1.
United States Army
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The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States Armed Forces and performs land-based military operations. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, the United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. As a uniformed service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army. As a branch of the forces, the mission of the U. S. The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States, the United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U. S. Section 3062 of Title 10, U. S, the army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, French aid, resources, a number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught Prussian Army tactics and organizational skills. The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South in 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the British were weakest, to wear down their forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles in the New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776, with a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly given land certificates, State militias became the new nations sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Points arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The War of 1812, the second and last war between the United States and Great Britain, had mixed results. After taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the U. S. Army seized parts of western Upper Canada, burned York and defeated Tecumseh, which caused his Western Confederacy to collapse. Following U. S. victories in the Canadian province of Upper Canada, British troops, were able to capture and burn Washington, which was defended by militia, in 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and Siege of Fort St. Philip, U. S. troops and sailors captured HMS Cyane, Levant, and Penguin in the final engagements of the war. Per the treaty, both sides, the United States and Great Britain, returned to the status quo. Both navies kept the warships they had seized during the conflict, the armys major campaign against the Indians was fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars to defeat the Seminoles and move them to Oklahoma
United States Army
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Storming of Redoubt #10 in the
Siege of Yorktown during the
American Revolutionary War prompted the British government to begin negotiations, resulting in the
Treaty of Paris and British recognition of the United States of America.
United States Army
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Emblem of the United States Department of the Army
United States Army
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General
Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his makeshift defenses as his troops repulse attacking
Highlanders during the
defense of New Orleans, the final major battle of the War of 1812
United States Army
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The
Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil War
2.
Union Army
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The Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War,1861 to 1865. It included the permanent regular army of the United States, which was augmented by numbers of temporary units consisting of volunteers as well as conscripts. The Union Army fought and eventually defeated the Confederate Army during the war, at least two and a half million men served in the Union Army, almost all were volunteers. About 360,000 Union soldiers died from all causes,280,000 were wounded and 200,000 deserted. When the American Civil War began in April 1861, there were only 16,000 men in the U. S. Army, and of these many Southern officers resigned and joined the Confederate army. The U. S. Army consisted of ten regiments of infantry, four of artillery, Lincolns call forced the border states to choose sides, and four seceded, making the Confederacy eleven states strong. The war proved to be longer and more extensive than anyone North or South had expected, the call for volunteers initially was easily met by patriotic Northerners, abolitionists, and even immigrants who enlisted for a steady income and meals. Over 10,000 Germans in New York and Pennsylvania immediately responded to Lincolns call, as more men were needed, however, the number of volunteers fell and both money bounties and forced conscription had to be turned to. Nevertheless, between April 1861 and April 1865, at least two and a million men served in the Union Army, of whom the majority were volunteers. It is a misconception that the South held an advantage because of the percentage of professional officers who resigned to join the Confederate army. At the start of the war, there were 824 graduates of the U. S, Military Academy on the active list, of these,296 resigned or were dismissed, and 184 of those became Confederate officers. Of the approximately 900 West Point graduates who were civilians,400 returned to the Union Army and 99 to the Confederate. Therefore, the ratio of Union to Confederate professional officers was 642 to 283, the South did have the advantage of other military colleges, such as The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute, but they produced fewer officers. The Union Army was composed of numerous organizations, which were generally organized geographically, Military Division A collection of Departments reporting to one commander. Military Divisions were similar to the modern term Theater, and were modeled close to, though not synonymous with. Department An organization that covered a region, including responsibilities for the Federal installations therein. Those named for states usually referred to Southern states that had been occupied and it was more common to name departments for rivers or regions. District A subdivision of a Department, there were also Subdistricts for smaller regions
Union Army
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The
21st Michigan Infantry, a company of
William Tecumseh Sherman 's army
Union Army
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Flag of the United States from 1863 until 1865.
Union Army
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Recruiting poster for the First Battalion, New York Mounted Rifles
Union Army
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Noncommissioned officers of the 93rd New York Infantry
3.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
American Civil War
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New Orleans the largest cotton exporting port for New England and Great Britain textile mills, shipping Mississippi River Valley goods from North, South and Border states.
American Civil War
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Clockwise from top:
Battle of Gettysburg,
Union Captain John Tidball's artillery,
Confederate prisoners,
ironclad USS Atlanta, ruins of
Richmond, Virginia,
Battle of Franklin
American Civil War
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Sen. Stephen Douglas, author of the
Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854
American Civil War
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Sen. John J. Crittenden, of the 1860
Crittenden Compromise
4.
Henry Whitney Bellows
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Henry Whitney Bellows was an American clergyman, and the planner and president of the United States Sanitary Commission, the leading soldiers aid society, during the American Civil War. Under his leadership, the USSC became the source of spiritual and physical aid for wounded Union soldiers. Bellows was born in Boston, Massachusetts, here Bellows acquired a high reputation as a pulpit orator and lyceum lecturer, and was a recognized leader in the Unitarian Church in America. For many years after 1846 he edited The Christian Inquirer, a Unitarian weekly paper, in 1849, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Honorary member. In 1857 he delivered a series of lectures in the Lowell Institute course, at the outbreak of the Civil War, he planned the United States Sanitary Commission, of which he was the only president. He inspired the organization of chapters of the USSC in cities across the country, the organization raised millions of dollars for the war effort and to support soldiers and veterans. Together with his parishioner and friend, Peter Cooper, he established Cooper Union, in 1865 he proposed and organized the national conference of Unitarian and other Christian churches, and from 1865 to 1880 was chairman of its council. He died in New York City on 30 January 1882, a bronze memorial tablet by Augustus Saint-Gaudens was unveiled in All Souls church in 1886. Endnotes, Bellows, Russell N. Henry Whitney Bellows, — a biographical sketch reprinted from T. B. Pecks Bellows Family Genealogy Chadwick, John White, Henry W. Bellows, his Life and Character. — a memorial address Still, Charles J, history of the United States Sanitary Commission
Henry Whitney Bellows
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Henry Whitney Bellows
5.
Frederick Law Olmsted
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Frederick Law Olmsted was an American landscape architect, journalist, social critic, and public administrator. He is popularly considered to be the father of American landscape architecture, in Washington, D. C. he worked on the landscape surrounding the United States Capitol building. The quality of Olmsteds landscape architecture was recognized by his contemporaries and his work, especially in Central Park in New York City, set a standard of excellence that continues to influence landscape architecture in the United States. Olmsted was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on April 26,1822 and his father, John Olmsted, was a prosperous merchant who took a lively interest in nature, people, and places, Frederick Law and his younger brother, John Hull, also showed this interest. His mother, Charlotte Law Olmsted, died before his fourth birthday and his father remarried in 1827 to Mary Ann Bull, who shared her husbands strong love of nature and had perhaps a more cultivated taste. When the young Olmsted was almost ready to enter Yale College, after working as an apprentice seaman, merchant, and journalist, Olmsted settled on a 125-acre farm in January 1848 on the south shore of Staten Island NY, which his father helped him acquire. This farm, originally named the Akerly Homestead, was renamed Tosomock Farm by Olmsted and it was later renamed The Woods of Arden by owner Erastus Wiman. On June 13,1859, Olmsted married Mary Cleveland Olmsted, Daniel Fawcett Tiemann, the mayor of New York, officiated the wedding. He adopted her three children, John Charles Olmsted, Charlotte Olmsted and Owen Olmsted, Frederick and Mary had two children together who survived infancy, a daughter, Marion and a son Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. Their first child, John Theodore Olmsted, was born on June 13,1860, Olmsted had a significant career in journalism. In 1850 he traveled to England to visit gardens, where he was greatly impressed by Joseph Paxtons Birkenhead Park. He subsequently wrote and published Walks and Talks of an American Farmer in England in 1852 and this supported his getting additional work. Interested in the economy, he was commissioned by the New York Daily Times to embark on an extensive research journey through the American South. His dispatches to the Times were collected into three volumes which remain vivid first-person social documents of the pre-war South. A one-volume abridgment, Journeys and Explorations in the Cotton Kingdom, was published during the first six months of the American Civil War at the suggestion of Olmsteds English publisher. To this he wrote a new introduction in which he stated explicitly his views on the effect of slavery on the economy and my own observation of the real condition of the people of our Slave States, gave me. He argued that slavery had made the slave states inefficient and backward both economically and socially, the citizens of the cotton States, as a whole, are poor. They work little, and that little, badly, they earn little, they sell little, they buy little and their destitution is not material only, it is intellectual and it is moral
Frederick Law Olmsted
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Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.
Frederick Law Olmsted
Frederick Law Olmsted
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View of Willowdell Arch with the team that created Central Park. Standing on the pathway over the span, from Right: Frederick Law Olmsted,
Jacob Wrey Mould,
Ignaz Anton Pilat,
Calvert Vaux,
George Waring, and
Andrew Haswell Green. Photographed in 1862.
Frederick Law Olmsted
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Olmsted and Vaux in 1863 adopted 'landscape architect' as a professional title and used it to describe their work for the planning of urban
park systems.
6.
Crimean War
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The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to March 1856 in which the Russian Empire lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. The immediate cause involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, the French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. While the churches eventually worked out their differences and came to an agreement, Nicholas I of Russia, Nicholas issued an ultimatum that the Orthodox subjects of the Empire be placed under his protection. Britain attempted to mediate and arranged a compromise that Nicholas agreed to, when the Ottomans demanded changes, Nicholas refused and prepared for war. Having obtained promises of support from France and Britain, the Ottomans declared war on Russia in October 1853. The war started in the Balkans, when Russian troops occupied the Danubian Principalities, until then under Ottoman suzerainty and now part of modern Romania, led by Omar Pasha, the Ottomans fought a strong defensive campaign and stopped the advance at Silistra. A separate action on the town of Kars in eastern Anatolia led to a siege. Fearing an Ottoman collapse, France and Britain rushed forces to Gallipoli and they then moved north to Varna in June, arriving just in time for the Russians to abandon Silistra. Aside from a skirmish at Köstence, there was little for the allies to do. Karl Marx quipped that there they are, the French doing nothing, after extended preparations, the forces landed on the peninsula in September 1854 and fought their way to a point south of Sevastopol after a series of successful battles. The Russians counterattacked on 25 October in what became the Battle of Balaclava and were repulsed, a second counterattack, ordered personally by Nicholas, was defeated by Omar Pasha. The front settled into a siege and led to conditions for troops on both sides. Smaller actions were carried out in the Baltic, the Caucasus, Sevastopol fell after eleven months, and neutral countries began to join the Allied cause. Isolated and facing a bleak prospect of invasion from the west if the war continued and this was welcomed by France and Britain, as their subjects were beginning to turn against their governments as the war dragged on. The war was ended by the Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 March 1856, Russia was forbidden from hosting warships in the Black Sea. The Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent, Christians there were granted a degree of official equality, and the Orthodox Church regained control of the Christian churches in dispute. The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways
Crimean War
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Detail of
Franz Roubaud 's
panoramic painting The
Siege of Sevastopol (1904)
Crimean War
Crimean War
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Russian siege of
Kars,
Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29
Crimean War
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Two French
Zouaves officers and one private
7.
Indian Rebellion of 1857
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The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major, but ultimately unsuccessful, uprising in India in 1857–58 against British rule. For nearly 100 years, that rule had been presided over by the British East India Company, the rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the Companys army in the garrison town of Meerut,40 miles northeast of Delhi. It then erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions chiefly in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, though incidents of revolt also occurred farther north and east. The rebellion posed a threat to British power in that region. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, though they did not declare the hostilities formally to have ended until 8 July 1859. The rebellion is known by names, including the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection. Many Indians did rise against the British, however, very many also fought for the British, after the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi, whose 81-year-old Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, they declared the Emperor of Hindustan. Soon, the rebels had captured large tracts of the North-Western Provinces. The East India Companys response came rapidly as well, with help from reinforcements, Kanpur was retaken by mid-July 1857, and Delhi by the end of September. However, it took the remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be suppressed in Jhansi, Lucknow. Other regions of Company controlled India—Bengal province, the Bombay Presidency, in the Punjab, the Sikh princes crucially helped the British by providing both soldiers and support. In some regions, most notably in Awadh, the took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence. However, the rebel leaders proclaimed no articles of faith that presaged a new political system, even so, the rebellion proved to be an important watershed in Indian- and British Empire history. India was thereafter administered directly by the British government in the new British Raj, on 1 November 1858, Queen Victoria issued a proclamation to Indians, which while lacking the authority of a constitutional provision, promised rights similar to those of other British subjects. In the following decades, when admission to these rights was not always forthcoming, the victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar, when the East India Company army defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. After his defeat, the granted the Company the right to the collection of Revenue in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras, later, the Anglo-Mysore Wars, in 1806, the Vellore Mutiny was sparked by new uniform regulations that created resentment amongst both Hindu and Muslim sepoys. After the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories and this was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation
Indian Rebellion of 1857
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A 1912 map showing the centres of Indian rebellion
Indian Rebellion of 1857
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India in 1837 and 1857 showing East India Company (pink) and other territories
Indian Rebellion of 1857
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Two sepoy officers; a private sepoy, 1820s
Indian Rebellion of 1857
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Charles Canning, the
Governor-General of India during the rebellion.
8.
