 18th century capitalization of all nouns as is seen in the United States Constitution. Act of Congress is sometimes used in speech to indicate something for which getting permission is burdensome. For example, It takes an Act of Congress to get a permit in this town. The President promulgates Acts of Congress made by the first two methods, if an Act is made by the third method, the presiding officer of the house that last reconsidered the act promulgates it. In addition, if the President rejects a bill or resolution while the Congress is in session, after the Archivist receives the Act, he or she provides for its publication as a slip law and in the United States Statutes at Large. Thereafter, the changes are published in the United States Code, an Act of Congress that violates the Constitution may be declared unconstitutional by the courts. The judicial declaration of an Acts unconstitutionality does not remove the law from the books, rather. However, future publications of the Act are generally annotated with warnings indicating that the statute is no longer valid law, legislation List of United States federal legislation for a list of prominent acts of Congress. Procedures of the United States Congress Act of Parliament Coming into force Enactment Federal Register http, //bensguide. gpo. gov/6-8/glossary. html
10.
Frederick Vernon Coville
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He made contribution to economic botany and helped shape American scientific policy of the time on plant and exploration research. Coville was born in 1867 in Preston, New York to bank director Joseph Addison Coville and he went to Cornell University, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1887. He briefly taught botany before joining the USDA and participating to the Geological Survey of Arkansas as assistant botanist in 1888. He would remain with the department until his death, succeeding to George Vasey as Chief botanist in 1893, Coville married his wife, Elizabeth Harwood Boyton, in 1890, they had five children, four of which, three sons and a daughter, survived their father. Over the course of his life, he published approximately 170 papers and books, a tall man who had enjoyed success in college sports, he was described as helpful, perceptive, clear-thinking and curious, as well as greatly enthusiastic in his outdoor expeditions. Coville participated in the 1891 Death Valley Expedition led by C. Hart Merriam and T. S. Palmer and he traveled a lot in the Western United States and grew an interest for desert and medicinal plants, leading to his 1897-1898 Medicinal Plants Survey. Gifford Pinchot called a report of Covilles on effects of grazing on forest the essentials of a sound, Coville also participated in and wrote on the 1899 Harriman Alaska Expedition, although he never completed his Flora of Alaska. Coville was considered the American authority on Juncaceae and Grossulariaceae, after 1910 he began to work on blueberry, and was the first to discover the importance of soil acidity, that blueberries do not self-pollinate, and the effects of cold on blueberries and other plant. In 1911, he began a program of research in conjunction with Elizabeth White and his work doubled the size of some strains fruit, and by 1916, he had succeeded in cultivating blueberries, making them a valuable crop in the Northeastern United States. For this work he received the George Roberts White Medal of Honor from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, from 1920 to his death, he was chairman of the National Geographic Society Research Committee and was very influential in deciding areas of exploration. At the time of his death he was working on a revision of Botany of the Death Valley Expedition as a flora of the Valley, Covilles papers are split between several archives. Many are kept at the Smithsonian Institution, Others at the National Arboretum and his personal library is now part of the University of Wyomings special collections library, while his Death Valley Expedition field diary is kept at UC Berkeley. Amongst several plants named after him are Eriogonum covilleanum, Amelanchier covillei, Cheilanthes covillei, Enceliopsis covillei, Juncus covillei, a genus Covillea was also named after him, but is now considered a synonym of Larrea
11.
New York Avenue (Washington, D.C.)
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New York Avenue is diagonal avenue radiating northeast from the White House in Washington, D. C. to the border with Maryland. New York Avenue was planned as one of the streets in the LEnfant Plan for Washington. It was intended to begin at the Potomac River and extend northeast toward the White House, the portion of the street southwest of the White House was to give the President of the United States an uninterrupted view of the river. Construction of the State, War, and Navy Building from 1871 to 1888 blocked this view, and it remains blocked to this day. Originally, it extended to the grounds of the U. S. Naval Observatory and its consolidation with Triangle Park and three other parklets into a Little Mall in 1937 consumed another block between 20th and 21st Streets NW. Construction of the United States Department of War Building, and a park from 1940 to 1941 destroyed the lower three blocks of New York Avenue. Construction of the Theodore Roosevelt Building in 1963 eliminated another block between 19th and 20th Streets NW and this left a single block of New York Avenue NW, between 17th and 18th Streets NW, southeast of the White House. New York Avenue northeast of the White House retains its uninterrupted character and it originally terminated at Boundary Avenue (now Florida Avenue NE, as all city streets did in the LEnfant Plan. Extensive development occurred beyond Boundary Avenue from 1870 to 1900, extension of New York Avenue to Bladensburg Road was considered as early as 1899. The McMillan Plan, a plan for the capital published in 1901. But although many portions of the plan were acted on, no road construction occurred, plans were drawn up in 1903 to extend the street about 1-mile beyond the city limits to reach the Ivy City development, but these, too, fell through. In 1907, as construction of Union Station was under way, as part of this effort, the B&O was required to build a bridge to carry New York Avenue over its new track route. It did so, but the bridge remained unused for decades, extensions to Bladensburg Road were debated again in 1908, and failed. The right of way was purchased in 1914, and property owners along the street route assessed for construction, an extension was proposed to South Dakota Avenue NE in 1925, but these proposals were not acted on. Construction on New York Avenue Extended finally began in September 1930, the $231,000 project created a 50-foot roadway 2.125 miles long from Florida Avenue NE to Bladensburg Road NE. There were no intersections with side streets, and only 4th Street NE merged with it, New York Avenue Extended opened on November 2,1931. The final section of New York Avenue NE, from Bladensburg Road to the District-Maryland border, the construction of Route 50 was a joint effort of the state of Maryland and the federal government. The District of Columbia paid to have New York Avenue extended to the connection, a gateway to the city was proposed at this time, but no gateway was built
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Botany
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Botany, also called plant science, plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field, the term botany comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη meaning pasture, grass, or fodder, βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν, to feed or to graze. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance and they were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden and these gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, in the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science, dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties, many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10,000 years ago. This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee, the early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC, in archaic Avestan writings. His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to science until the Middle Ages. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years, important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyyas Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarīs the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassals The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner and these gardens continued the practical value of earlier physic gardens, often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject, lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe, the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621, throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine. German physician Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three German fathers of botany, along with theologian Otto Brunfels and physician Hieronymus Bock, Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification, physician Valerius Cordus authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner and herbalist John Gerard published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants, naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants
13.
Persimmon
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The persimmon /pərˈsɪmən/ is the edible fruit of a number of species of trees in the genus Diospyros. Diospyros is in the family Ebenaceae, and other members of the genus are grown for ebony timber, the most widely cultivated species is the Oriental or Japanese persimmon, Diospyros kaki. In color, the fruit of the cultivated strains range from light yellow-orange to dark red-orange depending on the species. They similarly vary in size from 1.5 to 9 cm in diameter, the calyx generally remains attached to the fruit after harvesting, but becomes easy to remove once the fruit is ripe. The ripe fruit has a high glucose content, the protein content is low, but it has a balanced protein profile. Persimmon fruits have been put to various medicinal and chemical uses, like the tomato, persimmons are not popularly considered to be berries, but in terms of botanical morphology, the fruit is in fact a berry. The word Diospyros comes from the ancient Greek words dios and pyron, a popular etymology construed this as divine fruit, or as meaning wheat of Zeus or Gods pear and Joves fire. The dio-, as shown by the vowel i has nothing to do with divine, dio- being an affix attached to plant names. The Modern Greek name for the fruit is λωτός, which leads modern Greeks to the assumption that this is the referred to in Homers Odyssey. The word persimmon itself is derived from putchamin, pasiminan, or pessamin, from Powhatan and it is deciduous, with broad, stiff leaves, and is known as the shizi, and also as the Japanese Persimmon or kaki in Japanese. It is the most widely cultivated species and its fruits are sweet and slightly tangy with a soft to occasionally fibrous texture. It is edible in its crisp, firm state but has its best flavor when allowed to rest, the Japanese cultivar Hachiya is widely grown. The fruit has a tannin content, which makes the unripe fruit astringent. The tannin levels are reduced as the fruit matures, Persimmons like Hachiya must be completely ripened before consumption. When ripe, this fruit comprises thick, pulpy jelly encased in a waxy thin-skinned shell, sharon fruit is the marketing name for the Israeli-bred cultivar Triumph. As with all pollination-variant-astringent persimmons, the fruit are ripened off the tree by exposing them to carbon dioxide, the sharon fruit has no core, is seedless and particularly sweet, and can be eaten whole. In the Valencia region of Spain, there is a form of kaki called the Ribera del Xuquer. Date-plum, also known as lotus persimmon, is native to southwest Asia and it was known to the ancient Greeks as the fruit of the gods and often referred to as natures candy
14.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
15.
