1.
Oban
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Oban is a resort town within the Argyll and Bute council area of Scotland. Despite its small size, it is the largest town between Helensburgh and Fort William, during the tourist season, the town can play host to up to 25,000 people. Oban occupies a setting in the Firth of Lorn, the bay is a near perfect horseshoe, protected by the island of Kerrera, and beyond Kerrera, the Isle of Mull. To the north, is the long low island of Lismore, the site where Oban now stands has been used by humans since at least mesolithic times, as evidenced by archaeological remains of cave dwellers found in the town. Just outside the town stands Dunollie Castle, on a site that overlooks the entrance to the bay and has been fortified since the Bronze age. Prior to the 19th century, the town itself supported very few households, sustaining only minor fishing, trading, shipbuilding and quarrying industries, and a few hardy tourists. The Renfrew trading company established a storehouse there in about 1714 as an outlet for its merchandise. The modern town of Oban grew up around the distillery, which was founded there in 1794, the town was raised to a burgh of barony in 1811 by royal charter. Sir Walter Scott visited the area in 1814, the year in which he published his poem The Lord of the Isles, the arrival of the railways in the 1880s brought further prosperity, revitalising local industry and giving new energy to tourism. Shortly thereafter, McCaigs Tower, a folly and prominent local landmark, was constructed, during World War II, Oban was used by Merchant and Royal Navy ships and was an important base in the Battle of the Atlantic. The Royal Navy had a station near Ganavan, and an anti-submarine indicator loop station. There was a minefield in the Sound of Kerrera, which was operated from a building near the caravan site at Gallanach. There was also a Royal Air Force flying boat base at Ganavan and on Kerrera, a Sector Operations Room was built near the airfield, after the war, this was extended to become the Royal Observer Corps Group HQ. Oban was also important during the Cold War because the first Transatlantic Telephone Cable came ashore at Gallanach Bay and this carried the Hot Line between the US and USSR presidents. Since the 1950s, the industry has remained tourism, though the town is also an important ferry port. As with the rest of the British Isles, Oban experiences a climate with cool summers. The nearest official Met Office weather station for which records are available is Dunstaffnage. Rainfall is high, but thanks to the Gulf stream the temperature falls below zero
2.
Argyll
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Argyll, archaically Argyle, is an ancient shire of western Scotland. At present, Argyll is one of the counties of Scotland. Argyll is of ancient origin, and corresponds to most of the ancient kingdom of Dál Riata, Argyll was also a medieval bishopric with its cathedral at Lismore, as well as an early modern earldom and dukedom, the Dukedom of Argyll. Between 1890 and 1975, Argyll was a county with a county council, there was an Argyllshire constituency of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1708 until 1983. The name derives from Old Gaelic airer Goídel, however, the word airer naturally carries the meaning of the word coast when applied to maritime regions, so the placename can also be translated as Coast of Gaels. The mainland area, renamed Airer Goídel, would have contrasted with the islands of Innse Gall. They were referred to this way because during the 9th to 12th centuries, the first record of Argyll as a shire dates from 1326, when a sheriff was appointed. At that time the shire covered a larger area than the later county. It included the islands which later formed Buteshire, which became a shire by 1388. It also included the area of Ross-shire, which was separated from Argyll by an act of 1503, between 1890 and 1975, Argyll had a county council. Argylls neighbouring counties were Inverness-shire, Perthshire, Dunbartonshire, Renfrewshire, Ayrshire, Renfrewshire and Ayrshire are on the other side of the Firth of Clyde. Bute is a county of islands in the firth, the county town of Argyll was historically Inveraray, which is still the seat of the Duke of Argyll. Lochgilphead later claimed to be the county town, as the seat of government for the county from the 19th century. Neither town was the largest settlement geographically, nor in terms of population, argylls largest towns were Oban, Dunoon and Campbeltown. The island of Egg or Eigg was already in Inverness-shire, the use of the County of Argyll for local government purposes ceased in 1975 with its area being split between Highland and Strathclyde Regions. A local government district called Argyll and Bute was formed in the Strathclyde region, including most of Argyll, the Ardnamurchan, Ardgour, Ballachulish, Duror, Glencoe, Kinlochleven and Morvern areas of Argyll were detached to become parts of Lochaber District, in Highland. They remained in Highland following the 1996 revision, in 1996 a new unitary council area of Argyll and Bute was created, with a change in boundaries to include part of the former Strathclyde district of Dumbarton. There was an Argyllshire constituency of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1708 to 1801, the Argyll and Bute constituency was created when the Argyll constituency was abolished
3.
Mitford family
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The Mitford family is a gentry English family whose main family line had seats at Mitford, Northumberland. Several heads of the served as High Sheriff of Northumberland. The Mitford sisters were William Mitfords great-great-great-granddaughters, the family traces its origins in Northumberland back to the time of the Norman conquest. In the Middle Ages they had been Border Reivers based in Redesdale, the main family line had seats at Mitford Castle and Mitford Old Manor House prior to Mitford Hall in 1828. Nancy and Jessica became well-known writers, Nancy the author of The Pursuit of Love and Love in a Cold Climate, Deborah managed one of the most successful stately homes in England, Chatsworth. Jessica and Deborah married nephews-by-marriage of prime ministers Winston Churchill and Harold Macmillan, Deborah and Diana both married wealthy aristocrats. Unity and Diana were well-known during the 1930s for being close to Adolf Hitler, Jessica turned her back on her inherited privileges, ran away to become a communist, a result of the excitement of European politics in the 1930s. Jessicas memoir, Hons and Rebels, describes their upbringing, in the early 1980s, Deborah became politically active when she and her husband Andrew Cavendish, 11th Duke of Devonshire joined the new Social Democratic Party. The sisters and their brother Thomas were the children of David Bertram Ogilvy Freeman-Mitford, 2nd Baron Redesdale, known to his children as Farve and their mother was Sydney Freeman-Mitford, Baroness Redesdale, known as Muv, the daughter of Thomas Bowles. David and Sydney married in 1904, the family homes changed from Batsford House to Asthall Manor beside the River Windrush in Oxfordshire, and then Swinbrook Cottage nearby, with a house at Rutland Gate in London. They also lived in a cottage in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire which they used as a summer residence, there was also a disregard for formal education of women of the family, and they were expected to marry at a young age to a financially well-off husband. The children had a language called Boudledidge, and each had a different nickname for the others. Upon the outbreak of the Second World War, their views came into sharper relief. Farve remained a conservative, but Muv usually supported her fascist daughters, Nancy, a moderate socialist, worked in London during the Blitz. Pamela remained seemingly non-political, although reportedly a rabid anti-Semite, tom, a fascist, refused to fight Germany but volunteered to fight against Imperial Japan. He was killed in action a short time after arriving in Asia, Diana, married to Sir Oswald Mosley, leader of the British Union of Fascists, was imprisoned in London for three years under Defence Regulation 18B. Unity, distraught over the war declaration against Germany, tried to commit suicide by shooting herself in the head and she suffered brain damage which eventually led to her early death. Jessica, a communist supporter, had moved to the US, in numerous letters Jessica stated that her daughter received a pension from the Canadian government from Esmonds death until she turned 18
4.
Adolf Hitler
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Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of the German Reich, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was central to the Holocaust, Hitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I and he joined the German Workers Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power, the failed coup resulted in Hitlers imprisonment, during which he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy, by 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitlers appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain, Hitler sought Lebensraum for the German people in Eastern Europe. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British, in June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe, failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, on 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians, in addition,29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, Hitlers father Alois Hitler Sr. was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, in 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Aloiss mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedlers brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, in 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Aloiss father. Alois then assumed the surname Hitler, also spelled Hiedler, Hüttler, the Hitler surname is probably based on one who lives in a hut. Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Aloiss mother had been employed as a housekeeper by a Jewish family in Graz, and that the familys 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenbergers existence, Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary, close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl
5.
Nazism
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National Socialism, more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and Nazi Germany, as well as other far-right groups. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying Germans as part of what Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race and it aimed to overcome social divisions and create a homogeneous society, unified on the basis of racial purity. The term National Socialism arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of socialism, the Nazi Partys precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and anti-Semitic German Workers Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organisation, following the Holocaust and German defeat in World War II, only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, still describe themselves as following National Socialism. The full name of Adolf Hitlers party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, the shorthand Nazi was formed from the first two syllables of the German pronunciation of the word national. The term was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a peasant, characterizing an awkward. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the first word of the name, Nationalsozialistische. The NSDAP briefly adopted the Nazi designation, attempting to reappropriate the term, the use of Nazi Germany, Nazi regime, and so on was popularised by German exiles abroad. From them, the spread into other languages and was eventually brought back to Germany after World War II. In English, Nazism is a name for the ideology the party advocated. The majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as a form of far-right politics, far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate over other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements. Adolf Hitler and other proponents officially portrayed Nazism as being neither left- nor right-wing, but the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms, a major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organisations that engaged in political violence after World War I. The Nazis stated the alliance was purely tactical and there remained substantial differences with the DNVP, the Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and called themselves an anti-bourgeois party. After the elections in 1932, the alliance broke after the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag, the Nazis denounced them as an insignificant heap of reactionaries. The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their violence. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, there were factions in the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical
6.
