1.
Law school
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A law school is an institution specializing in legal education, usually involved as part of a process for becoming a lawyer within a given jurisdiction. Nowadays the legal education consists in a 5-year-long course in which, afterwards, the practice of law is conditioned upon admission to the bar of a particular state or other territorial jurisdiction. Public attorneys, public prossecutors and magistrates admission is made, mainly, through an entrance examination and a constitutional mandatory three years of legal experience. The postgraduation, stricto sensu, consists in a, a) master´s degree, which is usually a two-year degree, and a b) doctorate´s degree, which can take up another four years. The typical law degree required to practice law in Canada is now the Juris Doctor, there is some scholarly content in the coursework. The programs consist of three years, and have content in their mandatory first year courses. Some schools, however, have not switched from LL. B. to the J. D. – one notable university that still awards the LL. B is McGill University. Given that the Canadian legal system includes both the French civil law and the Anglo-American common law, some law schools offer both an LL. B. or J. D. and a B. C. L. LL. L. or LL. B. degree, such as McGill University, University of Ottawa, in particular, McGill University Faculty of Law offers a combined civil law and common law program, which has been called transsystemic. At other faculties, if a person completes a common law degree and this is also true for civil law graduates who wish to complete a common law degree. Despite changes in designation, schools opting for the J. D. have not altered their curricula, neither the J. D. or LL. B. and the École du Barreau du Québec. In France, the education is a three tier system. The student may study for a LLB, then a LLM and, for those interested in Law theory, many French universities offers Law courses in department labelled as Research and Education Units and/or Faculties of Law or Law Schools. Law Degree in Indonesia consists of three tier systems, the first tier is the Degree of which carries the title of Sarjana Hukum/S. H. This can be obtained in 4–7 years after they enter Law School straight from Senior High School, the second tier varies depending on the legal specialties taken after the first tier. The general title for this tier is Magister Hukum / M. H, although it is also common to see other title for secondary tier such as Magister Kenotariatan / M. Kn. for Notarial professionals line of work. The second tier can be obtained normally in 1-2 year, the third tier in Indonesian Law Degree is Doctor / DR. To work in legal professions of choice in Indonesia, a Bachelor Law Degree is obligatory, graduates can pursue their career as Legal in-house counsel, Judge profession, Public Prosecutor, other legal-related work and Advocate
2.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
3.
Aberdeen
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Nicknames include the Granite City, the Grey City and the Silver City with the Golden Sands. During the mid-18th to mid-20th centuries, Aberdeens buildings incorporated locally quarried grey granite, since the discovery of North Sea oil in the 1970s, other nicknames have been the Oil Capital of the World or the Energy Capital of the World. The area around Aberdeen has been settled since at least 8,000 years ago, the city has a long, sandy coastline and a marine climate, the latter resulting in chilly summers and mild winters. Aberdeen received Royal Burgh status from David I of Scotland, transforming the city economically, the traditional industries of fishing, paper-making, shipbuilding, and textiles have been overtaken by the oil industry and Aberdeens seaport. Aberdeen Heliport is one of the busiest commercial heliports in the world, in 2015, Mercer named Aberdeen the 57th most liveable city in the world, as well as the fourth most liveable city in Britain. In 2012, HSBC named Aberdeen as a business hub and one of eight super cities spearheading the UKs economy. The Aberdeen area has seen human settlement for at least 8,000 years. The city began as two separate burghs, Old Aberdeen at the mouth of the river Don, and New Aberdeen, a fishing and trading settlement, the earliest charter was granted by William the Lion in 1179 and confirmed the corporate rights granted by David I. In 1319, the Great Charter of Robert the Bruce transformed Aberdeen into a property-owning, granted with it was the nearby Forest of Stocket, whose income formed the basis for the citys Common Good Fund which still benefits Aberdonians. The city was burned by Edward III of England in 1336, but was rebuilt and extended, the city was strongly fortified to prevent attacks by neighbouring lords, but the gates were removed by 1770. During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms of 1644–1647 the city was plundered by both sides, in 1644, it was taken and ransacked by Royalist troops after the Battle of Aberdeen and two years later it was stormed by a Royalist force under the command of Marquis of Huntly. In 1647 an outbreak of plague killed a quarter of the population. In the 18th century, a new Town Hall was built and the first social services appeared with the Infirmary at Woolmanhill in 1742 and the Lunatic Asylum in 1779. The council began major road improvements at the end of the 18th century with the main thoroughfares of George Street, King Street, gas street lighting arrived in 1824 and an enhanced water supply appeared in 1830 when water was pumped from the Dee to a reservoir in Union Place. An underground sewer system replaced open sewers in 1865, the city was incorporated in 1891. Although Old Aberdeen has a history and still holds its ancient charter. It is an part of the city, as is Woodside. Old Aberdeen is the location of Aberdon, the first settlement of Aberdeen
4.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
University of Aberdeen
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The University of Aberdeen is a public research university in Aberdeen, Scotland. The university as it is today was formed in 1860 by a merger between Kings College and Marischal College, a university founded in 1593 as a Protestant alternative to the former. Today, Aberdeen is consistently ranked among the top 200 universities in the world and is one of two universities in the city, the other being the Robert Gordon University. The universitys iconic buildings act as symbols of wider Aberdeen, particularly Marischal College in the city centre, there are two campuses, the predominantly utilised Kings College campus dominates the section of the city known as Old Aberdeen, which is approximately two miles north of the city centre. Although the original site of the foundation, most academic buildings were constructed in the 20th century during a period of significant expansion. The universitys Foresterhill campus is next to Aberdeen Royal Infirmary and houses the School of Medicine, Aberdeen has approximately 13,500 students from undergraduate to doctoral level, including many international students. An abundant range of disciplines are taught at the university, with 650 undergraduate degree offered in the 2012-13 academic year. Five Nobel laureates have since associated with Aberdeen. The first principal was Hector Boece, graduate and professor of the University of Paris, despite this founding date, teaching did not start for another ten years, and the University of Aberdeen celebrated 500 years of teaching and learning in 2005. Following the Scottish Reformation in 1560, Kings College was purged of its Roman Catholic staff, George Keith, the fifth Earl Marischal was a moderniser within the college and supportive of the reforming ideas of Peter Ramus. In April 1593 he founded a university in the city. It is also possible the founding of another college in nearby Fraserburgh by Sir Alexander Fraser, Aberdeen was highly unusual at this time for having two universities in one city, as 20th-century University prospectuses observed, Aberdeen had the same number as existed in England at the time. In addition, a university was set up to the north of Aberdeen in Fraserburgh from 1595. Initially, Marischal College offered the Principal of Kings College a role in selecting its academics, Marischal College, in the commercial heart of the city, was quite different in nature and outlook. For example, it was integrated into the life of the city. The two rival colleges often clashed, sometimes in court, but also in brawls between students on the streets of Aberdeen, as the institutions put aside their differences, a process of attempted mergers began in the 17th century. During this time, both colleges made notable contributions to the Scottish Enlightenment. Both colleges supported the Jacobite rebellion and following the defeat of the 1715 rising were largely purged by the authorities of their academics and officials
7.
Diploma in Professional Legal Practice
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The Diploma in Legal Practice or Diploma in Professional Legal Practice is a Scottish postgraduate qualification required in order to practise law in Scotland, as either a solicitor or an advocate. It is undertaken after completing undergraduate study and before commencing a traineeship, until the start of the 2012/13 academic year, the Diploma attracted a quota of funded places from the Student Awards Agency for Scotland, set at three hundred. The funding extended to a contribution of around £3,000 towards fees, fees for the Diploma are around £6,000. Since the change students may apply to SAAS for a loan towards the cost of tuition, there was considerable criticism of the postgraduate funding, in particular that the changes made did not do enough to widen access to the Scottish legal profession
8.