Hassan II of Morocco
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King Hassan II,9 July 1929 –23 July 1999) was King of Morocco from 1961 until his death in 1999. He was the eldest son of Mohammed V, Sultan, then King of Morocco, there were several controversies during his lifetime. King Hassan was educated at the Imperial College at Rabat, and he was exiled to Corsica by French authorities on 20 August 1953, together with his father Sultan Mohammed V. They were transferred to Madagascar in January 1954, Prince Moulay Hassan acted as his fathers political advisor during the exile. Mohammed V and his family returned from exile on 16 November 1955, in the unrest of the same year, he led army contingents battling rebels in the mountains of the Rif. Mohammed V changed the title of the Moroccan sovereign from Sultan to King in 1957, Hassan was proclaimed Crown Prince on 19 July 1957, and became King on 26 February 1961, after his fathers death. Hassans conservative rule, one characterized by a human rights record. In Moroccos first constitution of 1963, Hassan II reaffirmed Moroccos choice of a multi-party political system, in 1965, Hassan dissolved Parliament and ruled directly, although he did not abolish the mechanisms of parliamentary democracy. When elections were held, they were mostly rigged in favor of loyal parties. This caused severe discontent among the opposition, and protest demonstrations, a US report observed that Hassan appears obsessed with the preservation of his power rather than with its application toward the resolution of Moroccos multiplying domestic problems. In the early 1970s, King Hassan survived two assassination attempts, important guests, including the Belgian Ambassador Marcel Dupert, were placed under house arrest, and the King himself was taken to a small pavilion. Rabats main radio station was taken over by the rebels and broadcast propaganda stating that the King had been murdered, the coup ended the same day when royalist troops took over the palace in combat against the rebels. It was subsequently claimed by the Moroccan authorities that the cadets had been misled by senior officers into thinking that they were acting to protect the king. Allegedly, the King himself hurried to the cockpit, took control of the radio and shouted, Stop firing you fools, eight people were killed when the jets strafed the awaiting reception dignitaries. General Mohamed Oufkir, Moroccos defense minister, was the man behind the coup and was declared to have committed suicide after the attack. His body, however, was found with bullet wounds. In the Cold War era, Hassan II allied Morocco with the West generally, there were close and continuing ties between Hassan IIs government and the CIA, who helped to reorganize Moroccos security forces in 1960. Hassan served as a channel between the Arab world and Israel, facilitating early negotiations between them
16.
National Bonsai Foundation
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The National Bonsai Foundation is a nonprofit organization that was created to sustain the National Bonsai and Penjing Museum. NBF also helps the United States National Arboretum showcase the arts of Bonsai, the National Bonsai and Penjing Museum is located on the 446-acre campus of the US National Arboretum in northeast Washington, D. C. Each year over 200,000 people visit the museum, distinguished national and international guests of various Federal Departments are also among the visitors. The National Bonsai Foundation is a section 501 nonprofit organization established in 1982 to sustain the National Bonsai and it cooperates with the U. S. National Arboretum by offering support and advice to the museum. In 1976, the country of Japan gave a gift of 53 Bonsai trees to America for the United States Bicentennial, the trees were selected by the Nippon Bonsai Association, with financial assistance from the Japan Foundation. The trees arrived at the Potomac Bonsai Association, and volunteers worked with the staff of the US National Arboretum to keep the trees in display condition. In 1979, Janet Lanman talked with Dr. John Creech, Dr. Creech proposed this idea to well-known Bonsai teacher Marion Gyllenswan. An independent body of Bonsai authorities was assigned to review private Bonsai collections and these Bonsai authorities were called the National Bonsai Committee. In 1982, the National Bonsai Committee was reformed into the National Bonsai Foundation, the National Bonsai Foundation recruited people from all across the country to be directors. The members of the first Board were Marybel Balendonck, Larry Ragle, Melba Tucker, Frederic Ballard, maryAnn Orlando served as the Executive Director and principal fund raiser for the NBF. Marion Gyllenswan was appointed the first president of the NBF and this became a reality in 1990. That October 1, the American Bonsai Pavilion was dedicated to two American Bonsai Masters, the Yuji Yoshimura Educational Center is a work space and a classroom. Naka North American Pavilion provides the area for the North American Bonsai Collection. With donations from the Bonsai community, the National Bonsai and Penjing Museum grew greatly in the early 1990s, the Kaneshiro Tropical Conservatory was added in 1993 for delicate trees. A behind-the-scenes greenhouse was added for trees in development. The Mary E. Mrose International Pavilion for Information, Education, and the NBF website was launched three years later. Awakening the Soul, The National Viewing Stone Collection became the first book published by the National Bonsai Foundation, johann F. Klodzen was appointed NBF Executive Director
17.
Azalea
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Azaleas /əˈzeɪliə/ are flowering shrubs in the genus Rhododendron, particularly the former sections Tsutsuji and Pentanthera. Azaleas bloom in spring, their flowers often lasting several weeks, shade tolerant, they prefer living near or under trees. They are part of the family Ericaceae, plant enthusiasts have selectively bred azaleas for hundreds of years. This human selection has produced over 10,000 different cultivars which are propagated by cuttings, Azalea seeds can also be collected and germinated. Azaleas are generally slow-growing and do best in well-drained acidic soil, fertilizer needs are low, some species need regular pruning. Azaleas are native to several continents including Asia, Europe and North America and they are planted abundantly as ornamentals in the southeastern USA, southern Asia, and parts of southwest Europe. Magnolias owner John Grimke Drayton imported the plants for use in his estate garden from Philadelphia, with encouragement from Charles Sprague Sargent from Harvards Arnold Arboretum, Magnolia Gardens was opened to the public in 1871, following the American Civil War. Magnolia is one of the oldest public gardens in America, since the late nineteenth century, in late March and early April, thousands visit to see the azaleas bloom in their full glory. R. occidentale flowers are larger than other azaleas and are white with a splotch of yellow. R. arborescens are native to the east coast of North America and can be found growing wild from Alabama to Pennsylvania in wooded, plants grow up to 20 feet high and flowers are white and fragrant. The Flame Azalea, R. Native to the regions of Pennsylvania to Georgia. Flowers do not smell but bloom in every shade from yellow to crimson red. Flowers bloom in the late spring, a good variety for drier soils and shady areas. Foliage turns bright yellow in the Fall, Azalea leafy gall can be particularly destructive to azalea leaves during the early spring. Hand picking infected leaves is the method of control. They can also be subject to root rot in moist. In Chinese culture, the azalea is known as thinking of home bush and is immortalized in the poetry of Du Fu, the azalea is also one of the symbols of the city of São Paulo, in Brazil. In addition to being renowned for its beauty, the azalea is also highly toxic—it contains andromedotoxins in both its leaves and nectar, including honey from the nectar
18.
