1.
General Dynamics Electric Boat
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General Dynamics Electric Boat is a subsidiary of General Dynamics Corporation. It has been the builder of submarines for the United States Navy for more than 100 years. Holland VI was the first submarine that this shipyard built, later renamed USS Holland, on 11 April 1900, it became the first modern submarine to be purchased and commissioned into the United States Navy. The success of Holland VI created a demand for follow-up models that began with the prototype submersible Fulton built at Electric Boat, after the war, the US Navy did not order another submarine from the company until Cuttlefish in 1931. During World War II, the company built 74 submarines, while Elco built nearly 400 PT boats, Electric Boat ranked 77th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts. In 1952, Electric Boat was reorganized as General Dynamics Corporation under John Jay Hopkins, General Dynamics acquired Convair the following year, and the holding company assumed the General Dynamics name, with the submarine building operation reverting to the Electric Boat name. Electric Boat built the first nuclear submarine USS Nautilus which was launched in January 1954, submarines of the Ohio-, Los Angeles-, Seawolf-, and Virginia-classes were also constructed by Electric Boat. Electric Boats first submarine Holland was scrapped in 1932, in some cases, the repairs resulted in practically dismantling and then rebuilding what had been a nearly completed submarine. The Navy eventually settled with General Dynamics in 1981, paying out $634 million of $843 million in Los Angeles class submarine cost-overrun, as it happened, the United States Navy was also the yards insurer, liable to compensate the yard for losses and other mishaps. Veliotis was subsequently indicted by a grand jury under racketeering. He nonetheless eventually escaped into exile and a life of luxury in his native Greece, Electric Boat overhauls and undertakes repair work on fast attack class boats. The company built the Ohio-class ballistic missile submarines and Seawolf-class submarines, however, most of the work done in the shipyard today is focused on construction of the Virginia-class, notably the new Block III evolution. In April 2014, General Dynamics Electric Boat was awarded a $17.8 billion contract with U. S. Naval Sea Systems Command for ten Block IV Virginia-class attack submarines and it is the largest single shipbuilding contract in the service’s history. The Company builds the submarine along with Huntington Ingalls Industries Newport News Shipbuilding, the boats of Block IV Virginia will cost less than Block III. Electric Boat decided to reduce the cost of the submarines by increasing efficiency in the construction process, the submarines of this type will build on the improvements to allow the boats to spend less time in the yard. Gardiner, Robert, Conways all the fighting ships 1906–1921 Conway Maritime Press,1985. The Defender, The Story of General Dynamics, by Roger Franklin, published by Harper and Row 1986. Brotherhood of Arms, General Dynamics and The Business of Defending America, the Legend of Electric Boat, Serving The Silent Service
2.
Fore River Shipyard
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Fore River Shipyard was a shipyard owned by General Dynamics Corporation located on Weymouth Fore River in Braintree and Quincy, Massachusetts. It began operations in 1883 in Braintree, and moved to its location on Quincy Point in 1901. In 1913, it was purchased by Bethlehem Steel, and later transferred to Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation and it was sold to General Dynamics in 1963, and closed in 1986. During its operation, yardworkers constructed hundreds of ships, for military and civilian clients. Most of the ships at the yard were built for the United States Navy, the yard also built early submarines for Electric Boat, including USS Octopus and USS Sunfish. Fore River also constructed the battleship USS Massachusetts, and the cruisers USS Springfield and USS Salem as well as the Navys first carrier USS Lexington and its successor USS Lexington. General Dynamics Quincy Shipbuilding Division, as it came to be known, ended its career as a producer of various LNG tankers. According to one theory, the yard was the origin of the Kilroy was here pop culture reference, in addition, the yard owned Bethlehem Atlantic Works, a drydock facility which was located in East Boston. The shipyard traces its beginnings back to 1882, when Thomas A. Watson purchased a farm alongside the Fore River in East Braintree, Massachusetts. In 1884, Watson attempted to farm the land, but soon realizing that it was a failure, work on the engine began in 1884, and continued into 1885, when it was deemed a financial failure. At this point, Watson decided to work with his business partner Frank O. Wellington on ship building, creating the Fore River Engine Company. The success of this operation was strengthened the fact that the shipyard was producing a quality engine. Soon, a new engine-building facility was constructed, employing between twenty and thirty workers, additionally, the Prouty Printing Press and Sims-Dudley dynamite gun, staple guns for shoes, and electric light accessories were produced by Fore River. In addition, the diversity of Fore Rivers products was due to the fact that Watson desired to employ as many friends as possible, the Panic of 1893 brought a new era to the company, as the depression limited the Fore Rivers possibilities. Fortunately for Fore River, the United States Navy awarded a contract to them to construct USS Lawrence and these two ships were the last to be constructed at the East Braintree location, as the yard moved down the river to a site on nearby Quincy Point in 1901. The construction of United States lightship LV-72 alongside the destroyers further strengthened the company financially, the awarding of USS Des Moines was also beneficial for Fore River. Faced with the problem of not having a large area to build the cruiser. The Des Moines was launched in 1902 and commissioned in 1904, bringing with it some stability to the yard
3.
Union Iron Works
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The Donahue Brothers Peter and James, Irish immigrants, founded Union Iron Works in the south of Market area of San Francisco in 1849. After years as the producer of mining, railroad, agricultural and locomotive machinery in California, Union Iron Works. In 1885, the Union Iron Works launched the first steel hulled ship on the west coast, in 1886, UIW was awarded a $1,000,000 contract to build a Naval cruiser, the Charleston, which they completed in eighteen months. From the completion of the Arago in 1884 to 1902, UIW built seventy-five marine vessels, an 1892 description of the yards stated that between 1200 and 1500 men were employed and the yearly gross revenue was between $2,000,000 and $4,000,000. By the turn of the century, the shipyard had expanded in area and these industrial facilities used five types of power, distributed throughout, electricity, compressed air, steam, hydraulic and coal or gas fire. Union Iron works built a number of ships for the United States Navy and these ships include the USS Oregon laid down in 1891, and Adder-class submarines Grampus and Pike which were launched in 1902 and 1903, respectively. The latter two were subcontracted from the Holland Torpedo Boat Company, and were the first submarines built on the West Coast, in 1902, the Union Iron Works was absorbed into a combine called the United States Shipbuilding Company and was mired in three years of litigation. In 1905, the entire 40-acre shipyard was purchased by Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation for one million dollars, charles M. Schwab stood on the steps of the UIW office building on 20th Street during the auction. At this point, he was the only bidder, Schwab was widely believed to have engineered the demise of the U. S. Shipbuilding Corporation in order to control of the industry. Whether or not that was true, he benefited from the collapse of the US Shipbuilding combine. At the time of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the passenger liner Columbia of the San Francisco. The earthquake caused the iron hulled Columbia to shift off her supports and this rendered the drydock, a key feature of the yard, damaged beyond economic repair. The Columbia on the hand, despite being partially flooded and damaged, was repaired and returned to service in January 1907. In 1908, Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation bought the Hunters Point, San Francisco, in the pre-World War I era, Union Iron Works built several navy ships that became internationally famous due to the Spanish–American War, Commodore Deweys flagship the Olympia. After 1905, the shipyard operated as part of Bethlehem Steel, first complete ferry built by Union Iron Works San Pablo, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad passenger ferry. Hull became first fish reduction plant on San Pablo Bay Tamalpais,1900 Northwest Railroad Passenger Ferry, fred W. Weller Steel tanker S. S. Invincible 1918 Freighter S. S. auto ferry, short-lived ferry company funded by Sunny Jim James Rolph Went to Puget Sound in 1940 S. S
4.
Portsmouth Naval Shipyard
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The Portsmouth Naval Shipyard, often called the Portsmouth Navy Yard, is a United States Navy shipyard located in Kittery on the southern boundary of Maine near the city of Portsmouth, New Hampshire. PNS is tasked with the overhaul, repair, and modernization of US Navy submarines, the facility is sometimes confused with the Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth, Virginia. The Portsmouth Naval Shipyard was established on June 12,1800 during the administration of President John Adams and it sits on a cluster of conjoined islands called Seaveys Island in the Piscataqua River, whose swift tidal current prevents ice from blocking navigation to the Atlantic Ocean. The area has a tradition of shipbuilding. Since colonial settlement, New Hampshire and Maine forests provided lumber for boat construction. HMS Falkland was commissioned here in 1696, considered the first British warship built in the Thirteen Colonies, the Royal Navy reserved the tallest and straightest Eastern White Pine trees for masts, emblazing the bark with a crown symbol. During the Revolution, the Raleigh was built in 1776 on Badgers Island in Kittery, Raleigh has been depicted on the Seal of New Hampshire since 1784, even though she was captured and served in the British Navy. Other warships followed, including Ranger launched in 1777 and commanded by Captain John Paul Jones and it became the first U. S. Navy vessel to receive an official salute at sea from a foreign power. Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert decided to build the first federal shipyard and he put it where a proven workforce had access to abundant raw materials, Fernalds Island, for which the government paid $5,500. To protect the new installation, old Fort William and Mary at the mouth of Portsmouth Harbor was rebuilt and renamed Fort Constitution. Commodore Isaac Hull was the first naval officer to command the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard, he led it from 1800 until 1802, the yards first production was the 74-gun ship of the line Washington, supervised by local master shipbuilder William Badger and launched in 1814. Barracks were built in 1820, with Marine barracks added in 1827, a hospital was established in 1834. Architect Alexander Parris was appointed engineer for the base. In 1838, the Franklin Shiphouse was completed --240 feet long,131 feet wide and it carried 130 tons of slate on a gambrel roof. It was lengthened in 1854 to accommodate Franklin, the largest wooden warship built at the yard, the structure was considered one of the largest shiphouses in the country, but it burned at 5,00 a. m. on 10 March 1936. Perhaps the most famous vessel ever overhauled at the yard was Constitution, also called Old Ironsides, prisoners of war from the Spanish–American War were encamped in 1898 on the grounds of the base. In 1905, construction began on the Portsmouth Naval Prison, a military prison dubbed The Castle because of its resemblance to a crenellated castle. It was the prison for the Navy and Marine Corps, as well as housing for many German U-Boat crews after capture
5.