Fascism
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Fascism /ˈfæʃɪzəm/ is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I, opposed to liberalism, Marxism, and anarchism, fascism is usually placed on the far-right within the traditional left–right spectrum. Fascists saw World War I as a revolution that brought changes to the nature of war, society, the state. The advent of war and the total mass mobilization of society had broken down the distinction between civilians and combatants. A military citizenship arose in which all citizens were involved with the military in some manner during the war, Fascism rejects assertions that violence is automatically negative in nature, and views political violence, war, and imperialism as means that can achieve national rejuvenation. Fascists advocate a mixed economy, with the goal of achieving autarky through protectionist and interventionist economic policies. Since the end of World War II in 1945, few parties have openly described themselves as fascist, the descriptions neo-fascist or post-fascist are sometimes applied more formally to describe parties of the far right with ideologies similar to, or rooted in, 20th century fascist movements. The Italian term fascismo is derived from fascio meaning a bundle of rods and this was the name given to political organizations in Italy known as fasci, groups similar to guilds or syndicates. According to Mussolinis own account, the Fascist Revolutionary Party was founded in Italy in 1915, in 1919, Mussolini founded the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in Milan, which became the Partito Nazionale Fascista two years later. The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity, a rod is easily broken. Similar symbols were developed by different fascist movements, for example, historians, political scientists, and other scholars have long debated the exact nature of fascism. Each interpretation of fascism is distinct, leaving many definitions too wide or narrow, according to many scholars, fascism—especially once in power—has historically attacked communism, conservatism and parliamentary liberalism, attracting support primarily from the far right. Roger Griffin describes fascism as a genus of political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a form of populist ultranationalism. Griffin describes the ideology as having three components, the rebirth myth, populist ultra-nationalism and the myth of decadence. Fascism is a revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis. Fascist Philosophies vary by application, but remain distinct by one theoretic commonality, all traditionally fall into the far-right sector of any political spectrum, catalyzed by afflicted class identities over conventional social inequities. John Lukacs, Hungarian-American historian and Holocaust survivor, argues there is no such thing as generic fascism. He claims that National Socialism and Communism are essentially manifestations of populism, Fascism was influenced by both left and right, conservative and anti-conservative, national and supranational, rational and anti-rational
7.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
8.
Northumberland
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Northumberland is a county in North East England. The northernmost county of England, it borders Cumbria to the west, County Durham and Tyne and Wear to the south, to the east is the North Sea coastline with a 64-mile long distance path. The county town is Alnwick although the county council is in Morpeth, the northernmost point of Northumberland and England is at Marshall Meadows Bay. The county of Northumberland included Newcastle upon Tyne until 1400, when the city became a county of itself, Northumberland expanded greatly in the Tudor period, annexing Berwick-upon-Tweed in 1482, Tynedale in 1495, Tynemouth in 1536, Redesdale around 1542 and Hexhamshire in 1572. Islandshire, Bedlingtonshire and Norhamshire were incorporated into Northumberland in 1844, Tynemouth and other settlements in North Tyneside were transferred to Tyne and Wear in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. Lying on the Anglo-Scottish border, Northumberland has been the site of a number of battles, the county is noted for its undeveloped landscape of high moorland, now largely protected as the Northumberland National Park. Northumberland is the most sparsely populated county in England, with only 62 people per square kilometre, Northumberland originally meant the land of the people living north of the River Humber. The present county is the core of that land, and has long been a frontier zone between England and Scotland. During Roman occupation of Britain, most of the present county lay north of Hadrians Wall, the Roman road Dere Street crosses the county from Corbridge over high moorland west of the Cheviot Hills into present Scotland to Trimontium. Northumberland has a rich prehistory with many instances of art, hillforts such as Yeavering Bell and stone circles like the Goatstones. Most of the area was occupied by the Brythonic-Celtic Votadini people, with another large tribe, later, the region of present-day Northumberland formed the core of the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia, which united with Deira to form the kingdom of Northumbria in the 7th century. Lindisfarne saw the production of the Lindisfarne Gospels and it became the home of St Cuthbert, bamburgh is the historic capital of Northumberland, the royal castle from before the unification of the Kingdoms of England under the monarchs of the House of Wessex in the 10th century. The Earldom of Northumberland was briefly held by the Scottish royal family by marriage between 1139–1157 and 1215–1217, Scotland relinquished all claims to the region as part of the Treaty of York. The Earls of Northumberland once wielded significant power in English affairs because, as powerful and militaristic Marcher Lords, Northumberland has a history of revolt and rebellion against the government, as seen in the Rising of the North against Elizabeth I of England. These revolts were led by the Earls of Northumberland, the Percy family. Shakespeare makes one of the Percys, the dashing Harry Hotspur, after the Restoration of 1660, the county was a centre for Roman Catholicism in England, as well as a focus of Jacobite support. Northumberland was long a wild county, where outlaws and Border Reivers hid from the law, however, the frequent cross-border skirmishes and accompanying local lawlessness largely subsided after the Union of the Crowns of Scotland and England under King James I and VI in 1603. Northumberland played a key role in the Industrial Revolution from the 18th century on, many coal mines operated in Northumberland until the widespread closures in the 1970s and 1980s
9.
Norman conquest of England
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Williams claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor, who may have encouraged Williams hopes for the throne. Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother-in-law Harold Godwinson, within days, William landed in southern England. Harold marched south to confront him, leaving a significant portion of his army in the north, Harolds army confronted Williams invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings, Williams force defeated Harold, who was killed in the engagement. Although Williams main rivals were gone, he faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on his throne until after 1072. The lands of the resisting English elite were confiscated, some of the elite fled into exile, to control his new kingdom, William granted lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strongpoints throughout the land. More gradual changes affected the classes and village life, the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of slavery. There was little alteration in the structure of government, as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo-Saxon government. In 911 the Carolingian French ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings under their leader Rollo to settle in Normandy as part of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for the land, the Norsemen under Rollo were expected to provide protection along the coast against further Viking invaders and their settlement proved successful, and the Vikings in the region became known as the Northmen from which Normandy and Normans are derived. The Normans quickly adopted the culture, renouncing paganism and converting to Christianity. They adopted the langue doïl of their new home and added features from their own Norse language, in 1002 King Æthelred the Unready married Emma of Normandy, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. Their son Edward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile in Normandy, childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his sons, Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandys ambitions for the English throne. When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England. Edwards immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson, Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England, in early 1066, Harolds exiled brother, Tostig Godwinson, raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in Flanders, later joined by other ships from Orkney. Threatened by Harolds fleet, Tostig moved north and raided in East Anglia and Lincolnshire, but he was back to his ships by the brothers Edwin, Earl of Mercia. Deserted by most of his followers, he withdrew to Scotland, King Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in early September, leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Haralds army was augmented by the forces of Tostig, who threw his support behind the Norwegian kings bid for the throne
10.
Diana Mitford
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Diana, Lady Mosley, born Diana Freeman-Mitford and usually known as Diana Mitford, was one of Britains noted Mitford sisters. She was first married to Bryan Walter Guinness, heir to the barony of Moyne and her second marriage, in 1936, took place at the home of Joseph Goebbels, with Adolf Hitler as guest of honour. Subsequently, her involvement with Fascist political causes resulted in three years internment during the Second World War and she later moved to Paris and enjoyed some success as a writer. In the 1950s she contributed diaries to Tatler and edited the magazine The European, in 1977 she published her autobiography, A Life of Contrasts, and two more biographies in the 1980s. She was also a book reviewer for Books & Bookmen. She caused controversy when she appeared on Desert Island Discs in 1989, a family friend, James Lees-Milne, wrote of her beauty, She was the nearest thing to Botticellis Venus that I have ever seen. Diana Mitford was the child and third daughter of David Freeman-Mitford, 2nd Baron Redesdale. She was a first cousin of Clementine Churchill, second cousin of Angus Ogilvy and she was educated at home by a series of governesses except for a six-month period in 1926 when she was sent to a day school in Paris. In childhood, her younger sisters Jessica Mitford and Deborah Cavendish, at the age of 18, she became secretly engaged to Bryan Walter Guinness shortly after her presentation at Court. Guinness, an Irish aristocrat, writer and brewing heir, would inherit the barony of Moyne and her parents were initially opposed to the engagement but in time were persuaded. Sydney was particularly uneasy at the thought of two young people having possession of such a large fortune, but she was eventually convinced Bryan was a suitable husband. They married on 30 January 1929, her sisters Jessica and Deborah were too ill to attend the ceremony, the couple had an income of £20,000 a year, an estate called Biddesden, in Wiltshire, and houses in London and Dublin. They were well known for hosting aristocratic society events involving the Bright Young People, the writer Evelyn Waugh exclaimed that her beauty ran through the room like a peal of bells, and he dedicated the novel Vile Bodies, a satire of the Roaring Twenties, to the couple. Her portrait was painted by Augustus John, Pavel Tchelitchew and Henry Lamb, the couple had two sons, Jonathan and Desmond. In February 1932 Diana met Sir Oswald Mosley at a party at the home of the noted society hostess Emerald Cunard. Quite suddenly, Cynthia died in 1933 of peritonitis, Mosley was devastated by the death of his wife, but later started an affair with her younger sister Lady Alexandra Metcalfe. Owing to Dianas parents disapproval over her decision to leave Guinness for Mosley and her affair and eventual marriage to Mosley also strained relationships with her sisters. Initially, Jessica and Deborah were not permitted to see Diana as she was living in sin with Mosley in London, Deborah eventually got to know Mosley and ended up liking him very much
11.