King's College, Aberdeen
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Its historic buildings are the centrepiece of the University of Aberdeens Old Aberdeen campus, often known as the Kings or Kings College campus. The focal point of the college, as well as its oldest building, is the late 15th century Kings College Chapel, a number of other historic buildings remain, with others being subject to renovation and rebuilding in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the early 20th century, a deal of expansion saw the university buildings increase around the historic college buildings. In the later 20th century, the university expanded dramatically in size, dominating Old Aberdeen, Kings College was the first university in Aberdeen, the third in Scotland and the fifth in the British Isles. As a former professor at the University of Paris, Elphinstone modelled the university very much on the continental European tradition, Hector Boece, a fellow professor at Paris, was awarded the status of first principal of the new institution. It would not be until 1509, with the issuance of a charter by Elphinstone, construction of the chapel began in 1498, it was consecrated in 1509 and dedicated to St Mary. By 1514, the university had some members in the form of both staff and students. Following the Reformation, Kings College was purged of its Roman Catholic staff, george Keith, the fifth Earl Marischal, however was a moderniser within the college and supportive of the reforming ideas of Peter Ramus. In April 1593 Keith founded a university in the city. Initially, Marischal offered the principal of Kings College a role in selecting its academics, in common with Marischal, Kings College supported the Jacobite cause and following the defeat of the 1715 rising both were largely purged of their academics and officials. The building work on the buildings of the college began in April 1500 on marshy land. The chapel is topped with a crown, i. e. a closed crown. The original was lost in a storm in 1633, and the present crown is a recreation, Kings College chapel retains more medieval woodwork than any other Scottish church, including the choir stalls and screen. The Cromwell Tower was a built during the 1650s-60s during the period of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. It was used for accommodation and had a turret at its top. It continues its function as an observatory to this day, the 1930 construction of the Elphinstone Hall effectively created a two-quadrangle arrangement, connected to the original Kings buildings. The Halls front faces outwards, with its lawn effectively creating an open space now bordered on the other sides by Old Aberdeens High Street. Kings College is now within the universitys main Old Aberdeen campus and retains its original and historic quadrangle which houses a conference centre
9.
William Elphinstone
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William Elphinstone was a Scottish statesman, Bishop of Aberdeen and founder of the University of Aberdeen. He was born in Glasgow, and educated at the High School of Glasgow and then University of Glasgow, taking the degree of M. A. in 1452. After practising for a time as a lawyer in the church courts, he was ordained a priest, becoming rector of St. Michaels Church, Trongate, Glasgow. Four years later he went to continue his studies at the University of Paris, where he became reader in Canon law, before 1474 he had returned to Scotland, and was made academic rector of the university, and official of the see of Glasgow. Further promotion followed, but soon more important duties were entrusted to Elphinstone and he was a member of the Parliament of Scotland, and was sent by James III of Scotland on diplomatic missions to Louis XI of France and Edward IV of England. Although he regularly attended the meetings of parliament he continued with his episcopal duties, early in 1488 he was made Lord High Chancellor, but on the kings death in the following June he left office, and retired to Aberdeen. The papal bull was obtained in 1494, and the charter which made Aberdeen the seat of a university is dated 1498. A small endowment was provided by the king, the building of the college of the Holy Virgin in Nativity, now Kings College, was completed in 1506. Elphinstone also built the tower of St Machars Cathedral. Continuing to participate in public affairs he opposed the policy of hostility towards England which led to the Battle of Flodden in September 1513, Elphinstone was partly responsible for the introduction of printing into Scotland, and for the production of the Breviarium Aberdonense. He may have some of the lives in this collection. References Bibliography Hector Boece, Murthiacensium et Aberdonensium episcoporum vitae, edited and translated by J. Moir Fasli Aberdonenses, innes Alexander Gardyne, Theatre of Scottish Worthies and Lyf of W. Elphinston, edited by David Laing. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
10.
Civil law (legal system)
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Conceptually, civil law proceeds from abstractions, formulates general principles, and distinguishes substantive rules from procedural rules. It holds case law to be secondary and subordinate to statutory law, when discussing civil law, one should keep in mind the conceptual difference between a statute and a codal article. The marked feature of civilian systems is that they use codes with brief text that tend to avoid factually specific scenarios, Code articles deal in generalities and thus stand at odds with statutory schemes which are often very long and very detailed. The purpose of codification is to all citizens with manners and written collection of the laws which apply to them. Law codes are simply laws enacted by a legislature, even if they are in much longer than other laws. Other major legal systems in the world include common law, Halakha, canon law, the Scandinavian systems are of a hybrid character since their background law is a mix of civil law and Scandinavian customary law and have been partially codified. Likewise, the laws of the Channel Islands are hybrids which mix Norman customary law, a prominent example of a civil-law code would be the Napoleonic Code, named after French emperor Napoleon. The Code comprises three components, the law of persons, property law, and commercial law, rather than a compendium of statutes or catalog of caselaw, the Code sets out general principles as rules of law. Unlike common law systems, civil law jurisdictions deal with case law apart from any precedent value, Civil law courts generally decide cases using codal provisions on a case-by-case basis, without reference to other judicial decisions. In actual practice, a degree of precedent is creeping into civil law jurisprudence. A line of similar case decisions, while not precedent per se, while civil law jurisdictions place little reliance on court decisions, they tend to generate a phenomenal number of reported legal opinions. However, this tends to be uncontrolled, since there is no requirement that any case be reported or published in a law report, except for the councils of state. Except for the highest courts, all publication of legal opinions are unofficial or commercial, Civil law is sometimes referred to as neo-Roman law, Romano-Germanic law or Continental law. The civil law takes as its major inspiration classical Roman law, and in particular Justinian law, the Justinian Codes doctrines provided a sophisticated model for contracts, rules of procedure, family law, wills, and a strong monarchical constitutional system. Roman law was received differently in different countries, in some it went into force wholesale by legislative act, i. e. it became positive law, whereas in others it was diffused into society by increasingly influential legal experts and scholars. Roman law continued without interruption in the Byzantine Empire until its fall in the 15th century. However, subject as it was to multiple incursions and occupations by Western European powers in the medieval period. It was first received into the Holy Roman Empire partly because it was considered imperial law and it became the basis of Scots law, though partly rivaled by received feudal Norman law
11.
Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
12.