Lake Torpedo Boat
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The Lake Torpedo Boat Company of Bridgeport, Connecticut was an early builder of submarines for the United States Navy in the early 20th Century. Founded by Simon Lake in 1912, the firm competed with the Electric Boat Company until financial difficulties led to the demise in 1924. The Navy ceased awarding contracts to Lake shortly before time, partly because USS S-2. Only nine S-boats were built by Lake, also, the yard was not physically able to build the large submarine cruisers then envisioned, such as USS Argonaut. The Washington Naval Treatys limits on submarines were also a major factor, at the time, the Navy wished to concentrate submarine construction at Navy Yards, particularly Portsmouth Navy Yard in Kittery, Maine. Some of the built by Lake for the Navy included several G-class, L-class, N-class, O-class. The company designed the Imperial Russian Navys Osetr-class submarines, the first of which was Lakes Protector, the Kaiman-class submarines were also designed for Russia. USS G-2 - Completed by New York Navy Yard, USS G-3 - Completed by New York Navy Yard. USS L-5 USS N-4 USS N-5 USS N-6 USS N-7 USS O-11 USS O-12 - Converted and renamed Nautilus for an expedition to the North Pole. USS O-13 USS R-21 USS R-22 USS R-23 USS R-24 USS R-25 USS R-26 USS R-27 USS S-2 USS S-14 USS S-15 USS S-16 USS S-17 USS S-48 USS S-49 - Used as a tourist attraction from 1939 to 1940. USS S-50 USS S-51 USS G-1 - Built by Newport News Shipbuilding, USS L-6 - Built by California Shipbuilding Company. USS L-7 - Built by California Shipbuilding Company, USS L-8 - Built by Newport News Shipbuilding. USS O-14 - Built by California Shipbuilding Company, USS O-15 - Built by California Shipbuilding Company. USS O-16 - Built by California Shipbuilding Company, note - these submarines were not necessarily built at the Lake Torpedo Boat Company. Argonaut Junior Argonaut 1 Argonaut 2 Protector Defender Explorer Friedman, Norman, Submarines Through 1945, An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis, Maryland, United States Naval Institute, conways All the Worlds Fighting Ships, 1906-1921. List of ships built Simon Lake Website The Demise of the Lake Torpedo Boat Company Weir, building American Submarines, 1914-1940, University Press of the Pacific,2000 ISBN 0-89875-066-0
6.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
7.
Polish Navy
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The Polish Navy is the military branch of the Polish Armed Forces responsible for naval operations. The current navy consists of 113 ships and about 18,000 commissioned and enlisted personnel, the traditional ship prefix in the Polish Navy is ORP. The Polish Navy is one of the largest navies on the Baltic Sea and it is mostly responsible for Baltic Sea operations. Other duties include search and rescue operations covering parts of the Baltic, as well as hydrographic measurements, the Polish Navy has its roots in naval vessels that were largely used on Polands main rivers in defense of trade and commerce. During the Thirteen Years War, this force of inland ships for the first time saw real open sea combat. At the battle of Vistula Lagoon, a Polish privateer fleet defeated the Teutonic Knights Navy, the Second Peace of Thorn acquired for Poland the strategic naval city of Danzig, and with it the means of maintaining a large fleet on the Baltic. In 1561, following a victory over Russian Naval forces in the Baltic and this led to the development of a privateer port in Puck. Around the start of the 17th century, Poland became ruled by the House of Vasa, Vasa kings attempted to create a proper fleet, but their attempts met with repeated failures, due to lack of funds in the royal treasury. During the reign of Sigismund III of Poland, the most celebrated victory of the Commonwealth Navy took place at the Battle of Oliwa in 1627 against Sweden, the victory over Sweden secured for Poland permanent access to the Atlantic, and laid the foundations for expeditions beyond Europe. The plans for the independent fleet fell through shortly afterwards due to a badly executed alliance with the Habsburgs who in 1629 took over the fleet, the Commission of Royal Ships was created in 1625. This commission, along with the allocation of funds by the Sejm in 1637. Władysław IV Vasa, Sigismunds son and successor who took the throne in 1632, purchased 12 ships, the Fleet, however, was entirely destroyed in 1637 by Denmark, without declaration of war. Support for this navy was weak and it largely withered away by the 1640s, the ships were sold in the years 1641-1643. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, although the dominant force in Central and Eastern Europe during the 16th-18th centuries, the proportionally small Polish coastline and the limited access to the Atlantic never allowed for a massive buildup of naval forces to the level of colonial powers such as England and France. The Partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century brought an end to the independent Polish Navy. Following World War I, the Second Polish Republic on 28 November 1918, by the order of Józef Piłsudski, commander of the Armed Forces of Poland, the token naval force was placed under the command of Captain Bogumił Nowotny as its first chief. The first ships were acquired from a division of the Imperial German Navy, in the 1920s and 1930s the Polish Navy underwent a modernisation program under the leadership of Vice-Admiral Jerzy Świrski and Rear-Admiral Józef Unrug. A number of ships were built in France, the Netherlands
8.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
9.
United States R-class submarine
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The R-class submarines were a class of United States Navy submarines active from 1918 until 1945. With the first of the laid down following the American entry into World War I. Although R-15 through R-20 were completed July–October 1918, they did not serve overseas, Group 1 The R-1 thru R-20 boats, designed by Electric Boat and built by Fore River Shipyard and Union Iron Works, were known as the R-1-class submarines. These single-hull boats were very similar to the preceding O class. For the first time in a US submarine class, 21-inch torpedo tubes were fitted, a more powerful fixed 3-inch /50 caliber deck gun replaced the retractable 3-inch/23 caliber gun found on previous classes. Group 2 R-21 to R-27, which were smaller and faster than the R-1s, were designed and built by Lake Torpedo Boat Co. and are sometimes regarded as a separate class. They were equipped with the same 3-inch/50 deck gun as the Group 1 boats and their smaller size compared with Group 1 allowed Lake to repeat the machinery of their O-class boats, which probably resulted in cost savings. Some Group 2 boats were fitted with a bow fairing to improve reserve buoyancy and this probably housed expanded ballast tanks. Unlike the Group 1 boats, most of which survived to serve in World War II, the Lake companys demise in 1924 and the obsolescent 18-inch torpedo armament probably also contributed to this. The Group 1 boats were decommissioned in 1931, but were recommissioned in 1940 to serve as training boats at Submarine Base New London, Connecticut. Three were transferred to the United Kingdoms Royal Navy as HMS P.511, HMS P.512, P.514 was lost on 21 June 1942 in a collision with the Canadian minesweeper HMCS Georgian due to being mistaken for a U-boat. R-12 was lost on 12 June 1943 in an accident off Key West, at some point between the wars the US R class were modified for improved rescue ability in the event of sinking. A motor room hatch was added, the room being the aftermost compartment. The tapered after casing became a step as a result of this modification, at least one R-class submarine can be seen briefly in the 1943 movie Crash Dive, filmed at the New London submarine base. Electric Boat built four R-class boats for the Peruvian Navy, built after World War I using materials assembled from cancelled S-class submarines, they were refitted in 1935–36 and 1955–56, and renamed Islay, Casma, Pacocha, and Arica in 1957. The 27 submarines of the R class were, Group 1 Group 2 http, //www. fleetsubmarine. com/sublist. html Gardiner, Robert, submarines Through 1945, An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis, Maryland, United States Naval Institute, media related to R class submarines of the United States at Wikimedia Commons
10.
V-boat
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The V-boats were a group of nine United States Navy submarines built between World War I and World War II from 1921 to 1934. These were not a class in the usual sense of a series of nearly identical ships built from the same design. The term V-boats is used to includes five classes of submarines. They broke down three large, fast fleet submarines, three large long-range submarines, and three medium-sized submarines. The successful fleet submarines of World War II were descended from the last three, especially V-7, though somewhat larger with pure diesel-electric propulsion systems. Originally called USS V-1 through V-9, in 1931 the nine submarines were renamed Barracuda, Bass, Bonita, Argonaut, Narwhal, Nautilus, Dolphin, Cachalot, all served in World War II, six of them on war patrols in the central Pacific. Argonaut was lost to enemy action and this was the designed speed of the Delaware class and later battleships, including the standard-type battleships that were under construction and proposed in 1913. In the summer of 1913, Electric Boats chief naval architect, spear, proposed two preliminary fleet-boat designs for consideration in the Navys 1914 program. In the ensuing authorization of eight submarines, Congress specified that one should be of a type to have a surface speed of not less than twenty knots. This first fleet boat, laid down in June 1916, was named USS Schley after Spanish–American War hero Winfield Scott Schley. With a displacement of 1,106 long tons surfaced,1,487 long tons submerged, on a length of 270 ft, Schley was twice as large as any previous U. S. submarine. To achieve the required speed, two tandem 1,000 hp diesel engines on each shaft drove twin screws, and a separate diesel generator was provided for charging batteries. As the engines were clutched together, it was impossible to synchronize their operation. In 1916, well before the T class debacle transpired, Congress authorized 58 coastal submarines, three of the larger 800 long tons coastal boats eventually became competing prototypes for the long-lived, 51-member S class. The nine fleet boats became the V-boats, built between 1921 and 1934, and in fact, they were the only U. S. submarines produced in that period. However, although V-4, V-5, and V-6 were the largest US non-nuclear submarines ever built, only V-1 through V-3 were designed to reach a speed of 21 knots. The first three V-boats were funded in fiscal year 1919, laid down at the Portsmouth Navy Yard in October and November 1921, and commissioned somewhat less than a year apart between 1924 and 1926. Significantly, V-1, V-2, and V-3 were the members of the class designed to satisfy the Navys original fleet boat requirement for high surface speed
11.
Submarine
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A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability, the term most commonly refers to a large, crewed vessel. It is also used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget submarine. The noun submarine evolved as a form of submarine boat, by naval tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than as ships. Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, Submarines were first widely used during World War I, and now figure in many navies large and small. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection, Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology, most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the sail in American usage, a conning tower was a feature of earlier designs, a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins, smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines use diving planes and also change the amount of water, Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers, modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from the diving bell. In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in his book Inventions or Devises one of the first plans for an underwater navigation vehicle and its unclear whether he ever carried out his idea. The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was designed and built in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel and it was propelled by means of oars. By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England, in 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft, a mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemens Magazine reported that a design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion. The first military submarine was the Turtle, a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person and it was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion
12.
Torpedo tube
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A torpedo tube is a cylinder shaped device for launching torpedoes. There are two types of torpedo tube, underwater tubes fitted to submarines and some surface ships. Thus a submarine torpedo tube operates on the principle of an airlock, the diagram on the right illustrates the operation of a submarine torpedo tube. The diagram is somewhat simplified but does show the working of a torpedo launch. A torpedo tube has a number of interlocks for safety reasons. For example, an interlock prevents the door and muzzle door from opening at the same time. The submarine torpedo launch sequence is, in simplified form, Open the breech door in the torpedo room, load the torpedo into the tube. Hook up the connection and the torpedo power cable. Shut and lock the breech door, turn on power to the torpedo. A minimum amount of time is required for torpedo warmup, fire control programs are uploaded to the torpedo. This may be manually or automatically, from sea or from tanks. The tube must be vented during this process to allow for complete filling, Open the equalizing valve to equalize pressure in the tube with ambient sea pressure. If the tube is set up for Impulse Mode the slide valve will open with the muzzle door, if Swim Out Mode is selected, the slide valve remains closed. The slide valve allows water from the pump to enter the tube. Modern torpedoes have a safety mechanism that prevents activation of the torpedo unless the torpedo senses the required amount of G-force, the power cable is severed at launch. However, if a wire is used, it remains connected through a drum of wire in the tube. Torpedo propulsion systems vary but electric torpedoes swim out of the tube on their own and are of a smaller diameter,21 weapons with fuel-burning engines usually start outside of the tube. Once outside the tube the torpedo begins its run toward the target as programmed by the control system
13.