Oswald Mosley
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Sir Oswald Ernald Mosley, 6th Baronet was a British politician best remembered as leader of the pro-German British Union of Fascists in the 1930s. He returned to Parliament as Labour MP for Smethwick at a by-election in 1926 and he was considered a potential Labour Prime Minister, but resigned due to disagreement with the Governments unemployment policies. He then formed the New Party and he lost his seat at Smethwick in 1931. The New Party merged with the BUF in 1932, Mosley was interned in prison in 1940 and the BUF was outlawed. He was released in 1943, and, politically discredited by his association with fascism, he moved abroad in 1951 and he stood for Parliament twice in the postwar era, achieving very little support. Mosley was the eldest of the three sons of Sir Oswald Mosley, 5th Baronet, and Katharine Maud Edwards-Heathcote, daughter of Captain Justinian H. Edwards-Heathcote and Eleanor Stone. His branch of the Mosley family was the Anglo-Irish family at its most prosperous, Mosley was born on 16 November 1896 at 47 Hill Street, Mayfair, Westminster. After his parents separated he was brought up by his mother, who went to live at Betton Hall near Market Drayton, within the family and among intimate friends, he was always called Tom. He lived for years at Apedale Hall in Newcastle-under-Lyme, also in Staffordshire. He was educated at West Downs School and Winchester College, in January 1914 he entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, but was expelled in June for a riotous act of retaliation against a fellow student. During the First World War he was commissioned into the 16th The Queens Lancers and he transferred to the Royal Flying Corps as an observer, but while demonstrating in front of his mother and sister he crashed, which left him with a permanent limp. He returned to the trenches before the injury was fully healed and he spent the remainder of the war at desk jobs in the Ministry of Munitions and in the Foreign Office. Lord Curzon had to be persuaded that Mosley was a husband, as he suspected Mosley was largely motivated by social advancement in Conservative Party politics. The 1920 wedding took place in the Chapel Royal in St Jamess Palace in London – arguably the social event of the year. The hundreds of guests included European royalty such as King George V and Queen Mary and he succeeded to the Baronetcy of Ancoats upon his fathers death in 1928, which entitles the current holder to the prefix style Sir. Cynthia died of peritonitis in 1933, after which Mosley married his mistress Diana Guinness and they married in secret in Germany on 6 October 1936 in the Berlin home of Germanys Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda Joseph Goebbels. Adolf Hitler was one of the guests, by Diana, he had two sons, Oswald Alexander Mosley, father of Louis Mosley, and Max Mosley, who was president of the Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile for 16 years. Mosley reportedly struck a deal in 1937 with Francis Beaumont, heir to the Seigneurage of Sark, to set up a privately owned radio station on Sark
12.
British Union of Fascists
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The British Union of Fascists, or BUF, was a Fascist political party in the United Kingdom formed in 1932 by Oswald Mosley. It changed its name to the British Union of Fascists and National Socialists in 1936 and, in 1937 and it was finally disbanded in 1940 after it was proscribed by the British government, following the start of the Second World War. The BUF emerged in 1932 from the British far-right, following the defeat of its antecedent. The BUFs foundation was initially met with support and developed a sizeable following. The press baron Lord Rothermere was an early supporter. As the party became increasingly radical, however, support declined, the Olympia Rally of 1934, in which a number of anti-Fascist protestors were attacked, isolated the party from much of its following. The partys embrace of Nazi-style anti-semitism in 1936 led to violent clashes with opponents. Growing British hostility towards Nazi Germany, with which the British press persistently associated the BUF and it was finally banned by the British government in 1940 after the start of the Second World War, amid suspicion that its remaining supporters might form a pro-Nazi fifth column. A number of prominent BUF members were arrested and interned under Defence Regulation 18B, Oswald Mosley was the youngest elected Conservative MP before crossing the floor in 1922, joining first Labour and, shortly afterwards, the Independent Labour Party. He became a minister in Ramsay MacDonalds Labour government, advising on rising unemployment and he immediately formed the New Party, with policies based on his memorandum. Despite winning 16% of the vote at a by-election in Ashton-under-Lyne in early 1931, however, during 1931, the New Party became increasingly influenced by Fascism. The next year, after a January 1932 visit to Benito Mussolini in Italy and he wound up the New Party in April, but preserved its youth movement, which would form the core of the BUF, intact. He spent the summer that year writing a fascist programme, The Greater Britain, and this formed the basis of policy of the BUF, which was launched in October 1932. The BUF claimed 50,000 members at one point, the first Director of Propaganda, appointed in February 1933, was Wilfred Risdon, who was responsible for organising all of Mosleys public meetings. The BUF never stood in a General Election, having lost the funding of newspaper magnate Lord Rothermere that it had previously enjoyed, at the 1935 General Election the party urged voters to abstain, calling for Fascism Next Time. There never was a time, as the next General Election was not held until July 1945. Towards the middle of the 1930s, the BUFs violent clashes with opponents began to alienate some middle-class supporters, at the Olympia rally in London, in 1934, BUF stewards violently ejected anti-fascist disrupters, and this led the Daily Mail to withdraw its support for the movement. The level of violence shown at the rally shocked many, with the effect of turning neutral parties against the BUF, one observer claimed, I came to the conclusion that Mosley was a political maniac, and that all decent English people must combine to kill his movement
13.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
14.
Thomas Gibson Bowles
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Thomas Gibson Tommy Bowles was the founder of the magazines The Lady and the English Vanity Fair, a sailor and the maternal grandfather of the Mitford sisters. He was the offspring of Thomas Milner Gibson and a servant girl named Susannah Bowles. He attended school in France and then studied for a year at Kings College London and his father gave him a yearly stipend of £90 and helped him find a job at Somerset House. He began his journalism and publishing career by writing a column for the Morning Post in 1866 and his coverage of the Siege of Paris sent by balloon and pigeon post ensured his fame. He borrowed £200 to found Vanity Fair in 1868, shattered by the death of his wife Jessica in childbirth, he sold his stake in Vanity Fair to Arthur H. Evans in 1887 for £20,000. He founded The Lady magazine in 1885, supposedly spurred by advice Jessica had once given to him and he became a competent sailor and wrote for decades in support of the Royal Navy. Bowles compiled the notes that went with the caricatures. He was editor for twenty years and shaped magazine policy so that no-one was exempt from his enquiring eye and this approach made for an entertaining and popular magazine. The targets of Jehu Juniors satire usually considered themselves honored to have been chosen, Bowles managed to achieve this extraordinarily difficult balancing act throughout his association with the magazine. At the 1892 general election, he was elected as Conservative Party Member of Parliament for Kings Lynn and he was re-elected at the January 1910 as a Liberal, but lost his seat again at the December 1910 election. He died while on a holiday at Algeciras, Spain, and is buried in Gibraltar, in 1875 he married Jessica, daughter of General Charles Evans-Gordon, a descendant of Gordon of Lochinvar, and his wife Catherine, née Rose. According to his granddaughter Julia Budworth, Bowles also fathered the last three of the four children of assistant Rita Shell, who changed her surname to Stewart and she later became editor of The Lady. They were Humphrey, Oliver and Peter, Peter Stewart later assisted at Marlborough House when it was used by Queen Mary. The Log of the Nereid by Thomas Bowles The Irrepressible Victorian by Leonard Naylor The Fall of Paris, The Siege, by Alistair Horne London, Macmillan,1965
15.
Swastika, Ontario
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Swastika is a small community founded around a mining site in Northern Ontario, Canada in 1908. Today it is within the boundaries of Kirkland Lake, Ontario. It has frequently noted on lists of unusual place names. Swastika is a junction on the Ontario Northland Railway, where a branch to Rouyn-Noranda, Quebec leaves the ONRs main line from North Bay, the town was named after the Swastika Gold Mine staked in the autumn of 1907 and incorporated on January 6,1908. James and William Dusty staked the claims alongside Otto Lake for the Tavistock Mining Partnership, even though there is a legend that it is named after a native American word for Good luck, the gold mine and town were named after the Sanskrit good-luck symbol Swastika. The Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway had a camp nearby as they had to construct two railway bridges as they advanced northwards. The first usage of the name Swastika occurred in their 1907 Annual Report to indicate a water tank was located at the site to meet the needs of the trains that opened up northern Ontario. Prospectors and miners flocked to the area and after viewing the find at the Swastika Gold Mine they advanced even further throughout the surrounding region, in 1909 the Lucky Cross Mine adjacent to the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway tracks began producing gold. A Mr. Morrisson started a farm and lodging alongside the tracks as early as 1907, Swastika had a population of 450 by 1911, with the Lucky Cross and Swastika Mines in operation. By 1911, a hotel and businesses were flourishing, the area to the east was heavily staked and in 1912 the major mines of Kirkland Lake were found. Swastika was the transportation link with the railway and communications centre. Churches, schools, community groups and organisations continued to provide the needs of the residents of the area, the Swastika Mine was later called the Crescent Mine. In 2008, the community of Swastika celebrated the towns centennial
16.
Nancy Mitford
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Nancy Freeman-Mitford CBE, known as Nancy Mitford, was an English novelist, biographer and journalist. She also established a reputation for herself as a writer of historical biographies. Mitford enjoyed a privileged childhood as the eldest daughter of the Hon. David Freeman-Mitford, educated privately, she had no training as a writer before publishing her first novel in 1931. Mitfords marriage to Peter Rodd in 1933 proved unsatisfactory to both, and during the Second World War she formed a liaison with a Free French officer and he became the love of her life, although the pair were never a formal couple. After the war Mitford settled in France and lived there until her death, maintaining contact with her many English friends through letters. During the 1950s Mitford was identified with the concept of U and non-U language, whereby social origins and she had intended this as a joke, but many took it seriously, and Mitford was considered an authority on manners and breeding—possibly her most recognised legacy. Her later years were bitter-sweet, the success of her studies of Madame de Pompadour, Voltaire. From the late 1960s her health deteriorated, and she endured years of painful illness before her death in 1973. The Mitford family dates from the Norman era, when Sir John de Mitford held the Castle of Mitford in Northumberland. A later Sir John held several important public offices during the late 14th and early 15th centuries, in the 18th century William Mitford was a leading classical historian, responsible for the definitive history of ancient Greece. His great-grandson Algernon Bertram Mitford, born in 1837 and known as Bertie, was a diplomat and traveller who held office in Disraelis second ministry. In 1874 he married Clementina, the daughter of David Ogilvy, 10th Earl of Airlie. Blanche Ogilvy, Clementinas elder sister, became the wife of Sir Henry Montague Hozier and their four children included daughters Clementine, who in 1908 married the future British prime minister Winston Churchill, and Nellie who married Bertram Romilly. Both Hozier and Blanche were promiscuous, and it is accepted by historians and family members that Hozier was not Clemmies father. Bertie Mitfords marriage produced five sons and four daughters and his career in government service ended in 1886, when after the death of a cousin he inherited a considerable fortune. A condition of the inheritance was that he adopt the surname Freeman-Mitford and he rebuilt Batsford House, the familys country seat, served briefly as a Unionist MP in the 1890s, and otherwise devoted himself to books, writings and travel. In 1902 he was raised to the peerage as 1st Baron Redesdale, Nancy Mitfords father, David Bertram Ogilvy Freeman-Mitford, was Bertie Mitfords second son, born on 13 March 1878. After several years as a tea planter in Ceylon he fought in the Boer War of 1899–1902 and was severely wounded, the couple were married on 16 February 1904, after which they rented a house in Graham Street in West London
17.