Germantown, Maryland
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Germantown is an urbanized census-designated place in Montgomery County, Maryland. If Germantown were to incorporate as a city, it would become the second largest incorporated city in Maryland, Germantown is located approximately 25–30 miles outside of the U. S. capital of Washington, D. C. and is an important part of the Washingtonian metropolitan area. Germantown has the assigned ZIP codes of 20874 and 20876 for delivery and 20875 for post office boxes, in the 1830s and 1840s, the central business area was focused around the intersection of Liberty Mill Road and Clopper Road. Several German immigrants set up shop at the intersection and the became known as German Town. Germantown did not have a school until after the end of the American Civil War. During that time, education was handled at homes, in 1868, a one-room schoolhouse was built on Maryland Route 118, near Black Rock Road, which hosted children from both Germantown and neighboring Darnestown. In 1883, a larger schoolhouse was built closer to Clopper Road. Another, newer school was constructed in 1910, on what is now the site of Germantown Elementary School and this school had four rooms, with two downstairs and two upstairs, with each room housing two grade levels. After the eighth grade, the students would head via train to nearby Rockville, although it avoided much of the physical destruction that ravaged other cities in the region, the American Civil War was still a cause of resentment and division among residents of Germantown. Many Germantown residents, particularly those of German ancestry, were against slavery and had sons fighting for the Union Army. In contrast, other residents of Germantown, particularly those of English ancestry, owned slaves, late in the summer and fall of 1861, there were more than twenty thousand Union Army soldiers camped to the west of Germantown, in neighboring Darnestown and Poolesville. Occasionally, these soldiers would come to Germantown and frequent the stores there, in September 1862 and in June 1863, several regiments of Union Army soldiers marched north on Maryland Route 355, on their way to the Battle of Antietam, and the Battle of Gettysburg, respectively. In July 1864, General Jubal Early led his army of Confederate soldiers down Maryland Route 355 to attack the Union capital of Washington, throughout the course of the war, Confederate raiders would often come through the Germantown area. Local farmers in the Germantown area lost horses and other livestock to both Union and Confederate armies, on April 20,1865, George Atzerodt, a co-conspirator in the assassination of U. S. President Abraham Lincoln, was captured in Germantown. He was assigned by John Wilkes Booth to assassinate U. S, vice President Andrew Johnson, but did not do it and instead fled Washington, D. C. on the night of the Lincoln assassination. He was captured at the farm of his cousin Hartman Richter, Atzerodt was hanged on July 7,1865, along with Mary Surratt, Lewis Powell, and David Herold at Washington, D. C. s Fort McNair. George Atzerodt had come to the town with his family from Prussia when he was nine years old. When he was about 14 his father moved the family to Virginia and he was living in Port Tobacco during the Civil War, and supplementing his meager income as a carriage painter by smuggling people across the Potomac River in a row boat
Germantown, Maryland
Germantown, Maryland
Germantown, Maryland
Germantown, Maryland
9.
Montgomery County, Maryland
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Montgomery County, officially the County of Montgomery, is a county in the U. S. state of Maryland. As of the 2010 census, the population was 971,777 and it is the most populous county in Maryland. The county seat and largest municipality is Rockville, although the place of Germantown is the most populous place. Montgomery County is included in the Washington–Arlington–Alexandria, DC–VA–MD–WV Metropolitan Statistical Area, as one of the most affluent counties in the United States, it also has the highest percentage of residents over 25 years of age who hold post-graduate degrees. In 2011, it was ranked by Forbes as the 10th richest in the United States, the Maryland state legislature named Montgomery County after Richard Montgomery, the county was created from lands that had at one point or another been part of Frederick County. The name use of Montgomery and Washington County were seen as further defiance to Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War, the countys nickname of MoCo is derived from Montgomery County, after the pattern of SoHo, Manhattan. The countys motto, adopted in 1976, is Gardez Bien, the countys motto is also the motto of its namesakes family. Before European immigration, the now known as Montgomery County was covered in a vast swath of forest crossed by the creeks and small streams that feed the Potomac. A few small villages of the Piscataway, members of the Algonquian people, were scattered across the southern portions of the county. Captain John Smith of the English settlement at Jamestown was probably the first European to explore the area, during his travels along the Potomac River and throughout the Chesapeake region. These lands were claimed by Europeans for the first time when George Calvert and he and other early claimants had no intention of settling their families. They were little more than speculators, securing grants from the colonial leadership, thus, it was not until approximately 1715 that the first British settlers began building farms and plantations in the area. Most of these settlers were small farmers, growing wheat. Many of the farmers owned slaves and they transported the tobacco they grew to market through the Potomac River port of Georgetown. Sparsely settled, the farms and taverns were nonetheless of strategic importance as access to the interior. General Edward Braddocks army traveled through the county on the way to its disastrous defeat at Fort Duquesne during the French, like other regions of the American colonies, the region that is now Montgomery County saw protests against British taxation in the years before the American Revolution. In 1774, local residents met at Hungerfords Tavern and agreed to break off commerce with Great Britain, following the signing of the Declaration of Independence, representatives of the area helped to draft the new state constitution and began to build a Maryland free of proprietary control. The leaders of the new county chose as their county seat an area adjacent to Hungerfords Tavern near the center of the county, the newly formed Montgomery County supplied arms, food and forage for the Continental Army during the Revolution, in addition to soldiers
Montgomery County, Maryland
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Downtown
Rockville in 2001, the
Black Rock Mill in 2006, the
National Naval Medical Center in 2003,
Shady Grove in 2004, and the
Gaithersburg city hall in 2007.
Montgomery County, Maryland
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Map of Montgomery County, Maryland. Compiled in the Bureau of Topographical Engineers from the latest and best authorities, September 1862.
Montgomery County, Maryland
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The Madison House in
Brookeville was built around 1800 and originally owned by
Caleb Bentley. The house provided refuge for President
James Madison, on August 26, 1814, after the British burned Washington, D.C., during the
War of 1812.
Montgomery County, Maryland
–
The former Montgomery County Courthouse in
Rockville, Maryland, in January 2006, which served as the county courthouse from 1931 to 1982. The building now houses a state district court after the county court was moved to the Montgomery County Judicial Center.
10.
Camp Nelson Civil War Heritage Park
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The Camp Nelson Civil War Heritage Park is a 525-acre historical museum and park located in southern Jessamine County, Kentucky,20 miles south of Lexington, Kentucky. It was established in 1863 as a depot for the Union army during the Civil War and it became a recruiting ground for new soldiers from eastern Tennessee and escaped slaves, many of whom trained to be soldiers. Camp Nelson was established as a depot for Union invasions into Tennessee. It was named for Major General William Bull Nelson, who had recently been murdered and it was placed near Hickman Bridge, the only bridge across the Kentucky River upriver from the state capital. The site was selected to protect the bridge, to have a base of operations in central Kentucky, the camp was also used as a site to train new soldiers for the Union army. The Kentucky Rivers steep palisades contributed to the selection of the site—they would help defend the camp from Confederate attack, Camp Nelson may have been the best choice for a central Kentucky depot, but it was inadequate. When overall Union commander Ulysses S. Grant visited Camp Nelson in January 1864, he was displeased, the situation of the camp had not improved by spring of 1864, and Grant leaned toward abandoning it entirely. William Tecumseh Sherman advocated that its role be diminished instead, which saved Camp Nelson and it took on the role of training black soldiers, who volunteered for the US Colored Troops. In July 1863 and June 1864, Union forces feared that the camp might be attacked by Confederate general John Hunt Morgan, in 1863 Morgan was headed for Indiana and Ohio in his most famous raid. It was never confirmed whether he intended to attack the camp in 1864, in August 1863 thousands of slaves forced to build railroads for the Union army were stationed at Camp Nelson. They had escaped to Union lines, or joined Union forces which had taken over rebel areas, the army needed the help of their work. These former slaves, at least 3,000 in number, were the builders of Camp Nelson. Prior to Lincoln issuing the Emancipation Proclamation, the Army declared such former slaves as contraband and refused to return them to the southern slaveholders, the Army did use former slaves as laborers. No blacks enlisted in the USCT in Kentucky until 1864, whereas in other border states, at Camp Nelson 10,000 African Americans were emancipated from slavery in exchange for service in the Union army. These soldiers sometimes brought their families to Camp Nelson, such refugees totaled 3,060 and were cared for by missionaries, at one point, in November 1864, Camp Nelson was not a legal place of refuge for slaves. The Union soldiers forced out 400 women and children to leave the camp, some 1300 refugees died at Camp Nelson, reflecting the high rate of infectious disease at camps. Camp Nelson was the smallest of the three locations where blacks were trained to become Union soldiers, the others were in Boston, and New Orleans. In a more rural area than the former facilities, Camp Nelson is the only one whose land was never developed after the war for other purposes
Camp Nelson Civil War Heritage Park
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Camp Nelson
Camp Nelson Civil War Heritage Park
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Replica of a refugee shanty used at Camp Nelson
Camp Nelson Civil War Heritage Park
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Interpretive Center
Camp Nelson Civil War Heritage Park
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Oliver Perry House, the only remaining original structure, now a house museum
11.
The Wall Street Journal
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The Wall Street Journal is an American business-focused, English-language international daily newspaper based in New York City. The Journal, along with its Asian and European editions, is published six days a week by Dow Jones & Company, the newspaper is published in the broadsheet format and online. The Wall Street Journal is the largest newspaper in the United States by circulation, according to the Alliance for Audited Media, the Journal had a circulation of about 2.4 million copies as of March 2013, compared with USA Todays 1.7 million. The newspaper has won 39 Pulitzer Prizes through 2015 and derives its name from Wall Street in the heart of the Financial District of Lower Manhattan. The Journal has been printed continuously since its inception on July 8,1889, by Charles Dow, Edward Jones, the Journal also publishes the luxury news and lifestyle magazine WSJ. They were later aggregated in a daily summary called the Customers Afternoon Letter. In 1896, The Dow Jones Industrial Average was officially launched and it was the first of several indices of stock and bond prices on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1899, the Journals Review & Outlook column, which still today, appeared for the first time. Journalist Clarence Barron purchased control of the company for US$130,000 in 1902, circulation was then around 7,000, Barron and his predecessors were credited with creating an atmosphere of fearless, independent financial reporting—a novelty in the early days of business journalism. In 1921, Barrons, Americas premier financial weekly, was founded, Barron died in 1928, a year before Black Tuesday, the stock market crash that greatly affected the Great Depression in the United States. Barrons descendants, the Bancroft family, would continue to control the company until 2007, the Journal took its modern shape and prominence in the 1940s, a time of industrial expansion for the United States and its financial institutions in New York. Bernard Kilgore was named managing editor of the paper in 1941, under Kilgore, in 1947, that the paper won its first Pulitzer Prize, for William Henry Grimess editorials. In 1970, Dow Jones bought the Ottaway newspaper chain, which at the time comprised nine dailies, later, the name was changed to Dow Jones Local Media Group. In 2007 News Corp. acquired Dow Jones, a luxury lifestyle magazine, was launched in 2008. A complement to the print newspaper, The Wall Street Journal Online, was launched in 1996, in 2003, Dow Jones began to integrate reporting of the Journals print and online subscribers together in Audit Bureau of Circulations statements. In 2007, it was believed to be the largest paid-subscription news site on the Web. Since then, online subscribership has fallen, due in part to rising subscription costs, in May 2008, an annual subscription to the online edition of The Wall Street Journal cost $119 for those who do not have subscriptions to the print edition. By June 2013, the monthly cost for a subscription to the edition was $22.99, or $275.88 annually
The Wall Street Journal
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April 28, 2008 front page
The Wall Street Journal
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Vladimir Putin with Journal correspondent
Karen Elliott House in 2002
The Wall Street Journal
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Scarlett Johansson covers WSJ. April 2014
12.
Central Park
–
Central Park is an urban park in Manhattan, New York City. Central Park is the most visited park in the United States, with 40 million visitors in 2013. The park was established in 1857 on 778 acres of city-owned land, construction began the same year and the parks first area was opened to the public in the winter of 1858. Construction continued during the American Civil War farther north, and was expanded to its current size of 843 acres in 1873, Central Park was designated a National Historic Landmark by the U. S. Department of the Interior in 1962. The Conservancy is a organization that contributes 75 percent of Central Parks $65 million annual budget and is responsible for all basic care of the 843-acre park. Between 1821 and 1855, New York City nearly quadrupled in population, as the city expanded northward up Manhattan, people were drawn to the few existing open spaces, mainly cemeteries, to get away from the noise and chaotic life in the city. Since Central Park was not part of the original Commissioners Plan of 1811, John Randel, Jr. surveyed the grounds. The only remaining surveying bolt from his survey is still visible, it is embedded in a rock just north of the present Dairy and the 65th Street Transverse, the bolt marks the location where West 65th Street would have intersected Sixth Avenue. The state appointed a Central Park Commission to oversee the development of the park, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux developed what came to be known as the Greensward Plan, which was selected as the winning design. The Greensward Plan called for some 36 bridges, all designed by Vaux, ranging from rugged spans of Manhattan schist or granite, to lacy Neo-Gothic cast iron, several influences came together in the design. Landscaped cemeteries, such as Mount Auburn and Green-Wood had set examples of idyllic, naturalistic landscapes, the most influential innovations in the Central Park design were the separate circulation systems for pedestrians, horseback riders, and pleasure vehicles. The crosstown commercial traffic was entirely concealed in sunken roadways, screened with densely planted shrub belts so as to maintain a rustic ambiance, before the construction of the park could start, the area had to be cleared of its inhabitants. Most lived in villages, such as Harsenville, the Piggery District, or Seneca Village, or in the school. Approximately 1,600 residents were evicted under the rule of eminent domain during 1857, Seneca Village and parts of the other communities were razed to make room for the park. During the parks construction, Olmsted fought constant battles with the park commissioners, between 1860 and 1873, most of the major hurdles to construction were overcome and the park was substantially completed. The work was documented with technical drawings and photographs. More gunpowder was used to clear the area than was used at the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War, the parks commissioners assigned a name to each of the original 18 gates in 1862. The names were chosen to represent the diversity of New York Citys trades, for example, Mariners Gate for the entrance at 85th Street
Central Park
–
The Pond and Hallett Nature Sanctuary in the park's southeast corner
Central Park
Central Park
–
John Randel 's survey bolt, still visible in Central Park
Central Park
–
One of 36 bridges in the park
13.