Torpedo
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Historically, it was called an automotive, automobile, locomotive or fish torpedo, colloquially called a fish. The term torpedo was originally employed for a variety of devices, from about 1900, torpedo has been used strictly to designate an underwater self-propelled weapon. Todays torpedoes can be divided into lightweight and heavyweight classes, and into straight-running, autonomous homers and they can be launched from a variety of platforms. The word torpedo comes from the name of a genus of rays in the order Torpediniformes. In naval usage, the American Robert Fulton introduced the name to refer to a gunpowder charge used by his French submarine Nautilus to demonstrate that it could sink warships. The concept of a torpedo existed many centuries before it was successfully developed. In 1275, Hasan al-Rammah described. an egg which moves itself, in modern language, a torpedo is an underwater self-propelled explosive, —but historically, the term also applied to primitive naval mines. These were used on an ad hoc basis during the modern period up to the late 19th century. An early submarine, the Turtle, attempted to lay a bomb with a fuse on the hull of HMS Eagle during the American Revolutionary War. In the early 1800s, the American inventor Robert Fulton, while in France and he coined the term torpedo in reference to the explosive charges he outfitted his submarine Nautilus. However, both the French and the Dutch governments were uninterested in the submarine, Fulton then concentrated on developing the torpedo independent of a submarine deployment. However, the British government refused to purchase the invention, stating they did not wish to introduce into naval warfare a system that would give advantage to weaker maritime nations. Fulton carried out a demonstration for the US government on 20 July 1807. Further development languished as Fulton focused on his steam-boat matters, during the War of 1812, torpedoes were employed in attempts to destroy British vessels and protect American harbors. In fact a submarine deployed torpedo was used in an attempt to destroy HMS Ramillies while in New Londons harbor. Hardy to warn the Americans to cease efforts with the use of any boat in this cruel and unheard-of warfare. Torpedoes were used by the Russian Empire during the Crimean War in 1855 against British warships in the Gulf of Finland and they used an early form of chemical detonator. During the American Civil War, the torpedo was used for what is today called a contact mine
14.
4"/50 caliber gun
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The 4/50 caliber gun was the standard low-angle, quick-firing gun for United States, first appearing on the monitor Arkansas and then used on Flush Deck destroyers through World War I and the 1920s. It was also the deck gun on S-class submarines, and was used to rearm numerous submarines built with 3-inch guns early in World War II. United States naval gun terminology indicates the gun fired a projectile 4-inch in diameter, and the barrel was 50 calibers long. The original 4-inch/50 caliber Mark 7 gun, M1898, serial nos. 213–254, 257–281, 316–338, was an entirely new high-power design built-up gun with a tube, jacket, hoop, locking ring, the ammunition was about 7 lb heavier than a 4-inch/40 caliber round. The Mod 1 was a Mod 0 that used a steel liner and the Mod 2 was either a Mod 0 or Mod 1 that was relined using a conical nickel-steel liner. Gun No.353 was the prototype of the Mark 8 and was test fired on 22 September 1910 and this gun had been ordered 16 June 1907 and delivered in November 1907. The simplified design of the Mark 8 had just a gun tube, the jacket extended all the way to the muzzle and ended in a muzzle bell. The production run was small with only 12 guns built, Nos. 353–364, the Mark 9 was a design directly resulting from tests with gun No.353. It was designed to be light in weight, and would go on to be the standard 4-inch gun used on destroyers, the gun would use an A tube, full-length jacket, a muzzle swell with a side swing Smith-Asbury breech mechanism and Welin breech block. The gun weighed about 2.725 short tons,365, the first Mark 9, was ordered from Midvale Steel on 18 October 1911. There were 390 Mark 9s built by four different manufacturers from 1911 until the US entered World War I in 1917, during the war another 1,885 guns were produced, with Root & VanDervoort, American Radiator Company and Poole Engineering joining the pre-war manufacturers. After the Armistice another 713 guns were produced, with orders for 3538 guns cancelled and it was decided after World War I that all destroyers would carry the 4-inch/50 caliber Mark 9 Mod 5 gun, the refits were completed in autumn 1921. 365-A, was order in 1915 but does not appear to have been completed until after WW I, the initial drawings were for a 4-inch/50 caliber anti-aircraft gun dated January and February 1915. Fixed ammunition with a 14. 5-pound charge of smokeless powder gave a 33-pound projectile a velocity of 2,900 ft/s, range was 9 mi at the maximum elevation of 20 degrees. Useful life expectancy was 400–500 effective full charges for a non-chrome plated barrel, increasing awareness of the need for improved anti-aircraft protection resulted in the mounting of dual purpose guns on destroyers beginning in the 1930s. The dual-purpose 5-inch/38 caliber gun became standard for United States destroyers constructed from the 1930s through World War II, United States destroyers built with 4-inch/50 caliber low-angle guns were mostly rearmed with dual-purpose 3-inch/50 caliber guns during the war. The 4-inch/50 caliber guns removed from destroyers were mounted on Defensively Equipped Merchant Ships of the British Merchant Navy, the unassigned numbers mostly corresponded to gun orders that were cancelled with the signing of the Armistice. They seem to have withdrawn in 1943 as other defenses were constructed
15.
Deck gun
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Deck gun can also mean a type of big water nozzle used for firefighting. A deck gun is a type of artillery mounted on the deck of a submarine. Similar unenclosed guns are often found on ships as secondary or defensive armament. Most submarine deck guns were open, however a few larger submarines placed these guns in a turret, the deck gun was used as a defensive weapon against smaller boats or ships and in certain cases where torpedo use was limited. Typically a crew of three, gunner, loader and layer, operated the gun, while others were tasked with supplying ammunition, a small locker box held a few ready-use rounds. With a well-drilled, experienced crew, the rate of fire of a gun could be 15 to 18 aimed shots per minute. The deck gun was introduced in all submarine forces prior to World War I, although technically not a deck gun, USS Holland, the first American submarine, was equipped with a pneumatic dynamite gun built into the bow in 1900. The deck gun was first used by the Germans in World War I, lothar von Arnauld de la Perière used a deck gun or a dynamiting team on 171 of his 194 sinkings. In early World War II, German submarine commanders favored the deck gun because of the unreliability of torpedoes, the deck gun became less effective as convoys became larger and better equipped, and merchant ships were armed. Surfacing also became dangerous in the vicinity of a convoy because of improvements in radar, German U-boat deck guns were eventually removed on the order of the supreme commander of the U-boat Arm during World War II, and those deck guns that remained were no longer manned. Two notable deck guns from German U-boats used in World War II were the 8.8 cm SK C/35, the 88 mm had ammunition that weighed about 30 lb and was of the projectile and cartridge type. It had the controls on both sides of the gun so that the two crewmen that were in charge of firing it could control the gun from either side. The 105 mm evolved from the 88 mm in the sense that it was accurate and had more power due to the 51 lb ammunition it fired. In the US Navy, deck guns were used through the end of World War II, many targets in the Pacific War were sampans or other small vessels that were not worth a torpedo. The unreliability of the Mark 14 torpedo through mid-1943 also promoted the use of the deck gun, most US submarines started the war with a single 3 inch /50 caliber deck gun, adopted in the 1930s to discourage commanders from engaging heavily-armed escorts. However, the aging S-boats were equipped with a 4 inch /50 caliber gun, by 1944 most front-line submarines had been refitted with a 5 inch /25 caliber gun, and some were equipped with two 5 inch guns. The USS Argonaut, Narwhal and Nautilus were each fitted with two 6/53 caliber guns Mark 18, the largest deck gun to be fitted on any United States submarine. Japanese submarine cruisers used 14 cm/40 11th Year Type naval guns to shell California, British Columbia, the French submarine Surcouf was launched in 1929 with two 203mm/50 Modèle 1924 guns in a turret forward of the conning tower
16.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
17.
USS S-1 (SS-105)
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USS S-1 was the lead boat of the S class of submarines of the United States Navy. The Navy had awarded contracts for the first three S boats under the general specifications but of different design types. S-1 was what was known as a Holland-type, while S-2 was a Lake-type, s-1s prime contractor, the Electric Boat Company, subcontracted her construction to the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy, Massachusetts. Her keel was laid down on 11 December 1917 and she was launched on 26 October 1918 sponsored by Mrs. Emory S. Land, and commissioned on 5 June 1920, with Lieutenant Commander Thomas G. Berrien in command. On 2 January 1923, she shifted to SubDiv Zero, a division created for experimental work, as a single-ship division, SubDiv Zero, she returned to New London in the spring to continue experimental duty. She was altered by having a steel capsule mounted abaft the conning tower, a cylindrical pod which could house a small collapsible seaplane, after surfacing, this plane could be rolled out, quickly assembled, and launched by ballasting the sub until the deck was awash. These experiments were carried out into 1926 using the Martin-built plane, constructed of wood and fabric, the first full cycle of surfacing, assembly, launching, retrieving, disassembly, and submergence took place on 28 July 1926, on the Thames River at New London. Following the aircraft experiments, S-1 served as flagship for SubDiv 2 until July 1927, while attached to this division, she made operational cruises to the Panama Canal Zone in 1928–1930, during the spring months. January 1931 found her at Pearl Harbor and she remained there into 1937, first, attached to SubDiv 7, SubRon 4, then, from July 1932 – July 1933, attached to Rotating Reserve SubDiv 14. She was returned to SubDiv 7 in August, and remained with that division until departing in May 1937 for Philadelphia, S-1 arrived at Philadelphia on 22 July and commenced overhaul for deactivation. She was decommissioned on 20 October, on 16 October 1940, S-1 was recommissioned at Philadelphia. She then made two cruises to Bermuda, training submariners, and returned to Philadelphia from the cruise on 7 December 1941. There, she prepared for transfer to Britain under the Lend-Lease program and she was decommissioned and turned over to the British on 20 April 1942. Her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 24 June, S-1 served the Royal Navy as HMS P.552 as a training vessel for anti-submarine warfare. In poor condition after arriving in Durban, Natal, South Africa, she was often in repair and she was returned to the U. S
18.