Marischal College
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Marischal College is a large granite building on Broad Street in the centre of Aberdeen in north-east Scotland, and since 2011 has acted as the headquarters of Aberdeen City Council. However, the building was constructed for and is on lease from the University of Aberdeen. Today, it provides corporate office space and public access to services, adjacent to the Town House. Many Aberdonians consider Marischal College to be an icon of the Granite City, the construction of the modern college building began in 1835, following the demolition of previous buildings on the site, and was completed in its present form in the early 1900s. It is the second largest granite building in the world, the buildings of Marischal College continued to be used for academic purposes until the mid-20th century and less and less until the early 2000s. During this period they were rebuilt and expanded upon. After a number of proposals, the majority of the building was leased to Aberdeen City Council to be restored and refurbished as office accommodation. The extensive renovation was completed on schedule and significantly under budget, the university has retained the Mitchell Hall and a number of other significant parts of the building for its own use, in addition to the Marischal Museum. Marischal College and University of Aberdeen was the name of the former university which occupied the present Marischal College site. The College was founded in 1593 by George Keith, 5th Earl Marischal of Scotland, the original charter of the university was lost by the early 18th century, but two near-contemporary copies exist – one of which was accepted by the courts in 1756 as being authentic. In this charter, Marischal College is described variously as a gymnasium, collegium, academia, as such, both Edinburgh and Marischal came to be known as the Town Colleges of their respective cities. The university was founded with the aim of training clergy for the post-Reformation Kirk. It is believed that Keith desired a protestant institution alongside the pre-Reformation Kings College and it is possible that the founding of another college in nearby Fraserburgh in 1592 was the true cause, its founder Sir Alexander Fraser was a business rival of Marischal. The College was constructed on the site of a medieval Franciscan Friary, the colleges Greek motto translates as virtue is self-sufficient. The Mitchell Hall, where University of Aberdeen graduations previously took place, was built in the early 20th century and it is named for Dr Charles Mitchell, an alumnus of the university and a Tyneside shipbuilder. A large stained-glass window dominates the hall, executed by TR Spence of London, the building was commended by poet John Betjeman following a visit to Aberdeen in 1947, No-one can dismiss Marischal College, Aberdeen, when looking at the work of the present century. Wedged behind a huge town hall in an expensive and attractive mid-Victorian baronial style, I turned down a lane towards them, the front broadened out. Bigger than any cathedral, tower on tower, forests of pinnacles and this was the famous Marischal College
13.
The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
14.
University of Glasgow School of Law
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There are forty-nine full-time academic staff and over one thousand students. The current Head of the School of Law is Professor Iain MacNeil, at the Universitys foundation in 1451, there were four original faculties, Arts, Divinity, Law and Medicine. Both Canon and Civil Law were taught, however by the sixteenth Century and it was during this time that James Dalrymple of Stair came to Glasgow to study for an M. A. and then became a regent teaching philosophy. He went on to become Lord President of the Court of Session in 1671, and published his Institutions of the Law of Scotland in 1681, the Stair Building, where the School of Law is housed, is named in his honour. In 1713, Queen Anne endowed the Regius Chair of Law at the University, the first occupant of the Chair was William Forbes, and subsequent notable Professors have included John Millar, William Gloag, David Walker and Joe Thomson. In 1984, the Faculty of Law became the Faculty of Law and Financial Studies, and in 1992, in 2005, the Faculty merged with the Faculty of Social Sciences, becoming the Faculty of Law, Business and Social Sciences. The School of Law is housed in the Stair Building, a row of internally connected terraced houses on The Square opposite the University Chapel, CREATe CREATe is the RCUK research centre for copyright and new business models in the creative economy. CREATe is supported by £5m of funding over four years from the Arts and Humanities Research Council, Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, Law with European Legal Studies LL. B. Law with Joint Honours Applicants for all courses, except the two-year accelerated LL. B. are required to sit the Law National Admissions Test. Research Degrees The School of Law awards the degrees of LL. M. by Research and Ph. D. the School of Law has fostered links with universities all around the world to provide exchange and study abroad programmes. Students have 37 European and international partnerships including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Hong Kong, approximately 65% of the third year student cohort study abroad. In addition to being a part of the Law with Languages programme it is open to all honours students in the School of Law. The Schools International Officer is Professor Jim Murdoch, Students in the School of Law elect class representatives from each of their classes to represent them at meetings of committees within the School of Law. The School comes within the College of Social Science constituency on the Students Representative Council, the Glasgow University Law Society organises social activities for students at the School of Law, including the annual Law Ball, held every February. The Society co-ordinate various different events, focusing around being either social, academic or charity, membership is open to all students of the School of Law, and the Society is affiliated to the SRC. The Society publishes the Glasgow University Law Review, a publication containing legal articles written by members of the Society. The Editor-in-Chief of the Law Review sits on the Society committee, the School of Law has a student-run Mooting Society, which runs an internal competition, The Deans Cup, as well as organising the Alexander Stone National Legal Debate. All Scottish universities offering the LL. B. are entitled to enter this, the final is held in February or March each year in the Alexander Stone Court Room on the ground floor of the Stair Building
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Edinburgh Law School
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Edinburgh Law School, founded in 1707, is a school within the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom dedicated to research and teaching in law. Known today as Edinburgh Law School, it is located in the historic Old College, two of the twelve currently sitting Supreme Court of the United Kingdom justices are graduates of Edinburgh. The offer rate for the 2013–2014 admissions cycle was 21. 4%, Edinburgh Law includes undergraduate LLB and post-graduate LLB programs, along with LLM, MSc and PhD programs. In 2010, the Guardian University Guide ranked Edinburgh Law School as the fourth best law school in the UK, in 2014, the Research Excellence Framework commissioned by the UK government, ranked Edinburgh University 1st in Scotland and 4th in the UK. Also in 2014, the newspaper The Telegraph ranked Edinburgh Law 6th in the United Kingdom, by 1722 the University had four Professors of Law, and classes—in Civil Law, Scots Law and History—were usually given in their respective homes or offices. Numbers grew with the expansion of the profession in the 19th century. Scholarship amongst the academics at Edinburgh continued to grow in reputation, with the work of Muirhead, Lorimer and Rankine achieving international renown. The Faculty of Law had moved to Old College, built in 1789, the degree was only open to graduates, usually those who had studied for the M. A. at a Scottish University or the B. A. at Oxford or Cambridge. In 1909 the first women were enrolled on the Law course, by 1966, the LL. B. had become a full-time undergraduate course, although many would continue to study for an Arts degree beforehand. In 1981, Edinburgh first offered the Diploma in Legal Practice, Students wishing to enter the legal profession. Today, the School of Law is associated both with traditional Scots law and with innovation across a range of subjects. In 2007 the School celebrated its Tercentenary year, marked by a series of events, james Muirheads work on Roman Law garnered international praise, Professor Erskines Principles became a standard text in Scots Law, as did those of Professor George Joseph Bell. In the 20th-century, the eminent legal theorist Professor Sir Neil MacCormick wrote his texts on legal philosophy as Regius Professor at Edinburgh. Students of the School of Law are represented by the Law Students Council, the University of Edinburgh Law Society, known as LawSoc, provides a programme of social events. In addition, there is a Postgraduate Students Research Committee for doctoral level students, for graduate-level students there are a number of subject-specific discussion groups which meet on a regular basis. Since 2008, the students have published the Edinburgh Student Law Review, sponsored by Herbert Smith and Balfour and Manson
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Dundee Law School