George Templeton Strong
–
George Templeton Strong was an American lawyer and diarist. His 2, 250-page diary, discovered in the 1930s, provides a personal account of life in the 19th century. The historian Paula Baker described him as perhaps the equivalent of South Carolinas Mary Chesnut, quotable, opinionated. He received his education from Columbia Grammar & Preparatory School. In 1838 he graduated from Columbia College with high honors and served as president of the Philolexian Society and that same year he joined the law practice of his father that became Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft. Today it is the nations oldest operating law firm, on May 15,1848, Strong married Ellen Ruggles in Grace Church, New York. A gifted amateur singer, she was the daughter of Samuel B, in 1853, Strong was elected a trustee of Columbia College. Strong served for years as a vestryman at the prominent Episcopal Trinity Church. Strong helped found the United States Sanitary Commission, which helped ameliorate the sufferings of wounded soldiers during the American Civil War and he was also treasurer and member of its executive committee throughout the war. He also helped to start the Union League Club of New York, the organization provided a means to reconciling the whites and blacks of the South into the Republican Party. Strong funded a Union regiment during the war, and Ellen Strong served on a hospital ship and he avoided military service by simply taking advantage of that section of the Enrollment Act of 1863 allowing draftees to pay $300 to a substitute who served for them. Strongs 2, 250-page diary, now in the collections of the New-York Historical Society, beginning at the age of fifteen, Strong wrote almost every day of his life for nearly forty years. Excerpts from this diary are featured in Ken Burns 1990 documentary The Civil War and in Ric Burnss New York, extensive selections from the diary were published in four volumes in 1952, and remain of interest to historians of New York City, as well as to bibliographic collectors. The family was musical, and both Strong and his wife performed as amateurs and he served as President of the New York Philharmonic Society for several years. Their son, also named George Templeton Strong, became a noted Romantic composer and painter, although he had most of his career in Europe after moving to Switzerland in the late nineteenth century, the younger Strong is considered an American composer. Willis, George Templeton Strong, Americas Civil War, History 393, University of the South- Sewanee Mr. Lincoln, Review, Music of George Templeton Strong, Classical CD Review, December 2002 Civil War Draft Records, Exemptions and Enrollments George Templeton Strong. Guide to the Strong Family Papers, 1747-1940
George Templeton Strong
–
George Templeton Strong c. 1870
14.
Organizational chart
–
An organizational chart is a diagram that shows the structure of an organization and the relationships and relative ranks of its parts and positions/jobs. The term is used for similar diagrams, for example ones showing the different elements of a field of knowledge or a group of languages. The organization chart is a diagram showing graphically the relation of one official to another, or others and it is also used to show the relation of one department to another, or others, or of one function of an organization to another, or others. This chart is valuable in that it one to visualize a complete organization. A companys organizational chart typically illustrates relations between people within an organization, such relations might include managers to sub-workers, directors to managing directors, chief executive officer to various departments, and so forth. When an organization chart grows too large it can be split into smaller charts for separate departments within the organization, the titles of officials and sometimes their names are enclosed in boxes or circles. Lines are generally drawn from one box or circle to another to show the relation of one official or department to the others, the Scottish-American engineer Daniel McCallum is credited for creating the first organizational charts of American business around 1854. This chart was drawn by George Holt Henshaw, the term organization chart came into use in the early twentieth century. In 1914 Brinton declared organization charts are not nearly so widely used as they should be, in those years industrial engineers promoted the use of organization charts. The term organigram originates in the 1960s and they only show formal relationships and tell nothing of the pattern of human relationships which develop. They also often do not show horizontal relationships and they often do not include customers. The example on the shows a simple hierarchical organizational chart. An example of a relationship in this chart would be between the general and the two colonels - the colonels are directly responsible to the general. An example of a relationship in this chart would be between Captain A, and Captain B who both work on level and both report to the Colonel B. Various shapes such as rectangles, squares, triangles, circles can be used to different roles. Color can be used both for shape borders and connection lines to indicate differences in authority and responsibility, and possibly formal, advisory, a department or position yet to be created or currently vacant might be shown as a shape with a dotted outline. Importance of the position may be shown both with a change in size of the shape in addition to its placement on the chart. Figurative system of human knowledge Organizational structure
Organizational chart
–
Functional Hybrid Organizational Chart Shri Lal Mahal.
Organizational chart
–
Organization Chart of Tabulating Machine Co., 1917
15.
John Y. Culyer
–
John Yapp Culyer was an American civil engineer, landscape architect, and architect, who worked on parks in Chicago, Pittsburgh and other cities. He is known as the Chief Landscape Engineer of Prospect Park opened in 1867, born in New York city, May 18,1839, son of John and Sarah Culyer, grandson of John Culyer of Norfolk, and a descendant of Nelson of Norfolk, England. He was educated in schools and studied surveying and engineering under Professor Richard H. Bull of the University of the city of New York and he then spent one year in an architects office in New York city. In 1861 he accompanied Mr. Olmsted to Washington, D. C. where he assisted in organizing the U. S. He then entered the corps, U. S. army, under General George Dashiell Bayard. On April 14,1865 Culyer witnessed the Assassination of Abraham Lincoln at Fords Theatre in Washington, D. C. He resigned in 1886 and engaged as a landscape architect and was employed on parks in Chicago, New Orleans, Nashville, New York, Brooklyn, Albany, Pittsburg. In 1861 Culyer accompanied Frederick Law Olmsted to Washington, D. C. where he assisted in organizing the U. S, one of the things they accomplished was the design of a modern organizational chart of the U. S. Sanitary Commission in 1864, entitled Diagram illustrating the working organization of the United States Sanitary Commission, in the upper right corner they described, how to read the chart and which colour coding was used. It reads, The Circles represent not individual workers but departments or subdivisions of labor, the lines represent lines of responsibility. Each center from which lines diverge is responsible for the management of the several departments radiating from it. What is distinctly Medical is represented by Green, what is distinctly Special Relief is represented by red, all other departments are represented by Black. This chart is one of the first modern organizational charts, two years earlier in 1862 the Attorney and Counselor N. Medal Shafer had drawn a Diagram of the Federal Government and American Union, and ten years before in 1854 the Scottish-American engineer Daniel McCallum created the first organizational chart of American business around 1854. This chart was drawn by George Holt Henshaw, the Sanitary Commission Bullettin of Feb.1,1864 reported, that this chart was used in an early 1864 meeting to explain the work of commission to its participants. In the same year the foreign agent of the United States sanitary commission Charles SP, bowles reported, that initially multiple large engraved diagrams, showing its working organization, existed. It dates from the time before the Town of Flatbush was integrated into the City of Brooklyn, afterwards the building served as a magistrates court and the New York City Police Departments 67th Police Precinct station
John Y. Culyer
–
Colonel John Yapp Culyer
John Y. Culyer
–
Town Hall, Flatbush, ca. 1872-1887
John Y. Culyer
–
Eastside Park Historic District sign, Paterson, NJ
John Y. Culyer
–
Flatbush District No. 1 School
16.
White House
–
The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States, located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D. C. It has been the residence of every U. S. president since John Adams in 1800, the term White House is often used to refer to actions of the president and his advisers, as in The White House announced that. The residence was designed by Irish-born architect James Hoban in the Neoclassical style, construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior, reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824, because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, in the main mansion, the third-floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as an area for social events. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space, by 1948, the houses load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the rooms were completely dismantled. Once this work was completed, the rooms were rebuilt. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories—the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, the property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the Presidents Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of Americas Favorite Architecture, in May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790, the July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10-year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morriss city house at 190 High Street for Washingtons presidential residence, the first president occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797, and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of an effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away. President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800, on Saturday, November 1,1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The Presidents House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, the Presidents House was a major feature of Pierre Charles LEnfants plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D. C
White House
–
Top: the northern facade, facing
Lafayette Square Bottom: the southern facade, facing
The Ellipse
White House
–
First Presidential Mansion:
Samuel Osgood House, Manhattan, New York. Occupied by Washington: April 1789 - February 1790.
White House
–
Second Presidential Mansion:
Alexander Macomb House, Manhattan, New York. Occupied by Washington: February - August 1790.
White House
–
Third Presidential Mansion:
President's House, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Occupied by Washington: November 1790 – March 1797. Occupied by Adams: March 1797 – May 1800.
17.
Washington, D.C.
–
Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
Washington, D.C.
–
Clockwise from top left:
Smithsonian Institution Building,
Rock Creek Park,
National Mall (including the
Lincoln Memorial in the foreground),
Howard Theatre and the
Frederick Douglass National Historic Site
Washington, D.C.
–
Map of the District of Columbia in 1835, prior to the
retrocession
Washington, D.C.
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Ford's Theatre in the 19th century, site of the 1865
assassination of
President Lincoln
Washington, D.C.
–
Crowds surrounding the
Reflecting Pool during the 1963
March on Washington
18.
United States War Department
–
The Secretary of War, a civilian with such responsibilities as finance and purchases and a minor role in directing military affairs, headed the War Department throughout its existence. Retired senior General Henry Knox, then in civilian life, served as the first United States Secretary of War, forming and organizing the department and the army fell to Secretary Knox. On November 8,1800 the War Department building with its records, foundation of the new military academy at West Point along the Hudson River upstream from New York City in 1802 was important to the future growth of the American army. The multiple failures and fiascos of the War of 1812 convinced Washington that thorough reform of the War Department was necessary, winfield Scott became the senior general until the start of the American Civil War in 1861. The bureau chiefs acted as advisers to the Secretary of War while commanding their own troops, the bureaus frequently conflicted among themselves, but in disputes with the commanding general, the Secretary of War generally supported the bureaus. Congress regulated the affairs of the bureaus in detail, and their chiefs looked to that body for support, during the American Civil War, the War Department responsibilities expanded. It handled the recruiting, training, supply, medical care, transportation, a separate command structure took charge of military operations. In the late stages of the war, the Department took charge of refugees and freedmen in the American South through the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, during Reconstruction, this bureau played a major role in supporting the new Republican governments in the southern states. When military Reconstruction ended in 1877, the U. S. Army removed the last troops from military occupation of the American South, and the last Republican state governments in the region ended. The Army comprised hundreds of small detachments in forts around the West, dealing with Indians, the United States Army, with 39,000 men in 1890 was the smallest and least powerful army of any major power in the late 19th century. By contrast, France had an army of 542,000, temporary volunteers and state militia units mostly fought the Spanish–American War of 1898. This conflict demonstrated the need for effective control over the department. Elihu Root enlarged the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York and established the United States Army War College and he changed the procedures for promotions and organized schools for the special branches of the service. He also devised the principle of rotating officers from staff to line, indeed, Secretary Taft exercised little power, President Theodore Roosevelt made the major decisions. In 1911, Secretary Henry L. Stimson and Major General Leonard Wood, his chief of staff, the general staff assisted them in their efforts to rationalize the organization of the army along modern lines and in supervising the bureaus. Assisted by industrial advisers, they reorganized the system of the army. General March reorganized the general staff along similar lines and gave it authority over departmental operations. After the war, the Congress again granted the bureaus their former independence, in the 1920s, General John J. Pershing realigned the general staff on the pattern of his American Expeditionary Force field headquarters, which he commanded
United States War Department
–
State, War, and Navy Building in 1917
United States War Department
–
The seal of the U.S. Department of War.
19.
First Battle of Bull Run
–
It was the first major battle of the American Civil War. The Unions forces were slow in positioning themselves, allowing Confederate reinforcements time to arrive by rail, each side had about 18,000 poorly trained and poorly led troops in their first battle. It was a Confederate victory, followed by a retreat of the Union forces. Yielding to political pressure, Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell led his unseasoned Union Army across Bull Run against the equally inexperienced Confederate Army of Brig. Gen. P. G. T. Confederate reinforcements under Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston arrived from the Shenandoah Valley by railroad, the Confederates launched a strong counterattack, and as the Union troops began withdrawing under fire, many panicked and the retreat turned into a rout. McDowells men frantically ran without order in the direction of Washington, both armies were sobered by the fierce fighting and many casualties, and realized that the war was going to be much longer and bloodier than either had anticipated. The Battle of First Bull Run highlighted many of the problems, McDowell, with 35,000 men, was only able to commit about 18,000, and the combined Confederate forces, with about 32,000 men, committed only 18,000. Earlier, South Carolina and seven other Southern states had declared their secession from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. To suppress the rebellion and restore Federal law in the Southern states and he later accepted an additional 40,000 volunteers with three-year enlistments and increased the strength of the U. S. Army to almost 20,000. In Washington, D. C. as thousands of volunteers rushed to defend the capital, General in Chief Lt. Gen. Winfield Scott laid out his strategy to subdue the rebellious states. He proposed that an army of 80,000 men be organized and sail down the Mississippi River, while the Army strangled the Confederacy in the west, the U. S. Navy would blockade Southern ports along the eastern and Gulf coasts. The press ridiculed what they dubbed as Scotts Anaconda Plan, instead, many believed the capture of the Confederate capital at Richmond, only one hundred miles south of Washington, would quickly end the war. By July 1861 thousands of volunteers were camped in and around Washington, since General Scott was seventy-five years old and physically unable to lead this force, the administration searched for a more suitable field commander. Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase championed fellow Ohioan, although McDowell was a West Point graduate, his command experience was limited. In fact, he had spent most of his career engaged in staff duties in the Adjutant Generals Office. While stationed in Washington he had become acquainted with Chase, a former Ohio governor and senator, McDowell immediately began organizing what became known as the Army of Northeastern Virginia,35,000 men arranged in five divisions. Under public and political pressure to begin operations, McDowell was given very little time to train the newly inducted troops. Units were instructed in the maneuvering of regiments, but they received little or no training at the brigade or division level and he was reassured by President Lincoln, You are green, it is true, but they are green also, you are all green alike
First Battle of Bull Run
–
First Battle of Bull Run, chromolithograph by Kurz & Allison
First Battle of Bull Run
–
Brig. Gen.
Irvin McDowell,
Army of Northeastern Virginia, USA
First Battle of Bull Run
–
Maj. Gen.
Robert Patterson, USA
First Battle of Bull Run
–
Brig. Gen.
P. G. T. Beauregard,
CSA Army of the Potomac
20.