Ship commissioning
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Ship commissioning is the act or ceremony of placing a ship in active service, and may be regarded as a particular application of the general concepts and practices of project commissioning. The term is most commonly applied to the placing of a warship in active duty with its countrys military forces, the ceremonies involved are often rooted in centuries old naval tradition. Ship naming and launching endow a ship hull with her identity, the engineering plant, weapon and electronic systems, galley, and multitudinous other equipment required to transform the new hull into an operating and habitable warship are installed and tested. The prospective commanding officer, ships officers, the petty officers, prior to commissioning, the new ship undergoes sea trials to identify any deficiencies needing correction. USS Monitor, of American Civil War fame, was commissioned less than three weeks after launch, regardless of the type of ship in question, a vessels journey towards commissioning in its nations navy begins with process known as sea trials. Sea trials begin when the ship in question is floated out of its dry dock, after a ship has successfully cleared its sea trial period, it will officially be accepted into service with its nations navy. At this point, the ship in question will undergo a process of degaussing and/or deperming, once a ships sea trials are successfully completed plans for the actual commissioning ceremony will take shape. If the ships ceremony is an affair the Captain may make a speech to the audience. Religious ceremonies, such as blessing the ship or the singing of hymns or songs. Once a ship has been commissioned its final step toward becoming a unit of the navy it now serves is to report to its home port. To decommission a ship is to terminate its career in service in the forces of a nation. Decommissioning of the vessel may also occur due to treaty agreements or for safety reasons, vessels preserved in this manner typically do not relinquish their names to other, more modern ships that may be in the design, planning, or construction phase of the parent nations navy. Prior to its decommissioning, the ship in question will begin the process of decommissioning by going through a preliminary step called inactivation or deactivation. The removed material from a ship usually ends up either rotating to another ship in the class with similar weapons and/or capabilities, or in storage pending a decision on equipments fate. During this time a crew may be thinned out via transfers. When a ship finishes its inactivation, it is then formally decommissioned, often, but not always, ships that are decommissioned end up spending the next few years in a reserve fleet before their ultimate fate is decided. Commissioning in the early United States Navy under sail was attended by no ceremony, thus, the ship was placed in commission. Commissionings were not public affairs, and unlike christening-and-launching ceremonies, were not recorded by newspapers, the first specific reference to commissioning located in naval records is a letter of November 6,1863, from Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles to all navy yards and stations
19.
USS S-51 (SS-162)
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USS S-51 was a fourth-group S-class submarine of the United States Navy. Her keel was laid down on 22 December 1919 by the Lake Torpedo Boat Company of Bridgeport and she was launched on 20 August 1921 sponsored by Mrs. R. J. Mills, and commissioned on 24 June 1922 with Lieutenant W. S. Haas in command and she departed from New York City on 4 January 1924 for the Panama Canal Zone to participate in winter fleet maneuvers off Panama and in the Caribbean Sea. During this cruise, she visited Trinidad, Guantanamo Bay, Culebra, after returning to New York City on 30 April, she resumed type training off Block Island and in New England coastal waters. On the night of 25 September 1925, S-51 was operating on the surface near Block Island, the merchant steamer City of Rome spotted a single white masthead light but were unable to determine its course, speed, or intentions. The ship altered her course away from the light to give whatever it might be greater leeway. Meanwhile, S-51 spotted the ships masthead and green sidelights, shortly after altering course, City of Rome spotted the submarines red sidelight and realized that they were on collision courses. She turned and backed her engines, but it was too late, twenty-two minutes after first spotting the submarines masthead light, the steamer rammed her at the position 41°14′30″N 71°16′16″W. Only three of the 36 men in the submarine were able to ship before she sank. The courts found City of Rome at fault for not reducing her speed when in doubt as to the movement of S-51, however, both the district court and the Circuit Court of Appeals found S-51 at fault for having improper lights. The court responded by saying if these statements were correct, then submarines should confine their operation to not being traversed by other ships. S-51 was raised on 5 July 1926 by a led by then-Lieutenant Commander Edward Ellsberg. The entire salvage operation was commanded by Captain Ernest J. King and she was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 27 January 1930 and sold for scrap on 23 June to the Borough Metal Company of Brooklyn, New York. The S-51 Accident Web site Ellsberg, Edward, report on Salvage Operations, Submarine S-51. Navy Department, United States Government Printing Office,1927, New York, The Literary Guild of America, Inc,1929. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, the entry can be found here. On Eternal Patrol, USS S-51 NavSource Online, Submarine Photo Archive S-51 COURAGE, popular Mechanics, March 1933 – detailed article on salvage operation
20.
USS S-47 (SS-158)
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USS S-47 was a third-group S-class submarine of the United States Navy. Her keel was laid down on 26 February 1921 by the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporations Fore River Shipyard in Quincy and she was launched on 5 January 1924 sponsored by Mrs. Morris D. Gilmore, and commissioned on 16 September 1925 with Lieutenant John Wilkes in command. Following commissioning and fitting out, S-47 conducted engineering and torpedo tests off the southern New England coast, however, with the new year,1926, she departed New England and moved south to join Submarine Division 19 in the Panama Canal Zone. She arrived at Coco Solo on 19 January and, for the year and one-half. Transferred to San Diego, California, with her division in June 1927, she continued to participate in individual, division, fleet, at that time, a period of inactivity in rotating reserve status was added to S-boat employment schedules. In 1936, S-47, now in SubDiv 11, was transferred back to Coco Solo, in the summer of 1941, she returned to New London, Connecticut, and commenced operations off the southern New England coast. During September, she patrolled in the Bermuda area, and, in October, the following month, she moved north to NS Argentia to participate in exercises to test S-boat capabilities in arctic and sub-arctic waters. By mid-December, she was back at New London, and, by January 1942, defensive operations in the approaches to the canal took S-47 into March. On 5 March, she moved west with SubDiv 53 to join TF42 at Brisbane and she arrived in mid-April, and, on 22 April, she got underway to conduct her first offensive war patrol in the New Britain-New Ireland area. On 27 April, she commenced submerged operations during daylight hours, on the morning of 29 April, she passed Bougainville, and on the night of 30 April, she arrived off New Britain. The next evening, she attempted to close an enemy submarine and that night, she transited St. George Channel, and, on the morning of 2 May, she closed Blanche Bay. Despite numerous enemy patrol craft both surface and air, off the Crater Peninsula, she moved toward Simpson Harbor in an attempt to score on an oiler accompanied by a destroyer and her quarry, however, reached safety before S-47 could close the range. Four hours later, two destroyers entered the harbor, and, a short while after that, a cruiser was sighted on the same course, S-47 increased her speed and maneuvered to attack. But, before she was ready, a short in the firing circuit fired number-four tube. The cruiser continued into the harbor, the electrical firing circuit in S-47 was disconnected. Still in the area on 3 May, S-47 became the target of a submarine hunt conducted by two destroyers and two minesweepers and punctuated by frequent depth charge attacks. That night, she cleared the area, by 5 May, she was off New Hanover, and, on 8 May, she fired on a cargoman which reversed course and headed for the submarine at high speed. S-47 went deep and readied two tubes for firing, the target, however, passed overhead, resumed its original course, and soon outdistanced the submarine
21.
Bethlehem Steel
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Bethlehem Steel Corporation was Americas second-largest steel producer and largest shipbuilder. Bethlehem Steel and a company, Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, were two of the most powerful symbols of American industrial manufacturing leadership. In 2005, ISG merged with Mittal Steel, ending American ownership of the assets of Bethlehem Steel, the companys roots go back to 1857 when the Saucona Iron Company was first organized by Augustus Wolle. The Panic of 1857, a financial crisis, halted further organization of the company. Eventually, the organization was completed, the site moved elsewhere in South Bethlehem, on June 14,1860, the board of directors of the fledgling company elected Alfred Hunt president. On May 1,1861, the title was changed again. Construction of the first blast furnace began on July 1,1861, the first rolling mill was built between the spring of 1861 and the summer of 1863, with the first railroad rails being rolled on September 26. A machine shop, in 1865, and another blast furnace, during its early years, the company produced rails for the rapidly expanding railroads and armor plating for the US Navy. In 1899, the company assumed the name Bethlehem Steel Company, in 1904, Charles M. Schwab and Joseph Wharton formed the Bethlehem Steel Corporation with Schwab becoming its first president and chairman of its board of directors. The Bethlehem Steel Corporation installed the gray rolling mill and producing the first wide-flange structural shapes to be made in America and these shapes were partly responsible for ushering in the age of the skyscraper and establishing Bethlehem Steel as the leading supplier of steel to the construction industry. In the early 1900s, the corporation branched out from steel, with mines in Cuba. In 1913, it acquired the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy, Massachusetts, in 1917, it incorporated its shipbuilding division as Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Limited. In 1922, it purchased the Lackawanna Steel Company, which included the Delaware, Lackawanna, the nations decision to rebuild the United States Navy with steam-driven, steel-hulled warships reshaped Bethlehem Iron Companys destiny. Following the American Civil War, the Navy quickly downsized after the end of hostilities, as national energies were redirected toward settling the West, almost no new ordinance was produced, and new technology was neglected. By 1881, international incidents highlighted the poor condition of the U. S. fleet, in 1883, Secretary of the Navy William E. Chandler and Secretary of the Army Robert Todd Lincoln appointed Lt. William Jaques to the Gun Foundry Board. Jaques was sent on several fact-finding tours of European armament makers and on one of these trips he formed ties with the firm of Joseph Whitworth of Manchester. He returned to America as Whitworths agent and, in 1885, was granted a furlough to pursue this personal interest. Jaques was aware that the U. S. Navy would soon solicit bids for the production of heavy guns and other products such as armor that would be needed to further expand the fleet
22.
Quincy, Massachusetts
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Quincy is the largest city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. It is a part of Metropolitan Boston and is Bostons immediate southern suburb. Its population in 2010 was 92,271, making it the 8th largest city in the state, first settled in 1625, Quincy was briefly part of Dorchester and Boston before becoming the north precinct of Braintree in 1640. In 1792, Quincy was split off from Braintree, the new town was named after Colonel John Quincy, maternal grandfather of Abigail Adams, Quincy became a city in 1888. For more than a century, Quincy was home to a thriving industry, the city was also the site of the Granite Railway. Shipbuilding at the Fore River Shipyard was another key part of the citys economy, in the 20th century, both Howard Johnsons and Dunkin Donuts were founded in the city. It was visited in 1621 by Plymouth Colony commander Myles Standish and Squanto, four years later, a party led by Captain Wollaston established a post on a low hill near the south shore of Quincy Bay east of present-day Blacks Creek. The settlers found the area suitable for farming, as Chickatawbut and this settlement was named Mount Wollaston in honor of the leader, who left the area soon after 1625, bound for Virginia. The Wollaston neighborhood in Quincy still retains Captain Wollastons name, upon the departure of Wollaston, Thomas Morton took over leadership of the post, and the settlement proceeded to gain a reputation for debauchery with Indian women and drunkenness. In 1627, Morton was arrested by Standish for violating the code of conduct in a way harmful to the colony and he was sent back to England, only to return and be arrested by Puritans the next year. The area of Quincy now called Merrymount is located on the site of the original English settlement of 1625, the area was first incorporated as part of Dorchester in 1630 and was briefly annexed by Boston in 1634. The area became Braintree in 1640, bordered along the coast of Massachusetts Bay by Dorchester to the north and Weymouth to the east, beginning in 1708, the modern border of Quincy first took shape as the North Precinct of Braintree. Following the American Revolution, Quincy was officially incorporated as a town named for Col. John Quincy in 1792. In 1845 the Old Colony Railroad opened, the Massachusetts Historical Commission stated that the railroad was the beginning of a trend toward suburbanization, Quincy became as accessible to Boston as was Charlestown. The first suburban land company, Bellevue Land Co. had been organized in northern Quincy in 1870, Quincys population grew by over 50 percent during the 1920s. Among the citys several firsts was the Granite Railway, the first commercial railroad in the United States, Quincy granite became famous throughout the nation, and stonecutting became the citys principal economic activity. Quincy was also home to the first iron furnace in the United States, in the 1870s, the city gave its name to the Quincy Method, an influential approach to education developed by Francis W. Parker while he served as Quincys superintendent of schools. Parker, a proponent of progressive education, put his ideas into practice in the citys underperforming schools, four years later
23.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
24.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
25.