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The Dundee Law School at the University of Dundee, Scotland provides undergraduate and postgraduate teaching in Scottish and English Law. It is the institution in the United Kingdom to permit students to qualify into all three UK legal jurisdictions. An internal reorganisation at the university in 2015 led to the Law School becoming part of the School of Social Sciences, the origins of the law school begin with the foundation of the University of St Andrews, around 1413. Through several centuries the teaching of law in St Andrews was incorporated into St Marys College at the University of St Andrews, by the late 1800s, St Andrews was contending with geographic isolation and dwindling numbers of students, whilst a university college was burgeoning in nearby Dundee. Law lectures had commenced in Dundee in January 1866, the campus in Dundee later became known as Queens College, with the teaching of law formally transferred to Dundee in the 20th century. In 1967, the independent University of Dundee was created by Royal Charter, incorporating the former Queens College, St Andrews became, and remains, the only ancient university not to offer the study of Law. Dundee Law School consistently ranks as one of the top law faculties in the UK, in The Guardians 2017 law league table, Dundee Law School was ranked 8th in the UK and 1st in Scotland. Similarly, in The Times 2017 law league table, the School was ranked 10th in the UK, in the Guardians 2013 law league table, Dundees School of Law was ranked 10th in the UK and 1st in Scotland. In addition, The Times in 2012 ranked the Law School 7th in the United Kingdom, in the 2014 Research Assessment Exercise the School was one of only two law schools in the UK to have 100% of its research rated as being of international standard. The school is the law school to have achieved that feat in both the 2008 and 2014 Research Assessment Exercises. The Society represents one of several linkages between the School of Law and the Centre for Energy, Petroleum and Mineral Law and Policy, practitioners, academics and students are invited to attend, to participate and to present papers or lead discussions. Dundee Student Law Review The law school publishes a student law review bi-annually, the review offers the first chance for most students to publish their academic writing. Dundee University Student Bar Society Dundee University Student Bar Society was established to encourage students wishing to enter the Bar in either Scotland, Northern Ireland or England, the Bar Societys inaugural lecture took place on 7 November 2014 and was delivered by David Hope, Baron Hope of Craighead. The Honorary President of the Bar Society is Dundee alumnus Donald Findlay Q. C, the Law Clinic became operational on 31 January 2011, and currently runs from 9am-5pm every Wednesday and Thursday in the Centre of Dundee. The Law Clinic offers free advice on issues such as landlord and tenant, small claims, benefit disputes. It can also provide services as a McKenzie friend, Law Society The long running student law society organises social- and careers-events for Dundee law students. The law society also runs a pub quiz which is typical attended by teams of academics from within the School. Mooting The law school has an active mooting society, which organises a competition and competes in various Scottish
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Strathclyde Law School
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Strathclyde Law School was established in 1964 and operates within the Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences at the University of Strathclyde, in Glasgow, Scotland. The Law School currently operates from the Graham Hills Building having been relocated from the Lord Hope Building until the summer of 2014. The Law School offers a range of undergraduate and postgraduate taught. The nominations for the 2008 award also included two Strathclyde Law School lecturers, Professor John Blackie and Professor Donald Nicolson, in the 2009 New Year Honours List Professor Alan Paterson was awarded an OBE for services to law and legal education. The University of Strathclyde Law Clinic was set up in October 2003 by Professor Donald Nicolson, the Law Clinic offers free legal advice and help to residents of Glasgow and the surrounding area who cannot afford a solicitor or do not qualify for legal aid. The current Law Clinic offices are located on Level 5 of the Graham Hills Building, in 2016, the University of Strathclyde Law School won the pro bono award at the Scott and Co. The University of Strathclyde Law Clinic is now the biggest law clinic in the UK and is run by a committee of students, headed by current student directors Jacob Hay. The Law School has an active mooting society, which organises a competition for Strathclyde students and competes in various Scottish. Fiona Malone and Lucy Brunton won the final of the inaugural NSLS Scottish Cup in the Court of Session in January 2015, in 2016, a team from Strathclyde went to the London qualifying rounds of the Jessup Moot. Also in 2016, Strathclyde hosted the European qualifiers for the Manfred Lachs Space Law moot and entered a team who reached the semi-finals of the European fixtures
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University of Baltimore School of Law
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The University of Baltimore School of Law, or UB Law, is one of the four colleges that make up the University of Baltimore, which is part of the University System of Maryland. UB Law is one of two law schools in the state of Maryland, with the University of Maryland Francis King Carey School of Law. The twelve-story building designed by Stefan Behnisch opened in April 2013, the School of Law was founded in 1925 as a part of the then private, nonprofit University of Baltimore, with the first class of 38 students receiving their diplomas in 1928. 1,1975, the became a public institution when the University of Baltimore joined the State of Marylands system for public higher education. The new John and Frances Angelos Law Center offers 192,000 square feet of space and is among the most environmentally sustainable academic buildings in the nation, baltimores total cost of attendance is $28,134 in-state and $41,422 out-of-state for the 2013-2014 academic year. The Law School Transparency estimated debt-financed cost of attendance for three years is $175,714, alumni account for 30 percent of Marylands circuit court judges,34 percent of Marylands district court judges and more than one-third of Marylands elected states attorneys. UB Law offers the juris doctor degree and masters degrees in tax, the school offers several concentrations to its J. D. D. in policy science and JD/LL. M. in taxation. As an institution committed to excellence, we envision a signature building whose materials reflect the quality of our aspirations. In support of these requirements, the Abell Foundation funded a $150,000 design competition for the new facility, of the winning design, Bogomolny said, Stefan Behnisch has articulated an initial concept for our new law center that is truly forward-thinking. Stefans ideas about design and his creativity in responding to the evolving needs of higher education place him in the forefront of 21st-century architecture. The building features innovative air-handling systems and the capture of light. All of the University of Baltimore School of Law clinics and centers are housed in the John, the University of Baltimore School of Law annually provides nearly 200 students the opportunity to participate in a broad range of clinical programs and externships. These programs provide both day and evening students a range of experiential learning opportunities as licensed student-attorneys and closely supervised law clerks. In addition, the proximity to Washington, D. C. allows students to participate in externships in a wide range of governmental, public-interest. Clinics represent, on average,200 low-income clients every year, including adults, children, neighborhood associations, under the supervision of faculty, most clinics allow students to provide the full range of representation to clients. Clinic work includes interviewing, counseling, planning strategy and appearing in court or before administrative agencies. Certain clinics, such as the Community Development Clinic, provide experience in transactional work, the clinic facility is run as a law office with a teaching and a public-service mission. - Former Attorney General of Maryland, former Lt, Governor of Maryland William Donald Schaefer - former Mayor of Baltimore, Governor, & Comptroller of Maryland Samuel Walter Bogley, III - former Lt
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University of Maryland School of Law
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The University of Maryland Francis King Carey School of Law is the law school of the University of Maryland, Baltimore and is located in Baltimore City, Maryland, U. S. Founded in 1816 as the Maryland Law Institute with regular instruction beginning in 1824, because of its location, Maryland Law is part of the Baltimore-Washington legal and business community. In 2003, the law school moved into a new facility in downtown Baltimore near the Inner Harbor, in 2011, the law school received a US$30 million donation from the W. P. Carey Foundation, which is the largest gift in the schools history, in response, the law school changed its name to the University of Maryland Francis King Carey School of Law. Maryland Law has been ranked in the top tier of American law schools by U. S. News & World Report and it was ranked 48th as of the 2016 edition. The 2016 Rankings also gave Maryland Law top standing in health law, part-time program. Maryland Law is fully accredited by the American Bar Association and it is a member of the Association of American Law Schools and has a chapter of the Order of the Coif honor society. There are approximately 705 students enrolled at Maryland Law in the Juris Doctor, Master of Laws, the racial makeup of students in the J. D. program is approximately 60% white, with about 35% identifying as a minority race. Around 72% of J. D. students are under 25 years old, there are more than 40 student organizations, four specialized legal centers, and five law journals. The total cost of attendance for the 2016–2017 academic year is $58,191 for Maryland residents and these required courses form the basis for more specialized study through more than 150 elective courses, seminars, independent studies, simulations, clinics, and externships. Maryland Law is home to several specialty programs that enable students to areas of interest through experiential learning. The law school offers several options, Maryland Law has a combined J. D. /M. B. A. From the University of Maryland School of Public Policy J. D. /Ph. D through the University of Maryland Baltimore County School of Public Policy J. D. /M. C. P. Program provides legal education for lawyers and law students seeking to develop expertise in a area of study. It is a designed for individuals from the U. S. Through the Cardin Requirement, named after Maryland Law alumnus U. S, senator Benjamin Cardin, each full-time day student gains hands-on legal experience by representing actual clients who would otherwise lack access to justice. Most students fulfill the Cardin Requirement through the Clinical Law Program, more than 25 clinics focus on a broad range of practice areas, including civil and criminal litigation, advice and counseling, and transactional work. Civil practice areas include environmental law, health, housing and community development, juvenile law and children, AIDS, criminal student attorneys often represent defendants in misdemeanor cases in Maryland’s district courts, as well as work in the School of Laws community justice efforts
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Law of the United States