Alexandria, Virginia
–
Alexandria is an independent city in the United States Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 139,966, and in 2015, located along the western bank of the Potomac River, Alexandria is approximately 7 miles south of downtown Washington, D. C. Like the rest of Northern Virginia, as well as Central Maryland, one of Alexandrias largest employers is the U. S. Department of Defense. Another is the Institute for Defense Analyses, in 2005, the United States Patent and Trademark Office moved to Alexandria. The historic center of Alexandria is known as Old Town, with its concentration of boutiques, restaurants, antique shops and theaters, it is a major draw for all who live in Alexandria as well for visitors. Like Old Town, many Alexandria neighborhoods are compact and walkable and it is the 7th largest and highest-income independent city in Virginia. In 1920, Virginias General Assembly voted to incorporate what had been Alexandria County as Arlington County to minimize confusion, on October 21,1669 a patent granted 6,000 acres to Robert Howsing for transporting 120 people to the Colony of Virginia. That tract would become the City of Alexandria. Virginias comprehensive Tobacco Inspection Law of 1730 mandated that all grown in the colony must be brought to locally designated public warehouses for inspection before sale. One of the sites designated for a warehouse on the upper Potomac River was at the mouth of Hunting Creek, however, the ground proved to be unsuitable, and the warehouse was built half a mile up-river, where the water was deep near the shore. They intended to trade into the interior of America. The best location was Hunting Creek tobacco warehouse, since the water could easily accommodate sailing ships. Many local tobacco planters, however, wanted a new town further up Hunting Creek, around 1746, Captain Philip Alexander II moved to what is south of present Duke Street in Alexandria. His estate, which consisted of 500 acres, was bounded by Hunting Creek, Hooffs Run, the Potomac River, and approximately the line which would become Cameron Street. The petition was introduced by Lawrence Washington, the representative for Fairfax County and, more importantly, the son-in-law of William Fairfax, since the river site was amidst his estate, Philip opposed the idea and strongly favored a site at the head of Hunting Creek. It has been said that in order to avoid a predicament the petitioners offered to name the new town Alexandria, as a result, Philip and his cousin Captain John Alexander gave land to assist in the development of Alexandria, and are thus listed as the founders. This John was the son of Robert Alexander II, on May 2,1749, the House of Burgesses approved the river location and ordered Mr. A Public Vendue was advertised for July, and the county surveyor laid out street lanes and town lots. The auction was conducted on July 13–14,1749, the name Belhaven was used in official lotteries to raise money for a Church and Market House, but it was never approved by the legislature and fell out of favor in the mid-1750s
Alexandria, Virginia
–
Alexandria with Washington and Arlington in the distance
Alexandria, Virginia
Alexandria, Virginia
–
Map of Alexandria County (1878), including what is now
Arlington County and the City of Alexandria. Map includes the names of property owners at that time. City boundaries roughly correspond with Old Town.
Alexandria, Virginia
–
Map of Alexandria showing the forts that were constructed to defend Washington during the Civil War
21.
Delphinium
–
Delphinium is a genus of about 300 species of perennial flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, native throughout the Northern Hemisphere and also on the high mountains of tropical Africa. All members of the Delphinium genus are toxic to humans and livestock, the common name larkspur is shared between perennial Delphinium species and annual species of the genus Consolida. Molecular data show that Consolida, as well as another segregate genus, the name delphinium derives from the Latin for dolphin, referring to the shape of the nectary. The leaves are deeply lobed with three to seven toothed, pointed lobes in a palmate shape. The main flowering stem is erect, and varies greatly in size between the species, from 10 centimetres in some species, up to 2 m tall in the larger meadowland species. In June and July, the plant is topped with a raceme of flowers, varying in color from purple and blue, to red, yellow. In most species each flower consists of five sepals which grow together to form a hollow pocket with a spur at the end. Within the sepals are four petals, small, inconspicuous. The eponymous long spur of the upper sepal encloses the nectar-containing spurs of the two upper petals, the seeds are small and often shiny black. The plants flower from spring to late summer, and are pollinated by butterflies. Despite the toxicity, Delphinium species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the dot moth, genetic analysis suggests that Delphinium sensu lato, as it was delineated before the 21st century, is polyphyletic. Nested within Delphinium s. l. are Aconitella, Consolida, to make Delphinium monophyletic, several interventions were made. The new genus Staphisagria was erected containing Delphinium staphisagria, D. requini, further genetic analysis has shown that the two large subgenera Aconitum and Aconitum are the sister group to Aconitum gymnandrum, Delphinium, Delphinium, Consolida and Aconitella. To make Aconitum monophyletic, A. gymnandrum has now been reassigned to a new monotypic genus, finally, Consolida and Aconitella are synonymized with Delphinium. D. arthriscifolium is sister to all species of Delphinium sensu stricto. It should be placed in its own subgenus, but no proposal naming this subgenus has been made yet, the subgenera Delphinium and Delphinium are sister to the group consisting of the species of Consolida and Aconitella, which together make up the subgenus Delphinium. Aconitella cannot be retained as a subgenus because A. barbata does not cluster with the species previously assigned to that genus. Pictum = Staphisagria picta D. requienii = Staphisagria requienii D. staphisagria = Staphisagria staphisagria Delphiniums can attract butterflies, various delphiniums are cultivated as ornamental plants, for traditional and native plant gardens
Delphinium
–
Delphinium
Delphinium
–
Flowers of most species have five spreading sepals and four petals (e.g.
Delphinium nuttallianum).
Delphinium
–
In high mountain habitat, central
Utah rangelands
Delphinium
–
Delphiniums displayed at the
Chelsea Flower Show
22.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
New York City
–
Clockwise, from top:
Midtown Manhattan,
Times Square, the
Unisphere in
Queens, the
Brooklyn Bridge,
Lower Manhattan with
One World Trade Center,
Central Park, the
headquarters of the United Nations, and the
Statue of Liberty
New York City
–
New Amsterdam, centered in the eventual
Lower Manhattan, in 1664, the year
England took control and renamed it "New York".
New York City
–
The
Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the
American Revolution, took place in
Brooklyn in 1776.
New York City
–
Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.
23.
Leavitt Hunt
–
Col. Leavitt Hunt was a Harvard-educated attorney and photography pioneer who was one of the first people to photograph the Middle East. Leavitt Hunt attended the Boston Latin School, and subsequently enrolled in a Swiss boarding school and he then enrolled at the Swiss Military Academy in Thun. Hunt was a scholar, he was fluent in French, German, Italian, Latin, Greek and Hebrew, Hunts companion on his Middle Eastern journey was a wealthy sculptor from Ohio and friend of the Hunt family. Nathan Flint Baker had been travelling in Europe for a decade, Hunt decided to join him, meeting him in Florence, Italy, in late September 1851. Hunts and Bakers photographs were dazzling, especially for a brand-new medium many had never seen before and they photographed the Great Sphinx and the Pyramids at Giza, the templex complex at Karnak, the Ramesseum at Thebes, and the ruins on the Island of Philae. The 60 extant photographs from their show that Hunt and Baker were keen on the new medium. One image of an unveiled Ghawazee female dancer, signed on the negative by Hunt himself, is likely the earliest photographic portrait of a Middle Eastern woman. Another image of the less photogenic view from the rear of the Parthenon demonstrates two men unafraid to indulge their take on a revered landmark, the trip was a logistical challenge. Accompanying the two travelers for part of the journey were Leavitt Hunts older brother, the architect Richard Morris Hunt, the group hired a dahaheah and a crew of 13 Egyptians to take them down the Nile River. Architect Hunt, later famous for his Gilded Age Newport palazzos, painted, following their arduous journey, the pair of no-longer-neophyte photographers returned to Paris and made prints from their 18x24 cm negatives which were made using a waxed-paper process. Having developed the negatives, each man kept an album of the prints. Baker left his album with a New York dealer to discern commercial interest in the prints, following their extraordinary journey, the two men took divergent paths. Eventually he was promoted to lieutenant colonel for bravery at the Battle of Malvern Hill, Hunt subsequently attained the rank of full colonel and assistant adjutant general in the Union Army. Leavitt Hunt purchased his own estate at nearby Weathersfield Bow and became a gentleman farmer, Hunt was particularly interested in the rare breeds of Dutch cattle that he raised, as well as the white pine forests he propagated on his estate, which he dubbed Elmsholme. During his retirement as a farmer, Hunt also became an inventor, as far as is known, neither Hunt nor his companion Baker ever showed much interest in the photographic medium after their journey. Their prints are rarely seen, very scarce, and are among the most valuable early photographic images, Hunts personal album is now in the collection of the Bennington Art Museum, Bennington, Vermont. The collection of photos presented to Egyptologist Richard Lepsius is housed at the Museum Ludwigs AgfaPhoto-Historama in Cologne, Hunts personal negatives are believed lost, but the prints he made became the property of his brother Richard Morris Hunt. They are now preserved in the Richard Morris Hunt Papers at the American Architectural Foundation in Washington, a 1999 show at the American Architectural Foundations Octagon Museum showcased Leavitt Hunts 1853 journey
Leavitt Hunt
–
Saint Catherine's Monastery on
Mount Sinai in
Egypt photographed by Leavitt Hunt, first American to photograph the
Middle East, 1852,
George Eastman House
Leavitt Hunt
–
The Great Sphinx and the Great Pyramid at Giza, calotype photograph by Leavitt Hunt, circa 1852,
The Library of Congress
Leavitt Hunt
–
Artist Clyde du Vernet Hunt, son of Col. Leavitt Hunt, in his
Paris studio, c. 1900
Leavitt Hunt
–
American architect
Richard Morris Hunt, painted by
John Singer Sargent. Richard Morris Hunt accompanied brother Leavitt on their trip down the
Nile, 1853
24.
Abraham Lincoln
–
Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
Abraham Lincoln
–
Lincoln in 1863, aged 54
Abraham Lincoln
–
The young Lincoln in sculpture at Senn Park, Chicago.
Abraham Lincoln
–
1864 photo of President Lincoln with youngest son,
Tad
Abraham Lincoln
–
Lincoln depicted protecting a Native American from his own men in a scene often related about Lincoln's service during the
Black Hawk War.
25.
John George Nicolay
–
John George Nicolay was a German-born American who served as private secretary to US President Abraham Lincoln and later co-authored a biography of the 16th President. He was a member of the German branch of the Nicolay family and he was born Johann Georg Nicolay in Essingen, Rhenish Bavaria. In 1838, he immigrated to the United States with his father and he later moved to Illinois, where he edited the Pike County Free Press at Pittsfield, and became a political power in the state. Then he became assistant to the secretary of state of Illinois, while in this position, he met Abraham Lincoln and became his devoted adherent. In 1861, Lincoln appointed Nicolay as his secretary, which was the first official act of his new administration. Nicolay served in capacity until Lincolns death in 1865. Shortly before his assassination, Lincoln appointed Nicolay to a diplomatic post in France, after the death of the President, Nicolay became United States Consul at Paris, France. For some time after his return to the United States, he edited the Chicago Republican and he was Marshal of the United States Supreme Court. In 1881, Nicolay wrote The Outbreak of the Rebellion, Nicolay and John Hay, who had worked alongside Nicolay as assistant secretary to Lincoln, collaborated on the official biography of the 16th President. It appeared in The Century Magazine serially from 1886 to 1890 and was issued in book form as ten volumes. The resulting biography is a resource on Lincoln and his times. Nicolay and Hay also edited Lincolns Works in twelve volumes, finally, Personal Traits of Abraham Lincoln was published by Helen Nicolay in 1912. Nicolay was a member of the Literary Society of Washington in 1874, according to a book about the society written by his daughter. Both Nicolay and Hay were members of standing in the society. Poor health had forced Nicolay to resign as Marshal of the Supreme Court and he lived with his spinster daughter, Helen Nicolay, at her home at 212 B Street SE in Washington, D. C. He died at home of unspecified causes on September 26,1901 and he was buried at Oak Hill Cemetery in the city. In the 1992 documentary Lincoln, the German-born Nicolay is voiced by the Austrian-born actor Arnold Schwarzenegger, in the 1988 NBC mini-series Lincoln based on Gore Vidals book, Nicolay is portrayed by actor Richard Travis. In the 2012 film Lincoln, Nicolay is portrayed by Jeremy Strong, in the 2017 documentary film The Gettysburg Address, Nicolay is portrayed by actor William Fichtner
John George Nicolay
–
John George Nicolay
26.
Jonathan Hunt (Vermont Representative)
–
Jonathan Hunt was an American lawyer and politician from Vermont. He was a member of the United States House of Representatives for the state of Vermont and was a member of the prominent Hunt family of Vermont, born in Vernon, Windham County, Vermont, Hunt graduated from Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1807. Afterwards, Hunt studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1812, Hunt commenced practice in Brattleboro, Vermont in 1812. He was the first president of the Old Brattleboro Bank in 1821, the first bank established in Brattleboro and he also carried the rank of General in the Vermont militia, as had his uncle Arad Hunt. Hunt held many positions in Vermont, and served as a member of the Vermont House of Representatives in 1811,1816,1817. He was elected as an Adams candidate to represent Vermonts 1st congressional district in 1827 and he served in the United States House of Representatives during the Twentieth, Twenty-first, and Twenty-second Congresses, serving from March 4,1827 until his death on May 15,1832. Hunt was a friend of statesman and orator Daniel Webster. The brick home that Hunt had built in Brattleboro, later known as the Colonel Hooker home, was the first brick built in town. Hunt died in Washington D. C. on May 15,1832 while still in office, at his death he left an estate valued in excess of $150,000. He was buried in the plot in the Old Cemetery on the Hill in Brattleboro. A graduate of Dartmouth, Hunt served as a trustee of Vermonts Middlebury College, Hunt was the son of Jonathan Hunt and Lavinia Hunt. His father was born in Massachusetts and was an early pioneer and he served as Lieutenant Governor of Vermont from 1794–1796. Hunts uncle was composer and poet Timothy Swan, and his aunt was married to U. S, Hunt married Jane Maria Leavitt of Suffield, Connecticut. She was part of the New England Dwight family which was involved in the shipping business. Janes father, Thaddeus Leavitt, was a merchant whose clipper ships traded with the West Indies. He invented an early cotton gin and was one of the purchasers of the Western Reserve lands in Ohio. Following Hunts death, his wife took their children to Geneva, Paris, the Hunt children were able to study the arts in European academies and become part of an American expatriate community in Europe. Four of Hunts children returned to America, the fifth, his namesake son Jonathan, remained in Paris, where he studied medicine at the University of Paris and subsequently practiced medicine until his early death, a suicide in 1874
Jonathan Hunt (Vermont Representative)
–
Brattleboro, Vermont, home of the Hunt family
Jonathan Hunt (Vermont Representative)
–
Bracelet with cameo portraits of four sons of Jonathan and Jane Hunt, carved by artist
William Morris Hunt,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
27.