Bridgeport, Connecticut
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Bridgeport is a seaport city in the U. S. state of Connecticut. It is the largest city in the state and is located in Fairfield County at the mouth of the Pequonnock River on Long Island Sound, Bridgeport had a population of 144,229 during the 2010 Census, making it also the 5th-most populous in New England. It is bordered by the towns of Trumbull to the north, Fairfield to the west, the Greater Bridgeport area is the 48th-largest urban area in the United States and forms part of the Greater New York City Area. Bridgeport was inhabited by the Paugussett Indian tribe at the time of its English colonization, the English farming community became a center of trade, shipbuilding, and whaling. The town incorporated itself to subsidize the Housatonic Railroad and rapidly industrialized following its connection to the New York, manufacturing was the mainstay of the local economy until the 1970s. Industrial restructuring and suburbanization caused the loss of jobs and affluent residents, leaving Bridgeport struggling with problems of poverty. In the 21st century, conversion of office and factory buildings to residential use, the showman P. T. Barnum was a resident of the city and served as the towns mayor in the late 19th century. Barnum built four houses in Bridgeport, and housed his circus in town during winter, the first Subway restaurant opened in the North End section of the city in 1965. The Frisbie Pie Company was located here, and Bridgeport is credited as the birthplace of the Frisbee, the first documented English settlement within the present city limits of Bridgeport took place in 1644, centered at Black Rock Harbor along North Avenue and between Park and Briarwood Avenues. The place was called Pequonnock, after a band of the Paugussett, one of their sacred sites was Golden Hill, which overlooked the harbor and was the location of natural springs and their planting fields. The Golden Hill Indians were granted a reservation here by the Colony of Connecticut in 1639 that survived until 1802, a village called Newfield began to coalesce around the corner of State and Water Streets in the 1760s. The area officially known as Stratfield in 1695 or 1701 due to its location between the already existing towns of Stratford and Fairfield. During the American Revolution, Newfield Harbor was a center of privateering, Newfield initially expanded around the coasting trade with Boston, New York, and Baltimore and the international trade with the West Indies. The commercial activity of the village was clustered around the wharves on the west bank of the Pequonnock, in 1800, the village became the Borough of Bridgeport, the first so incorporated in the state. It was named for the Newfield or Lottery Bridge across the Pequonnock, Bridgeport Bank was established in 1806. In 1821, the township of Bridgeport became independent of Stratford, the West India trade died down around 1840, but by that time the Bridgeport Steamship Company and Bridgeport Whaling Company had been incorporated and the Housatonic Railroad chartered. The HRRC ran upstate along the Housatonic Valley, connecting with Massachusettss Berkshire Railroad at the state line, Bridgeport was chartered as Connecticuts fifth city in 1836 in order to enable the town council to secure funding to provide to the HRRC and ensure that it would terminate in Bridgeport. The Naugatuck Railroad—connecting Bridgeport to Waterbury and Winsted along the Naugatuck—was chartered in 1845, the same year, the New York and New Haven Railroad began operation, connecting Bridgeport to New York and the other towns along the north shore of the Long Island Sound
26.
Peruvian Navy
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The Peruvian Navy is the branch of the Peruvian Armed Forces tasked with surveillance, patrol and defense on lakes, rivers and the Pacific Ocean up to 200 nautical miles from the Peruvian littoral. Additional missions include assistance in safeguarding internal security, conducting disaster relief operations, the Marina de Guerra del Perú was established on 8 October 1821 by the government of general José de San Martín. Its first actions were undertaken during the War of Independence using captured Spanish warships and it saw further action during the wars of the Peru-Bolivian Confederacy and during the Chincha Islands War with Spain. The breakout of the War of the Pacific caught the Peruvian Navy unprepared, after the war, the Peruvian Navy had to be rebuilt from the ground up. During the Presidency of Augusto B, leguía a Navy Ministry was established as well as a Navy Aviation Corps, both in 1920. Border conflicts with Colombia in 1911 and 1932 and a war with Ecuador in 1941 saw Peruvian warships involved in skirmishes in support of the Army. During the 1970s and the first half of the 1980s the Peruvian Navy carried out a major buildup programme which allowed it to take advantage over its traditional rival, the Chilean Navy. This proved to be temporary because the crisis of the second half of the 1980s forced the decommissioning of several warships. The economic upturn of the 1990s and 2000s has permitted some improvement although at a reduced level compared to the early 1980s. The current Commander-in-Chief of the Peruvian Navy is Admiral Carlos Tijeda, Naval Forces are subordinated to the Ministry of Defense and ultimately to the President as Commander-in-Chief of the Peruvian Armed Forces. Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas Coast Guard, tasked with law enforcement on Peruvian territorial waters, rivers, during the 1980s the building of a new naval base at Chimbote was considered but high costs and a bad economic situation made the project unfeasible. It is also responsible for operations of the Peruvian Marines. As of June 2006 Naval Infantry and Special Operations troops have deployed to United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus. By 2012 the Peruvian Navy sent its first officer to serve in United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei, as of December 2013, the Peruvian government was in negotiations with France for the acquisition of two FREMM Frigates. Battle of Angamos Battle of Iquique Battle of Pacocha Ironclad Huáscar Miguel Grau SIFOREX War of the Pacific Baker III, the Naval Institute Guide to Combat Fleets of the World 2002-2003. Basadre, Jorge, Historia de la República del Perú, la base de Chimbote, Caretas,855,31. Ortiz Sotelo, Jorge, Apuntes para la historia de los submarinos peruanos, rial, Juan, Los militares tras el fin del régimen de Fujimori-Montesinos. Los Programas de Renovacion y Modernizacion de la Marina de Guerra del Peru, entrevista al Almirante Carlos Tejada Mera, Comandante General de la MArina de Guerra del Peru, Alejo Marchessini - Revista Fuerzas de Defensa y Seguridad N°430
27.
Beam (nautical)
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The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point as measured at the ships nominal waterline. The beam is a bearing projected at right-angles from the fore and aft line, Beam may also be used to define the maximum width of a ships hull, or maximum width plus superstructure overhangs. Typical length-to-beam ratios for small sailboats are from 2,1 to 5,1, large ships have widely varying beam ratios, some as large as 20,1. Rowing shells designed for racing may have length to beam ratios as high as 30,1. The beam of many vessels can be calculated using the following formula. Some examples, For a standard 27 ft yacht, the root of 27 is 3,3 squared is 9 plus 1 =10. The beam of many 27 ft monohulls is 10 ft, for a Volvo Open 70 yacht,70.5 to the power of 2/3 =17 plus 1 =18. The beam is often around 18 ft, for a 741 ft long ship, the cube root is 9, and 9 squared is 81, plus 1. The beam will usually be around 82 ft, e. g. Seawaymax, as catamarans have more than one hull, there is a different beam calculation for this kind of vessel. BOC stands for Beam On Centerline and this term in typically used in conjunction with LOA. The ratio of LOA/BOC is used to estimate the stability of multihull vessels, the lower the ratio the greater the boats stability. The BOC for vessels is measured as follows, For a catamaran, carlin – similar to a beam, except running in a fore and aft direction. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
28.
Draft (hull)
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Draft determines the minimum depth of water a ship or boat can safely navigate. The draft can also be used to determine the weight of the cargo on board by calculating the displacement of water. A table made by the shows the water displacement for each draft. The density of the water and the content of the bunkers has to be taken into account. The closely related term trim is defined as the difference between the forward and aft drafts, the draft aft is measured in the perpendicular of the stern. The draft forward is measured in the perpendicular of the bow, the scale may use traditional English units or metric units. If the English system is used, the bottom of each marking is the draft in feet, in metric marking schemes, the bottom of each draft mark is the draft in decimeters and each mark is one decimeter high. Larger ships try to maintain a water draft when they are light, in order to make a better sea crossing. In order to achieve this they use sailing ballasts to stabilize the ship, the water draft of a large ship has little direct link with its stability because stability depends solely on the respective positions of the metacenter of the hull and the center of gravity. It is also however, that a light ship has quite high stability which can lead to implying too much rolling of the ship. A fully laden ship can have either a strong or weak stability, the draft of ships can be increased when the ship is in motion in shallow water, a phenomenon known as squat. Draft is a significant factor limiting navigable waterways, especially for large vessels, of course this includes many shallow coastal waters and reefs, but also some major shipping lanes. Panamax class ships—the largest ships able to transit the Panama Canal—do have a limit but are usually limited by beam, or sometimes length overall. However, in the much wider Suez Canal, the factor for Suezmax ships is draft. Some supertankers are able to transit the Suez Canal when unladen or partially laden, canals are not the only draft-limited shipping lanes. A Malaccamax ship has the deepest draft able to transit the very busy, there are only a few ships of this size. A small draft allows pleasure boats to navigate through shallower water and this makes it possible for these boats to access smaller ports, to travel along rivers and even to beach the boat. A large draft ensures a level of stability in strong wind
29.
Displacement (ship)
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The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is the ships weight. The name reflects the fact that it is measured indirectly, by first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship, by Archimedes principle, this is also the weight of the ship. Displacement should not be confused with other measurements of volume or capacity typically used for vessels such as net tonnage, gross tonnage. The process of determining a vessels displacement begins with measuring its draft This is accomplished by means of its draft marks, a merchant vessel has three matching sets, one mark each on the port and starboard sides forward, midships, and astern. These marks allow a ships displacement to be determined to an accuracy of 0. 5%, the draft observed at each set of marks is averaged to find a mean draft. The ships hydrostatic tables show the corresponding volume displaced, to calculate the weight of the displaced water, it is necessary to know its density. Seawater is more dense than water, so a ship will ride higher in salt water than in fresh. The density of water varies with temperature. Devices akin to slide rules have been available since the 1950s to aid in these calculations and it is done today with computers. Displacement is usually measured in units of tonnes or long tons and these bring the ship down to its load draft, colloquially known as the waterline. Full load displacement and loaded displacement have almost identical definitions, full load is defined as the displacement of a vessel when floating at its greatest allowable draft as established by classification societies. Warships have arbitrary full load condition established, deep load condition means full ammunition and stores, with most available fuel capacity used. Light displacement is defined as the weight of the ship excluding cargo, fuel, water, ballast, stores, passengers, crew, normal displacement is the ships displacement with all outfit, and two-thirds supply of stores, ammunition, etc. on board. Standard displacement, also known as Washington displacement, is a term defined by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. Naval architecture Hull Hydrodynamics Tonnage Dear, I. C. B, oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea. George, William E. Stability & Trim for the Ships Officer, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A. Trim and Stability Information for Drydocking Calculations, conference on the Limitation of Armament,1922. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,1922, proceedings of the United States Naval Institute
30.