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The United States Code is the official compilation and codification of general and permanent federal statutory law. Federal law and treaties, so long as they are in accordance with the Constitution, preempt conflicting state and territorial laws in the 50 U. S. states, however, the scope of federal preemption is limited because the scope of federal power is not universal. Indeed, states may grant their citizens broader rights than the federal Constitution as long as they do not infringe on any federal constitutional rights. Thus, most U. S. law consists primarily of state law, which can and does vary greatly from one state to the next. At both the federal and state levels, the law of the United States is largely derived from the law system of English law. However, American law has diverged greatly from its English ancestor both in terms of substance and procedure, and has incorporated a number of civil law innovations. In the United States, the law is derived from five sources, constitutional law, statutory law, treaties, administrative regulations, where Congress enacts a statute that conflicts with the Constitution, the Supreme Court may find that law unconstitutional and declare it invalid. Notably, a statute does not disappear automatically merely because it has been found unconstitutional, many federal and state statutes have remained on the books for decades after they were ruled to be unconstitutional. However, under the principle of stare decisis, no sensible lower court will enforce an unconstitutional statute, conversely, any court that refuses to enforce a constitutional statute will risk reversal by the Supreme Court. The United States and most Commonwealth countries are heirs to the common law tradition of English law. Certain practices traditionally allowed under English common law were expressly outlawed by the Constitution, such as bills of attainder, as common law courts, U. S. courts have inherited the principle of stare decisis. The actual substance of English law was received into the United States in several ways. Some reception statutes impose a specific date for reception, such as the date of a colonys founding. Thus, contemporary U. S. Second, a number of important British statutes in effect at the time of the Revolution have been independently reenacted by U. S. states. Two examples that many lawyers will recognize are the Statute of Frauds, such English statutes are still regularly cited in contemporary American cases interpreting their modern American descendants. However, it is important to understand that despite the presence of reception statutes, early on, American courts, even after the Revolution, often did cite contemporary English cases. But citations to English decisions gradually disappeared during the 19th century as American courts developed their own principles to resolve the problems of the American people. The number of published volumes of American reports soared from eighteen in 1810 to over 8,000 by 1910
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Law of the United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom has three legal systems, each of which applies to a particular geographical area. First, English law, applies in England and Wales, second, Northern Ireland law, which applies in Northern Ireland, is based on common-law principles. Third, Scots law, which applies in Scotland, is a system based on civil-law principles. The United Kingdom does not have a legal system because it was created by the political union of previously independent countries. Article 19 of the Treaty of Union, put into effect by the Acts of Union in 1707, created the Kingdom of Great Britain, but guaranteed the continued existence of Scotlands separate legal system. The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest court in the land for all criminal and civil cases in England and Wales and Northern Ireland, the Supreme Court came into being in October 2009, replacing the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords. In England and Wales, the system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice. The Courts of Northern Ireland follow the same pattern, in Scotland the chief courts are the Court of Session, for civil cases, and the High Court of Justiciary, for criminal cases. Sheriff courts have no equivalent outside Scotland, as they deal with criminal and civil caseloads. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the British overseas territories, there are also immigration courts with UK-wide jurisdiction — the Asylum and Immigration Tribunal and Special Immigration Appeals Commission. The Employment tribunals and the Employment Appeal Tribunal have jurisdiction throughout Great Britain, there are three distinct legal jurisdictions in the United Kingdom, England and Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland. Each has its own system, distinct history and origins. English law is a term of art and it refers to the legal system administered by the courts in England and Wales, which rule on both civil and criminal matters. English law is renowned as being the mother of the law and is based on those principles. English law can be described as having its own legal doctrine and these judgements are binding in future similar cases, and for this reason are often reported. g. The Law Merchant began in the Pie-Powder Courts, see Court of Piepowder, the year 1189 was defined in 1276 as being the boundary of time immemorial. The courts of England and Wales are headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice, on appeal, a court may overrule the decisions of its inferior courts, such as county courts and magistrates courts. The High Court may also quash on judicial review both administrative decisions of the Government and delegated legislation, Scottish influence may have influenced the abolition of the forms of action in the nineteenth century and extensive procedural reforms in the twentieth
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KU Leuven
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The Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, also known as KU Leuven or University of Leuven, is a Dutch-speaking university in Leuven, Flanders, Belgium. The University of Leuven was founded at the centre of the town of Leuven in 1425. Since the fifteenth century, Louvain, as it is often called by French speaking Belgians, has been a major contributor to the development of Catholic theology. It is considered the oldest Catholic university still in existence, with 55,484 students in 2014–2015, the KU Leuven is the largest university in Belgium and the Low Countries. In addition to its campus in Leuven, it has satellite campuses in Kortrijk, Antwerp, Ghent, Bruges, Ostend, Geel, Diepenbeek, Aalst, Sint-Katelijne-Waver. The university now offers several programs in English. KU Leuven is consistently considered to be within the top 100 universities of the world, the KU Leuven is a strongly research-oriented university. Among its many accolades is to be reckoned among the top universities of Europe and its current 2015-2016 QS World University Ranking position is 82nd. KU Leuven Institute of Philosophy current ranks 24th in the world, in 2016, KU Leuven was ranked first on the Reuters list of Europes most innovative universities. KU Leuven Law School currently ranks 26th in the world, most courses, however, are taught in Dutch. The KU Leuven is a member of the Coimbra Group as well as of the LERU Group, since August 2013, the university has been led by Rik Torfs who replaced former rector Mark Waer. The Belgian archbishop, André-Joseph Léonard is the current Grand Chancellor, the KU Leuven is dedicated to Mary, the mother of Jesus, under her traditional attribute as Seat of Wisdom, and organizes an annual celebration on 2 February in her honour. On that day, the university awards its honorary doctorates. The seal used by the university shows the statue of the Sedes Sapientiae, Leuven. Despite its Catholic origin, the university students from different faith communities. For the history of the university see Catholic University of Leuven. Pieter De Somer became the first rector of the KU Leuven, in 1972, the KU Leuven set up a separate entity, Leuven Research & Development, to support industrial and commercial applications of university research. It has led to numerous spin-offs, such as the technology company Metris, on 11 July 2002, the KU Leuven became the dominant institution in the KU Leuven Association
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Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
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Aarhus University
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Aarhus University is a prestigious public university located in Aarhus, Denmark. Founded in 1928, it is Denmarks second oldest university and the largest, with a total of 44,500 enrolled students as of 1 January 2013, in most prestigious ranking lists of the worlds best universities, Aarhus University is placed in the top 100. The university belongs to the Coimbra Group of European universities, the business school within Aarhus University, called Aarhus BSS, holds the EFMD Equis accreditation, the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business and the Association of MBAs. This makes the school of Aarhus University one of the few in the world to have the so-called Triple Crown accreditations. Aarhus University was founded on 11 September 1928 as Universitetsundervisningen i Jylland with a budget of 33,000 Dkr and an enrollment of 64 students, the university was founded as a response to the increasing number of students at the University of Copenhagen after World War I. Classrooms were rented from the Technical College and the corps consisted of one professor of philosophy and four associate professors of Danish, English, German. In 1929, the municipality of Aarhus gave the university land with a landscape of rolling hills. The design of the university buildings and 12 ha campus area was assigned to architects C. F. Møller, Kay Fisker and Povl Stegmann, who won the architectural competition in 1931. The first buildings housed the Departments of Chemistry, Physics and Anatomy and were opened on 11 September 1933, the construction of the buildings was funded solely by donations which totaled 935,000 Dkr and the buildings covered an area of 4, 190m2. One of the most generous contributors was De Forenede Teglværker i Aarhus led by director K. Nymark. Forenede Teglværker decided to donate 1 million yellow bricks and tiles worth c.50,000 Dkr, on 23 April 1934, Aarhus University was given permission to hold examinations by the king and on 10 October 1935, Professor Dr. phil. Ernst Frandsen was appointed the first rector of the university, since 1939, C. F. Aarhus University had offered courses in basic medical subjects from 1933 and on 10 October 1935 the Faculty of Medicine was formally established. The establishment of a Faculty of Medicine in Aarhus was met some opposition from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Copenhagen. The professors thought that the state should not establish a new Faculty until the shortcomings of the old one had been solved, in the end, the professors agreed to sign a recommendation for the new Faculty as long as improvements to the old one were not delayed. In 1992, the Faculty of Medicine merged with the dental school, the Committee approved and by declaration of the king on 5 November 1937, the faculty could hold examinations in economics and law. Courses had been offered in theology since 1932 at the Faculty of Humanities, already on 22 June 1928, Reverend Balslev of Aarhus had proposed that Universitetsundervisningen i Aarhus taught basic courses in theology. At this time, Universitetsundervisningen i Aarhus did not have the means to meet these criteria so the case was shelved for the time being. In April 1931, the case reopened, this time by Bishop Skat Hoffmeyer who proposed free teaching in the required subjects, on 5 September 1932 Reverend Asmund held the first lecture in theology
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Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
26.