Deborah Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire
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Deborah Vivien Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire, DCVO was an English aristocrat, writer, memoirist and socialite. She was the youngest and last surviving of the six Mitford sisters, known to her family as Debo, Deborah Mitford was born in Asthall Manor, Oxfordshire, England. Her parents were Baron Redesdale, son of Algernon Freeman-Mitford, 1st Baron Redesdale and she married Lord Andrew Cavendish, younger son of the 10th Duke of Devonshire, in 1941. When Cavendishs older brother, William, Marquess of Hartington, was killed in action in 1944, Cavendish became heir to the dukedom, in 1950, on the death of his father, the Marquess of Hartington became the 11th Duke of Devonshire. The Duchess was the public face of Chatsworth for many decades. Recognising the commercial imperatives of running a home, she took a very active role and was known to man the Chatsworth House ticket office herself. She also supervised the development of the Cavendish Hotel at Baslow, near Chatsworth, in 1999, the Duchess was appointed a Dame Commander of the Royal Victorian Order by Queen Elizabeth II, for her service to the Royal Collection Trust. Upon the death of her husband in 2004, her son Peregrine Cavendish became the 12th Duke of Devonshire and she became the Dowager Duchess of Devonshire at this time. They have three children and ten grandchildren, Isabella Tennant, married Piers Hill, son of Simon Hill and they have three children, Rosa Hill Victor Hill Lily Hill Edward Tobias Tennant, married Emma Bridgeman in 2000. They have three children, Harry Tobias Tennant Georgia Rose Tennant Isla May Tennant Stella Tennant, married David Lasnet on 22 May 1999, Peregrine Cavendish, 12th Duke of Devonshire, married Amanda Heywood-Lonsdale on 28 June 1967. They have three children and eight grandchildren, an unnamed child Lord Victor Cavendish Lady Mary Cavendish Lady Sophia Louise Sydney Cavendish, married Anthony Murphy on 20 October 1979 and they were divorced in 1987. She remarried Alastair Morrison, 3rd Baron Margadale on 19 July 1988 and she remarried again William Topley on 25 November 1999. She was an aunt of Max Mosley, former president of the Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile. Her death, at the age of 94, was announced on 24 September 2014, the Duchess was survived by three of her seven children, eight grandchildren and eighteen great-grandchildren. Her funeral took place on 2 October 2014 at St Peters Church, Edensor in Derbyshire and it was attended by various family members and friends, as well as six hundred staff and the Prince of Wales and Duchess of Cornwall. She was interviewed on her experience of sitting for a portrait for painter Lucian Freud in the BBC series Imagine in 2004, shortly before ending the interview, Preston asked her to choose with whom she would have preferred to have tea, American singer Elvis Presley or Hitler. Looking at the interviewer with astonishment, she answered, Well, in 2010, the BBC journalist Kirsty Wark interviewed the Duchess for Newsnight. In it, the Duchess talked about life in the 1930s and 1940s, Hitler, the Chatsworth estate, and she was also interviewed on 23 December by Charlie Rose for PBS
18.
Asthall Manor
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Asthall Manor is a gabled Jacobean Cotswold manor house in Asthall, Oxfordshire. It was built in about 1620 and altered and enlarged in about 1916, early in the 20th century the house was the childhood home of the Mitford sisters. There are records of a house on the site since 1272 when Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall, in 1304 the curia, garden and fish pond were valued at 10 shillings. The core of the current building at Asthall was built in 1620 for Sir William Jones on the site of the mediaeval hall. In 1688 the estate was sold to Sir Edmund Fettiplace, it stayed in branches of the family for the next 130 years when it was sold to John Freeman-Mitford. The architect Charles Bateman altered and enlarged the house in 1916, in 1920 a former barn was converted to a ballroom 1920 and joined to the main house by a cloister. In 1926 the house was sold to Thomas Hardcastle and was purchased by the current owners in 1997 on the death of Hardcastles son. David Freeman-Mitford, 2nd Baron Redesdale, father of the Mitford sisters, inherited Asthall Manor on the death of his father in 1916, the youngest of the Mitford sisters Deborah, later Duchess of Devonshire, was born at Asthall in 1920. Her sister Diana had an appendectomy on the spare-bedroom table, the Mitfords were great socialites, and Asthall hosted frequent hunting and shooting weekend parties, regular guests included Clementine Churchill, Frederick Lindemann and Walter Sickert. Nancy Mitfords fictional Alconleigh in The Pursuit of Love is based largely on Asthall, Redesdale had never planned to make Asthall Manor a permanent home, and in 1926 the family moved into nearby Swinbrook House which Redesdale had had built on the site of a derelict farm. The Mitfords subsequently leased 26 Rutland Gate in Londons Knightsbridge district following the sale of Asthall, the garden at Asthall Manor covers 6 acres. Best Tea Shop Walks in Oxfordshire, literary Strolls Around the Cotswolds and the Forest of Dean. A haven for both Hons and rebels
19.
Asthall
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Asthal or Asthall is a village and civil parish on the River Windrush in Oxfordshire, about 6 miles west of Witney. It includes the hamlets of Asthall Leigh, Field Assarts, Stonelands, Worsham, the 2011 Census recorded the parishs population as 252. Asthall village is just south of the River Windrush, which forms the south-eastern part of its boundary. The remainder of the parish including all of its hamlets lie north of the river, a minor road through Fordwells forms most of the parishs northern boundary. Most of the remainder of the boundary is formed by field boundaries. On Leigh Hale Plain there are two barrows that may date from the Bronze Age, the course of Akeman Street Roman Road that linked Watling Street with Fosse Way passes through the parish just south of the village and through the middle of Windrush Farm. The road crossed the Windrush about 1⁄2 mile east of the village, traces of a Roman settlement have been found on both sides of the course of the road on low-lying land between Windrush Farm and the site of the Roman river crossing. It was occupied from the middle of the first century AD to the part of the fourth century. Artefacts recovered include a bronze figurine of a bird seizing a hare, 3⁄4 mile south of the village, beside the main Witney – Burford road is an early 7th century Saxon barrow that contained the cremated remains of a man. Objects from the barrow are now in the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, a record of 1300 states that the manor of Asthall was extended into Wychwood Forest after 1154. The name of Field Assarts in the north-east of the parish refers to assarting, the north-eastern parts of Asthall parish remained purlieus of the Wychwood until it was disafforested in 1857. The Church of England parish church of Saint Nicholas was enlarged in about 1160, the north transept arch and the arcade between the nave and north aisle are in the Transitional style between Norman architecture and Early English Gothic. The chancel was rebuilt in the 13th century in the Early English Gothic style, the west window of the north aisle is in the early Decorated Gothic style of the late 13th century. There is another Decorated Gothic window on the side of the nave. In about 1350 the north transept was remodelled and its height increased above that of the nave. After this the windows were added in the Perpendicular Gothic style. The west tower was built in the 15th century, the church was restored in 1885, and the chancel arch was probably rebuilt at this time. The church is a Grade II* listed building, the tower has a ring of six bells
20.
Communism
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Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
21.
Hammer and sickle
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The hammer and sickle or sickle and hammer is a Communist symbol that was conceived during the Russian Revolution. At the time of creation, the hammer stood for industrial laborers, after World War I and the Russian Civil War, the hammer and sickle became more widely used as a symbol for peaceful labor within the Soviet Union and for international proletarian unity. It was taken up by many Communist movements around the world, farm and worker instruments and tools have long been used as symbols for proletarian struggle. A popular ancestor to the hammer and sickle was a hammer on a plough, in Ireland, the symbol of the plough remains in use. The Starry Plough banner was used by the Irish Citizen Army. James Connolly, co-founder of the Irish Citizen Army with Jack White, a sword is forged into the plough to symbolise the end of war with the establishment of a Socialist International. This was unveiled in 1914 and flown by the Irish Citizen Army during the 1916 Easter Rising, in 1917, Vladimir Lenin and Anatoly Lunacharsky held a competition to create a Soviet emblem. ” in six languages. It originally featured a sword, but Lenin strongly objected, disliking the violent connotations, the winning designer was Yevgeny Ivanovich Kamzolkin. On 6 July 1923 the 2nd session of the Central Executive Committee adopted this emblem, serp i Molot is the name of the Moscow Metallurgical Plant. Serp i Molot is also the name of a stop on the railway line from Kurski railway station in Moscow to Gorky, featured in Venedikt Yerofeyevs novel. In the Soviet Union the hammer and sickle came to take on a meaning, with the sickle coming to be associated with women. In addition, the Russian city of Oryol also uses the hammer, the former Soviet national airline, Aeroflot, continues to use the hammer and sickle in its symbol. The flag can also appear without the hammer and sickle in some circumstances, all of these use the yellow-on-red colour scheme. In Laos and Vietnam, the hammer and sickle flags party flags can often be seen flying side-by-side with their national flags. The Communist Party of Sweden, the Portuguese Communist Party and the Mexican Communist Party use the hammer, the hammer and sickle accompanied by the yellow star is used by the Communist Refoundation Party, the main Communist party in Italy. Many symbols having similar structures and messages to the original have been designed, for example, the Angolan flag shows a segment of a cog, crossed by a machete and crowned with a socialist star, while the flag of Mozambique features an AK-47 crossed by a hoe. In the logo of the Communist Party USA, a circle is formed by a half cog, a hammer is laid directly over the sickles handle with the hammers head at the logos center. The logo of the Communist Party of Turkey consists of half a cog wheel crossed by a hammer, movement, the pickaxe and rifle used in communist Albania, and the hammer and compasses of the emblem of the East German flag
22.