U-boat
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U-boat is the anglicised version of the German word U-Boot, a shortening of Unterseeboot, literally undersea boat. While the German term refers to any submarine, the English one refers specifically to military submarines operated by Germany, particularly in the First and Second World Wars. Although at times they were efficient fleet weapons against enemy warships, they were most effectively used in an economic warfare role. Austro-Hungarian navy submarines were known as U-boats. The first submarine built in Germany, the three-man Brandtaucher, sank to the bottom of Kiel harbor on 1 February 1851 during a test dive, the inventor and engineer Wilhelm Bauer had designed this vessel in 1850, and Schweffel & Howaldt constructed it in Kiel. Dredging operations in 1887 rediscovered Brandtaucher, it was raised and put on display in Germany, there followed in 1890 the boats WW1 and WW2, built to a Nordenfelt design. The SM U-1 was a completely redesigned Karp-class submarine and only one was built, the Imperial German Navy commissioned it on 14 December 1906. It had a hull, a Körting kerosene engine. The 50%-larger SM U-2 had two torpedo tubes, the U-19 class of 1912–13 saw the first diesel engine installed in a German navy boat. At the start of World War I in 1914, Germany had 48 submarines of 13 classes in service or under construction, during that war the Imperial German Navy used SM U-1 for training. Retired in 1919, it remains on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich, on 5 September 1914, HMS Pathfinder was sunk by SM U-21, the first ship to have been sunk by a submarine using a self-propelled torpedo. On 22 September, U-9 sank the obsolete British warships HMS Aboukir, HMS Cressy, for the first few months of the war, U-boat anticommerce actions observed the prize rules of the time, which governed the treatment of enemy civilian ships and their occupants. On 20 October 1914, SM U-17 sank the first merchant ship, surface commerce raiders were proving to be ineffective, and on 4 February 1915, the Kaiser assented to the declaration of a war zone in the waters around the British Isles. This was cited as a retaliation for British minefields and shipping blockades, under the instructions given to U-boat captains, they could sink merchant ships, even potentially neutral ones, without warning. In February 1915, a submarine U-6 was rammed and both periscopes were destroyed off Beachy Head by the collier SS Thordis commanded by Captain John Bell RNR after firing a torpedo, on 7 May 1915, SM U-20 sank the liner RMS Lusitania. The sinking claimed 1,198 lives,128 of them American civilians, munitions that it carried were thousands of crates full of ammunition for rifles, 3-inch artillery shells, and also various other standard ammunition used by infantry. The sinking of the Lusitania was widely used as propaganda against the German Empire, a widespread reaction in the U. S was not seen until the sinking of the ferry SS Sussex. The sinking occurred in 1915 and the United States entered the war in 1917, the initial U. S. response was to threaten to sever diplomatic ties, which persuaded the Germans to issue the Sussex pledge that reimposed restrictions on U-boat activity
31.
Conning tower
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A conning tower is a raised platform on a ship or submarine, often armored, from which an officer can conn the vessel, i. e. give directions to the helmsman. It is usually located as high on the ship as practical, to give the conning team good visibility of the entirety of the ship itself and of ocean conditions, the verb “conn” probably stems from the verb “conduct” rather than from another plausible precedent, the verb “control”. On surface ships, the tower was a feature of all battleships. Located at the front end of the superstructure, the tower was a heavily armored cylinder. At all other times than during battles, the ship would be navigated from the bridge instead, conning towers were used by the French on their floating batteries at the Battle of Kinburn. They were then fitted to the first ironclad the French battleship La Gloire, the first Royal Navy conning tower appeared on HMS Warrior which had 3 inches of armour. The King George V class, in contrast to the Nelson class had comparatively light conning tower protection with 4.5 inch sides,3 inch front and rear, and 2 inch roof and deck. The RNs analysis of World War I combat revealed that command personnel were unlikely to utilize an armoured conning tower, older RN battleships that were reconstructed with new superstructures, had their heavily armoured conning towers removed and replaced with much lighter structures. These new conning towers were placed much higher in the ship. Even in the United States Navy, battleship captains and admirals preferred to use the unarmoured bridge positions during combat. The USN had mixed opinions of the tower, pointing out that its weight, high above the ships center of gravity. Beginning in the late 1930s, as radar surpassed visual sighting as the method of detecting other ships, battleships began reducing or eliminating the conning tower. By the end of World War II, US ships were designed with expanded weather bridges enclosing the armored conning towers. With the demise of battleships after World War II, along with the advent of missiles and nuclear weapons during the Cold War, modern warships no longer feature conning towers. It should not be confused with the control room, which was directly below it in the main pressure hull, or the bridge. As improvements in technology allowed the periscopes to be made longer it became unnecessary to raise the station above the main pressure hull. The USS Triton was the last American submarine to have a conning tower, the additional conning tower pressure hull was eliminated and its functions were added to the command and control center. Thus it is incorrect to refer to the sail of a submarine as a conning tower
32.
Armistice of 11 November 1918
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It went into effect at 11 a. m. Paris time on 11 November 1918, and marked a victory for the Allies, the Germans were responding to the policies proposed by U. S. President Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points of January 1918. Although the armistice ended the fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. In addition, he recommended the acceptance of the demands of US president Woodrow Wilson including putting the Imperial Government on a democratic footing, hoping for more favorable peace terms. As he said to officers of his staff on 1 October, on 3 October, the liberal Prince Maximilian of Baden was appointed Chancellor of Germany, replacing Georg von Hertling in order to negotiate an armistice. In the subsequent two exchanges, Wilsons allusions failed to convey the idea that the Kaisers abdication was a condition for peace. The leading statesmen of the Reich were not yet ready to contemplate such a monstrous possibility, in late October, Ludendorff, in a sudden change of mind, declared the conditions of the Allies unacceptable. He now demanded to resume the war which he himself had declared lost only one month earlier, however the German soldiers were pressing to get home. It was scarcely possible to arouse their readiness for battle anew, the Imperial Government stayed on course and Ludendorff was replaced by Wilhelm Groener. On 5 November, the Allies agreed to take up negotiations for a truce, the latest note from Wilson was received in Berlin on 6 November. That same day, the led by Matthias Erzberger departed for France. For example, they assumed that the de-militarization suggested by Wilson would be limited to the Central Powers, there were also contradictions with their post-War plans that did not include a consistent implementation of the ideal of national self-determination. Also on 9 November, Max von Baden handed over the office of Chancellor to Friedrich Ebert, eberts SPD and Erzbergers Catholic Centre Party had enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Imperial government since Bismarcks era in the 1870s and 1880s. They were well represented in the Imperial Reichstag, which had power over the government. Their prominence in the negotiations would cause the new Weimar Republic to lack legitimacy in right-wing. The Armistice was the result of a hurried and desperate process and they were then entrained and taken to the secret destination, aboard Ferdinand Fochs private train parked in a railway siding in the forest of Compiègne. Foch appeared only twice in the three days of negotiations, on the first day, to ask the German delegation what they wanted, the Germans were handed the list of Allied demands and given 72 hours to agree. The German delegation discussed the Allied terms not with Foch, but with other French, the Armistice amounted to complete German demilitarization, with few promises made by the Allies in return
33.
Hyman G. Rickover
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Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, U. S. Navy, directed the original development of naval nuclear propulsion and controlled its operations for three decades as director of Naval Reactors. In addition, he oversaw the development of the Shippingport Atomic Power Station, a naval officer who served in a flag rank for nearly 30 years – from 1953 to 1982 – Rickover was promoted to four-star admiral after 51 years of commissioned service. Vessels are now decommissioned and others are under construction, Rickover is the only person who has ever been awarded two Congressional Gold Medals. Rickover was born Chaim Godalia Rickover, to Abraham Rickover and Rachel Rickover and his parents later changed his name to Hyman, which, like Chaim, is derived from Chayyim, meaning life. He did not use his name, Godalia, but when required to list one for the Naval Academy oath. The family name Rickover is derived from the village and the estate of Ryki, located within 100 kilometres of Warsaw, decades later, the entire remaining Jewish communities of Ryki and Maków Mazowiecki were killed or otherwise perished during the Holocaust. Rickover took his first paid job at nine years of age and he graduated from grammar school at 14. While attending John Marshall High School in Chicago, Rickover held a job as a telegraph boy delivering Western Union telegrams. Congressman Adolph J. Sabath, himself a Czech Jewish immigrant, through the intervention of a family friend, Sabath nominated Rickover for appointment to the United States Naval Academy. Rickover was only an alternate for appointment, but through disciplined self-directed study and good fortune. Rickovers active duty career began in 1918, during a time when attending military academies was considered active duty service. On 2 June 1922, Rickover graduated 107th out of 540 midshipmen and was commissioned as an ensign and he joined the destroyer La Vallette on 5 September 1922. Rickover impressed his commanding officer with his work and efficiency. At Columbia, he met Ruth D. Masters, a Christian and graduate student in international law, shortly after marrying, Rickover wrote to his parents of his decision to become an Episcopalian, remaining so for the remainder of his life. Columbia was the first institution that encouraged me to think rather than memorize and my teachers were notable in that many had gained practical engineering experience outside the university and were able to share their experience with their students. I am grateful, among others, to Professors Morecroft, Hehre, much of what I have subsequently learned and accomplished in engineering is based on the solid foundation of principles I learned from them. I am therefore especially gratified by your invitation to return and speak this evening, Rickover preferred life on smaller ships, and he also knew that young officers in the submarine service were advancing quickly, so he went to Washington and volunteered for submarine duty. His application was turned down due to his age, at that time 29 years, fortunately for Rickover, he ran into his former commanding officer from Nevada while leaving the building, who interceded successfully on his behalf
34.
USS S-48 (SS-159)
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USS S-48 was the first submarine in the fourth group of S-class submarines of the United States Navy. S-48′s keel was laid down on 22 October 1920 by the Lake Torpedo Boat Company in Bridgeport and she was launched on 26 February 1921, sponsored by Mrs. James O. Germaine. On 7 December 1921, the submarine conducted a dive off Penfield Reef in Long Island Sound as part of builders trials. A manhole plate in one of the aft ballast tanks was left unsecured, several aft compartments flooded, the crew, contractors personnel, and naval observers brought the bow to the surface and escaped through a torpedo tube to a tug which took them to New York City. On 20 December 1921, the submarine was raised and taken back to the builders yard, where repairs were begun. The work was completed ten months later, and, on 14 October 1922, S-48 was accepted by the Navy and commissioned the same day at Bridgeport with Lieutenant S. E. Bray in command. Through May, she operated in the New London area, then, in early June, she moved south for sound exercises and a visit to Washington, DC. At mid-month, she returned to southern New England, and, in August, she proceeded back to Portsmouth for the installation of new crankshafts, in mid-January 1924, S-48 departed Portsmouth for New London, whence she continued south, to the Caribbean Sea, for winter maneuvers. By mid-March 1924, however, she was back at Portsmouth for another five months of yard work, in early August 1924, she resumed operations in the New London area, and, in November 1924, after being transferred to SubDiv 2, she visited Annapolis, Maryland. In December 1924, she returned to Connecticut, and, toward the end of January 1925, on the night of 29 January 1925, S-48 arrived off the New Hampshire coast. At about 18,30, the picked up and a heavy snowstorm developed. Soon after 19,34, the S-boat grounded on rocks off Jeffrey Point, pulled herself off, by midnight, the storm had worsened, seas were coming clean over the S-48 and she was rolling —15 degrees to port,60 degrees to starboard. Violent rolling lasted for only a little over thirty minutes but a heavy list developed, by 03,30 on 30 January, the battery compartment was taking in water. The storm continued, but help arrived at 05,00, after receiving treatment for exposure and gas at Fort Stark, crew members were transferred to the Navy Base at Kittery, Maine. On 1 February 1925, salvage operations were begun, a week later, the S-boat was freed and towed to the navy yard for repairs. However, the damage was severe and the funds were lacking, nearly a year later, though, on 25 June 1926, repairs and alterations were authorized, and, on 3 February 1927, the work began. But, again, a shortage of funds stopped the project, in 1928, the repair and modernization was carried out. In hopes of improving habitability and increasing her range, her hull was extended 25½ feet, her displacement was increased to 1165 tons, on 1 December 1928, the work was finally completed
35.