University of Helsinki
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The University of Helsinki is a university located in Helsinki, Finland since 1829, but was founded in the city of Turku in 1640 as the Royal Academy of Åbo, at that time part of the Swedish Empire. It is the oldest and largest university in Finland with the widest range of disciplines available, around 36,500 students are currently enrolled in the degree programs of the university spread across 11 faculties and 11 research institutes. As of August 1,2005, the University complies with the structure of the Europe-wide Bologna Process and offers Bachelor, Master, Licenciate. Admission to degree programmes is determined by entrance examinations, in the case of bachelors degrees. It has been ranked a top 100 university in the according to the 2016 ARWU, QS. The university is bilingual, with teaching officially provided both in Finnish and Swedish, generally speaking, however, the university is monolingual Finnish, as courses taught in Swedish are very few and far apart. Teaching in English is extensive throughout the university at Master, Licentiate, remaining true to its traditionally strong Humboldtian ethos, the University of Helsinki places heavy emphasis on high-quality teaching and research of a top international standard. It is a member of various prominent international university networks, such as Europaeum, UNICA, the Utrecht Network, the first predecessor of the university, The Cathedral School of Åbo, was presumably founded in 1276 for education of boys to become servants of the Church. It was the university founded in the Swedish Empire, following Uppsala University. The second period of the Universitys history covers the period when Finland was a Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire, as Finland became part of the Russian Empire in 1809, Emperor Alexander I expanded the University and allocated substantial funds to it. In the capital the primary task of the University was to educate the Grand Duchy’s civil servants, the University became a community subscribing to the new Humboldtian ideals of science and culture, studying humanity and its living environment by means of scientific methods. The Alexander University was a centre of life that promoted the birth of an independent Finnish State. The great men of 19th century Finland, Johan Vilhelm Snellman, Johan Ludvig Runeberg, Elias Lönnrot, in the 19th century university research changed from being collection-centred to being experimental, empirical, and analytical. The more scientific approach of the university led to specialisation and created new disciplines, as the scientific disciplines developed, Finland received ever more scholarly knowledge and highly educated people, some of whom entered rapidly evolving industry or the government. The third period of the universitys history began with the creation of the independent Republic of Finland in 1917, once Finland gained her independence in 1917 the University was given a crucial role in building the nation state and, after World War II, the welfare state. Members of the community promoted the international relations of the new state. Furthermore, they were involved in national politics and the struggle for equality. In the 20th century, scholarly research at the University of Helsinki reached the level of the European elite in many disciplines. I, virtanen and the Nobel Prize in Medicine shared by Professor Ragnar Granit
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Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
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University of Auvergne
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The University of Auvergne, also known as “Universite dAuvergne Clermont-Ferrand I” or Clermont-Ferrand I, is a French public university, based in Clermont-Ferrand, in the region of Auvergne. It is under the Academy of Clermont-Ferrand and it is the head of PRES Clermont Université consortium, PRES being the league of elite universities of France. Hence, the university is ranked as a leading academic institution by various French academicians and newspapers. The Université d’Auvergne was founded in 1519 and as such in 1806 as a medical school, soon the university established itself as a premier center for medical studies, and continues to do so for over 100 years. It became the Université d’Auvergne Clermont-Ferrand 1 on March 16,1976, the university has a status of EPSCSP, which is the highest French accreditation. This leads to high emphasis over the professional and research areas of the university, a comprehensive institution, it offers more than 60 national degrees in Medicine, Pharmacy, Dentistry, Law and Forensics, Economics and Politics, Management and Administration, and Technology. On 1 January 2017, the university became part of the University Clermont Auvergne, the first university existed between the 12th century and the end of the 15th century to Billom, near Clermont, with up to 2,000 students. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Bishop of Clermont, the King established the University in February 1519, but following protests by Charles III of Bourbon and the University of Paris, it was closed in 1520. In 1681, the King authorized the creation of a college in Clermont. The Faculty of Arts was founded in 1808, inaugurated in May 1810 in the hospital Charitains, during the Second World War, the university hosted Clermont students and professors from the University of Strasbourg, fleeing the German occupation. Nearly 50 students and teachers were arrested and Paul Collomp, a professor of the faculty of Literature, was killed by a gunshot. Although later on, both the universities developed their courses and were acclaimed prestige for their students and courses, after the split, the relations between the two universities have been timid or nonexistent, but the situation has gradually improved. Today the two institutions have come closer together and collaborate on some courses. The tertiary sector, Economics-Management accounts for 34. 4% and the Technology sector 4. 3%, in 2004, the university saw a rapid improvement in the framework and courses were significantly altered to higher standards, particularly in fields of Medicine, Law and Economics-Management. A Bilingual Bachelor program in Business-Management program was launched and receives presently the highest funding in the Economics Department and it has developed a consortium with HEC Paris, University Paris X, Carnegie Mellon University and Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia. Philippe Dulbecco, Member of Board of Directors of CPU
29.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
30.