Reuel Colt Gridley
–
In 1864, Gridley supported the Democratic candidate for mayor in Austin, Nevada, where he operated a grocery store. He made a bet with a Republican friend that the loser would carry a fifty-pound sack of flour through the town, after finally selling for $250, the winning bidder did not take the sack, but donated it back to Gridley to be auctioned off again. It was auctioned repeatedly until over $8,000 was raised, when nearby Virginia City, Nevada heard of the event, they invited Gridley to come there, which he did. He then traveled to California where San Franciscans donated $2800 and Sacramento citizens donated $10000, before heading to St. Louis and these bidders added around $170,000 to the Sanitary Commissions fund, and within twelve months Gridley had raised $275,000 with his sack of flour. Twain told the story of the Gridley flour sack in his 1872 book Roughing It, in 1866, Gridley moved to Stockton, California, and was in poor health, he died in 1870. In Austin, Gridleys store still stands and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003, in 1887, the Reuel Colt Gridley Monument was dedicated in Stocktons Rural Cemetery, depicting Gridley standing next to a large sack of flour. In 1965, the monument was registered as a landmark by the state of California. Section of Mark Twains Roughing It on Gridley Text of Nevada Historic Markers in Lander County, Reuel Colt Gridley Reuel Colt Gridley Monument
Reuel Colt Gridley
–
Gridley with his sack of flour in 1864
Reuel Colt Gridley
–
The
Gridley Store in
Austin, Nevada, which was placed on
National Register of Historic Places listings in Nevada in 2003
28.
Nurses
–
Nursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. Nurses may be differentiated from other health care providers by their approach to patient care, training, Nurses practice in many specialisms with differing levels of prescriber authority. Many nurses provide care within the scope of physicians. However, nurses are permitted by most jurisdictions to practice independently in a variety of settings depending on training level, Nurses may help coordinate the patient care performed by other members of an interdisciplinary health care team such as therapists, medical practitioners and dietitians. Nurses provide care both interdependently, for example, with physicians, and independently as nursing professionals, Nursing historians face the challenge of determining whether care provided to the sick or injured in antiquity was nursing care. In the fifth century BC, for example, the Hippocratic Collection in places describes skilled care and observation of patients by male attendants, who may have been early nurses. Hence, any one desirous of acquiring a knowledge of anatomy should prepare a dead body and carefully, observe, by dissecting it. Before the foundation of modern nursing, members of religious orders such as nuns, examples exist in Christian, Islamic and Buddhist traditions amongst others. Phoebe, mentioned in Romans 16 has been described in sources as the first visiting nurse. These traditions were influential in the development of the ethos of modern nursing, the religious roots of modern nursing remain in evidence today in many countries. One example in the United Kingdom is the use of the sister to refer to a senior nurse. During the Reformation of the 16th century, Protestant reformers shut down the monasteries and convents and those nuns who had been serving as nurses were given pensions or told to get married and stay home. Nursing care went to the inexperienced as traditional caretakers, rooted in the Roman Catholic Church, were removed from their positions, the nursing profession suffered a major setback for approximately 200 years. Florence Nightingale laid the foundations of professional nursing during the Crimean War and her Notes on Nursing became popular. Agnes Jones, who established a training regime at the Brownlow Hill infirmary, Liverpool. In turn, the modern movement began in Germany in 1836. Within a half century, there were over 5,000 deaconesses in Europe, formal use of nurses in the modern military began in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Nurses saw active duty in the First Boer War, the Egyptian Campaign, hospital-based training came to the fore in the early 1900s, with an emphasis on practical experience
Nurses
–
A British nurse caring for a baby
Nurses
–
Florence Nightingale was an influential figure in the development of modern nursing. No uniform had been created when Florence Nightingale was employed during the
Crimean War. Both nursing role and education were first defined by Florence Nightingale.
Nurses
–
A recruiting poster for Australian nurses from
World War I.
Nurses
–
Two nurses in Arizona, 1943
29.
Kitchens
–
A kitchen is a room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation in a dwelling or in a commercial establishment. Many households have an oven, a dishwasher and other electric appliances. The main function of a kitchen is serving as a location for storing, cooking and preparing food, commercial kitchens are found in restaurants, cafeterias, hotels, hospitals, educational and workplace facilities, army barracks, and similar establishments. These kitchens are generally larger and equipped with bigger and more heavy-duty equipment than a residential kitchen, for example, a large restaurant may have a huge walk-in refrigerator and a large commercial dishwasher machine. Commercial kitchens are generally subject to public health laws and they are inspected periodically by public-health officials, and forced to close if they do not meet hygienic requirements mandated by law. The evolution of the kitchen is linked to the invention of the range or stove. Food was cooked over an open fire, technical advances in heating food in the 18th and 19th centuries changed the architecture of the kitchen. Before the advent of modern pipes, water was brought from a source such as wells. The houses in Ancient Greece were commonly of the atrium-type, the rooms were arranged around a courtyard for women. In many such homes, a covered but otherwise open patio served as the kitchen, homes of the wealthy had the kitchen as a separate room, usually next to a bathroom, both rooms being accessible from the court. In such houses, there was often a small storage room in the back of the kitchen used for storing food. In the Roman Empire, common folk in cities often had no kitchen of their own, some had small mobile bronze stoves, on which a fire could be lit for cooking. Wealthy Romans had relatively well-equipped kitchens, the fireplace was typically on the floor, placed at a wall—sometimes raised a little bit—such that one had to kneel to cook. Early medieval European longhouses had a fire under the highest point of the building. The kitchen area was between the entrance and the fireplace, in wealthy homes there was typically more than one kitchen. In some homes there were upwards of three kitchens, the kitchens were divided based on the types of food prepared in them. In place of a chimney, these buildings had a hole in the roof through which some of the smoke could escape. Besides cooking, the fire served as a source of heat
Kitchens
–
Modern
Western home kitchens
Kitchens
Kitchens
–
American type midcentury kitchen
Kitchens
–
Kitchen with stove and oven of a Roman inn (Mansio) at the Roman villa of Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler, Germany.
30.
Hospital ship
–
A hospital ship is a ship designated for primary function as a floating medical treatment facility or hospital. Most are operated by the forces of various countries, as they are intended to be used in or near war zones. Although attacking a ship is a war crime, belligerent navies have the right to board such ships for inspections. In the nineteenth century redundant warships were used as moored hospitals for seamen, Hospital ships possibly existed in ancient times. The Athenian Navy had a ship named Therapia, and the Roman Navy had a ship named Aesculapius, their names indicating that they may have been hospital ships. The earliest British hospital ship may have been the vessel Goodwill, however this experiment in medical care was short-lived, with Goodwill assigned to other tasks within a year and her complement of convalescents simply left behind at the nearest port. It was not until the mid-seventeenth century that any Royal Navy vessels were designated as hospital ships. In addition to their crew, these seventeenth century hospital ships were staffed by a surgeon. The standard issue of supplies were bandages, soap, needles. Patients were offered a beds or rug to rest upon, the quality of food was very poor. Hospital ships were used for the treatment of wounded soldiers fighting on land. An early example of this was during an English operation to evacuate English Tangier in 1683, an account of this evacuation was written by Samuel Pepys, an eyewitness. One of the concerns was the evacuation of sick soldiers. The hospital ships Unity and Welcome sailed for England on 18 October 1683 with 114 invalid soldiers and 104 women and children, arriving at The Downs on 14 December 1683. A1705 amendment provided for a further five male nurses, on 8 December 1798, unfit for service as a warship, HMS Victory was ordered to be converted to a hospital ship to hold wounded French and Spanish prisoners of war. According to Edward Hasted in 1798, two hospital ships, were moored in Halstow Creek in Kent. The creek is an inlet from the River Medway and the River Thames, the crew of these vessels watched over ships coming to England, which were forced to stay in the creek under quarantine to protect the country from infectious diseases including the plague. From 1821 to 1870 the Seamens Hospital Society provided HMS Grampus, HMS Dreadnought, in 1866 HMS Hamadryad was moored in Cardiff as a seamens hospital, replaced in 1905 by the Royal Hamadryad Seamens Hospital
Hospital ship
–
United States Navy hospital ship
USNS Comfort in 2009.
Hospital ship
–
RMS Mauretania as hospital ship HMHS Mauretania during
World War I.
Hospital ship
–
Tangier circa 1670. Hospital ships were first used during the evacuation of the port in the 1680s.
Hospital ship
–
HMS Melbourne, the first modern hospital ship, served during the
Second Opium War. Excerpt from
The Illustrated London News about the ship (click to read).
31.
Louisa May Alcott
–
Louisa May Alcott was an American novelist and poet best known as the author of the novel Little Women and its sequels Little Men and Jos Boys. Alcotts family suffered financial difficulties, and while she worked to support the family from an early age. She began to receive critical success for her writing in the 1860s, early in her career, she sometimes used the pen name A. M. Barnard, under which she wrote novels for young adults. The novel was well received and is still a popular childrens novel today. Alcott was an abolitionist and a feminist and remained unmarried throughout her life and she died in Boston on March 6,1888. Louisa May Alcott was born on November 29,1832, in Germantown, the family moved to Boston in 1834, where Alcotts father established an experimental school and joined the Transcendental Club with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Bronson Alcotts opinions on education and tough views on child-rearing shaped young Alcotts mind with a desire to achieve perfection and his attitudes towards Alcotts wild and independent behavior, and his inability to provide for his family, created conflict between Bronson Alcott and his wife and daughters. In 1840, after several setbacks with the school, the Alcott family moved to a cottage on 2 acres of land, situated along the Sudbury River in Concord, the three years they spent at the rented Hosmer Cottage were described as idyllic. By 1843, the Alcott family moved, along six other members of the Consociate Family. After the collapse of the Utopian Fruitlands, they moved on to rented rooms and finally, with Abigail May Alcotts inheritance and financial help from Emerson and they moved into the home they named Hillside on April 1,1845. She also received instruction from writers and educators such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne. She later described these years in a newspaper sketch entitled Transcendental Wild Oats. The sketch was reprinted in the volume Silver Pitchers, which relates the familys experiment in plain living, poverty made it necessary for Alcott to go to work at an early age as a teacher, seamstress, governess, domestic helper, and writer. Her sisters also supported the family, working as seamstresses, while their mother took on work among the Irish immigrants. Only the youngest, May, was able to attend public school, due to all of these pressures, writing became a creative and emotional outlet for Alcott. Her first book was Flower Fables, a selection of tales written for Ellen Emerson. In 1847, she and her family served as station masters on the Underground Railroad, the 1850s were hard times for the Alcotts. At one point in 1857, unable to work and filled with such despair
Louisa May Alcott
–
Louisa May Alcott at about age 25
Louisa May Alcott
–
Louisa May Alcott
Louisa May Alcott
Louisa May Alcott
–
Louisa May Alcott commemorative stamp, 1940 issue
32.
Dorothea Dix
–
During the Civil War, she served as a Superintendent of Army Nurses. Born in the town of Hampden, Maine, she grew up first in Worcester and she was the first child of three born to Joseph Dix and Mary Bigelow, who had deep ancestral roots in Massachusetts Bay Colony. Her father was an itinerant worker as a Methodist preacher, at the age of twelve, she sought refuge with her wealthy grandmother, Dorothea Lynde in Boston to get away from her alcoholic parents and abusive father. About 1821 Dix opened a school in Boston, which was patronized by well-to-do families, soon afterward she also began teaching poor and neglected children out of the barn of her grandmothers house, but she suffered poor health. From 1824 to 1830, she wrote mainly devotional books and stories for children and her Conversations on Common Things reached its sixtieth edition by 1869. Her book The Garland of Flora was, along with Elizabeth Wirts Floras Dictionary, Other books of Dixs include Private Hours, Alice and Ruth, and Prisons and Prison Discipline. After Dixs health forced her to relinquish her school, she began working out as a governess for the family of Dr. W. E. Channing. It was while working with family that Dix traveled to St. Croix. In 1831, she established a school for girls in Boston, operating it until 1836. Dix was encouraged to take a trip to Europe to help aid her health by her physician, when she was there she met the other reformers who inspired her to start working on equal rights for the mentally ill. These reformers were Elizabeth Fry, Samuel Tuke and William Rathbone whom which she lived with during the duration of her trip to Europe, in hopes of a cure, in 1836 she traveled to England, where she met the Rathbone family. They invited her as a guest to Greenbank, their mansion in Liverpool. The Rathbones were Quakers and prominent social reformers, at Greenbank, Dix met their circle of men and women who believed that government should play a direct, active role in social welfare. She was also introduced to the movement for care of the mentally ill in Great Britain. Its members were making deep investigations of madhouses and asylums, publishing their studies in reports to the House of Commons, Reform movements for treatment of the mentally ill were related in this period to other progressive causes, abolitionism, temperance, and voter reforms. After returning to America, in 1840-41 Dix conducted an investigation of care for the insane poor in Massachusetts. In most cases, towns contracted with local individuals to care for ill people who could not care for themselves. Unregulated and underfunded, this resulted in widespread abuse
Dorothea Dix
–
Dorothea Lynde Dix
Dorothea Dix
–
The Dorothea Dix Museum on the grounds of the Harrisburg State Hospital
Dorothea Dix
–
"Fountain for thirsty horses Dix gave to the city of Boston to honor the
MSPCA
33.