Bonsai
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Bonsai is a Japanese art form using trees grown in containers. Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Chinese tradition of penjing from which the art originated, the Japanese tradition dates back over a thousand years. Bonsai is a Japanese pronunciation of the earlier Chinese term penzai, the word bonsai is often used in English as an umbrella term for all miniature trees in containers or pots. The purposes of bonsai are primarily contemplation and the pleasant exercise of effort, by contrast with other plant cultivation practices, bonsai is not intended for production of food or for medicine. Instead, bonsai practice focuses on long-term cultivation and shaping of one or more trees growing in a container. A bonsai is created beginning with a specimen of source material and this may be a cutting, seedling, or small tree of a species suitable for bonsai development. Some species are popular as bonsai material because they have characteristics, such as leaves or needles. The source specimen is shaped to be small and to meet the aesthetic standards of bonsai. When the candidate bonsai nears its planned final size it is planted in a pot, usually one designed for bonsai display in one of a few accepted shapes. From that point forward, its growth is restricted by the pot environment, throughout the year, the bonsai is shaped to limit growth, redistribute foliar vigor to areas requiring further development, and meet the artists detailed design. Bonsai does not require genetically dwarfed trees, but rather depends on growing trees from regular stock. Bonsai uses cultivation techniques like pruning, root reduction, potting, defoliation, the Japanese art of bonsai originated from the Chinese practice of penjing. From the 6th century onward, Imperial embassy personnel and Buddhist students from Japan visited and returned from mainland China and they brought back many Chinese ideas and goods, including container plantings. Over time, these container plantings began to appear in Japanese writings, in the medieval period, recognizable bonsai were portrayed in handscroll paintings like the Ippen shonin eden. The 1195 scroll Saigyo Monogatari Emaki was the earliest known to depict dwarfed potted trees in Japan, wooden tray and dish-like pots with dwarf landscapes on modern-looking wooden shelves also appear in the 1309 Kasuga-gongen-genki scroll. In 1351, dwarf trees displayed on short poles were portrayed in the Boki Ekotoba scroll, several other scrolls and paintings also included depictions of these kinds of trees. A close relationship between Japans Zen Buddhism and the trees began to shape bonsai reputation and esthetics. In this period, Chinese Chan Buddhist monks taught at Japans monasteries, one of the monks activities was to introduce political leaders to various arts of miniature landscapes as admirable accomplishments for men of taste and learning
19.
United States Bicentennial
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It was a central event in the memory of the American Revolution. The Bicentennial culminated on Sunday, July 4,1976, with the 200th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, the plans for the Bicentennial began when Congress created the American Revolution Bicentennial Commission on July 4,1966. Initially, the Bicentennial celebration was planned as a single city exposition that would be staged in either Philadelphia or Boston, ARBA selected a logo via contest in 1974. Bruce N. Blackburn, co-designer of the modernized NASA insignia used from 1975 to 1992, the logo consisted of a white five-point star inside a stylized star of red, white and blue. It was encircled by the inscription American Revolution Bicentennial 1776–1976 in Helvetica Regular, the logo became a flag that flew at many government facilities throughout the United States and appeared on many other souvenirs and postage stamps issued by the Postal Service. The official Bicentennial events began April 1,1975, when the American Freedom Train launched in Wilmington, Delaware to start its 21-month,25, 388-mile tour of the 48 contiguous states. On April 18,1975, President Gerald Ford traveled to Boston to light a lantern at the historic Old North Church. Festivities included elaborate fireworks in the skies above major American cities, President Ford presided over the display in Washington, D. C. which was televised nationally. A large international fleet of tall-masted sailing ships gathered first in New York City on Independence Day and these nautical parades were named Operation Sail and witnessed by several million observers. The gathering was the second of six such Op Sail events to date, the vessels docked and allowed the general public to tour the ships in both cities, while their crews were entertained on shore at various ethnic celebrations and parties. In addition to the presence of the ships, navies of many nations sent warships to New York harbor for an International Naval Review held the morning of July 4. The review ended just above Liberty Island around 10,30 am, several people threw packages labeled Gulf Oil and Exxon into Boston Harbor in symbolic opposition to corporate power, in the style of the Boston Tea party. Britains Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip made a visit to the United States to tour the country and attend Bicentennial festivities with President. Their visit aboard the Royal Yacht Britannia included stops in Philadelphia, Washington, Virginia, New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. While in Philadelphia on July 6,1976, Queen Elizabeth presented the Bicentennial Bell on behalf of the British people, local observances included painting mailboxes and fire hydrants red, white, and blue. A wave of patriotism and nostalgia swept the nation and there was a feeling that the irate era of the Vietnam War. In Washington, D. C. the Smithsonian Institution opened an exhibition in its Arts and Industries Building that replicated the look. Many of the Smithsonians museum artifacts dated from the 1876 Worlds Fair in Philadelphia that commemorated the 100th anniversary of the independence of the United States, the Smithsonian also opened the new home of the National Air and Space Museum July 1,1976
20.
Hiroshima
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Hiroshima is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture and the largest city in the Chūgoku region of western Honshu - the largest island of Japan. The citys name, 広島, means Broad Island in Japanese, Hiroshima gained city status on April 1,1889. On April 1,1980, Hiroshima became a designated city, as of August 2016, the city had an estimated population of 1,196,274. The GDP in Greater Hiroshima, Hiroshima Metropolitan Employment Area, is US$61.3 billion as of 2010, kazumi Matsui has been the citys mayor since April 2011. Hiroshima was established on the river delta coastline of the Seto Inland Sea in 1589 by powerful warlord Mōri Terumoto, Hiroshima Castle was quickly built, and in 1593 Terumoto moved in. Terumoto was on the side at the Battle of Sekigahara. The winner of the battle, Tokugawa Ieyasu, deprived Mōri Terumoto of most of his fiefs, including Hiroshima and gave Aki Province to Masanori Fukushima, after the han was abolished in 1871, the city became the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture. Hiroshima became an urban center during the imperial period, as the Japanese economy shifted from primarily rural to urban industries. During the 1870s, one of the seven government-sponsored English language schools was established in Hiroshima, Ujina Harbor was constructed through the efforts of Hiroshima Governor Sadaaki Senda in the 1880s, allowing Hiroshima to become an important port city. The Sanyō Railway was extended to Hiroshima in 1894, and a line from the main station to the harbor was constructed for military transportation during the First Sino-Japanese War. During that war, the Japanese government moved temporarily to Hiroshima, New industrial plants, including cotton mills, were established in Hiroshima in the late 19th century. Further industrialization in Hiroshima was stimulated during the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, the Hiroshima Prefectural Commercial Exhibition Hall was constructed in 1915 as a center for trade and exhibition of new products. Later, its name was changed to Hiroshima Prefectural Product Exhibition Hall, during World War I, Hiroshima became a focal point of military activity, as the Japanese government entered the war on the Allied side. About 500 German prisoners of war were held in Ninoshima Island in Hiroshima Bay, during World War II, the 2nd General Army and Chugoku Regional Army were headquartered in Hiroshima, and the Army Marine Headquarters was located at Ujina port. The city also had large depots of supplies, and was a key center for shipping. The bombing of Tokyo and other cities in Japan during World War II caused widespread destruction, there were no such air raids on Hiroshima. However, a real threat existed and was recognized, in order to protect against potential firebombings in Hiroshima, school children aged 11–14 years were mobilized to demolish houses and create firebreaks. On Monday, August 6,1945, at 8,15 a. m, by the end of the year, injury and radiation brought the total number of deaths to 90, 000–166,000
21.