University of Freiburg
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The University of Freiburg, officially the Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg, is a public research university located in Freiburg im Breisgau, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The university was founded in 1457 by the Habsburg dynasty as the university in Austrian-Habsburg territory after the University of Vienna. Today, Freiburg is the fifth-oldest university in Germany, with a tradition of teaching the humanities, social sciences. The university is made up of 11 faculties and attracts students from across Germany as well as from over 120 other countries, foreign students constitute about 16% of total student numbers. Named as one of universities of Germany by academics, political representatives and the media. Originally Albrechts University, the university started with four faculties and its establishment belongs to the second wave of German university foundings in the late Middle Ages, like the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen and the University of Basel. At its founding, the university was named after Albert VI of Austria and he provided the university with land and endowments, as well as its own jurisdiction. Also he declared Albrechts University as the county university for his territory until it was handed over to the Austrian House of Habsburg in 1490, the university soon attracted many students, such as the humanists Geiler von Kaysersberg, Johann Reuchlin, and Jakob Wimpfeling. When Ulrich Zasius was teaching law, Freiburg became a centre of humanist jurisprudence, from 1529 to 1535, Erasmus of Rotterdam lived and taught in Freiburg. From around 1559 on, the university was housed at the Altes Collegium, the importance of the university decreased during the time of the Counter-Reformation. To counter reformatory tendencies, the administration of two faculties was handed over to the Roman Catholic order of the Jesuits in 1620, from 1682 on, the Jesuits built their college, as well as the Jesuit church. In 1679, Freiburg temporarily became French territory, along with the parts of the upper Rhine. French King Louis XIV disliked the Austrian system and gave the Jesuits a free hand to operate the university, on November 6,1684, a bilingual educational program was initiated. From 1686 to 1698, the faculty fled to Konstanz, after Freiburg was re-conquered and appointed as capital of Further Austria, a new time began for the university by the reforms of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria. The requirements for admission were changed for all faculties in 1767, also in 1767, the university became a governmental institution despite the Churchs protests. The Church finally lost its predominant influence on the university when the Jesuits were suppressed following a signed by Pope Clement XIV in 1773. Consequently, Johann Georg Jacobi in 1784 was the first Protestant professor teaching at the university in Freiburg, when Freiburg became a part of the newly established Grand Duchy of Baden in 1805, a crisis began for the university in Freiburg. The university had enough endowments and earnings to survive until the beginning of the regency of Ludwig I, finally in 1820, he saved the university with an annual contribution
31.
University of Marburg
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The Philipp University of Marburg, was founded in 1527 by Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse as one of Germanys oldest universities, dating back to a Protestant foundation. As a state university it no longer has any religious affiliation and it was the main university of the principality of Hesse and remains a public university of that state. It now has about 25,000 students and 7,500 employees, making Marburg, a town of 72,000 inhabitants, though most subjects are grouped, the University of Marburg is not a campus university in the broader sense. About 12% of the students are international, the highest percentage in Hesse and it offers an International summer university programme every summer and has an awarded ERASMUS programme. Marburg is home to one of Germanys most traditional medical faculties, the German physicians union is called Marburger Bund. In 1609, the University of Marburg established the worlds first professorship in chemistry, in 2012 it opened the first German participative chemistry museum, called Chemicum. Its experimental course programme is aimed at encouraging people to pursue careers in science. 20 professors were expelled in 1933, among them Wilhelm Röpke who emigrated, the university is most famous for its life sciences research, but is also home to one of the few centers that conduct research on the middle east, the CNMS. The departments of psychology and geography enjoy a reputation and reached Excellence Group status in the Europe-wide CHE Excellence Ranking 2009. According to the 2012 QS Ranking, the university ranked among the top 30 German universities, the ARWU ranking which is more focused on research, ranks the university around 200, with its life sciences and social sciences department in the 151-200 range worldwide. The strong research is illustrated by its participation in several SFBs. These collaborative research centres are financed by the German Science Foundation DFG and they encourage researchers to cross the boundaries of disciplines, institutes, departments and faculties within the participating university. It retained that strength, especially in Philosophy and Theology for a time after World War II. S. S. Eliot Wilhelm Viëtor Historical detention room
32.
University of Regensburg
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The University of Regensburg is a public research university located in the medieval city of Regensburg, Bavaria, a city that is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The university was founded on July 18,1962 by the Landtag of Bavaria as the fourth full-fledged university in Bavaria, following groundbreaking in 1965, the university officially opened to students during the 1967–1968 winter semester, initially housing faculties in Law and Business Sciences and Philosophy. During the summer semester of 1968 the faculty of Theology was created, currently, the University of Regensburg houses eleven faculties. The university actively participates in the European Unions SOCRATES programme as well as several TEMPUS programmes and its most famous academic, the previous Pope Benedict XVI, served as a professor there until 1977 and formally retains his chair in theology. Attempts to establish a university in Regensburg had been advocated since the late 15th century, in 1487, Duke Albrecht IV of Bavaria and the Regensburg city council sent a petition to Pope Innocent VIII to establish a university within the city. The idea was rejected, failing for economic reasons, protestant intellectuals again tried to establish a university in 1633, though their attempts were blocked by the arrival of imperial troops from orders of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II. The associations advocacy proved successful in 1962 when the Bavarian Landtag authorized the creation of the university, construction began with the official groundbreaking ceremony on November 20,1965. The first lectures began during the 1967 winter semester, with the faculties of Law and Business Sciences, the following year, the faculty of Catholic Theology opened to students. Since 1967, the university has expanded to twelve faculties, including medicine, biology, psychology, the German Research Association has deeply supported a number of research projects in the university, including the fields of biochemistry and microbiology. The universitys most famous faculty member is Pope Benedict XVI, who taught from 1969 until he was appointed Cardinal, the Pope is still listed as a Professor of the university. Another famous former faculty member, Karl Stetter, worked as head of the Archaea Center, among his discoveries were Pyrococcus furiosus in 1986, Aquifex aeolicus, Aquifex pyrophilus, and Nanoarchaeum equitans, discovered in 2002. The university itself consists of 150 hectares of land, including the affiliated university hospital, the University of Regensburg has approximately 4,200 employees including 312 professors, and teaches more than 20,000 students. Brisk cultural life both in the city and on campus provide great opportunities, enhanced by a number of nearby lakes. Moreover, preceding to the measures the existing university could simply get an additional Technical Faculty as some universities in Bavaria have. In any case, the addition of such a faculty would make sense for the Regensburg university, since in the city. With its eleven faculties, the university employs a variety of traditional programmes of study. The university was one of the first German universities to introduce modularized study programs following the Bologna model, since 2000, most study programs have introduced bachelors as well as masters degrees in recent years. Doctoral degrees can be obtained in must subjects as well, for international students of law, the university offers an LL. M
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Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
34.
Maastricht University
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Maastricht University is a public university in Maastricht, the Netherlands. Founded in 1976, the university is the second youngest of the 13 Dutch universities, in 2013, nearly 16,000 students studied at Maastricht University, 47% of whom were foreign students, with over 3,200 employees. About half of the programmes are fully offered in English. Most of the masters and doctoral programmes are in English, besides traditional programmes, Maastricht University also has an honours liberal arts college, University College Maastricht and a Maastricht Science Programme in the same liberal arts tradition. The satellite University College Venlo opened in 2015, Maastricht University was officially established in 1976. This academic institution would be vital to sustain the life of the city. About 50 students enrolled in the first academic year, by the end of 1975, the Dutch Parliament eventually passed the statute needed for the institution to acquire national educational funds and to be able to award academic degrees. Sjeng Tans became the universitys first president, soon after its establishment, the university gained political support to increase its funding and to expand into other academic fields. The Faculty of Law was created in 1981, followed by the Faculty of Economics in 1984, in 1994, the Faculty of Arts and Culture and one year later the Faculty of Psychology were established. The Faculty of Humanities and Sciences started in 2005, containing a variety of units, such as the Department of Knowledge Engineering. Together with the Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences Maastricht University currently has six faculties, the university was renamed Universiteit Maastricht in 1996 and added its English-language name in 2008. As of 2010, Maastricht University consists of six faculties offering 17 bachelor programmes,56 master programmes, at the central level, the university is governed by the Executive Board, consisting of a President, a Vice-President and a Rector. The Executive Board appoints faculty deans, other administrators and professors and has general management responsibilities and it is advised by the Supervisory Council that vets for instance the budget. Maastricht Universitys teaching and research programmes are carried out along the lines of faculties. Within faculties, teaching and research activities may be further decentralised through departments, schools, the names of organisational units, however, do not necessarily indicate their position within the university’s organisational hierarchy. In 2009, for example, the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration was renamed School of Business and Economics, the Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences was established in 2007 as a merger between the Faculty of Health Sciences and the Faculty of Medicine. The latter was the first faculty to be established at Maastricht University, in 1980 the Faculty of Health Sciences was founded. The broad range of disciplines it offered in healthcare sciences, made the faculty unique, not only in the Netherlands, the format allowed students to integrate their discipline and research work into all areas related to society, health and disease
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Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
36.