Chelsea, Massachusetts
–
Chelsea is a city in Suffolk County, Massachusetts, United States, directly across the Mystic River from the city of Boston. As of 2013, Chelsea had an population of 36,828. It is also the second most densely populated city in Massachusetts behind Somerville, with a total area of just 2.5 square miles, Chelsea is the smallest city in Massachusetts in terms of total area. Chelsea is a diverse, working-class community that contains a level of industrial activity. It is one of only three Massachusetts cities in which the majority of the population identifies as Hispanic or Latino, alongside Lawrence, after flirting with bankruptcy in the 1990s, the once-struggling industrial city has reversed a prolonged decline and in recent years has enjoyed sustained economic growth. There has also been significant office, retail and restaurant development throughout the city, the area of Chelsea was first called Winnisimmet by the Massachusett tribe, which once lived there. It was settled in 1624 by Samuel Maverick, whose palisaded trading post is considered the first permanent settlement by Boston Harbor, in 1635, Maverick sold all of Winnisimmet, except for his house and farm, to Richard Bellingham. The community remained part of Boston until it was set off and incorporated in 1739, when it was named after Chelsea, a neighborhood in London, England. In 1775, the Battle of Chelsea Creek was fought in the area, part of George Washingtons army was stationed in Chelsea during the Siege of Boston. On February 22,1841, part of Chelsea was annexed by Saugus, on March 19,1846, North Chelsea, which consists of present-day Revere and Winthrop was established as a separate town. Reincorporated as a city in 1857, Chelsea developed as an industrial center, as the century wore on, steam power began to overtake the age of the sail and industry in the town began to shift toward manufacturing. Factories making rubber and elastic goods, boots and shoes, stoves and it became home to the Chelsea Naval Hospital designed by Alexander Parris and home for soldiers. According to local records, Nathan Morse, the first Jewish resident of Chelsea, arrived in 1864. However, Chelsea was a destination for the great wave of Russian and Eastern European immigrants, especially Russian Jews. By 1910 the number of Jews had grown to 11,225, in the 1930s there were about 20,000 Jewish residents in Chelsea out of a total population of almost 46,000. Given the area of the city, Chelsea may well have had the most Jews per square mile of any city outside of New York City. On April 12,1908, nearly half the city was destroyed in the first of two fires that would devastate Chelsea in the 20th century. The fire left 18,000 people,56 percent of the population, despite the magnitude of the destruction, it would only take the city about two and a half years to rebuild and five years to surpass the extent of 1908s infrastructure
Chelsea, Massachusetts
–
The
Tobin Bridge, linking Chelsea and Boston
Chelsea, Massachusetts
Chelsea, Massachusetts
–
Old Pratt House in 1908
Chelsea, Massachusetts
–
The Fitz Public Library in 1905
34.
Mary Livermore
–
Mary Livermore, born Mary Ashton Rice, was an American journalist, abolitionist, and advocate of womens rights. Mary Ashton Rice was born in Boston, Massachusetts on December 19,1821 to Timothy Rice and she was a direct descendant of Edmund Rice, an early Puritan immigrant to Massachusetts Bay Colony. Livermore came from a family, her father fought in the War of 1812. Livermore was incredibly intelligent, graduating from Boston public schools at age 14 and she graduated from the seminary in 1836, but stayed there as a teacher for two years. In 1839, she started a job as a tutor on a Virginia plantation and she also began work with the temperance movement at this time, identified with the Washington Temperance Reform and an editor for a juvenile temperance paper. In 1842, she left the plantation to take charge of a school in Duxbury, Massachusetts. She married Daniel P. Livermore, a Universalist minister in May 1845 and she published a collection of nineteen essays entitled Pen Pictures in 1863. As a member of the Republican party, Livermore campaigned for Abraham Lincoln in the 1860 presidential election, during the Civil War, she volunteered as an associate member of the United States Sanitary Commission at 40 years old. President Lincoln donated his own copy of the Emancipation Proclamation, which was auctioned off at $10,000, Livermore eventually became the co-director of the Chicago branch with Jane Hoge, another soldiers aid advocate. The two women completed an inspection tour across Illinois, Kentucky, and Missouri. With a thorough understanding of the needs of the hospitals, Hoge and Livermore sent $1 million worth of food and supplies to hospitals, in addition to her nursing services, Livermore was also a prolific writer. She authored numerous books of poetry, essays, and stories, though Livermore had to sacrifice much of her social justice work for nursing, she still managed to publish some kind of content once a week throughout the entirety of the war. Livermore became the first president of the Association for Advancement of Women, like many Universalists of the time, she was interested in spiritualism, and following her husbands death in 1899, she became convinced that he had communicated with her through a medium. Nearly four decades after her death, she became the namesake of a World War II Liberty ship, the Twin Sisters, or, The History of Two Families, collected in The Two Families, and The Duty that Lies Nearest. What Shall We Do With Our Daughters. and Other Lectures My Story of the War, The Civil War Memories of the Famous Nurse, Relief Organizer, the story of my life, or, The sunshine and shadow of seventy years. North American Review 153 pp. 283–295, List of suffragists and suffragettes List of womens rights activists Timeline of womens suffrage Eggleston, Larry G. Women in the Civil War, Extraordinary Stories of Soldiers, Spies, Nurses, Doctors, Crusaders, jefferson, North Carolina, McFarland & Company. Lincoln, Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press, Mary Livermore A Legacy of Caring and Cooperative Womanhood in Outstanding Women in Public Administration, Leaders, Mentors and Pioneers
Mary Livermore
–
Mary Livermore
Mary Livermore
–
Mary Livermore House in Melrose, MA
35.
Mary Ann Bickerdyke
–
Mary Ann Bickerdyke, also known as Mother Bickerdyke, was a hospital administrator for Union soldiers during the American Civil War and a lifelong advocate for veterans. She was responsible for establishing 300 field hospitals during the war and served as a lawyer assisting veterans, Mary Ann Ball was born on July 19,1817 in Knox County, Ohio to Hiram and Annie Rodgers Ball. She was one of the first women who attended Oberlin College in Ohio and she married Robert Bickerdyke in 1847, who died in 1859 just two years before the Civil War. Together, the Bickerdykes had two sons and she later moved to Galesburg, Illinois where she worked as botanic physician and primarily worked with alternative medicines using herbs and plants. Bickerdyke began to attend the Congregational Church in Galesburg shortly after she became a widow, Mary Bickerdyke served in the Civil War from June 9,1861 to March 20,1865, working in a total of nineteen battles. Bickerdyke was described as a nurse who did not let anyone stand in the way of her duties. Her patients, the soldiers, referred to her as Mother Bickerdyke because of her caring nature. When a surgeon questioned her authority to some action, she replied. In reality, her authority came from her reputation with the Sanitary Commission, dr. Woodward, a surgeon with the 22nd Illinois Infantry and a friend of Bickerdykes, wrote home about the filthy, chaotic military hospitals at Cairo, Illinois. The letter was read aloud in their church and Galesburgs citizens collected $500 worth of supplies, after meeting Mary Livermore, she was appointed a field agent for the Northwestern branch of the Sanitary Commission. Livermore also helped Bickerdyke find care for her two sons in Beloit, Wisconsin, while she was in the field with the army during the part of the war. Her sons complained about living in Beloit and she stayed in Cairo as a nurse, and while there, she organized the hospitals and gained Grants appreciation. Grant endorsed her efforts and detailed soldiers to her train. Bickerdyke became a matron of the hospital in only five months and she later joined a field hospital at Fort Donelson, working alongside Mary J. Safford. Bickerdyke cites Fort Donelson, specifically February 15th and 16th, as the first battle she witnessed, at Fort Donelson, she realized that laundry services were lacking in the field hospitals. She packed up the clothes and bedding that had been used by the men, added disinfectants. She also requested that her colleagues in Chicago send washing machines, portable kettles and she then organized escaped and former slaves to provide laundry services for the hospitals she set up in the field. After serving at Fort Donelson, she was appointed matron at Gayoso Block Hospital in Memphis, Gayoso had 900 patients, including 400 Native Americans
Mary Ann Bickerdyke
–
Mary Ann Bickerdyke in 1898
Mary Ann Bickerdyke
–
Mary Ann Bickerdyke
Mary Ann Bickerdyke
–
Bickerdyke Memorial in Galesburg, Illinois.
36.
Sarah Palmer Young
–
Sarah Graham Palmer Young worked as a regimental nurse during the American Civil War. In 1867, she published The Story of Aunt Beckys Army-Life and she was born in Ithaca, New York as Sarah A. Graham. She married Abel O. Palmer, who died before 1862, Palmer left Ithaca on September 3,1862, following the 109th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment to Laurel, Maryland and leaving her two daughters in the care of relatives. The regiment initially served at Annapolis Junction, Maryland, guarding the railroad to Washington, in one anecdote she told, during the Siege of Petersburg Palmer wanted to send a seriously ill patient to Washington but the doctor in charge objected. She managed to obtain a ticket for him and sent him off, later she embellished this story to include multiple patients, and claimed that the doctor took his complaint to Union general Ulysses S. Grant. According to Palmers later account, Grant laughed and said Ive got nothing to say, one secondary source claims that patients often called her Mother, a nickname she disliked, and she encouraged using the different nickname after a soldier suggested she looked like his Aunt Becky. The Story of Aunt Beckys Army-Life was co-authored with Sylvia Lawson Covey, Palmer had kept a full diary of her nursing experiences, but most of the diary was lost, leaving only around three months of material and Palmers account was therefore largely dictated from memory. After her remarriage in 1867, her moved to Des Moines. She died on April 6,1908, which was also her 41st wedding anniversary, photos of her monument Sarah Palmer. The Story of Aunt Beckys Army-Life, the Story of Aunt Beckys Army-Life - Primary Source Edition. Account of 2009 Veterans Day ceremony
Sarah Palmer Young
–
Sarah A. Graham Palmer Young
37.
Sarah Emma Edmonds
–
Sarah Emma Edmonds, was a Canadian-born woman who is known for serving as a man with the Union Army during the American Civil War. A purported master of disguise, Edmonds exploits were described in the bestselling Nurse, Soldier, in 1992, she was inducted into the Michigan Womens Hall of Fame. Born in 1841 in New Brunswick, Canada, Edmonds grew up with her sisters on their familys farm, Edmonds fled home at age fifteen, however, to escape an early marriage. Aided by her mother, who married young, Edmonds escaped the marriage. A male disguise allowed Edmonds to eat, travel, and work independently, crossing into the United States of America, Edmonds worked for a successful Bible bookseller and publisher in Hartford, Connecticut. Fanny remained dressed as a man in order to other adventures. During the Civil War, on May 25,1861, she enlisted in Company F of the 2nd Michigan Infantry, also known as the Flint Union Greys. On her second try, she disguised herself as a man named Franklin Flint Thompson and she felt that it was her duty to serve her country and was truly patriotic towards her new country. Extensive physical examinations were not required for enlistment at the time, however, some historians today say she could not have been at all these different places at the same time. Edmondss career took a turn during the war when a Union spy in Richmond, Virginia was discovered and went before a squad. She took advantage of the spot and the opportunity to avenge her friends death. She applied for, and won, the position as Franklin Thompson, although there is no proof in her military records that she actually served as a spy, she wrote extensively about her experiences disguised as a spy during the war. Traveling into enemy territory to gather information required Emma to come up with many disguises, one disguise required Edmonds to use silver nitrate to dye her skin black, wear a black wig, and walk into the Confederacy disguised as a black man by the name of Cuff. Another time she entered as an Irish peddler woman by the name of Bridget OShea, claiming that she was selling apples, again, she was working for the Confederates as a black laundress when a packet of official papers fell out of an officers jacket. When Thompson returned to the Union with the papers, the generals were delighted, another time, she worked as a detective in Maryland as Charles Mayberry, finding an agent for the Confederacy. Edmondss career as Frank Thompson came to an end when she contracted malaria and she abandoned her duty in the military, fearing that if she went to a military hospital she would be discovered. She checked herself into a hospital, intending to return to military life once she had recuperated. Once she recovered, however, she saw posters listing Frank Thompson as a deserter, there was speculation that Edmonds may have deserted because of John Reid having been discharged months earlier
Sarah Emma Edmonds
–
Edmonds as Franklin Thompson
38.
Stereoscopic
–
Stereoscopy is a technique for creating or enhancing the illusion of depth in an image by means of stereopsis for binocular vision. The word stereoscopy derives from Greek στερεός, meaning firm, solid, any stereoscopic image is called a stereogram. Originally, stereogram referred to a pair of images which could be viewed using a stereoscope. Most stereoscopic methods present two offset images separately to the left and right eye of the viewer and these two-dimensional images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of 3D depth. Stereoscopy creates the illusion of depth from given two-dimensional images. One of the functions that occur within the brain as it interprets what the eyes see is assessing the relative distances of objects from the viewer, the two images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of depth. Although the term 3D is ubiquitously used, the presentation of dual 2D images is distinctly different from displaying an image in three full dimensions. The most notable difference is that, in the case of 3D displays, holographic displays and volumetric display do not have this limitation. Just as it is not possible to recreate a full 3-dimensional sound field with just two speakers, it is an overstatement to call dual 2D images 3D. The accurate term stereoscopic is more cumbersome than the common misnomer 3D, although most stereoscopic displays do not qualify as real 3D display, all real 3D displays are also stereoscopic displays because they meet the lower criteria also. Most 3D displays use this method to convey images. It was first invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1838, but if it be required to obtain the most faithful resemblances of real objects, shadowing and colouring may properly be employed to heighten the effects. Flowers, crystals, busts, vases, instruments of various kinds, Stereoscopy is used in photogrammetry and also for entertainment through the production of stereograms. Stereoscopy is useful in viewing images rendered from large data sets such as are produced by experimental data. Modern industrial three-dimensional photography may use 3D scanners to detect and record three-dimensional information, the three-dimensional depth information can be reconstructed from two images using a computer by correlating the pixels in the left and right images. Solving the Correspondence problem in the field of Computer Vision aims to create meaningful depth information from two images, anatomically, there are 3 levels of binocular vision required to view stereo images, Simultaneous perception Fusion Stereopsis These functions develop in early childhood. Some people who have strabismus disrupt the development of stereopsis, however orthoptics treatment can be used to improve binocular vision, a persons stereoacuity determines the minimum image disparity they can perceive as depth. It is believed that approximately 12% of people are unable to properly see 3D images, according to another experiment up to 30% of people have very weak stereoscopic vision preventing them from depth perception based on stereo disparity
Stereoscopic
–
Pocket stereoscope with original test image. Used by military to examine stereoscopic pairs of
aerial photographs.