Nuclear weapon
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
22.
Beverly Pepper
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Beverly Pepper is an American sculptor known for her monumental works, site specific and land art. She remains independent from any art movement. She was married to the writer Curtis Bill Pepper, Pepper was born Beverly Stoll on December 20,1922, in Brooklyn, New York. At sixteen, she entered the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, New York to study advertising design, photography and she then embarked on a career as a commercial art director. She studied at Art Students League and attended classes at Brooklyn College, including art theory with György Kepes. It was also at this time, in her mid twenties, drawn to post-war Europe in 1949, she studied painting in Paris at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière. There she attended classes with cubist painter André LHôte, and with Fernand Léger at his atelier and she also visited the studios of Ossip Zadkine and Brâncuși. Pepper began her career as a painter, but after a trip to Angkor Wat, Cambodia in 1960 and she made her debut in 1962 with an exhibit of carved tree trunks at a gallery in Rome. Pepper introduces her sculptural vocabulary with integrations of wood carvings and metal castings, Art critic, Rosalind Krauss has described the artists works as violating modernist traditions. The traditional craft of carving was closed to her … she attacked these logs with electric drills and saws. Working directly in the factory, as she would with subsequent major sculptures, Pepper created The Gift of Icarus, Leda, Spring Landscape, as the 1960s progressed, Pepper turned to polished stainless steel. In some of the first works, she used a torch to carve used one-inch thick elements of stainless steel, from there, her pieces evolved into highly polished stainless with painted interiors. They are illusionary works that disappear and reappear, mirroring the surrounding landscape, in an interview with the art historian, Barbara Rose, Pepper said. My aim here is to invest space with a solidity by filling it with the world around it, all of Peppers sculptures from the beginning of her sculptural career were displayed outdoors. Eventually, she began her experiments using earth to contain a sculpture, in the seventies I developed the concept of Earthbound Sculptures, that is sculptures seemingly born in or rising up from the earth. Becoming more involved with her native New York in the 1970s, furthering her vocabulary in steel, throughout this time period she used Cor-ten steel. While working at a US Steel Factory in Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, relishing in the exposed rusted surfaces of Cor-ten, she made pieces like Dallas Land Canal. She was, in fact, one of the first artists, if not the first, beginning in the 1970s, and to the present day, she has lived a bi-continental life traveling between Europe and the United States
23.
Ductile iron
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While most varieties of cast iron are brittle, ductile iron has much more impact and fatigue resistance, due to its nodular graphite inclusions. On October 25,1949, Keith Dwight Millis, Albert Paul Gagnebin, Ductile iron is not a single material but part of a group of materials which can be produced with a wide range of properties through control of their microstructure. The common defining characteristic of this group of materials is the shape of the graphite, in ductile irons, graphite is in the form of nodules rather than flakes as in grey iron. Nodule formation is achieved by adding nodulizing elements, most commonly magnesium and, less often now, yttrium, often a component of mischmetal, has also been studied as a possible nodulizer. Austempered Ductile Iron was discovered in the 1950s but was commercialized and achieved only some years later. In ADI, the structure is manipulated through a sophisticated heat treating process. The aus portion of the name refers to austenite, improved corrosion resistance can be achieved by replacing 15% to 30% of the iron in the alloy with varying amounts of nickel, copper, or chromium. Much of the production of ductile iron is in the form of ductile iron pipe. Ductile iron is specifically useful in automotive components, where strength needs surpass that of aluminum. Other major industrial applications include off-highway diesel trucks, Class 8 trucks, agricultural tractors, in wind power industry nodular cast iron is used for hubs and structural parts like machine frames. Nodular cast iron is suitable for large and complex shapes and high loads, SG iron is used in many grand piano harps. Malleable iron Smith, William F. Hashemi, Javad, Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering, McGraw-Hill, media related to Ductile iron at Wikimedia Commons Ductile Iron Society Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association
24.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
25.
Save Outdoor Sculpture!
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Save Outdoor Sculpture. is a community-based effort to identify, document, and conserve outdoor sculpture in the United States. By fostering awareness and appreciation, SOS. aims to advocate proper care of a public resource. The SOS. project may be viewed as a precursor of community-generated or crowd-sourced social media-driven initiatives, Save Outdoor Sculpture. was initiated by Heritage Preservation, The National Institute of Conservation in 1989. Thus far over 7,000 volunteers have cataloged and assessed the condition of over 30,000 publicly accessible statues and this partnership has allowed the database that contains these records to be viewable online, and searchable by state, artist, subject or title. The records in the Inventory pertain to all sculpture in the United States, a primary objective of SOS. is to educate, and a number of programs have been created for children. For example, SOS. has partnered with the Girl Scouts of the USA to create a Girl Scout patch for scouts who participate in the project, records in the Smithsonian Institution Research Information System Smithsonian Institution, Save Outdoor Sculpture. Instructions for participation Smithsonian Institution, Publications regarding outdoor sculpture in America, organized by state
26.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
27.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
28.
Koi
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Koi or more specifically nishikigoi, are ornamental varieties of domesticated common carp that are kept for decorative purposes in outdoor koi ponds or water gardens. Koi varieties are distinguished by coloration, patterning, and scalation, some of the major colors are white, black, red, yellow, blue, and cream. The most popular category of koi is the Gosanke, which is made up of the Kohaku, Taisho Sanshoku, carp are a large group of fish originally found in Central Europe and Asia. Various carp species were domesticated in East Asia, where they were used as food fish. Carp are coldwater fish, and their ability to survive and adapt to many climates and water allowed the domesticated species to be propagated to many new locations. Natural color mutations of these carp would have occurred across all populations, carp were first bred for color mutations in China more than a thousand years ago, where selective breeding of the Prussian carp led to the development of the goldfish. Members of the carp species complex were aquacultured as a food fish at least as long ago as the fifth century BC in China. Western Jin Dynasty mentioned carp with various colors, carp were bred for color in Japan in the 1820s, initially in the town of Ojiya in the Niigata prefecture on the northeastern coast of Honshu island. The outside world was not aware of the development of color variations in Japanese koi until 1914, from that time, interest in koi spread throughout Japan. From this original handful of koi, all other Nishikigoi varieties were bred, the hobby of keeping koi eventually spread worldwide. Koi are now sold in many pet shops, with higher-quality fish available from specialist dealers. Extensive hybridization between different populations coupled with widespread translocations have muddled the historical zoogeography of the common carp, traditionally, East Asian carp were included as a subspecies of the common carp under the scientific name C. carpio haematopterus. These differ in meristics from the common carp of Europe and Western Asia, leading recent authorities to recognize them as a separate species, C. rubrofuscus. Consequently, recent authorities have suggested that the species of the koi is C. rubrofuscus or at least an East Asian carp species instead of C. carpio. The word koi comes from Japanese, simply meaning carp and it includes both the dull grey fish and the brightly colored varieties. What are known as koi in English are referred to specifically as nishikigoi in Japan. In Japanese, koi is a homophone for another word that means affection or love, koi are therefore symbols of love, Koi varieties are distinguished by coloration, patterning, and scalation. Some of the colors are white, black, red, yellow, blue
29.