Vladimir Lenin
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Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known by the alias Lenin, was a Russian communist revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as head of government of the Russian Republic from 1917 to 1918, of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1918 to 1924, under his administration, Russia and then the wider Soviet Union became a one-party socialist state governed by the Russian Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, he developed political theories known as Leninism, born to a wealthy middle-class family in Simbirsk, Lenin embraced revolutionary socialist politics following his brothers execution in 1887. Expelled from Kazan Imperial University for participating in protests against the Russian Empires Tsarist regime and he moved to Saint Petersburg in 1893 and became a senior figure in the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. In 1897, he was arrested for sedition and exiled to Shushenskoye for three years, where he married Nadezhda Krupskaya, after his exile, he moved to Western Europe, where he became a prominent party theorist through his publications. In 1903, he took a key role in a RSDLP ideological split, Lenins government was led by the Bolsheviks—now renamed the Communist Party—with some powers initially also held by elected soviets. It redistributed land among the peasantry and nationalised banks and large-scale industry, opponents were suppressed in the Red Terror, a violent campaign orchestrated by the state security services, tens of thousands were killed and others interned in concentration camps. Anti-Bolshevik armies, established by both right and left-wing groups, were defeated in the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922, responding to wartime devastation, famine, and popular uprisings, in 1921 Lenin promoted economic growth through a mixed economic system. Seeking to promote world revolution, Lenins government created the Communist International, waged the Polish–Soviet War, in increasingly poor health, Lenin expressed opposition to the growing power of his successor, Joseph Stalin, before dying at his Gorki mansion. He became a figurehead behind Marxism-Leninism and thus a prominent influence over the international communist movement. Lenins father, Ilya Nikolayevich Ulyanov, was from a family of serfs, his origins remain unclear, with suggestions being made that he was Russian, Chuvash, Mordvin. Despite this lower-class background he had risen to middle-class status, studying physics and mathematics at Kazan Imperial University before teaching at the Penza Institute for the Nobility, Ilya married Maria Alexandrovna Blank in mid-1863. Well educated and from a prosperous background, she was the daughter of a German–Swedish woman. Soon after their wedding, Ilya obtained a job in Nizhny Novgorod, five years after that, he was promoted to Director of Public Schools for the province, overseeing the foundation of over 450 schools as a part of the governments plans for modernisation. His dedication to education earned him the Order of St. Vladimir, the couple had two children, Anna and Alexander, before Lenin—who would gain the childhood nickname of Volodya—was born in Simbirsk on 10 April 1870, and baptised several days later. They were followed by three children, Olga, Dmitry, and Maria. Two later siblings died in infancy, Ilya was a devout member of the Russian Orthodox Church and baptised his children into it, although Maria – a Lutheran – was largely indifferent to Christianity, a view that influenced her children. Every summer they holidayed at a manor in Kokushkino
23.
Swastika
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The Swastika is an ancient religious symbol originating from the Indian subcontinent, that generally takes the form of an equilateral cross with four legs each bent at 90 degrees. It is considered to be a sacred and auspicious symbol in Hinduism, Buddhism, Western literatures older term for the symbol, gammadion cross, derives mainly from its appearance, which is identical to four Greek gamma letters affixed to each other. The name Swastika comes from Sanskrit, and denotes a lucky or auspicious object and it has been used as a decorative element in various cultures since at least the Neolithic Age. It is known most widely as an important symbol, long used in Indian religions, the swastika was adopted by several organizations in pre-World War I-Europe and later, and most notably, by the Nazi Party and Nazi Germany prior to World War II. In many Western countries, the swastika has been highly stigmatized because of its association with Nazism, the word swastika has been in use in English since the 1870s, replacing gammadion. Note that the represented by व in Devanagari, and v in the standard IAST transliteration of Sanskrit, is the labio-dental approximant. The sound persists in modern Hindi and other North Indian languages, an English speaker who is unable to correctly form the Sanskrit labio-dental approximant should say swastika rather than svastika. Swastika in Sanskrit means any lucky or auspicious object, and in particular a mark made on persons and things to denote auspiciousness, or any piece of luck or well-being. It is composed of su, meaning good, well and asti, the phrase swasti therefore means it/he/she is good. The two words spoken together become swasti through sandhi, a process by which sounds modify other sounds spoken close to them, the expression swasti is used as a word on its own, meaning good health or good fortune. The added suffix ka forms an abstract noun, and swastika might thus be translated literally as that which is associated with well-being, corresponding to thing that is auspicious or lucky charm, the word Is recorded first in Vedic Sanskrit. Other names for the symbol include, hooked cross, angled cross or crooked cross, Cross cramponned, cramponnée, or cramponny, in heraldry, as each arm resembles a Crampon or angle-iron. Fylfot, chiefly in heraldry and architecture, gammadion, tetragammadion, or cross gammadion, as each arm resembles the Greek letter Γ. tetraskelion, literally meaning four-legged, especially when composed of four conjoined legs. Whirling logs, can denote abundance, prosperity, healing, chirality describes an absence of reflective symmetry, with the existence of two versions that are mirror images of each other. The mirror-image forms are described as, left-facing and right-facing. The left-facing version is distinguished in some traditions and languages as a symbol from the right-facing swastika. The compact swastika can be seen as an irregular icosagon with fourfold rotational symmetry. Such a swastika proportioned on a 5 ×5 square grid, the Nazi Hakenkreuz used a 5 ×5 diagonal grid, but with the arms unshortened
24.
Algernon Freeman-Mitford, 1st Baron Redesdale
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Algernon Bertram Freeman-Mitford, 1st Baron Redesdale, GCVO, KCB, DL was a British diplomat, collector and writer. Nicknamed Barty, he was the grandfather of the Mitford sisters. Freeman-Mitford was the son of Henry Reveley Mitford of Exbury House, Exbury, Hampshire and the great-grandson of the historian William Mitford and his parents separated in 1840 when Redesdale was just three years old, and his mother remarried to a Mr. Molyneaux. Like his cousin Swinburne, he was named Algernon after his grandfather Algernon Percy, entering the Foreign Office in 1858, Mitford was appointed Third Secretary of the British Embassy in St Petersburg. Rededale served as secretary under Myburghs replacement, John Frederik Lowder, there he met Ernest Satow and wrote Tales of Old Japan, a book credited with making such Japanese Classics as The Forty-seven Ronin first known to a wide Western public. He resigned from the service in 1873. Following the 1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance, in 1906 he accompanied Prince Arthur on a visit to Japan to present the Emperor Meiji with the Order of the Garter and he was asked by courtiers there about Japanese ceremonies that had disappeared since 1868. He is one of the credited with introducing Japanese knotweed to England. From 1874 to 1886, Mitford acted as secretary to HM Office of Works, involved in the restoration of the Tower of London. From 1887, he was a member of the Royal Commission on Civil Services and he also sat as Member of Parliament for Stratford-on-Avon between 1892 and 1895. According to W. S. Gilbert, Mitford served as a consultant on Japanese culture to Gilbert, a traditional Japanese song hummed by Mitford to Gilbert and Sullivan during a rehearsal was used in the opera for the march accompanying the Mikados entrance. In 1886, Mitford inherited the country estates of his first cousin twice removed, John Freeman-Mitford. In accordance with the will he assumed by Royal licence the surname of Freeman. Appointed a Deputy Lieutenant for Gloucestershire, he became a magistrate and took up farming and he was a member of the Royal Yacht Squadron from 1889 to 1914. Redesdale was President of the Royal Photographic Society between 1910–1912 and he substantially rebuilt Batsford House beside Batsford in Gloucestershire in the Victorian Gothic manorial style, but at such a cost that it had to be sold within a few years of his death. It was bought by Lord Dulverton and is owned by his descendants. He took the oath and his seat in the House of Lords a week later, during his time in Japan, he was said to have fathered two children with a geisha. Later, he was considered to be one of the fathers of Clementine Hozier
25.
Edward Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley of Alderley
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Edward John Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley of Alderley PC, known as The Lord Eddisbury between 1848 and 1850, was a British politician. Stanley was the son of John Stanley, 1st Baron Stanley of Alderley, Stanley entered the House of Commons as Whig Member of Parliament for Hindon in 1831 and was later member for North Cheshire between 1832 and 1841, and between 1847 and 1848. He was sworn of the Privy Council in 1841 and in 1848, two years before he succeeded to the barony of Stanley, he was created Baron Eddisbury, of Winnington in the County Palatine of Chester. Stanley was President of the Board of Trade under Lord Palmerston from 1855 to 1858, in 1861 he established the Post Office Savings Bank. Lord Stanley of Alderley married Henrietta Maria, a daughter of Viscount Dillon, Lord Stanley of Alderley died in June 1869, aged 66, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Henry. Lady Stanley of Alderley died in February 1895, aged 87, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Edward Stanley
26.
Henrietta Stanley, Baroness Stanley of Alderley
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Henrietta Maria Stanley, Baroness Stanley of Alderley, was a Canadian-born political hostess and campaigner for the education of women in England. Born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Lady Stanley was the eldest child of Henry Dillon, 13th Viscount Dillon and she was a descendant of both Charles II and James II of England. Her ancestors were Roman Catholic and had had pronounced Jacobite leanings, one of them was Maréchal de camp Arthur Dillon, the family, exiled to France, eventually converted to Anglicanism but preferred to remain living abroad. In 1814, Henrietta and her family moved to Florence, Tuscany, where she attended the receptions of Princess Louise of Stolberg-Gedern, the widow of the Young Pretender. Her non-English upbringing was prominent and her grandson, the philosopher Bertrand Russell, commented, My grandmothers outlook and she was always downright, free from prudery, and eighteenth-century rather than Victorian in her conversation. Her French and Italian were faultless, and she was interested in Italian unity. In Florence she met Hon. Edward Stanley and married him on 7 October 1826 and she became Baroness Eddisbury when her husband was created a peer in 1848. Two years later he succeeded as Baron Stanley of Alderley, by which title the couple was subsequently known, Lady Stanley cultivated friendships with Thomas Carlyle, F. D. Maurice, and, from 1861, Benjamin Jowett. She presided over an intellectual and political salon, and was one of the lady visitors of Queens College, London. This marked her stronger involvement in the campaign for the education of women and her decision to defend, as she put it. She proceeded to take part in the campaign whose aim was to secure the admission of women to the university local examinations. In 1867, she turned down an offer to become a member of the planning a womens university college. The death of her husband on 16 June 1869, however, the same year, along with Emily Davies and Barbara Bodichon, Lady Stanley founded Girton College. In early 1872 she was invited to participate more formally in the administration of Girton, which she now accepted. One of the few executive committee members who dared confront Davies, Lady Stanley vehemently opposed the construction of a chapel, the Baroness Stanley of Alderley had great influence in social and political circles. While he was Patronage Secretary, Edward Stanley was described by Lord Palmerston as joint whip with Mrs Stanley and she fell out with Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone over the issue of home rule and became closely associated with Womens Liberal Unionist Association. Along with Lady Randolph Churchill and the female education campaigner Lady Frederick Cavendish, among others. Grandmama Stanley at Dover Street, according to Russell, had a contempt for everything that she regarded as silly
27.