University of Bergen
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The University of Bergen is a public university located in Bergen, Norway. Although founded as late as 1946, academic activity had taken place at Bergen Museum as far back as 1825, the university today serves approximately 17,000 students, and is one of eight universities in Norway. The University of Bergen, in common with other Norwegian universities, does not charge tuition fees, students are however required to be members of the student welfare organisation. As of Fall 2015, this fee is NOK590 per semester, 40kr of the fee is a donation to the SAIH, a student charity, but this is optional. However most of the give the donation. In 2010 the university was ranked as number 135 worldwide by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, UiB was also ranked number 148 worldwide in the July 2010 Webometrics Ranking of World Universities. The URAP has ranked UiB for 2014/2015 as the 219th worldwide, the University of Bergen has an elected rector, currently Dag Rune Olsen. The university has six faculties, the University of Bergen Library, the Faculty of Law was established as a separate faculty in 1980, with legal studies and research having been conducted at the university since 1969. The faculty is one of three Norwegian institutions which offer legal studies, the two being the law faculties at the University of Oslo and the University of Tromsø. The faculty offers a programme leading to a Masters degree in law and a three-year PhD programme. Established in 1980, it educates psychologists and is responsible for the Universitys pedagogic education, mukhisa Kituyi Karl Ove Knausgård Erna Solberg Tore Renberg The University also has an Arboretum and Botanical Garden. Official site All academic units List over research groups Humanities IT centre Wittgenstein Archives of Bergen - Ludwig Wittgenstein Utrecht Network
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Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
38.
University of Deusto
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The University of Deusto is a Spanish private university owned by the Society of Jesus, with campuses in Bilbao and San Sebastián, and the Deusto Business School branch in Madrid. The University of Deusto is the oldest private university in Spain, to that effect a huge building was designed by architect Francisco de Cubas, which was the largest building in Bilbao at the time. Now it is the building of the Bilbao campus, opposite to the Guggenheim Museum, in the district of Deusto. The Universidad Comercial, founded in 1916, was the first business school in Spain, the advent of the Second Spanish Republic interrupted and altered university life at Deusto. On 23 January 1932, the Spanish Government dissolved the Company of Jesus by decree, some lectures still continued at the Academia Vizcaína de Cultura, and the Universidad Comercial could carry on work as normal until the beginning of the Spanish Civil War. During the war, the University of Deusto became a base, but after the fall of Bilbao in 1937 it was turned into a hospital, food supply centre. It resumed classes in October 1940, in 1962 the University was very well known throughout Basque country and all of Spain, and its former students excelled in the worlds of business, politics, and culture. However, they had a drawback, their studies were not officially recognized by the State, Society did not really take this circumstance into account, but action was taken so that official recognition was granted. On 5 April 1962, an agreement was signed between the Spanish Government and the Holy See that provided Catholic or Church Universities with a legal basis, on 10 August 1963, the University of Deusto received canonical approval by the Holy See. In September of that year it was recognized by the State, including its Faculties of Law and Philosophy, the rest of the faculties were successively recognized beginning with the Faculty of Economic and Business Sciences in 1973 and finishing with that of Computing Sciences in 1979. University of Deusto is part of the Aristos Campus Mundus 2015 project as well and its origin was ESSA in 1956. ESSA was the body that started to teach these studies. In the beginning, Business Management, Law, Economic Sciences, the Society of Jesus was entrusted with its running and management. In 1960 this body was named EUG, and in 1963 the first stone of EUTG, University, ESTE in San Sebastián and La Comercial in Bilbao merged into Deusto Business School in 2009. Nowadays, Deusto Business School, the Faculty of Psychology and Education, xabier Arzalluz, former Jesuit, Basque nationalist politician, professor of law Andrés Ortíz-Osés, Philosopher. José Antonio Aguirre, President of the Basque Government 1936-1960, joaquín Almunia, former Secretary General of the Spanish Socialist Workers Party and current European Commissioner for Competition. Felipe Benjumea Llorente, former chairman of Abengoa. Esteban de Bilbao Eguía, graduate in Philosophy & Letters, Cortes speaker, mario Conde, banker, businessman and convicted fraudster, top graduate of his year of the Faculty of Law
39.
University of Seville
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The University of Seville is a university in Seville, Spain. Founded under the name of Colegio Santa María de Jesús in 1505, it has a present student body of over 65,000, Seville is the 2000-year-old artistic, cultural, and financial capital of Andalusia in southern Spain. The University of Seville dates to the 15th century when the Catholic Monarchs recovered the area from the Moors, today, the University of Seville is known for research in technology and science. In the middle of the 13th century, the Dominicans, in order to prepare missionaries for work among the Moors and Jews, organised schools for the teaching of Arabic, Hebrew, and Greek. To cooperate in this work and to enhance the prestige of Seville, Alfonso the Wise in 1254 established general schools of Arabic and Latin in Seville. Alexander IV recognized this foundation as a generale litterarum studium by the Papal Bull of 21 June 1260, later, the cathedral chapter established ecclesiastical studies in the College of San Miguel. The Catholic Monarchs and the granted the power to confer degrees in logic, philosophy, theology. The influence of the University of Seville, from the point of view, was considerable, though not equal to that of the Universities of Salamanca. The University of Seville had a influence on the development of the fine arts in Spain. During the period of secularization and sequestration the University of Seville passed into the control of the State, at the same time that the royal university was established, the Universidad de Mareantes was developed. This establishment was of importance, for it was here that the expeditions to the Indies were organised. This form of school, which, according to Eden, Bourné. The university enjoys the independence afforded by self-governance, which gives it a certain flexibility that may work to advantage in the hiring of professors and lecturers, the ancient motto of the university is, Equality, Liberty, Justice and Pluralism. The universitys stated mission is to educate students who will do the research and development necessary to scientific, in 2004 it had 73,350 students spread on different campuses, being second in number of students among Spanish universities. The University of Seville has had a partnership with the Real Colegio Complutense at Harvard University since 2015, the University of Seville comprises, Governed by the Department Council, The Departments Governed by Centre Council, consists of Faculties, Technical Sciences Schools, and University Schools. The main building of the University of Seville is known as the Old Tobacco Factory, built in the 18th century, Sevilles tobacco factory was the largest industrial building in the world at the time and remained a tobacco factory until the 1950s. This beautiful building is also the setting for the opera, Carmen. Carmen was a worker in the tobacco factory, the original story being a novella by Prosper Mérimée
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