The Washington Post
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The Washington Post is an American daily newspaper. It is the most widely circulated newspaper published in Washington, D. C. and was founded on December 6,1877 and its current slogan is Democracy Dies in Darkness. Located in the city of the United States, the newspaper has a particular emphasis on national politics. Daily editions are printed for the District of Columbia, Maryland, the newspaper is published as a broadsheet, with photographs printed both in color and in black and white. The newspaper has won 47 Pulitzer Prizes and this includes six separate Pulitzers awarded in 2008, the second-highest number ever awarded to a single newspaper in one year, second only to The New York Times seven awards in 2002. Post journalists have also received 18 Nieman Fellowships and 368 White House News Photographers Association awards, in years since, its investigations have led to increased review of the Walter Reed Army Medical Center. In 2013, its owners, the Graham family, sold the newspaper to billionaire entrepreneur. The newspaper is owned by Nash Holdings LLC, a holding company Bezos created for the acquisition, the Washington Post is generally regarded as one of the leading daily American newspapers, along with The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal. The Post has distinguished itself through its reporting on the workings of the White House, Congress. It is one of the two daily broadsheets published in Washington D. C. the other being its smaller rival The Washington Times, unlike The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post does not print an edition for distribution away from the East Coast. In 2009, the newspaper ceased publication of its National Weekly Edition, the majority of its newsprint readership is in District of Columbia and its suburbs in Maryland and Northern Virginia. The Sunday Style section differs slightly from the weekday Style section, it is in a tabloid format, and it houses the reader-written humor contest The Style Invitational. Additional weekly sections appear on weekdays, Health & Science on Tuesday, Food on Wednesday, Local Living on Thursday, the latter two are in a tabloid format. In November 2009, it announced the closure of its U. S. regional bureaus—Chicago, Los Angeles and New York—as part of a focus on. political stories. The newspaper has bureaus in Maryland and Virginia. While its circulation has been slipping, it has one of the highest market-penetration rates of any metropolitan news daily, for many decades, the Post had its main office at 1150 15th Street NW. This real estate remained with Graham Holdings when the newspaper was sold to Jeff Bezos Nash Holdings in 2013, Graham Holdings sold 1150 15th Street for US$159 million in November 2013. The Washington Post continued to lease space at 1150 L Street NW, in May 2014, The Washington Post leased the west tower of One Franklin Square, a high-rise building at 1301 K Street NW in Washington, D. C
30.
OpenStreetMap
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OpenStreetMap is a collaborative project to create a free editable map of the world. OSM is considered a prominent example of volunteered geographic information, created by Steve Coast in the UK in 2004, it was inspired by the success of Wikipedia and the predominance of proprietary map data in the UK and elsewhere. Since then, it has grown to over 2 million registered users, who can collect data using manual survey, GPS devices, aerial photography and these crowdsourced data are then made available under the Open Database Licence. The site is supported by the OpenStreetMap Foundation, an organisation registered in England. Rather than the map itself, the data generated by the OpenStreetMap project are considered its primary output, OpenStreetMap data have been favourably compared with proprietary datasources, though data quality varies worldwide. Steve Coast founded the project in 2004, initially focusing on mapping the United Kingdom, in the UK and elsewhere, government-run and tax-funded projects like the Ordnance Survey created massive datasets but failed to freely and widely distribute them. In April 2006, the OpenStreetMap Foundation was established to encourage the growth, development and distribution of free data and provide geospatial data for anybody to use. In December 2006, Yahoo. confirmed that OpenStreetMap could use its aerial photography as a backdrop for map production, sponsors of the event included Google, Yahoo. and Multimap. In October 2007, OpenStreetMap completed the import of a US Census TIGER road dataset, in December 2007, Oxford University became the first major organisation to use OpenStreetMap data on their main website. In March, two announced that they have received venture capital funding of €2.4 million for CloudMade. In November 2010, Bing changed their licence to use of their satellite imagery for making maps. In 2012, the launch of pricing for Google Maps led several prominent websites to switch from their service to OpenStreetMap and other competitors. Map data is collected from scratch by volunteers performing systematic ground surveys using tools such as a handheld GPS unit, the data is then entered into the OpenStreetMap database. Mapathon competition events are held by OpenStreetMap team and by non-profit organisations. The availability of photography and other data from commercial and government sources has added important sources of data for manual editing. Special processes are in place to handle automated imports and avoid legal and technical problems, editing of maps can be done using the default web browser editor called iD, an HTML5 application using D3. js and written by MapBox. The earlier Flash-based application Potlatch is retained for intermediate-level users, JOSM and Merkaartor are more powerful desktop editing applications that are better suited for advanced users. The GNOME Maps application developed for the GNOME desktop environment, which runs on many Linux operating systems, the project has a geographically diverse user-base, due to emphasis of local knowledge and ground truth in the process of data collection
31.
Adams Memorial (Saint-Gaudens)
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The Adams Memorial is a grave marker located in Section E of Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, D. C. featuring a cast bronze allegorical sculpture by Augustus Saint-Gaudens. The shrouded figure is seated against a granite block which forms one side of a hexagonal plot, across a small light-toned granite plaza, a comfortable stone bench invites visitors to rest and meditate. The whole is sheltered by a screen of dense conifers, more dense. Erected in 1891, the monument was commissioned by author/historian Henry Adams as a memorial to his wife, Marian Adams, suffering from depression, had died by suicide through the ingestion of potassium cyanide, which she otherwise used to develop photographs. Adams advised Saint-Gaudens to contemplate iconic images from Buddhist devotional art, one such subject, Kannon, is frequently depicted as a seated figure draped in cloth. In addition to the still and flowing elements, the monuments dualism includes male-female fusion in the figure itself and these checks to the standard heroic figure combine to make a countermonument for a woman who disliked monuments generally. Saint-Gaudens may also have influenced by Parisian funerary art from his stay in France. In a letter addressed to Homer Saint-Gaudens, on January 24,1908, Adams instructed him, every magazine writer wants to label it as some American patent medicine for popular consumption—Grief, Despair, Pears Soap, or Macys Mens Suits Made to Measure. Your father meant it to ask a question, not to give an answer, like all great artists, St. Gaudens held up the mirror and no more. At the time of Saint-Gaudenss death, the statue was known as an important work of American sculpture. Its popularity inspired at least one prominent copy, the Black Aggie, on March 16,1972, the Adams Memorial was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Adams Memorial photos at Historic American Buildings Survey Cultural Tourism D. C
32.
African American Civil War Memorial
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The sculpture, The Spirit of Freedom, is a 9-foot bronze statue by Ed Hamilton of Louisville, Kentucky, commissioned by the DC Commission on the Arts and Humanities in 1993 and completed in 1997. The memorial includes an area with curved panel short walls inscribed with the names of the men who served in the war. The Memorial is located at the entrance to the U Street station on the Washington Metro, served by the Yellow. The memorial was developed by the African American Civil War Memorial Freedom Foundation and it was transferred to the National Park Service on October 27,2004. The National Mall and Memorial Parks office of the NPS now manages the site, the related African American Civil War Museum is located directly across from the memorial at 1925 Vermont Avenue. From July 16–18,2011, it celebrated its opening in a new and permanent facility at this address, with a weekend of speakers. It plans four years of activities to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the war, the museum enables visitors, researchers, and descendants of the United States Colored Troops to better understand their stories. It displays photographs, newspaper articles, and replicas of period clothing, the African American Civil War Memorial Registry at the museum documents the family trees of more than 2,000 descendants of those men who served with the USCT. Visitors can easily search the database to find ancestors and relatives registered in the Descendants Registry
33.