Thomas Milner Gibson
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Thomas Milner Gibson PC was a British politician. Thomas Milner Gibson came of a Suffolk family, but was born in Port of Spain, Trinidad, where his father was serving as an officer in the army. He was educated in Trinidad, in a school at Higham Hill also attended by Benjamin Disraeli, at Charterhouse, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1830. In 1837 Gibson was elected to parliament as Conservative member for Ipswich, though defeated in Manchester in 1857, he found another seat for Ashton-under-Lyne, and sat in the cabinet under Lord Palmerston and then Russell from 1859 to 1866 as President of the Board of Trade. In 1846 he was sworn of the Privy Council, Gibson was the leading spirit in the movement for the repeal of taxes on knowledge, and his successful efforts on behalf of journalism and advertising were recognized by a public testimonial in 1862. He retired from life in 1868, but he and his wife. Milner Gibson was a sportsman and a man of the world. Milner Gibson married Arethusa Susannah, daughter of Revd, sir Thomas Gery Cullum of Hardwick House, Suffolk, in 1832. They resided at Theberton House, Suffolk, Gibson also had a relationship with Susannah Bowles, a servant girl. Their son, Thomas Gibson Bowles, became a publisher and was the maternal grandfather of the Mitford sisters. Milner Gibson died in February 1884, aged 77 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
28.
Debutante
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A debutante or deb is a girl or young woman of an aristocratic or upper-class family who has reached maturity and, as a new adult, comes out into society at a formal debut. In Australia, débutante balls are usually organised by schools, church groups. The girls who take part are in either Year 10,11 or 12 at high school, the debutante girl wears a white dress similar to a wedding dress. However, the dress does not come with a train on the skirt, the boy wears a tuxedo or other formal dress suit. It is customary for the female to ask a male to the débutante ball, the débutantes and their respective squires who are partaking in the official proceedings must learn how to ballroom dance. Débutante balls are almost always held in a centre, the function room of a sporting or other community organisation venue e. g. RSL club. Usually they are late in the year and consist of dinner, dancing. In the United Kingdom, the last débutantes were presented at Court in 1958 after which Queen Elizabeth II abolished the ceremony. Attempts were made to keep the tradition going by organising a series of parties for young girls who otherwise have been presented at Court in their first season by Peter Townend. However, the withdrawal of royal patronage made these occasions increasingly insignificant, the expression débutante, or deb for short, has continued to be used, especially in the press, to refer to young girls of marriageable age who participate in a semi-public upper class social scene. The expression debs delight is applied to good looking unmarried young men from similar backgrounds, the presentation of débutantes to the Sovereign at court marked the start of the British social season. A mother-in-law who herself had been presented might, for example, the presentation of debutantes at court was also a way for young girls of marriageable age to be presented to suitable bachelors and their families in the hopes of finding a suitable husband. Bachelors, in turn, used the presentation as a chance to find a suitable wife. According to Debretts, the proceedings on that day started at 10 am. As well as débutantes, older women, and married women who had not previously been presented could be presented at Court. On the day of the presentation, the débutante and her sponsor would be announced, the debutante would curtsy to the Sovereign. The court dress has traditionally been an evening dress, but shades of ivory. Débutantes would also wear pearls but many would also wear jewellery that belonged to the family, after the débutantes were presented to the monarch, they would attend the social season
29.
Nuremberg Rally
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The Nuremberg Rally was the annual rally of the Nazi Party in Germany, held from 1923 to 1938. They were large Nazi propaganda events, especially after Hitlers rise to power in 1933 and these events were held at the Nazi party rally grounds in Nuremberg from 1933 to 1938 and are usually referred to in English as the Nuremberg Rallies. Many films were made to them, the most famous of which is Leni Riefenstahls Triumph of the Will. The first Nazi Party rallies took place in 1923 in Munich, from 1927 on, they took place exclusively in Nuremberg. The Party selected Nuremberg for pragmatic reasons, it was in the center of the German Reich, in addition, the Nazis could rely on the well-organized local branch of the party in Franconia, then led by Gauleiter Julius Streicher. The Nuremberg police were sympathetic to the event, later, the location was justified by the Nazi Party by putting it into the tradition of the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire, considered the First Reich. This point was emphasized by the yearly growing number of participants, which finally reached over half a million from all sections of the party, the army. Each rally was given a title, which related to recent national events,1923 – The First Party Congress took place in Munich on January 27,1923. 1923 – The German day rally was held in Nuremberg on September 1,1923,1926 – The 2nd Party Congress was held in Weimar on July 4,1926. 1927 – The 3rd Party Congress was held on August 20,1927, the propaganda film Eine Symphonie des Kampfwillens was made at this rally. 1929 – The 4th Party Congress, known as the Day of Composure, was held on August 2,1929, the propaganda film Der Nürnberger Parteitag der NSDAP was made at this rally. 1933 – The 5th Party Congress was held in Nuremberg, August 30 – September 3,1933 and it was called the Rally of Victory. The term victory relates to the Nazi seizure of power and the victory over the Weimar Republic, the Leni Riefenstahl film Der Sieg des Glaubens was made at this rally. Hitler announced that now on all Rallies would take place in Nuremberg. 1934 – The 6th Party Congress was held in Nuremberg, September 5–10,1934, initially it did not have a theme. Later it was labeled the Rally of Unity and Strength, Rally of Power, the Leni Riefenstahl film Triumph des Willens was made at this rally. It was called the Rally of Freedom, Freedom referred to the reintroduction of compulsory military service and thus the German liberation from the Treaty of Versailles. Leni Riefenstahl made the film Tag der Freiheit, Unsere Wehrmacht at this rally,1936 – The 8th Party Congress was known as the Rally of Honour
30.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
31.
Nazi Party
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Its precursor, the German Workers Party, existed from 1919 to 1920. The party emerged from the German nationalist, racist, and populist Freikorps paramilitary culture, the party was created as a means to draw workers away from communism and into völkisch nationalism. Pseudo-scientific racism theories were central to Nazism, the Nazis propagated the idea of a peoples community. Their aim was to unite racially desirable Germans as national comrades, while excluding those deemed either to be political dissidents, to maintain the supposed purity and strength of the Aryan race, the Nazis sought to exterminate Jews, Romani, and the physically and mentally handicapped. They imposed exclusionary segregation on homosexuals, Africans, Jehovahs Witnesses, the partys leader since 1921, Adolf Hitler, was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. Hitler rapidly established a regime known as the Third Reich. The term Nazi derives from the name given in German to a party member Nationalsozialist and was coined in response to the German term Sozi, members of the party referred to themselves as Nationalsozialisten, rarely as Nazis. The term Parteigenosse was commonly used among Nazis, with the feminine form Parteigenossin used when it was appropriate, the term was in use before the rise of the party as a colloquial and derogatory word for a backward peasant, characterising an awkward and clumsy person. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the name in intentional association to the long-time existing Sozi to the dismissive Nazi. In 1933, when Adolf Hitler assumed power of the German government, usage of the designation Nazi diminished in Germany, the use of Nazi Germany, and Nazi regime, was popularised by anti-Nazis and German exiles abroad. Thereafter, the spread into other languages and eventually was brought back to Germany after the Second World War. The party grew out of political groups with a nationalist orientation that formed in the last years of World War I. In 1918, a called the Freien Arbeiterausschuss für einen guten Frieden was created in Bremen. On 7 March 1918, Anton Drexler, an avid German nationalist, Drexler saw the situation of political violence and instability in Germany as the result of the new Weimar Republic being out-of-touch with the masses, especially the lower classes. These were all well-known themes popular with various Weimar paramilitary groups such as the Freikorps, though very small, Drexlers movement did receive attention and support from some influential figures. Supporter Dietrich Eckhart brought military figure Count Felix Graf von Bothmer, later in 1918, Karl Harrer, convinced Drexler and several others to form the Politischer Arbeiterzirkel. The members met periodically for discussions with themes of nationalism and racism directed against the Jews and they became one of many völkisch movements that existed in Germany at the time
32.