Stereoscopic
–
View of
Boston, c. 1860; an early stereoscopic card for viewing a scene from nature
Stereoscopic
–
Kaiserpanorama consisted of a multi-station viewing apparatus and sets of stereo slides. Patented by A. Fuhrmann around 1890.
Stereoscopic
–
Company of ladies watching stereoscopic photographs, painting by Jacob Spoel, before 1868. A very early depiction of people using a stereoscope.
39.
National Building Museum
–
The National Building Museum, historically known as the Pension Building, in Washington, D. C. United States, is a museum of architecture, design, engineering, construction and it was created by an act of Congress in 1980, and is a private non-profit institution, it is adjacent to the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial and the Judiciary Square Metro station. The museum hosts temporary exhibits in galleries around the spacious Great Hall. The National Building Museum is housed in the former Pension Bureau building, Meigs, the U. S. Army quartermaster general. The vast interior, measuring 316 ×116 feet, has used to hold inauguration balls. The number of staff needed to implement and administer the new benefits system ballooned to over 1,500, Meigs was chosen to design and construct the new building. He departed from the established Greco-Roman models that had been the basis of government buildings in Washington, D. C. until then, Meigs based his design on Italian Renaissance precedents, notably Romes Palazzo Farnese and the Palazzo della Cancelleria. Included in his design was a frieze sculpted by Caspar Buberl, because of the 28 sections modification and mixture, it is only in careful examination that the frieze is seen to be the same figures repeated several times. Meigss correspondence with Buberl reveals that Meigs insisted that a black teamster, who must be a negro and this figure was ultimately to assume a central position, over the buildings west entrance. Made of brick and tile, the stairs were designed for the limitations of disabled and aging veterans, in addition, each step slanted slightly from back to front to allow easy drainage, a flight could be washed easily by pouring water from the top. When Philip Sheridan was asked to comment on the building, his reply echoed the negative sentiment of much of the Washington establishment of the day. A similar quote is attributed to William Tecumseh Sherman, perhaps casting doubt on the truth of the Sheridan tale. The completed building, sometimes called Meigs Old Red Barn, required more than 15,000,000 bricks, the building was used for federal government offices until the 1960s when it had fallen into a state of disrepair and was considered for demolition. After pressure from conservationists, the government commissioned a report by architect Chloethiel Woodard Smith of possible uses for the building. Her 1967 report suggested a museum dedicated to the building arts, the building was then listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969. In 1980, Congress created the National Building Museum as a private, the building itself was formally renamed the National Building Museum in 1997. Every year, the annual Christmas in Washington program is filmed at the museum, with the President and First Lady. C. by National Geographic Travelers blog, Intelligent Travel, in July 2009. In 2010, The Huffington Post included the National Building Museum in a story, the Museum Shop sells books about the built environment and an array of housewares, educational toys, watches, and items for an office, all with an emphasis on design
National Building Museum
–
Pension Building
National Building Museum
–
Interior of the Pension Office, ca. 1918
National Building Museum
–
Logo of the National Building Museum, 2012
National Building Museum
–
National Building Museum (Capitol building in background)
40.
National Register of Historic Places
–
The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
National Register of Historic Places
–
Logo used for the NRHP.
National Register of Historic Places
–
Old Slater Mill, a historic district in
Pawtucket, Rhode Island, was the first property listed in the National Register on November 13, 1966.
National Register of Historic Places
–
The
Loren Andrus Octagon House in
Washington, Michigan has been on the NRHP since September 3, 1971.
National Register of Historic Places
–
Built in 1800 by
Samuel McIntire in
Salem, the
Stephen Phillips House is operated as a
historic house museum by
Historic New England and open for public tours.
41.
Samuel Gridley Howe
–
Samuel Gridley Howe was a nineteenth century United States physician, abolitionist, and an advocate of education for the blind. He organized and was the first director of the Perkins Institution, Howe was born on Pearl Street in Boston, Massachusetts on November 10,1801. His father Joseph Neals Howe was a ship-owner and cordage manufacturer and his mother Patty Howe was considered to be one of the most beautiful women of her day. Howe was educated at Boston Latin School, where he was cruelly treated, Laura Richards later wrote, “So far as I can remember, my father had no pleasant memories of his school days. Boston in the nineteenth century was a hotbed of political foment. Howe’s father was a Democrat who considered Harvard University a den of Federalists, accordingly, in 1818, Howes father had him enrolled at Brown University. Most of his time there was spent engaged in practical jokes and other hi-jinx and, years later and his mind was quick, versatile, and inventive. I do not think he was deficient in power, but the severer studies did not seem to be congenial to him. ”After graduating from Brown in 1821, Howe attended Harvard Medical School. Howe did not remain in Massachusetts for long after graduating, in 1824, shortly after Howe was certified to practice medicine, he became fired by enthusiasm for the Greek Revolution and the example of his idol Lord Byron. Howe fled the memory of a love affair and sailed for Greece. In Greece his services were not confined to the duties of a surgeon, Howes bravery, enthusiasm, and ability as a commander, as well as his humanity, won him the title the Lafayette of the Greek Revolution. Howe returned to the United States in 1827, to funds and supplies to help alleviate the famine. Howes fervid appeals enabled him to collect about $60,000 which he spent on provisions, clothing, and he later formed another colony for exiles on the Isthmus of Corinth. Afterwards, Howe wrote an account of the revolt, Historical Sketch of the Greek Revolution, after leaving Greece, Howe continued his medical studies in Paris. His enthusiasm for a form of government led him to take part in the July Revolution. In 1831 he returned to the United States, a committee organized by Fisher proposed to Howe that he direct the establishment of a New England Asylum for the Blind at Boston. He took up the project with characteristic ardor, and set out at once for Europe to investigate the problem, morse, and several other Americans living in the city, to support the revolutionaries. After five weeks, he was released due to the intervention of the United States Minister at Paris, returning to Boston in July 1832, Howe began receiving a few blind children at his father’s house in Pleasant Street
Samuel Gridley Howe
–
Samuel Gridley Howe
Samuel Gridley Howe
–
Perkins School, prior to 1915
Samuel Gridley Howe
–
Howe and Laura Bridgman
Samuel Gridley Howe
–
Grave of Samuel Gridley Howe in
Mount Auburn Cemetery
42.
Georgetown, Washington, D.C.
–
Georgetown is a historic neighborhood, commercial, and entertainment district located in northwest Washington, D. C. situated along the Potomac River. Founded in 1751 in the Province of Maryland, the port of Georgetown predated the establishment of the federal district, Georgetown remained a separate municipality until 1871, when the United States Congress created a new consolidated government for the whole District of Columbia. A separate act passed in 1895 specifically repealed Georgetowns remaining local ordinances, Georgetown is home to the main campus of Georgetown University and numerous other landmarks, such as the Volta Bureau and the Old Stone House, the oldest unchanged building in Washington. The embassies of Cameroon, France, Kosovo, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Mongolia, Sweden, Thailand, Ukraine, situated on the fall line, Georgetown was the farthest point upstream that oceangoing boats could navigate the Potomac River. In 1632, English fur trader Henry Fleet documented a Native American village of the Nacotchtank people called Tohoga on the site of present-day Georgetown, the area was then part of the Province of Maryland, an English colony. George Gordon constructed a tobacco inspection house along the Potomac in approximately 1745, the site was already a tobacco trading post when the inspection house was built. Warehouses, wharves, and other buildings were constructed around the inspection house. It did not take long before Georgetown grew into a port, facilitating trade. In 1751, the legislature of the Province of Maryland authorized the purchase of 60 acres of land from Gordon, a survey of the town was completed in February 1752. Since Georgetown was founded during the reign of George II of Great Britain, another theory is that the town was named after its founders, George Gordon and George Beall. The Maryland Legislature formally issued a charter and incorporated the town in 1789, robert Peter, an early area merchant in the tobacco trade, became Georgetowns first mayor in 1790. Col. John Beatty established the first church in Georgetown, a Lutheran church on High Street, Stephen Bloomer Balch established a Presbyterian Church in 1784. In 1795, the Trinity Catholic Church was built, along with a parish school-house, construction of St. Johns Episcopal Church began in 1797, but paused for financial reasons until 1803, and the church was finally consecrated in 1809. Banks in Georgetown included the Farmers and Mechanics Bank, which was established in 1814, other banks included the Bank of Washington, Patriotic Bank, Bank of the Metropolis, and the Union and Central Banks of Georgetown. Newspapers in Georgetown included the Republican Weekly Ledger, which was the first paper, the Sentinel was first published in 1796 by Green, English & Co. Charles C. Fulton began publishing the Potomac Advocate, which was started by Thomas Turner. Other newspapers in Georgetown included the Georgetown Courier and the Federal Republican, magruder, the first postmaster, was appointed on February 16,1790, and in 1795, a custom house was established on Water Street. General James M. Lingan served as the first collector of the port, in the 1790s, City Tavern, the Union Tavern, and the Columbian Inn opened and were popular throughout the 19th century. Of these taverns, only the City Tavern remains today, as a social club located near the corner of Wisconsin Avenue
Georgetown, Washington, D.C.
–
Georgetown Historic District
Georgetown, Washington, D.C.
–
The
Old Stone House, built 1765, is one of the oldest buildings in Washington, D.C.
Georgetown, Washington, D.C.
–
Georgetown around 1862. Overview of the
C&O Canal,
Aqueduct Bridge at right, and unfinished
Capitol dome in the distant background.
Georgetown, Washington, D.C.
–
Sailing vessels docked at the Georgetown waterfront, ca. 1865
43.
David Tod
–
David Tod was a politician and industrialist from the U. S. state of Ohio. As the 25th Governor of Ohio, Tod gained recognition for his forceful, a Democrat who supported the war effort, Tod helped to maintain a fragile alliance between the states Republicans and War Democrats and took steps to secure Ohios borders. In 1863, the states pro-Union party failed to nominate Tod for a second term because of his support for the abolition of slavery. After completing his term as Ohio governor, Tod turned down an invitation to serve in the government of President Abraham Lincoln as Secretary of the Treasury. Tod died of a stroke in 1868, three years after the end of the war, Tod was born in Youngstown, Ohio, to a family actively involved in local and state politics. His father, George Tod, born to a Scottish immigrant in Suffield, there, George Tod pursued a career in public life, serving as an Ohio lawmaker between 1804 and 1806, and winning a seat as a justice on the Ohio Supreme Court in 1807. David Tod attended Burton Academy in Geauga County and studied law in Warren, Tod was in the Ohio State Senate from 1838 to 1840. He was a candidate for Ohios governorship as a Democrat in 1844 and 1846, running on a strongly anti-national bank platform and he was appointed by President James K. Polk as minister to Brazil from 1847 to 1851. He presided over the 1860 Democratic National Convention in Baltimore after the resignation of Caleb Cushing as convention president, although previously a strong Democrat, Tod joined the pro-Union alliance between the Republican Party and Ohios War Democrats at the outset of the Civil War. On September 5,1861, Republicans and War Democrats met in Columbus, Ohio, meanwhile, the War Democrats who had not joined the National Union Party nominated Hugh J. Jewett, who called for reconciliation with the South but stopped short of taking a strong antiwar stance. Tod won the election, polling 206,997 votes to Jewetts 151, Tod ultimately served one term as governor, leading the state from 1862 to 1864. Governor Tod faced significant difficulties in encouraging military recruitment and providing for Ohio troops in the field, several months later, when Confederate troops under the leadership of Stonewall Jackson threatened Washington, D. C. Tod was able to secure 5,000 volunteers to provide three months of service and he was less successful, however, in filling Ohios federally mandated quota of 74,000 troops. In time, he advocated federal conscription, writing to Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, respond to any further calls made upon her, but without it would be impossible to raise any considerable number. Among those Ohioans who participated in the war effort was Tods nephew, Brigadier General James Hobart Ford, States could use their own tax money to supplement the work of the United States Sanitary Commission as Ohio did. Under the energetic leadership of Governor Tod, Ohio acted vigorously, following the unexpected carnage at the Battle of Shiloh in Tennessee in April 1862, it send 3 steamboats to the scene as floating hospitals loaded with doctors, nurses and medical supplies. The state fleet expanded to eleven hospital ships, the state also set up 12 local offices in main transportation nodes across the Midwest to assist Ohio soldiers moving back and forth. Damages inflicted upon Ohio residents reached $576,225, while the expense of keeping the militia in the raised the total cost to well over a million dollars
David Tod
–
David Tod
David Tod
–
David Tod as governor of Ohio
David Tod
–
David Tod bust inside the
National McKinley Birthplace Memorial
44.