American Veterans Disabled for Life Memorial
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Congress adopted legislation establishing the memorial on October 23,2000, authorizing the Disabled Veterans for Life Memorial Foundation to design, raise funds for, and construct the memorial. The fundraising goal was reached in mid-2010, and ground for the memorial broken on November 10,2010, the memorial was dedicated by President Barack Obama on October 5,2014. Although she did not know him, Pope called the office of United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs Jesse Brown to plead for a memorial, Pope called every day for the next six months, until finally Browns secretary put her call through. Brown agreed to support establishing a memorial. Because the Commemorative Works Act of 1986 barred the expenditure of funds for memorials. Brown introduced Pope to Art Wilson, the National Adjutant of the Disabled American Veterans, the DAV was itself not a nonprofit, and thus Pope and Wilson agreed that a new foundation, the Disabled Veterans for Life Memorial Foundation should be created. Brown, Pope, and Wilson incorporated the foundation in 1998, the three individuals and their supporters began lobbying Congress to win passage of the necessary federal legislation. The effort was announced on November 9,1998 and they received the support of Senators John McCain, Max Cleland, and John Kerry, who introduced legislation authorizing a memorial in the United States Senate in January 1999. Companion legislation was introduced in the House of Representatives by Representative John Murtha, the CWA proved to be an obstacle for the memorial foundation. Exemptions could be made for events or individuals of singular importance or long-lasting historic significance and that exemption could only be issued by the National Capital Memorial Commission. The memorial foundation sought just such an exemption, but in November 1999—just before Veterans Day—the NCMC denied the exemption, Veterans groups were outraged, and Pope declared that bureaucracy was standing in the way of honoring people who had taken a bullet for the nation. The NCMC defended its decision, pointing out that Congress enacted the law to slow the rapid proliferation of memorials on the Mall, the agency also noted that there were already many memorials to veterans and to several wars on the National Mall. Since very little remained for memorials, what was left should be kept open for future generations. In the wake of this decision, the backers in Congress quickly added new language to their bill exempting the memorial form the CWAs National Mall ban. The National Park Service and the United States Department of the Interior now opposed the legislation because of this exemption, but Congress quickly approved the bill, and President Bill Clinton signed it into law on October 24,2000. Most of the rules of the CWA still applied to the veterans memorial. The CWA gave the seven years to begin construction, or its authorization would expire. The first site selected by the foundation was disapproved
34.
Belmont-Paul Women's Equality National Monument
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The Belmont-Paul Womens Equality National Monument is a historic house and museum of the U. S. womens suffrage and equal rights movements located in the Capitol Hill neighborhood of Washington, D. C. The monument is named after suffragists and National Womans Party leaders Alva Belmont, since 1929 the house has served as headquarters of the National Womans Party, a key political organization in the fight for womens suffrage. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972, from 1972 to 2016, the Sewall-Belmont National Historic Site was an affiliated unit of the National Park Service. In 2016, President Barack Obama designated it a National Monument, affording it more protection, visibility, and likely more funding. On June 20,1632, Charles I, King of England, made a grant in North America to Cecilius Calvert. Lord Baltimore established counties within the province, and provincial courts further subdivided counties into areas known as hundreds, one of these was New Scotland Hundred. Its southern boundary was the Potomac River, extending from the mouth of Oxon Creek upstream to Little Falls Rapids, on February 12,1663, the third Lord Baltimore granted a land patent of 1,000 acres in New Scotland Hundred to George Thompson. The property changed hands, was subdivided, and inherited a number of times before it came into the possession of nine-year-old Daniel Carroll in 1773, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, about December 1790, Washington chose the site now known as the District of Columbia. Congress ratified his decision in 1791, Congress subsequently purchased all land in the new district from its private owners, including Carroll. The district was divided into squares, and each square into lots, Daniel Carroll purchased lot 1 in square 725 on October 18,1793, for $266.66, and the same day the federal government gave lot 32 in square 725 back to Carroll gratis. Robert Sewall purchased lot 2 in square 725 for $429.33 on October 18, the construction of the main house occurred in 1799 and 1800. The main house was essentially an addition to the front of a one-room farmhouse believed to date from 1750, although the Sewall family rarely occupied the home, its size, beauty, and location led many prominent government leaders to reside there. These included Albert Gallatin, who served as Secretary of the Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, Senator from Maryland, United States Attorney General, and U. S. Tradition maintains that British troops set fire to the house during the War of 1812, the house has undergone several architectural changes and restorations. After the house was burned by the British in 1814. Congress declined to award them, so Sewall himself paid to have the structure repaired in 1820, a stable was probably added to the property at this time. Sewall died in the house on December 16,1820, leaving the building to his wife, Polly and it is unclear which of these continued to live in the house, but Susan definitely lived in it until her death in 1837
35.
Mary McLeod Bethune Memorial
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Mary McLeod Bethune Memorial is a bronze statue honoring educator and activist Mary McLeod Bethune, by Robert Berks. The monument is the first statue erected on land in Washington, D. C. to honor an African American. The statue features an elderly Mrs. Bethune handing a copy of her legacy to two black children. Mrs. Bethune is supporting herself by a given to her by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The statue was unveiled on the anniversary of her 99th birthday, July 10,1974, the funds for the monument were raised by the National Council of Negro Women, the organization Mrs. Bethune founded in 1935. It is located in Lincoln Park, at East Capitol Street, the inscription reads,73 Berks MARY McLEOD BETHUNE18751955 Let her works praise her ERECTED JULY10,1974 BY THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF NEGRO WOMEN, INC. DOROTHY I. HEIGHT PRESIDENT I LEAVE YOU LOVE, I LEAVE YOU THE CHALLENGE OF DEVELOPING CONFIDENCE IN ONE ANOTHER. I LEAVE YOU A THIRST FOR EDUCATION, I LEAVE YOU A RESPECT FOR THE USE OF POWER. I LEAVE YOU A DESIRE TO LIVE HARMONIOUSLY WITH YOUR FELLOW MEN, I LEAVE YOU FINALLY, A RESPONSIBILITY TO OUR YOUNG PEOPLE. Mary McLeod Bethune List of public art in Washington, D. C. Ward 6 Mary McLeod Bethune Memorial Statue of Mary MacLeod Bethune, anniversary events this week for Mary McLeod Bethune statue in Lincoln Park
36.
Boy Scout Memorial
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The Boy Scout Memorial is a public artwork by American sculptor Donald De Lue, located at The Ellipse in Washington, D. C. This sculpture was surveyed in 1993 as part of the Smithsonians Save Outdoor Sculpture, the Boy Scout Memorial serves as a tribute to the Boy Scouts of America. The sculpture consists of three figures, a Boy Scout in the center wearing a uniform stepping forward and carrying a walking stick in his left hand. Flanking him are two allegorical figures of a man and woman. They represent American Manhood and Womanhood and the ideals they will pass onto the youth, to the Boy Scouts right side is the male figure, nearly nude, who carries a bundle of leaves and drapery in his left arm. Part of the drapery blows across his middle as he strides forward with his right leg, to the Scouts left side is the female figure who holds a torch in her left hand that has a gold-colored flame. Her left hand extends slightly and her palm is facing upward, the three figures are mounted on a hexagonal-shaped base and in front of the sculpture is a circular pool of water. The three figures represent various concepts, according to the National Park Service the Boy Scout represents the aspirations of all past, present, and future Scouts throughout the world. The male figure exemplifies physical, mental, and moral fitness, love of country, good citizenship, loyalty, honor and he carries a helmet, a symbol of masculine attire. The female figure symbolizes enlightenment with the love of God and fellow man, justice, freedom and she holds the eternal flame of Gods Holy Spirit. The sculpture was founded by Modern Art Foundry in New York, in 1959, the 50th anniversary year of Scouting, Lyndon B. Johnson, then Senate majority leader, introduced a measure to establish the memorial, upon approval, funds for the sculpture were raised by Boy Scouts collecting dimes throughout the country, therefore no government spending was used. The names of all the collecting Scouts are inscribed on scrolls that are placed inside the base of the unit, the sculpture sits at the location of the 1937 National Scout Jamboree, the first jamboree. It was dedicated on November 7,1964 and accepted by Associate Supreme Court Justice Tom C. Clark who celebrated his 50th anniversary of being an Eagle Scout on that day and this sculpture was surveyed by Save Outdoor Sculpture. in 1993 and was described as well maintained. List of public art in Washington, D. C. Ward 2 Scouting in Washington, Boy Scout Memorial on dcMemorials Roadside Americas Boy Scout Memorial - Sparingly Clad Chums The memorial is one of Lonely Planets Top 5 Secret Statues in Washington
37.