Martin MS
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The Martin MS-1 was an experimental scout biplane ordered by the United States Navy and was intended to operate from a submarine. It first flew in 1923 and the type was used for tests until 1926 when the project was cancelled, following World War I, the U. S. Navy Bureau of Aeronautics conducted studies concerting the possibility of submarine-borne observation and scouting aircraft. After surfacing, this plane should be rolled out and quickly assembled and it was planned to launch the seaplane by ballasting the submarine until the deck was awash. The Navy ordered two types of aircraft, the Martin MS-1, constructed of wood and fabric, and the all-metal Cox-Klemin XS, the MS-1 first flew from Lake Erie in early 1923. The submarine S-1 became the platform for the operation of scout seaplanes late in 1923. The MS-1 and the Cox-Klemin XS were used for the trials mounted in a cylindrical pod behind the conning tower, the first successful attempt was made on 5 November 1923. The first full cycle of surfacing, assembly, launching, retrieving, disassembly, a total of six Martin MS-1s were built, with all six still being listed with the U. S. Navy as late as 1926. After further trials during 1926 all the aircraft were scrapped
36.
McCann Rescue Chamber
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The McCann Submarine Rescue Chamber is a device for rescuing submariners from a submarine that is unable to surface. During the first two decades of the United States Navy Submarine Force, there were accidents in which Navy submarines sank with the loss of life. The impetus for the invention for the chamber was the loss of S-51 on 25 September 1925, in the case of S-4, all of her officers and men were able to reach non-flooded compartments as the submarine bottomed in 110 ft of water. In her forward torpedo room, six men remained alive, heroic efforts were made to rescue these six, who had exchanged a series of signals with divers by tapping on the hull. In extremely cold water and tangled wreckage, Navy divers worked to rescue them and these experiences led submariner Charles B. Swede Momsen to think of alternatives for rescuing survivors from sunken submarines. Momsen soon conceived a submarine rescue chamber that could be lowered from the surface to mate with an escape hatch. But this idea was pigeonholed by the bureaucracy, even during his own subsequent assignment at BuC&R, the loss of S-4 with all hands put the Navy very much on the spot because of the loss of lives that might have been saved. The pressure of this incident forced favorable action and Momsen, using the aircraft hangar from S-1, designed and built a prototype submarine rescue chamber. During the first three months of 1928, divers and other personnel were able to raise S-4 and tow her to the Boston Navy Yard. She returned to duty in October 1928 and was employed thereafter as a submarine rescue. Momsen went to sea in the reconditioned S-4 to carry out practical experiments, work with S-4 helped to develop equipment and techniques that bore fruit a decade later, when 33 men were brought up alive from the sunken submarine Squalus. The first diving bells for rescuing men from submarines were designed by the BuC&R in 1928, the diving bell went through a series of tests off the shores of Key West, Florida. This success was catalyst for gaining approval for development of the rescue chamber in 1930. Before he could make changes, Momsen went to the Bureau of Construction. Lieutenant Commander Allan Rockwell McCann was put in charge of the revisions on the diving bell, from July 1929 to July 1931, McCann was assigned to the Maintenance Division, Bureau of Construction and Repair, where he developed the submarine rescue chamber. When the bell was completed in late 1930, it was produced as the McCann Submarine Rescue Chamber, in 1931 a one-fifth scale model of a diving bell for submarine rescue work was built and tested.5. The vessel was tested under external pressure, failure occurring in the shell at a pressure of 470 psi, the head collapsed at a pressure of 525 psi, indicating its strength under external pressure was about 10% in excess of that of the shell
37.
Pacific War
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The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia-Pacific War, was the theater of World War II that was fought in the Pacific and East Asia. It was fought over a vast area that included the Pacific Ocean and islands, the South West Pacific, South-East Asia, and in China. The Pacific War saw the Allied powers pitted against the Empire of Japan, the formal and official surrender of Japan took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. In Allied countries during the war, The Pacific War was not usually distinguished from World War II in general, or was known simply as the War against Japan. Japan used the name Greater East Asia War, as chosen by a decision on 10 December 1941. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan–China Incident into the Greater East Asia War, in Japan, the Fifteen Years War is also used, referring to the period from the Mukden Incident of 1931 through 1945. The Phayap Army sent troops to invade and occupy northeastern Burma, also involved were the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and Mengjiang, and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime. The official policy of the U. S. Government is that Thailand was not an ally of the Axis, Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Formosa. To a small extent, some Vichy French, Indian National Army, Germany and Italy both had limited involvement in the Pacific War. The German and the Italian navies operated submarines and raiding ships in the Indian, the Italians had access to concession territory naval bases in China, while the Germans did not. After Japans attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declarations of war, mexico, Free France and many other countries also took part, especially forces from other British colonies. Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main areas of conflict in the Pacific War, China, the Central Pacific, South East Asia, U. S. sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War, the Pacific theater and the China Burma India Theater. However these were not operational commands, in the Pacific, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area. In 1945, for a period just before the Japanese surrender. By 1937, Japan controlled Manchuria and was ready to move deeper into China, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident on 7 July 1937 provoked full-scale war between China and Japan. In August 1937, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to fight about 300,000 Japanese troops in Shanghai, the Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 and committed which was known as Nanking Massacre. In March 1938, Nationalist forces won their first victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Japan deployed about 350,000 troops to invade Wuhan, the Japanese achieved major military victories, but world opinion—in particular in the United States—condemned Japan, especially after the Panay incident
38.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
39.
Territory of Alaska
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The territory was created as the District of Alaska on May 17,1884. The Second Organic Act of 1912, renamed the District of Alaska as the Territory of Alaska, by 1916, its population was about 58,000. James Wickersham, a Delegate to Congress, introduced Alaskas first statehood bill, even President Warren G. Hardings visit in 1923 could not create widespread interest in statehood. Under the conditions of the Second Organic Act, Alaska had been split into four divisions, the most populous of the divisions, whose capital was Juneau, wondered if it could become a separate state from the other three. Government control was a concern, with the territory having 52 federal agencies governing it. In 1920, the passage of the Jones Act required U. S. -flagged vessels to be built in the United States, owned by U. S. citizens, and documented under the laws of the United States. All goods entering or leaving Alaska had to be transported by American carriers and shipped to Seattle prior to further shipment, making Alaska dependent on the state of Washington. The U. S. Supreme Court ruled that the provision of the Constitution saying one state should not hold sway over anothers commerce did not apply because Alaska was only a territory, the prices Seattles shipping businesses charged began to rise to take advantage of the situation. The Great Depression caused prices of fish and copper, which were vital to Alaskas economy at the time, wages were dropped and the workforce decreased by more than half. In 1935, President Franklin D. Roosevelt thought Americans from agricultural areas could be transferred to Alaskas Matanuska-Susitna Valley for a chance at agricultural self-sustainment. However, due to the weather conditions of the state. Numerous wrecks also trace their origins to the military build-up of the state during both World War II and the Cold War, Alaskas strategic importance to the United States became more apparent during World War II. From June 1942 until August 1943 the Japanese tried to invade the U. S. by way of the Aleutian island chain, in the Battle of the Aleutian Islands and this marked the first time since the War of 1812 that American soil was occupied by a foreign enemy. The Japanese were eventually repelled from the Aleutian Islands by a force of 34,000 American troops, at any given time, about 1,500 American personnel were at Cold Bay and Fort Randall during Project Hula. On January 3,1959, Alaska became the 49th state, in recent years these predictions have turned out to be just the opposite for both states. S. Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press,2015
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Aleutian Islands Campaign
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The islands strategic value was their ability to control Pacific transportation routes, which is why U. S. General Billy Mitchell stated to the U. S. Congress in 1935, I believe that in the future, I think it is the most important strategic place in the world. The Japanese reasoned that control of the Aleutians would prevent a possible U. S. attack across the Northern Pacific, similarly, the U. S. feared that the islands would be used as bases from which to launch aerial assaults against the West Coast. A battle to reclaim Attu was launched on May 11,1943, on 15 August 1943, an invasion force landed on Kiska in the wake of a sustained three-week barrage, only to discover that the Japanese had withdrawn from the island on July 29. The campaign is known as the Forgotten Battle, due to its being overshadowed by the simultaneous Guadalcanal Campaign, in the past, many Western military historians believed it was a diversionary or feint attack during the Battle of Midway, meant to draw out the U. S. Pacific Fleet from Midway Atoll, as it was launched simultaneously under the same commander, before Japan entered World War II, its Navy had gathered extensive information about the Aleutians, but it had no up-to-date information regarding military developments on the islands. With that force, Hosogaya was first to launch an air attack against Dutch Harbor, Hosogaya was instructed to destroy whatever American forces and facilities were found on Adak—the Japanese did not know the island was undefended. The naval commander was Rear Admiral Robert A. Theobald, commanding Task Force 8 afloat, Task Force 8 consisted of five cruisers, thirteen destroyers, three tankers, six submarines, as well as naval aviation elements of Fleet Air Wing Four. Once the enemy planes were removed, Naval Task Force 8 would engage the enemy fleet, on the afternoon of 2 June, a naval patrol plane spotted the approaching Japanese fleet, reporting its location as 800 miles southwest of Dutch Harbor. Eleventh Air Force was placed on full alert, shortly thereafter bad weather set in, and no further sightings of the fleet were made that day. Making use of cover, the Japanese first raided the naval base at Dutch Harbor on June 3,1942. The striking force was composed of Nakajima B5N2 Kate torpedo bombers from the carriers Junyō, however, only half of the striking force reached their objective. The rest either became lost in the fog and darkness and crashed into the sea or returned to their carriers, seventeen Japanese planes found the naval base, the first arriving at 05,45. Startled by the American response, the Japanese quickly released their bombs, made a strafing run. As a result, they did damage to the base. On June 4, the Japanese returned to Dutch Harbor and this time the Japanese pilots were better organized and prepared. When the attack ended that afternoon Dutch Harbor oil storage tanks were burning, the partly demolished. However, the weather in turn caused the Japanese to cancel plans to invade Adak with 1,200 men
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Dutch Harbor