Battle of Shiloh
–
The Battle of Shiloh, also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing, was a major battle in the Western Theater of the American Civil War, fought April 6–7,1862, in southwestern Tennessee. A Union force known as the Army of the Tennessee under Major General Ulysses S. T. Beauregard, launched an attack on Grants army from its base in Corinth. Johnston was killed in action during the fighting, Beauregard, who succeeded to command of the army. Overnight Grant was reinforced by one of his own divisions stationed further north and was joined by three divisions from another Union army under Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell. This allowed them to launch a counterattack the next morning which completely reversed the Confederate gains of the previous day. On April 6, the first day of the battle, the Confederates struck with the intention of driving the Union defenders away from the river, Johnston hoped to defeat Grants army before the anticipated arrival of General Buells Army of the Ohio. The Confederate battle lines became confused during the fighting, and Grants men instead fell back to the northeast. A Union position on a sunken road, nicknamed the Hornets Nest. Benjamin Prentisss and William H. L. Wallaces divisions, provided critical time for the remainder of the Union line to stabilize under the protection of artillery batteries. Wallace was mortally wounded when the position collapsed, while several regiments from the two divisions were surrounded and surrendered. General Johnston was shot in the leg and bled to death while leading an attack. Beauregard, his second in command, acknowledged how tired the army was from the days exertions, Confederate forces were forced to retreat from the area, ending their hopes of blocking the Union advance into northern Mississippi. Smiths orders were to lead raids intended to capture or damage the railroads in southwestern Tennessee, Brig. Gen. William T. Shermans troops arrived from Paducah, Kentucky, to conduct a similar mission to break the railroads near Eastport, Mississippi. Halleck also ordered Grant to advance his Army of West Tennessee on an invasion up the Tennessee River, Grant left Fort Henry and headed upriver, arriving at Savannah, Tennessee, on March 14, and established his headquarters on the east bank of the river. Grants troops set up camp farther upriver, five divisions at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee, meanwhile, Hallecks command was enlarged through consolidation of Grants and Buells armies and renamed the Department of the Mississippi. With Buells Army of the Ohio under his command, Halleck ordered Buell to concentrate with Grant at Savannah, Buell began a march with much of his army from Nashville, Tennessee, and headed southwest toward Savannah. The railroad was a supply line connecting the Mississippi River at Memphis, Tennessee to Richmond. Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant developed a reputation during the war for being concerned with his own plans than with those of the enemy
Battle of Shiloh
–
Battle of Shiloh by
Thure de Thulstrup.
Battle of Shiloh
–
Maj. Gen.
Ulysses S. Grant,
Army of the Tennessee
Battle of Shiloh
–
Maj. Gen.
Don Carlos Buell,
Army of the Ohio
Battle of Shiloh
–
Gen.
Albert Sidney Johnston, CSA
45.
Greater Boston
–
The region forms the northern arc of the US northeast megalopolis and as such, Greater Boston can be described as either a metropolitan statistical area, or as a broader combined statistical area. Some of Greater Bostons most well-known contributions to human civilization involve the higher education institutions. Greater Boston has been influential upon American history and industry, the region and the state of Massachusetts are global leaders in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance, and maritime trade. Over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan region, the area has hosted many people and sites significant to American culture and history, particularly American literature, politics, and the American Revolution. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution, the Greater Boston region has played a powerful commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, the region was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in 2004, Massachusetts became the first US state to legally recognize same-sex marriage as a result of the decision of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court in Boston. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the Boston region, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. The most restrictive definition of the Greater Boston area is the region administered by the Metropolitan Area Planning Council, the MAPC is a regional planning organization created by the Massachusetts legislature to oversee transportation infrastructure and economic development concerns in the Boston area. The MAPC includes 101 cities and towns that are grouped into eight subregions and these include most of the area within the regions outer circumferential highway, I-495. The eight subregions and their towns are, Inner Core, Minuteman, MetroWest, North Shore, North Suburban, South Shore, SouthWest. Northern Bristol County is part of the Greater Boston CSA, as part of the Providence MSA, the urbanized area surrounding Boston serves as the core of a definition used by the US Census Bureau known as the New England city and town area. The set of towns containing the core urbanized area plus surrounding towns with strong social and economic ties to the area is defined as the Boston–Cambridge–Nashua. The Boston NECTA is further subdivided into several NECTA divisions, which are listed below, the Boston, Framingham, and Peabody NECTA divisions together correspond roughly to the MAPC area. The total population of the Boston NECTA was 4,540,941, the metropolitan statistical area had a total population of approximately 4,732,161 as of 2014 and is the tenth-largest in the United States. The components of the area with their estimated 2012 populations are listed below. This area consists of the areas of Manchester, Worcester, Providence, as well as Cape Cod. The total population as of 2014 for the region was estimated at 8,099,575
Greater Boston
–
Boston
Greater Boston
–
Boston Combined Statistical Area Boston–Worcester–Providence
Greater Boston
–
The Salem Ferry, 92 ft.
Catamaran is photographed approaching its dock off Blaney Street at the
Salem Maritime National Historic Site in
Salem,
Massachusetts,
USA.
46.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
Massachusetts
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A portion of the north-central
Pioneer Valley in
Sunderland
Massachusetts
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Flag
Massachusetts
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Many coastal areas in Massachusetts provide breeding areas for species such as the
piping plover
Massachusetts
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The
Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by
William Halsall (1882). The
Pilgrims were a group of
Puritans who founded
Plymouth in 1620.
47.
Edmund Alexander Parkes
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Edmund Alexander Parkes was an English physician, known as a hygienist, particularly in the military context. Parkes was born at Bloxham in Oxfordshire, the son of William Parkes, of the Marble-yard, Warwick, Parkes was educated at Christs Hospital, London, and received his professional training at University College London and Hospital. In 1841 he graduated M. B. at the University of London, at an early age he worked in the laboratory of his uncle, Dr. Anthony Todd Thomson, and for Thomson he later lectured on materia medica and medical jurisprudence. In April 1842 Thomson was gazetted assistant-surgeon to the 84th Regiment, during this period he obtained clinical experience of tropical diseases, particularly of dysentery, hepatitis, and cholera. In September 1845 he retired from the army, and, returning home, practised in Upper Seymour Street, and then Harley Street, in 1846 he graduated M. D. at the University of London. In 1849 he was elected professor of clinical medicine at University College. At the opening of one of the sessions of the college he delivered a lecture on Self-training by the Medical Student. He selected Renkioi, on the Asiatic bank of the Dardanelles, the hospital was outside the orbit of Florence Nightingale, and had a nursing staff selected by Parkes and Sir James Clark, including as a volunteer Parkess sister. In 1860 an Army Medical School was established at Fort Pitt, Chatham, and Parkes, University College appointed him emeritus professor, and a marble bust of Parkes was placed in the museum. At the Army Medical School at Chatham Parkes organised a system of instruction, in 1863 the school was transferred to the Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley. Parkes was constantly engaged in protracted official inquiries connected with hygiene and he was a member of General Henry Eyres Pack Committee, which substituted the valise equipment for the cumbrous knapsack. In 1863 he was appointed by the crown to the General Medical Council and he was a member of the council of the Royal Society, where he was elected a Fellow in 1861, and he was elected to the senate of the University of London. Parkes died on 15 March 1876, at his residence, Sydney Cottage, Bittern, near Southampton, from tuberculosis, in 1850 he had married Mary Jane Chattock of Solihull. She died, after suffering, in 1873, without issue. Several memorials were established in Parkess memory, at University College, London, a museum of hygiene was founded, of which the original trustees were Sir William Jenner, Edward Sieveking, and George Vivian Poore. It was opened in 1877, and was incorporated under license of the Board of Trade, it was moved in 1882 from University College to new premises in Margaret Street. At Netley, a portrait of Parkes, by Messrs, in 1864 Parkes published the first edition of the Manual of Practical Hygiene, it reached during his lifetime a fourth edition, an eighth edition in 1891, and was translated into many languages. It used a traditional airs, waters and places structure, going back to Hippocrates, in 1896 it was revised by James Lane Notter and R. H. Firth, in a version that was a standard, through six editions, for military hygiene until 1905
Edmund Alexander Parkes
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Edmund Alexander Parkes
48.
Florence Nightingale
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Florence Nightingale, OM, RRC was an English social reformer and statistician, and the founder of modern nursing. She came to prominence while serving as a manager of nurses trained by her during the Crimean War and she gave nursing a highly favourable reputation and became an icon of Victorian culture, especially in the persona of The Lady with the Lamp making rounds of wounded soldiers at night. Some recent commentators have asserted Nightingales achievements in the Crimean War were exaggerated by the media at the time, nevertheless, critics agree on the decisive importance of her follow-up achievements in professionalising nursing roles for women. In 1860, Nightingale laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of her school at St Thomas Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world, now part of Kings College London, Nightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer. In her lifetime, much of her work was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts were written in simple English so that they could easily be understood by those with poor literary skills and she also helped popularise the graphical presentation of statistical data. Much of her writing, including her work on religion. Florence Nightingale was born on 12 May 1820 into a rich, upper-class, well-connected British family at the Villa Colombaia, in Florence, Italy, and was named after the city of her birth. Florences older sister Frances Parthenope had similarly named after her place of birth, Parthenope. The family moved back to England in 1821, with Nightingale being brought up in the homes at Embley, Hampshire and Lea Hurst. Her parents were William Edward Nightingale, born William Edward Shore, williams mother Mary née Evans was the niece of Peter Nightingale, under the terms of whose will William inherited his estate at Lea Hurst, and assumed the name and arms of Nightingale. Fannys father was the abolitionist and Unitarian William Smith, in 1838, her father took the family on a tour in Europe where he was introduced to the English-born Parisian hostess Mary Clarke, with whom Florence bonded. She recorded that Clarkey was a hostess who did not care for her appearance. Her behaviour was said to be exasperating and eccentric and she had no respect for upper-class British women and she said that if given the choice between being a woman or a galley slave, then she would choose the freedom of the galleys. She generally rejected female company and spent her time with male intellectuals, however, Clarkey made an exception in the case of the Nightingale family and Florence in particular. She and Florence were to close friends for 40 years despite their 27-year age difference. Clarke demonstrated that women could be equals to men, an idea that Florence had not obtained from her mother, in her youth she was respectful of her familys opposition to her working as a nurse, only announcing her decision to enter the field in 1844
Florence Nightingale
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Florence Nightingale
OM RRC
Florence Nightingale
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Embley Park, now a school, was one of the family homes of
William Nightingale.
Florence Nightingale
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Young Florence Nightingale
Florence Nightingale
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Nightingale circa 1854
49.
Sewanee: The University of the South
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Sewanee, The University of the South, also known as Sewanee, is a private, residential, coeducational liberal arts college located in Sewanee, Tennessee, United States. It is owned by 28 southern dioceses of the Episcopal Church, the universitys School of Letters offers graduate degrees in American Literature and Creative Writing. The campus consists of 13,000 acres of scenic mountain property atop the Cumberland Plateau, the school was ranked 45th in the 2015 U. S. News & World Report list of liberal arts colleges. In 2016, Forbes ranked it 94th on its Americas Top Colleges list, Sewanee is a member of the Associated Colleges of the South. The goal was to create a Southern university free of Northern influences, as one of its founders, Bishop James Otey of Tennessee put it, the new university will materially aid the South to resist and repel a fanatical domination which seeks to rule over us. John Armfield, co-owner of Franklin and Armfield was by far the most influential in bankrolling the new university, today, Sewanee admits students from all backgrounds and downplays the short-lived role of this notorious slave trader in the Universitys founding. A few were donated back to the university, and a fragment was eventually installed in a wall of All Saints Chapel. Several figures later prominent in the Confederacy, notably Bishop-General Leonidas Polk, Bishop Stephen Elliott, generals Edmund Kirby Smith, Josiah Gorgas and Francis A. Shoup were prominent in the universitys postbellum revival and continuance. Because of the damage and disruptions during the Civil War, construction came to a temporary halt, in 1866 building was resumed, and this date is sometimes used as the re-founding of the university and the year from which it has maintained continuous operations. The universitys first convocation was held on September 18,1868, with nine students, rev. Quintard is known as the Re-Founder of the University of the South. Schools of dentistry, engineering, law, medicine, and nursing once existed, however, for financial reasons it was eventually decided to focus on the College and the School of Theology. In June 2006, Sewanee opened its School of Letters, a graduate school. The School of Letters offers a Master of Arts in American Literature, the institution has combined its two historical names in all university publications that are not official documents and bills itself as Sewanee, The University of the South. In the past, though, unorganized use of official name. To avoid confusion and to honor the history and character of the institution, so, for extended audiences unfamiliar with the institution, the naming convention Sewanee, The University of the South should be used on a first reference. Subsequent references may be to Sewanee or the University, when this naming system was proposed in 2004, it was misinterpreted by some alumni to reflect a change in the official name of the university. A minor scandal ensued, with more conservative commentators insinuating that the change was intended to distance the university from its association with Southern culture. The Sewanee campus overlooks the Tennessee Valley, consisting of 13,000 acres on the Cumberland Plateau and it includes many buildings constructed of various materials faced with local stone, most done in the Gothic style
Sewanee: The University of the South
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1871 Poster for Sewanee
Sewanee: The University of the South
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The University of the South
50.
World Digital Library
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The World Digital Library is an international digital library operated by UNESCO and the United States Library of Congress. It aims to expand non-English and non-western content on the Internet, the WDL opened with 1,236 items. As of late 2015, it more than 12,000 items from nearly 200 countries. After almost 20 years without participation, the United States re-established its permanent delegation to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, google Inc. became the first partner of this public–private partnership and donated $3 million to support development of the World Digital Library in 2005. Foremost was the belief that the World Digital Library should engage partners in planning the four project areas, technical architecture, selection, governance. The participants formed working groups to address the challenges of each of the four project areas. The working groups presented their findings to the larger WDL group in July 2007, findings from this planning process were presented at the thirty-fourth session of the UNESCO General Conference in October 2007 in Paris, France. In early September 2008, the Organization of American States agreed to join with the Library of Congress in developing the World Digital Library, secretary General José Miguel Insulza signed the Contributor Agreement with Librarian of Congress, Dr. James Billington, at an OAS headquarters ceremony. The World Digital Library was launched on April 21,2009 at UNESCO headquarters in Paris, the World Digital Library and Universal Access to Knowledge. Oudenaren, John Van, Beyond Access, Digitization to Preserve Culture, Library of Congress, UNESCO Oudenaren, World Digital Library In The Developing World
World Digital Library
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The World Digital Library homepage on launch day, April 21, 2009