Valkyrie
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In Norse mythology, a valkyrie is one of a host of female figures who choose those who may die in battle and those who may live. Selecting among half of those who die in battle, the valkyries bring their chosen to the hall of the slain, Valhalla. There, the deceased warriors become einherjar, when the einherjar are not preparing for the events of Ragnarök, the valkyries bear them mead. They appear throughout the poetry of skalds, in a 14th-century charm, scholarly theories have been proposed about the relation between the valkyries, the norns, and the dísir, all of which are supernatural figures associated with fate. Archaeological excavations throughout Scandinavia have uncovered amulets theorized as depicting valkyries, in modern culture, valkyries have been the subject of works of art, musical works, video games and poetry. The word valkyrie derives from Old Norse valkyrja, which is composed of two words, the noun valr and the verb kjósa, together, they mean chooser of the slain. The Old Norse valkyrja is cognate to Old English wælcyrge, from the Old English and Old Norse forms, philologist Vladimir Orel reconstructs a Proto-Germanic form, *wala-kuzjōn. However, the term may have been borrowed into Old English from Old Norse, other terms for valkyries in Old Norse sources include óskmey, appearing in the poem Oddrúnargrátr and Óðins meyjar, appearing in the Nafnaþulur. Óskmey may be related to the Odinic name Óski, referring to the fact that Odin receives slain warriors in Valhalla, valkyries are mentioned or appear in the Poetic Edda poems Völuspá, Grímnismál, Völundarkviða, Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar, Helgakviða Hundingsbana I, Helgakviða Hundingsbana II and Sigrdrífumál. In stanza 30 of the poem Völuspá, a völva tells Odin that she saw valkyries coming from far away who are ready to ride to the realm of the gods. The völva follows this with a list of six valkyries, Skuld who bore a shield, Skögul, Gunnr, Hildr, afterwards, the völva tells him she has listed the ladies of the War Lord, ready to ride, valkyries, over the earth. A prose introduction in the poem Völundarkviða relates that the brothers Slagfiðr, Egil, there, early one morning, the brothers find three women spinning linen on the shore of the lake Úlfsjár, and near them were their swans garments, they were valkyries. Two, daughters of King Hlödvér, are named Hlaðguðr svanhvít and Hervör alvitr, the brothers take the three women back to their hall with them—Egil takes Ölrún, Slagfiðr takes Hlaðguðr svanhvít and Völund takes Hervör alvitr. They live together for seven winters, until the women fly off to go to a battle, Egil goes off in snow-shoes to look for Ölrún, Slagfiðr goes searching for Hlaðguðr svanhvít and Völund sits in Úlfdalir. He finds one particularly striking, this valkyrie is detailed later in a narrative as Sváva, king Eylimis daughter. The valkyrie speaks to the man, and gives him the name Helgi. The valkyrie tells him she knows of a hoard of swords in Sigarsholm, and that one of them is of particular importance, further into the poem, Atli flytes with the female jötunn Hrímgerðr. After Hrímgerðr is turned to stone by the daylight, a prose narrative continues that Helgi, Helgi and Sváva are betrothed and love one another dearly
33.
Richard Wagner
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Wilhelm Richard Wagner was a German composer, theatre director, polemicist, and conductor who is primarily known for his operas. Unlike most opera composers, Wagner wrote both the libretto and the music for each of his stage works and he described this vision in a series of essays published between 1849 and 1852. Wagner realised these ideas most fully in the first half of the four-opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen and his advances in musical language, such as extreme chromaticism and quickly shifting tonal centres, greatly influenced the development of classical music. His Tristan und Isolde is sometimes described as marking the start of modern music, Wagner had his own opera house built, the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, which embodied many novel design features. The Ring and Parsifal were premiered here and his most important stage works continue to be performed at the annual Bayreuth Festival, until his final years, Wagners life was characterised by political exile, turbulent love affairs, poverty and repeated flight from his creditors. His controversial writings on music, drama and politics have attracted extensive comment, notably, since the late 20th century, where they express antisemitic sentiments. The effect of his ideas can be traced in many of the arts throughout the 20th century, his influence spread beyond composition into conducting, philosophy, literature, Richard Wagner was born to an ethnic German family in Leipzig, where his family lived at No. 3, the Brühl in the Jewish quarter and he was baptized at St. Thomas Church. He was the child of Carl Friedrich Wagner, who was a clerk in the Leipzig police service, and his wife, Johanna Rosine. Wagners father Carl died of typhus six months after Richards birth, afterwards his mother Johanna lived with Carls friend, the actor and playwright Ludwig Geyer. In August 1814 Johanna and Geyer probably married—although no documentation of this has found in the Leipzig church registers. She and her family moved to Geyers residence in Dresden, until he was fourteen, Wagner was known as Wilhelm Richard Geyer. He almost certainly thought that Geyer was his biological father, Geyers love of the theatre came to be shared by his stepson, and Wagner took part in his performances. In his autobiography Mein Leben Wagner recalled once playing the part of an angel, in late 1820, Wagner was enrolled at Pastor Wetzels school at Possendorf, near Dresden, where he received some piano instruction from his Latin teacher. He struggled to play a scale at the keyboard and preferred playing theatre overtures by ear. Following Geyers death in 1821, Richard was sent to the Kreuzschule, at the age of nine he was hugely impressed by the Gothic elements of Carl Maria von Webers opera Der Freischütz, which he saw Weber conduct. At this period Wagner entertained ambitions as a playwright and his first creative effort, listed in the Wagner-Werk-Verzeichnis as WWV1, was a tragedy called Leubald. Begun when he was in school in 1826, the play was influenced by Shakespeare
34.
Houston Stewart Chamberlain
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He was also the son-in-law of German composer Richard Wagner, as, in December 1908, twenty-five years after Wagners death, Chamberlain married the composers daughter, Eva von Bülow. Houston Stewart Chamberlain was born in Southsea, Hampshire, England and his mother, Eliza Jane, daughter of Captain Basil Hall, RN, died before he was a year old, his grandmother brought him up in France. Chamberlains poor health led him to being sent to the warmer climates of Spain. This constant moving made it hard for Chamberlain to form lasting friendships and left him with a feeling of rootlessness. Chamberlains education, begun in a lycée at Versailles, took place mostly on the Continent, at the age of eleven he was sent to Cheltenham College, an English boarding school which produced many army and navy officers. Chamberlain deeply disliked Cheltenham, and felt lonely and out of place there, the young Chamberlain was a compulsive dreamer, more interested in the arts than in the military, and he developed a fondness for nature and a near-mystical sense of self. Chamberlains major interests in his studies at Cheltenham were the natural sciences, Chamberlain later recalled, The starlight exerted an indescribable influence on me. The stars seemed closer to me, more gentle, more worthy of trust, for the stars, I experienced true friendship. During his youth, Chamberlain - while not entirely rejecting at this point his liberalism - become influenced by the romantic conservative critique of the Industrial Revolution, the prospect of serving as an officer in India or elsewhere in the British Empire held no attraction for him. In addition, he was a child with poor health. At the age of fourteen he had to be withdrawn from school, Chamberlain then travelled to various spas around Europe, accompanied by a Prussian tutor, Herr Otto Kuntze, who taught him German and interested him in German culture and history. Fascinated by Renaissance art and architecture, Chamberlain learned Italian and planned to settle in Florence for a time, Chamberlain then went to Geneva, where he studied under Carl Vogt, Graebe, Müller Argoviensis, Thury, Plantamour, and other professors. He studied systematic botany, geology, astronomy, and later the anatomy, under the tutelage of Professor Julius von Wiesner of the University of Vienna, Chamberlain studied botany in Geneva, earning a Bacheliers en sciences physiques et naturelles in 1881. His thesis, Recherches sur la sève ascendante, was not finished until 1897, physical arguments, in particular transpirational pull and root pressure, have since been shown to be adequate for explaining the ascent of sap. Chamberlain often expressed his disgust with Disraeli, the man whom he blamed in large measure for the injection of selfish class interest and jingoism into British public life in the next decades. In 1881, he wrote to his family in Britain, praising William Ewart Gladstone for introducing the Land Bill to bring in fair rents in Ireland, Chamberlain was an early supporter of Hanns Hörbigers Welteislehre, the theory that most bodies in our solar system are covered with ice. Due in part to Chamberlains advocacy, this became official cosmological dogma during the Third Reich, still, his scientific credentials were often cited by admirers to give weight to his political philosophy. Chamberlain rejected Darwinism, evolution and social Darwinism and instead emphasized gestalt which he derived from Goethe
35.
Aryan
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Aryan is a term meaning noble which was used as a self-designation by Indo-Iranian people. The closely related Iranian people also used the term as a label for themselves in the Avesta scriptures. It was believed in the 19th century that it was also a used by all Proto-Indo-Europeans. Scholars point out that, even in ancient times, the idea of being an Aryan was religious, cultural and linguistic, through Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Gobineaus ideas later influenced the Nazi racial ideology, which also saw Aryan peoples as innately superior to other putative racial groups. The English word Aryan is borrowed from the Sanskrit word ārya, आर्य and it was reintroduced into English with the new spelling by William Jones in the 18th century. Philologist J. P. Mallory argues that As an ethnic designation, the word is most properly limited to the Indo-Iranians, in early Vedic literature, the term Āryāvarta was the name given to northern India, where the Indo-Aryan culture was based. The Manusmṛti gives the name Āryāvarta to the tract between the Himalaya and the Vindhya ranges, from the Eastern to the Western Sea, initially the term was used as a national name to designate those who worshipped the Vedic deities and followed Vedic culture. The Sanskrit term comes from proto-Indo-Iranian *arya- or *aryo-, the used by the Indo-Iranians to designate themselves. The Zend airya venerable and Old Persian ariya are also derivates of *aryo-, in Iranian languages, the original self-identifier lives on in ethnic names like Alans and Iron. Similarly, the name of Iran is the Persian word for land/place of the Aryans, the Proto-Indo-Iranian term is hypothesized to have proto-Indo-European origins, while according to Szemerényi it is probably a Near-Eastern loanword from the Ugaritic ary, kinsmen. It has been postulated the Proto-Indo-European root word is *haerós with the members of ones own group, peer. The word *haerós itself is believed to have come from the root *haer meaning put together, the original meaning in Proto-Indo-European had a clear emphasis on the in-group status as distinguished from that of outsiders, particularly those captured and incoporated into the group as slaves. While in Anatolia, the word has come to emphasize personal relationship. A review of other ideas, and the various problems with each is given by Oswald Szemerényi. Proto-Indo-Europeans, during the 19th century, it was proposed that Aryan was also the self-designation of the Proto-Indo-Europeans, Aryan language family, the Indo-Aryan languages, Iranian languages and Nuristani languages, Indo-Aryan languages specifically, also called Indic. The term Aryan is used by Indian nationalists and Iranian nationalists to refer themselves as Aryan in contrast to the Indo-Aryan migration theory, during the 19th century it was proposed that Aryan was also the self-designation of the Proto-Indo-Europeans. Based on speculations that the Proto-Indo-European homeland was located in northern Europe, a 19th-century hypothesis which is now abandoned and it has been used in Nazi racial theory to describe persons corresponding to the Nordic physical ideal of Nazi Germany. In Sanskrit and related Indic languages, ārya means one who does noble deeds, Āryāvarta abode of the āryas is a common name for North India in Sanskrit literature
36.