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Dutch Harbor is a harbor on Amaknak Island in Unalaska, Alaska. Dutch Harbor is now the home of an important fishing industry, druzhinin, the commander of the Russian ship Zakharii I Elisaveta, is credited for discovering the deep-water harbor now known as Dutch Harbor. Dutch Harbor is located within the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, more precisely on Amaknak Island in the Fox Islands, Dutch Harbor is close to some of the richest fishing in the world, and it is ice-free. The native people are known as the Aleut, when the Russians arrived, they exploited the Aleut by taxing them in fur pelts. The Aleut accepted the Russian Orthodox Church because it offered them support, the Russian-American Company operated from 1799 through the mid-1800s. It used Dutch Harbor in the transport of goods, mainly seal, in 1867 Russia sold Alaska to the United States. Fur was the main export in Alaska after the United States took control, hutchinson, Kohl, & Company of San Francisco took over the assets of the Russian America Company in 1867, but it sold out in 1868 to the Alaska Commercial Company. A decline in the sea otter population slowed trade in 1895, the year 1897 brought a crowd of potential prospectors looking to get rich from the Alaska gold rush. World War II brought the U. S. Army and Navy, the first army troops arrived in June 1941 and the navy air base was finished in September 1941. During the war, Dutch Harbor was also used to house refugees evacuated from other Aleutian Islands, U. S. Army troops and civilian workers alike spent time at Blackies, the only bar in the area. This establishment had cheap beer and 50-cent shots of whiskey, other entertainment included a brothel named Pleasure Island, but this was closed in 1941 and later replaced by part of the U. S. Navy submarine base. The 500-man mess hall doubled as a theater, the tickets for military were 15 cents and 35 cents for civilian workers. In early 1942, intelligence officers of the U. S. Navy predicted that there would be a Japanese attack in the North Pacific area, by mid-1942, a small submarine base was in place, with a squadron of old U. S. Navy S-class submarines. By May 1943, a peak of 10,151 sailors and 9,976 soldiers were stationed at the base, in 1947, the last units of the U. S. Navy left Dutch Harbor and the base was decommissioned. In 1952, the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers stored 232 surplus buildings on 448 acres of land of the Fort Mears Military Reservation. During the mid-1980s, the US government finally funded a cleanup of the fort. The U. S. Navy also scrapped its air base on it, as the economy and population grows, the town of Unalaska is having trouble meeting the needs of citizens and travelers. Infrastructure such as water treatment plants, landfills, doctors, Unalaska is expanding to meet the needs of its citizens, employees and travelers
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Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
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South West Pacific Area (command)
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South West Pacific Area was the name given to the Allied supreme military command in the South West Pacific Theatre of World War II. It was one of four major Allied commands in the Pacific War, SWPA included the Philippines, Borneo, the Dutch East Indies, East Timor, Australia, the Territories of Papua and New Guinea, and the western part of the Solomon Islands. It primarily consisted of United States and Australian forces, although Dutch, Filipino, British, General Douglas MacArthur was appointed as the Supreme Commander, Southwest Pacific Area, on its creation on 18 April 1942. He created five subordinate commands, Allied Land Forces, Allied Air Forces, Allied Naval Forces, United States Army Forces in Australia, and the United States Army Forces in the Philippines. The last command disappeared when Corregidor surrendered on 6 May 1942, while USAFIA became the United States Army Services of Supply, in 1943, United States Army Forces in the Far East was reformed and assumed responsibility for administration, leaving USASOS as a purely logistical agency. Both were swept away in a reorganisation in 1945, the other three commands, Allied Land Forces, Allied Air Forces and Allied Naval Forces, remained until SWPA was abolished on 2 September 1945. The forerunner of the South West Pacific Area was the short-lived American-British-Dutch-Australian Command, in December 1941 and January 1942, ABDA was referred to as the South West Pacific Area. The next day, by radiogram, the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, Marshall, ordered Barnes to assume command as Commander, US Troops in Australia and take charge of all troops and supplies. On 22 December 1941, with the arrival in Brisbane. It was renamed U. S. Army Forces in Australia on 5 January 1942 and its mission was to create a base in Australia for the support of the forces still in the Philippines. What would replace ADBA was the subject of discussions between the Australian and New Zealand chiefs of staff that were held in Melbourne between 26 February and 1 March 1942, churchill responded favourably to the proposal, and the governments of Australia and New Zealand were then consulted. They endorsed the idea of an American supreme commander, but wanted to have input into matters of strategy. This resulted in the creation of the Pacific War Council, which met for the first time in London on 10 February 1942. Churchill, Clement Attlee and Anthony Eden represented the United Kingdom, Page was replaced as the Australian representative by Stanley Bruce in June 1942. A parallel Pacific War Council was created in Washington, D. C. that first met on 1 April 1942 and it was chaired by Roosevelt, with Richard Casey and later Owen Dixon representing Australia, and Prime Minister Mackenzie King representing Canada. The Pacific War Council never became a body, and had no influence on strategy. The obvious choice for a commander in the Pacific was General Douglas MacArthur. MacArthur had solid support from the President, the Army and the American people, while the Army planners, led by Brigadier General Dwight Eisenhower, were willing to compromise on a divided command, they objected to placing Australia and New Zealand in separate theatres
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Gato-class submarine
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The Gato-class were a class of submarines built for the United States Navy and launched in 1941–1943, they were the first mass-production US submarine class of World War II. Together with their near-sisters the Balao and Tench classes, their design formed the majority of the United States Navys World War II submarine fleet, Gatos name comes from a species of small catshark. Like most other U. S. Navy submarines of the period, in some references, the Gatos are combined with their successors, especially the Balao class. The Gato-class boats were considered to be Fleet Submarines, the original rationale behind their design was that they were intended to operate as adjuncts to the main battle fleet, based on Standard-type battleships since World War I. This was a concept born from experience in World War I. In order to operate effectively in this role, a submarine had to have high speed, long range and endurance. Limitations in submarine design and construction in the 1920s and 1930s made this combination of very difficult to achieve. By 1931, the phase of fleet submarine development was over. By 1940, a better developed industrial base and experience gained from the Porpoise, Salmon. Finally, the USN had hit the right combination of factors, timing, however, conspired against the actual use of these boats in their assigned role. The attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 destroyed the Pacific Fleet battle line, the successful Pearl Harbor attack overturned 20 years of submarine strategic concept development and left the fleet submarine without a mission. The Gato-class design was a near-duplicate of the preceding Tambor and Gar-class boats, the Gatos, along with nearly all of the USN fleet-type submarines of World War II, were of partial double hull construction. The inner pressure-resisting hull was wrapped by an outer hydrodynamic hull, the voids between the two hulls provided space for fuel and ballast tanks. The outer hull merged with the hull at both ends in the area of the torpedo room bulkheads, hence the partial double hull. The Gatos were slow divers when compared to some German and British designs, acknowledging this limitation, the Bureau designers incorporated a negative tank into the design, which was flooded to provide a large amount of negative buoyancy at the start of the dive. Based on later wartime experience, the tank was normally kept full or nearly full at the surface, at the start of the war these boats could go from fully surfaced to periscope depth in approximately 45–50 seconds. The superstructure that sat atop the hull provided the main walking deck when the boat was surfaced and was free flooding. When the dive began the boat would hang for a few seconds while this superstructure filled with water
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Fleet submarine
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A fleet submarine is a submarine with the speed, range, and endurance to operate as part of a navys Battle Fleet. Examples of fleet submarines are the British K class and the American Gato class, within the modern Royal Navy, the term is used for the British nuclear powered attack submarines. The term was used by the United States Navy to distinguish submarines suitable for long range patrols in the Pacific Ocean from earlier classes such as the United States S-class submarines. Most of the nine V-boats launched 1924-33 were either attempts to produce a submarine or were long-range submarine cruisers. The Tambors were fully developed and similar to the Gatos except for diving depth and separation of the engines into two compartments. In order to get the speeds - over 20 knots while surfaced - required to match their ships and to be able to screen ahead of the fleet or flank the enemy. The K-class entering service in 1916 were large for their time, although able to reach 24 knots the complexity of shutting down boilers and stowing funnels made them slow to dive. The Fleet Submarine in the U. S. Navy, A Design, submarines Through 1945, An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis, Maryland, United States Naval Institute, kafka, Roger, Pepperburg, Roy L. Warships of the World. Navies of the Second World War, garden City, New York, Doubleday & Company. Navies of the Second World War, garden City, New York, Doubleday & Company. British and Dominion Warships of World War II, garden City, New York, Doubleday & Company. Garden City, New York, Doubleday & Company, taylor, J. C. German Warships of World War II. Garden City, New York, Doubleday & Company, watts, Anthony J. Japanese Warships of World War II. Garden City, New York, Doubleday & Company
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Anti-submarine warfare
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Anti-submarine warfare is a branch of underwater warfare that uses surface warships, aircraft, or other submarines to find, track and deter, damage or destroy enemy submarines. Successful anti-submarine warfare depends on a mix of sensor and weapon technology, training, sophisticated sonar equipment for first detecting, then classifying, locating and tracking the target submarine is a key element of ASW. To destroy submarines both the torpedo and mine are used, launched from air, surface and underwater platforms, other means of destruction have been used in the past but are now obsolete. ASW also involves protecting friendly ships, the first self-propelled torpedo was invented in 1863 and launched from surface craft. The first submarine with a torpedo was Nordenfelt I built in 1884-1885, in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, the submarine was a significant threat. By the start of the First World War nearly 300 submarines were in service, some warships were fitted with an armoured belt as protection against torpedoes. There were, however, no means to detect submerged U-boats, the Royal Navy torpedo establishment, HMS Vernon, studied explosive grapnel sweeps, these sank four or five U-boats in the First World War. A similar approach featured a string of 70 lb charges on a cable, fired electrically. Also tried were dropping 18.5 lb hand-thrown guncotton bombs, the Lance Bomb was developed, also, this featured a 35–40 lb cone-shaped steel drum on a 5 ft shaft, intended to be thrown at a submarine. Firing Lyddite shells, or using trench mortars, was tried, use of nets to ensnare U-boats was also examined, as was a destroyer, HMS Starfish, fitted with a spar torpedo. Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger as the Type B and these were effective at a distance of around 20 ft. The best concept arose in a 1913 RN Torpedo School report, describing a device intended for countermining, at Admiral John Jellicoes request, the standard Mark II mine was fitted with a hydrostatic pistol preset for 45 ft firing, to be launched from a stern platform. Weighing 1,150 lb, and effective at 100 ft, the mine was a potential hazard to the dropping ship. During the First World War, submarines were a major menace and they operated in the Baltic, North Sea, Black Sea and Mediterranean as well as the North Atlantic. Previously they had limited to relatively calm and protected waters. The vessels used to them were a range of small, fast surface ships using guns. They mainly relied on the fact a submarine of the day was often on the surface for a range of reasons, the first approach to protect warships was chainlink nets strung from the sides of battleships, as defense against torpedoes. Nets were also deployed across the mouth of a harbour or naval base to stop submarines entering or to stop torpedoes of the Whitehead type fired against ships, British warships were fitted with a ram with which to sink submarines, and U-15 was thus sunk in August 1914
United States Navy