James Buchanan Memorial
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The James Buchanan Memorial is a bronze and granite memorial in the Southeast corner of Meridian Hill Park Northwest, Washington, D. C. It was designed by architect William Gorden Beecher, and sculpted by Maryland artist Hans Schuler, commissioned in 1916, but not approved by the U. S. Congress until 1918, it was completed and unveiled June 26,1930. The memorial in the nations capital complemented an earlier monument, constructed in 1907–08 and dedicated in 1911, on the site of Buchanans birthplace in Mercersburg, http, //www. c-spanvideo. org/program/298193-1 http, //dcmemorialist. com/2010/03/buchanan-statue/ Buchanan Memorial, HABS, Library of Congress
38.
District of Columbia War Memorial
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The District of Columbia War Memorial commemorates the citizens of the District of Columbia who served in World War I. As in the title, this stands for World War I soldiers that fought. The memorial stands in West Potomac Park slightly off of Independence Avenue in a grove of trees, authorized by an act of Congress on June 7,1924, funds to construct the memorial were provided by the contributions of both organizations and individual citizens of the District. Construction of the began in the spring of 1931. It was the first war memorial to be erected in West Potomac Park, part of the National Mall near the Lincoln Memorial, designed by Washington architect Frederick H. Brooke, with Horace W. Peaslee and Nathan C. Wyeth as associate architects, the District of Columbia War Memorial is in the form of a 47-foot tall circular, domed, resting on concrete foundations, the 4 foot high marble base defines a platform,43 feet 5 inches in diameter, intended for use as a bandstand. Preserved in the cornerstone of the District of Columbia World War Memorial is a list of 26,000 Washingtonians who served in the Great War. Inscribed on the base are the names of the 499 District of Columbia citizens who lost their lives in the war, twelve 22-foot tall fluted Doric marble columns support the entablature and dome. In July 2010, the National Park Service announced that work, funded by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. Work began in October 2010, and the memorial reopened on November 10,2011 and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2014. The memorial is administered by the National Park Service under its National Mall, list of public art in Washington, D. C. Ward 2 National Register of Historic Places listings in central Washington, D. C. Views of the National Parks - National Park Service Historic American Buildings Survey, HABS DC-857 World War I Memorial Foundation DC Preservation League Most Endangered Places for 2003 District of Columbia Service in World War One and the DC World War Memorial
39.
Albert Einstein Memorial
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The Albert Einstein Memorial is a monumental bronze statue depicting Albert Einstein seated with manuscript papers in hand by sculptor Robert Berks. It is located in central Washington, D. C, united States, in a grove of trees at the southwest corner of the grounds of the National Academy of Sciences at 2101 Constitution Avenue N. W. near the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. The memorial is a spot for tourists visiting the national mall to pose for pictures. The statue depicts Einstein seated in casual repose on a bench of Mount Airy white granite. The bronze figure weighs approximately 4 tons and is 12 feet in height, the monument is supported by three caissons, totaling 135 tons, sunk in bedrock to a depth of 23 to 25 feet. It was cast at Modern Art Foundry, Astoria Queens, NY, the sculptor, Robert Berks, known for his portrait busts and statues, based the work on a bust of Einstein he sculpted from life in 1953 at Einsteins Princeton home. Landscape architect James A. Van Sweden designed the monument landscaping, Berks created two replicas of his 1979 monument. Today, the replicas can be viewed in the garden of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities. The statue and bench are at one side of a circular dais,28 feet in diameter, made from granite from Larvik. Embedded in the dais are more than 2,700 metal studs representing the location of objects, including the at noon on April 22,1979. Familiar constellations are marked on the map for easy identification, to a visitor standing at the center of the dais, Einstein appears to be making direct eye contact, and any spoken words are notably amplified. They were selected to reflect Einsteins sense of wonder, scientific integrity and they are, As long as I have any choice in the matter, I shall live only in a country where civil liberty, tolerance, and equality of all citizens before the law prevail. Joy and amazement at the beauty and grandeur of this world of man can just form a faint notion. The right to search for truth implies also a duty, one must not conceal any part of one has recognized to be true. The statue was filmed and subsequently used in the title sequence of Sesame Street during the shows 20th season. A copy of the Albert Einstein Memorial made of 100% dark and white chocolate was once on display in the Marriott Wardman Park Hotel in Washington, DC. In July 2012, the sculpture was bombed by the Polish-born artist Olek, who enclosed the entire statue in a colorful crocheted wrap of pinks, purples. List of public art in Washington, D. C. Ward 2 Einstein, Albert, Statue at the Natl Academy of Sciences in Washington, D. C
40.
Emancipation Memorial
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Designed and sculpted by Thomas Ball and erected in 1876, the monument depicts Abraham Lincoln in his role of the Great Emancipator freeing a male African American slave modeled on Archer Alexander. The ex-slave is depicted on one knee, with one fist clenched, shirtless, the statue originally faced west towards the U. S. Capitol until it was rotated east in 1974 in order to face the newly-erected Mary McLeod Bethune Memorial. The monument has long been the subject of controversy, according to information from American University, If there is one slavery monument whose origins are highly political, the Freedman’s memorial is it. The development process for this memorial started immediately after Abraham Lincolns assassination and ended, appropriately enough, in many ways, it exemplified and reflected the hopes, dreams, striving, and ultimate failures of reconstruction. The statue is a monument to the Civil War Monuments in Washington, DC. The turbulent politics of the era affected the fundraising campaign on many levels. Fredrick Douglass disagreed and thought the goal of education was incommensurate with that of remembering Lincoln, harriet Hosmer proposed a grander monument than that suggested by Thomas Ball. Her design, which was deemed too expensive, posed Lincoln atop a tall central pillar flanked by smaller pillars topped with Black Civil War soldiers. When Balls design was chosen, the commission insisted on certain changes. Instead of wearing a liberty cap, the slave in the monument is depicted bare-headed with tightly curled hair. The face was re-sculpted to look like Archer Alexander, an ex-slave whose life story was popularized by a written by William Greenleaf Eliot. It is no longer allegorical but realistic, in fact, Lincoln never met Archer Alexander, so it is historically inaccurate. While the original design poses a question — will this slave become a man, — the revision erases that query and instead implies a relationship between two men who never actually knew each other. In the final design, as in Balls original design, Lincoln holds a copy of the Emancipation Proclamation in his right hand. The document rests on a plinth bearing patriotic symbols including George Washingtons profile, the fasces of the American republic, the plinth replaces the pile of books in Balls original design. Behind the two figures is a whipping post draped with cloth, a vine growns around the pillory and around the ring where the chain was secured. The monument was cast in Munich in 1875 and shipped to Washington the following year, congress accepted the statue as a gift from the colored citizens of the United States and appropriated $3,000 for a pedestal upon which it would rest. The statue was erected in Lincoln Park where it still stands. D, the first contribution of five dollars was made by Charlotte Scott
41.
John Ericsson National Memorial
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The Swedish engineer John Ericsson was also the designer of the USS Monitor, the ship that ensured Union naval supremacy during the American Civil War. The national memorial was authorized by Congress August 31,1916, Congress appropriated $35,000 for the creation of the memorial, and Americans chiefly of Scandinavian descent raised an additional $25,000. Constructed on a site near the Lincoln Memorial between September 1926 and April 1927, the pink Milford granite memorial is 20 feet high with a 150-foot diameter base. Sculpted by James Earle Fraser, it features a figure of Ericsson 6 feet 5 inches high. The national memorial is managed by National Mall and Memorial Parks, list of public art in Washington, D. C. com John Ericsson Memorial Photos-Flickr
42.