Eva Braun
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Eva Anna Paula Hitler was the longtime companion of Adolf Hitler and, for less than 40 hours, his wife. Braun met Hitler in Munich when she was 17 years old, while she was working as an assistant and model for his personal photographer and she attempted suicide twice during their early relationship. By 1936, she was a part of his household at the Berghof near Berchtesgaden, Braun was a photographer, and many of the surviving colour photographs and films of Hitler were taken by her. She was a key figure within Hitlers inner social circle, but did not attend events with him until mid-1944, when her sister Gretl married Hermann Fegelein. As the Third Reich collapsed towards the end of the war, Braun swore loyalty to Hitler, as Red Army troops fought their way into the neighbourhood on 29 April 1945, she married Hitler during a brief civil ceremony, she was 33 and he was 56. Less than 40 hours later, they committed suicide together in a room of the bunker, she by biting into a capsule of cyanide. The German public was unaware of Brauns relationship with Hitler until after their deaths, born in Munich, Eva Braun was the second daughter of school teacher Friedrich Fritz Braun and Franziska Fanny Kronberger who had worked as a seamstress before her marriage. Her elder sister, Ilse, was born in 1909 and her younger sister, Brauns parents were divorced in April 1921, but remarried in November 1922, probably for financial reasons. At age 17 she took a job working for Heinrich Hoffmann, initially employed as a shop assistant and sales clerk, she soon learned how to use a camera and develop photos. She met Hitler,23 years her senior, at Hoffmanns studio in Munich in October 1929 and he had been introduced to her as Herr Wolff. Evas sister, Gretl, also worked for Hoffman from 1932 onward, Gretl accompanied her sister on her later trips with Hitler to the Obersalzberg. Hitler lived with his half-niece, Geli Raubal, in an apartment at Prinzregentenplatz 16 in Munich from 1929 until her death, on 18 September 1931 Raubal was found dead in the apartment, shot with Hitlers pistol, an apparent suicide. Hitler was in Nuremberg at the time, the relationship was important to him, likely the most intense of his life. Hitler began seeing more of Braun after the suicide, Braun herself attempted suicide on 10 or 11 August 1932 by shooting herself in the chest with her fathers pistol. Historians feel the attempt was not serious, but was a bid for Hitlers attention, after Brauns recovery, Hitler became more committed to her and by the end of 1932 they had become lovers. She often stayed overnight at his Munich apartment when he was in town, Braun worked as a photographer for Hoffmann from 1933 on. This position enabled her to travel—accompanied by Hoffmann—with Hitlers entourage, as a photographer for the Nazi Party, later in her career she worked for Hoffmans art press. According to a fragment of her diary and the account of biographer Nerin Gun and she took an overdose of sleeping pills when Hitler failed to make time for her in his life
37.
Hitler Youth
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The Hitler Youth was the youth organisation of the Nazi Party in Germany. Its origins dated back to 1922, with the surrender of Nazi Germany in 1945, the organisation de facto ceased to exist. On 10 October 1945, it was outlawed by the Allied Control Council along with other Nazi Party organisations, in 1922 the Munich-based Nazi Party established its official youth organisation called Jugendbund der NSDAP. It was announced on 8 March 1922 in the Völkischer Beobachter, another youth group was established in 1922 as the Jungsturm Adolf Hitler. Based in Munich, Bavaria, it served to train and recruit members of the Sturmabteilung. Following the abortive Beer Hall Putsch the Nazi youth groups ostensibly disbanded, in April 1924 the Jugendbund der NSDAP was renamed Grossdeutsche Jugendbewegung. On 4 July 1926 the Grossdeutsche Jugendbewegung was officially renamed Hitler Jugend Bund der deutschen Arbeiterjugend and this event took place a year after the Nazi Party itself had been reorganised. The architect of the re-organisation was Kurt Gruber, a law student from Plauen in Saxony, after a short power-struggle with a rival organisation—Gerhard Roßbachs Schilljugend—Gruber prevailed and his Greater German Youth Movement became the Nazi Partys official youth organisation. In July 1926 it was renamed Hitler-Jugend, Bund deutscher Arbeiterjugend and, for the first time, the name Hitler-Jugend was taken up on the suggestion of Hans Severus Ziegler. By 1930 the Hitlerjugend had enlisted over 25,000 boys aged 14 and it also set up a junior branch, the Deutsches Jungvolk, for boys aged 10 to 14. Girls from 10 to 18 were given their own parallel organisation, in April 1932 Chancellor Heinrich Brüning banned the Hitler Youth movement in an attempt to stop widespread political violence. But in June Brünings successor as Chancellor, Franz von Papen, lifted the ban as a way of appeasing Hitler, a further significant expansion drive started in 1933, after Baldur von Schirach was appointed by Hitler as the first Reichsjugendführer. All youth organizations were brought under Schirachs control, the members of the Hitler Youth were viewed as insuring the future of Nazi Germany and were indoctrinated in Nazi ideology, including racism. The Hitler Youth appropriated many of its activities of the Boy Scout movement, although over time it changed in content and intention. For example, many activities closely resembled military training, with training, assault course circuits. The aim was to instill the motivation that would enable its members as soldiers, there was great emphasis on physical fitness and hardness and military training than on academic study. The Hitler Youth were used to break up Church youth groups, and in anti-Church indoctrination, used to spy on religious classes and Bible studies, and interfere with church attendance. Members summer uniform consisted of a black shorts and tan shirt with pockets, worn with a black neckerchief secured with a woggle
38.
Hesselberg
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Hesselberg is the highest point in Middle Franconia and the Franconian Jura and is situated 60 km south west of Nuremberg, Germany. The mountain stands isolated and far from the center of the Franconian Jura, the mountains first recorded name was Öselberg, which probably derived from öder Berg. This name later changed to Eselsberg and finally to the current name Hesselberg, as a butte the mountain provides an insight into Jurassic geology. It has also witnessed an eventful history, many incidents were handed down generation to generation. Nowadays many people visit Hesselberg in order to nature and the wonderful vista. When the weather is clear the Alps 150 km away can be seen, the mountain has a length of approximately 6 km and an average width of 1 to 2 km. All of its slopes except for those on the side are covered with coniferous or mixed forest. On the upper slopes, and especially on the slope of the Röckinger mountain. The upper part of the prominent southern side is free of forest, on the southern and north-eastern slopes there are large areas of neglected grassland with their typical juniper bushes. Hesselberg can be divided into 5 sections along its center-line, on the western slope there is mainly coniferous forest. This is the point for the geological nature trail. The western plateau, also called Gerolfinger mountain, has an especially unspoilt appearance with its sinkhole-like depressions, hedges, the depressions were, however, not formed naturally, they are the result of mining of material for road construction and lime burning. The woodless eastern plateau, which is called Osterwiese or Röckinger mountain is the most important area for tourism and this section serves as a launching zone for model planes and hang-gliders and as an observation platform. On especially clear days one can see the Zugspitze in the Alps can be seen, the highly afforested eastern foothill, known for its legends, has the name Schlössleinsbuck. This small hill top is also called Small Hesselberg, the Röckinger mountain and the Schlössleinsbuck are separated by the Druids valley. Hesselberg is amongst the most important geotopes in Bavaria, on September 24,2005 it was awarded the cachet Bayerns schönste Geotope by Georg Schlapp in the course of a ceremony. 200 million years ago the Jurassic sea extended from the North Sea basin far to the South, at that time the Hesselberg region was on the border of that sea. Many affluxes brought huge masses of rubble from the mainland and formed a multilayer seafloor
39.
Julius Streicher
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Julius Streicher was a prominent member of the Nazi Party prior to World War II. He was the founder and publisher of the anti-Semitic newspaper Der Stürmer, after the war, he was convicted of crimes against humanity and executed. Streicher was born in Fleinhausen, Kingdom of Bavaria, one of nine children of the teacher Friedrich Streicher and he worked as an elementary school teacher like his father, and in 1921 he began his political career, joining the NSDAP. He would later claim that because his work brought him into contact with German Jews. In 1913 Streicher married Kunigunde Roth, a daughter, in Nuremberg. They had two sons, Lothar and Elmar, Streicher joined the German Army in 1914. He was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class as well as earning a commission as an officer at a time when officers were primarily from aristocratic families. He reached the rank of lieutenant as well as being awarded the Iron Cross, 1st Class, such groups fostered the view that Jews had conspired with Bolshevik traitors in trying to subject Germany to Communist rule. In 1920 he turned to the Deutschsozialistische Partei, a group whose platform was close to that of the young NSDAP, leading members of the DSP were Hans Georg Müller, Max Sesselmann and Dr. Friedrich Wiesel, the first two being editors of the Münchner Beobachter. Julius Streicher founded his local branch in 1919 in Nuremberg, Streichers arguments were primitive, vulgar, and crude but he believed in what he said and was an uninhibited, wild agitator, to whom masses would listen, which was what mattered to the party. The DSP was officially inaugurated in April 1920 in Hanover, in 1921, Streicher finally found his mentor. He visited Munich in order to hear Adolf Hitler speak, an experience that he said left him transformed. I had been asked for some time. It was on a day in 1922. And there I sat in a meeting, an unknown among unknowns. It was the last hour before midnight when his speech ended and it was an immense wealth of ideas that in a more than three hour long speech came from his mouth, clad into the beauty of a gifted oratory. When he was standing on the podium with a face radiant with joy and looking at the stormy enthusiasm, everybody could feel it, this man speaks on behalf of a divine appointment, as a messenger sent from heaven at a time when hell had opened to devour everything. That same year, Streicher joined the Nazi Party and merged his personal following with Hitlers, in May 1923 Streicher founded the newspaper, Der Stürmer
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