First Division Monument
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The First Division Monument is located in Presidents Park, south of State Place Northwest, between 17th Street Northwest and West Executive Avenue Northwest in Washington, DC, United States. The Monument commemorates those who died serving in the 1st Infantry Division of the U. S. Army. The monument was conceived by the Society of the First Division, later additions to the monument commemorate the lives of First Division soldiers who fought in subsequent wars. The World War II addition on the west side was dedicated in 1957, the Vietnam War addition on the east side in 1977, Cass Gilbert was the architect of the original memorial and Daniel Chester French was the sculptor of the Victory statue. Gilberts son, Cass Gilbert Jr. designed the World War II addition, both the Vietnam War addition and the Desert Storm plaque were designed by the Philadelphia firm of Harbeson, Hough, Livingston, and Larson. Congressional approval was obtained to erect the First Division Monument and its later additions on federal ground, the Society of the First Division raised all the funds for the original monument and its additions. Today, the monument and grounds are maintained by the National Park Service, list of public art in Washington, D. C. Ward 2 First Division Monument. Webpage from the National Park Service website
43.
James A. Garfield Monument
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The James A. Garfield Monument stands on the grounds of the United States Capitol in the circle at First Street, S. W. and Maryland Avenue, Washington, D. C. It is a memorial to President James A. Garfield, elected in 1880 and assassinated in 1881 after serving four months of his term. It was unveiled on May 12,1887, today it stands as part of a three-part sculptural group near the Capitol Reflecting Pool including the Peace Monument and the Ulysses S. Grant Memorial. The memorial was commissioned in 1884 by the Society of the Army of the Cumberland, the Society raised almost $28,000 to pay the sculptor. Some of the funds were raised by The Garfield Monument Fair, also in that year, Congress appropriated to the Society $7500 in funds from the sale of condemned cannons, in 1884 it appropriated $30,000 for the pedestal. The monument was incorporated into the Capitol Grounds on January 2,1975, NEW YORK Law, Justice, Prosperity J. Q. A. A. C. Ward 6 President James A. Garfield Monument, Wikimapia GARFIELD, James Abram, Memorial west of the U. S. Capitol in Washington, statue of James A. Garfield on the Garfield Monument, Architect of the Capitol
44.
Ulysses S. Grant Memorial
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The Ulysses S. Grant Memorial is a presidential memorial in Washington, D. C. honoring American Civil War general and U. S. President Ulysses S. Grant. It sits at the base of Capitol Hill, below the west front of the United States Capitol and its sculpture of Grant on horseback faces west, over the Capitol Reflecting Pool and toward the Lincoln Memorial, which honors Grants wartime president, Abraham Lincoln. Grants statue rests on a pedestal decorated with reliefs of the infantry, flanking pedestals hold statues of protective lions. The Grant and Lincoln memorials define the eastern and western ends, respectively, the Grant Memorial is a contributor to the Civil War Monuments in Washington, D. C. of the National Register of Historic Places. James M. Goodes authoritative The Grant Memorial in Washington, D. C. calls it one of the most important sculptures in Washington and it includes the second-largest equestrian statue in the United States and the fourth-largest in the world. The Grant Memorial is in Union Square, which encompasses the Capitol Reflecting Pool. The platform for the Monument, made of Vermont marble, is 252 feet long and 71 feet wide and is divided into three sections. The tall, middle section features a 10, 700-pound, 17-foot-2-inch high equestrian statue depicting Grant astride his war horse Cincinnati on a 22½-foot high marble pedestal, a striking feature of the central statue is Grants calm attitude amidst the raging fighting going on around him. This is not surprising because Grant was known for his calmness and coolheadedness during battle, surrounding the main pedestal are four shorter pedestals, each supporting a bronze lion in repose guarding both the United States flag and the flags of the Army. The memorial was the largest bronze sculpture cast in the United States at that time, the Artillery Group to the south shows a caisson carrying three artillerymen and pulled by three horses. Astride the horse on the left is the carrier who is signaling a sharp right wheel. Despite the impending course change the horse on the right is able to continue lunging forward due to a strap on the right bridle bit. To the north the Cavalry Group depicts a squad consisting of seven cavalrymen charging into battle. The horse on the right has fallen and the rider, modeled after Shrady himself, is moments from being trampled by the onrushing horses, the drive to erect a monument to Grant was begun in the 1890s by the Society of the Army of the Tennessee. Work on the memorial was begun in 1902 as the largest ever commissioned by Congress at the time, was created by sculptor Henry Merwin Shrady, sculptor Edmond Amateis assisted Shrady as the monument neared completion in 1921. Shrady spent 20 years of his working on the memorial and died, stressed and overworked. The sculptures were cast in bronze at the Roman Bronze Works in New York, construction on the site of the memorial began in 1909 when the marble superstructure and the four bronze lions were installed. The Artillery Group was installed in 1912, the Cavalry Group in 1916, the memorial was dedicated on the 100th anniversary of Grants birth, April 27,1922
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United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
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The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is the United States official memorial to the Holocaust. Adjacent to the National Mall in Washington, D. C. the USHMM provides for the documentation, study and it is dedicated to helping leaders and citizens of the world confront hatred, prevent genocide, promote human dignity, and strengthen democracy. The museum has a budget, as of 2015, of $104.6 million. In 2008, the Museum had a staff of about 400 employees,125 contractors,650 volunteers,91 Holocaust survivors and it had local offices in New York City, Boston, Boca Raton, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Dallas. The Museums visitors came from all over the world, and less than 10 percent of the Museums visitors are Jewish and its website had 25 million visits in 2008 from an average of 100 different countries daily. 35% of these visits were from outside the United States and it also has teacher fellows in every state in the United States and almost 400 university fellows from 26 countries since 1994. Researchers at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum have documented 42,500 ghettos, on November 1,1978, President Jimmy Carter established the President’s Commission on the Holocaust, chaired by Elie Wiesel, a prominent author and Holocaust survivor. Its mandate was to investigate the creation and maintenance of a memorial to victims of the Holocaust, the mandate was created in a joint effort by Elie Wiesel and Richard Krieger. After a unanimous vote by the United States Congress in 1980 to establish the museum, in October 1988, President Ronald Reagan helped lay the cornerstone of the building, designed by the architect James Ingo Freed. Dedication ceremonies on April 22,1993 included speeches by American President Bill Clinton, Israeli President Chaim Herzog, Chairman Harvey Meyerhoff, on April 26,1993, the Museum opened to the general public. Its first visitor was the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet, the museum has been the target of a planned attack and a fatal shooting. On June 10,2009, 88-year-old James von Brunn, an anti-Semite, Special Police Officer Johns and von Brunn were both seriously wounded and transported by ambulance to the George Washington University Hospital. Special Police Officer Johns later died of his injuries, he is honored in an official memorial at the USHMM. Von Brunn, who had a criminal record, had been disowned by his family. He was being tried in court when he died on January 6,2010 in Butner federal prison in North Carolina. Designed by the architect James Ingo Freed of Pei Cobb Freed & Partners, in association with Finegold Alexander + Associates Inc, the outside of the building disappears into the neoclassical, Georgian, and modern architecture of Washington, D. C. Upon entering, each architectural feature becomes a new element of allusion to the Holocaust, in designing the building, Freed researched post-World War II German architecture and visited Holocaust sites throughout Europe. Other partners in the construction of the USHMM included Weiskopf & Pickworth, Cosentini Associates LLP, Jules Fisher, the structural engineering firm that was chosen for this project was Severud Associates
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