1.
Medical school
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A medical school is a tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches medicine, and awards a professional degree for physicians and surgeons. Such medical degrees include the Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery, Doctor of Medicine, many medical schools offer additional degrees, such as a Doctor of Philosophy, Masters degree, a physician assistant program, or other post-secondary education. Medical schools can also employ medical researchers and operate hospitals, around the world, criteria, structure, teaching methodology, and nature of medical programs offered at medical schools vary considerably. Medical schools are highly competitive, using standardized entrance examinations, as well as grade point average and leadership roles. In most countries, the study of medicine is completed as a degree not requiring prerequisite undergraduate coursework. However, a number of places are emerging for graduate entrants who have completed an undergraduate degree including some required courses. In the United States and Canada, almost all medical degrees are second entry degrees, many modern medical schools integrate clinical education with basic sciences from the beginning of the curriculum. More traditional curricula are usually divided into preclinical and clinical blocks, in preclinical sciences, students study subjects such as biochemistry, genetics, pharmacology, pathology, anatomy, physiology and medical microbiology, among others. Subsequent clinical rotations usually include internal medicine, general surgery, pediatrics, psychiatry, although medical schools confer upon graduates a medical degree, a physician typically may not legally practice medicine until licensed by the local government authority. Licensing may also require passing a test, undergoing a background check, checking references, paying a fee. Basic Medical education lasts 6 years in all the medical schools, Entry into these medical schools are highly competitive and it is usually based on successful completion of the Senior High School Examinations. The University of Ghana Medical School has however introduced a graduate medical program to admit students with mainly science-related degrees into a 4-year medical school program. Students graduating from any of these schools get the MBChB degree. For the First 3 years Students are awarded BSc in the field of Medical science for University of Ghana medical school, Medical graduates are then registered provisionally with the Medical and Dental Council of Ghana as House Officers. Upon completion of the mandatory 2-year housemanship, these doctors are permanently registered with the MDC. Medical officers are sometimes hired by the Ghana Health Service to work in the Districts/Rural areas as Primary Care Physicians. In Kenya, medical school is a faculty of a university, Medical education lasts for 5 years after which the student graduates with an undergraduate degree. The first two years of medical school cover the medical sciences while the last four years are focused on the clinical sciences
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Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
3.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
4.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
5.
Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh
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The Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, or RIE, often known as the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, or ERI, was established in 1729 and is the oldest voluntary hospital in Scotland. The new buildings of 1879 were claimed to be the largest voluntary hospital in the United Kingdom, and later on, the hospital moved to a new 900 bed site in 2003 in Little France. It is the site of clinical teaching as well as a teaching hospital for the University of Edinburgh Medical School. It is currently run by NHS Lothian, in 1960, the first kidney transplant performed in the UK was performed at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh by surgeon Michael Woodruff. In 1964, the worlds first coronary care unit was established at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh by Dr. Desmond Julian and it is the only site for liver, pancreas and pancreatic islet cell transplantation and one of two sites for kidney transplantation in Scotland. It is currently the site for TAVI in Scotland. In 2012 the Emergency Department had 113,000 patient attendances, on 16 November 2014, the University announced the Royal Infirmary as the location of Scotlands first PET-MRI Scanner. John Munro, President of the Incorporation of Surgeons in 1712, set in motion a project to establish a Seminary of Medical Education in Edinburgh, of which a General Hospital was an integral part. His son, Alexander Monro primus, by then Professor of Anatomy, circulated a pamphlet in 1721 on the necessity. Other donors included many wealthy citizens, most of the physicians and several surgeons, numerous Church of Scotland parishes, the committee set up by the donors leased a house of small rent near the College from the University for 19 years. The physicians, who had seen the poor gratis twice weekly at their college, arranged for one of their number to attend the hospital, to see both inpatients and outpatients. Six Chirurgeon-Apothecaries also agreed to attend in turn, and to dispense the medicines prescribed by the physicians from their own shops, the first patient, a lady from Caithness suffering from chlorosis, was discharged recovered after three months. Thirty five patients were admitted in the first year, of whom 19 were cured,5 recovered,5 dismissed either as incurable or for irregularities and they came from all over Scotland, but mainly from Edinburgh and its environs. Diseases cured included pains, inflammations, agues, ulcers, cancers, palsies, flux, consumption, hysterick disorders, a free advice and medicine service for out-patients was very popular, receiving a 1000 patients by 1754, which presented the hospital with prohibitively high costs and demand. In 1741 the hospital moved the short distance to the not yet completed building which eventually and this was soon found to be inadequate and a new surgical hospital, designed by David Bryce, was built fronting Drummond Street, opening in 1853. The new building was linked to the High School Yards building by an extension to the north, the Infirmary Street buildings were demolished in 1884 and replaced with public swimming baths and a school. The ornamental gates and gate piers now front the former hospital on Drummond Street. This stands outside the entrance to Dreghorn Barracks on Redford Road in the south west of the city, the original surgical theatre, which was on the roof of the 1741 building, was re-erected as part of stables in the grounds of Redford House, also on Redford Road
6.
Royal Hospital for Sick Children, Edinburgh
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The Royal Hospital for Sick Children is a hospital in Edinburgh, Scotland, specialising in paediatric healthcare. Locally, it is referred to simply as the Sick Kids. The hospital provides care for children from birth to around 13 years of age, including a specialist Accident, the hospital is located on Sciennes Road in the Sciennes area of Edinburghs South Side. The hospital opened in 1860 at 7 Lauriston Lane and was the first dedicated childrens hospital in Scotland and it received a royal charter in 1863, when it moved to the Meadowside House. The conversion of the house into a hospital was carried out by the architect David Macgibbon, in 1890 an outbreak of typhoid forced a temporary removal to Plewlands House, Morningside, and Meadowside House was subsequently sold. The site of the Trades Maiden Hospital at Rillbank was bought in the early 1890s, the Sciennes Road building cost £50,000 was opened on 31 October 1895 by Princess Beatrice. In 1948, the became part of the South Eastern Regional Hospital Board. At present it is part of Lothian University Hospitals NHS Trust, the hospital celebrated its 150th birthday in 2010. Various of the buildings make up the hospital at the Sciennes Road site have listed building status designated by Historic Environment Scotland. The main George Washington Browne building is designated as category B, the mortuary chapel is designated as category A as it contains a mural scheme by the Arts and Crafts artist Phoebe Anna Traquair. In 2005, NHS Lothian decided to develop plans to move the Sick Kids from its present site to the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh at Little France on the south-east edge of the city, a business case for the project was approved by the Scottish Government in January 2012. The new facility was expected to open in mid-2017 but has been delayed by construction issues including contractors going into administration and it is now expected to open in spring 2018. The new hospital will have 233 beds and is being built under the Scottish Futures Trust, in December 2016 the existing site was offered for sale as a development opportunity with the expectation of significant interest. In February 2017 a local community development trust was formed to support a bid by residents to acquire the site, in 2011, 6-year old Jack Henderson made the headlines by raising money for the hospital that cared for his brother, in exchange for drawings he had created. He originally planned to raise £100, but quickly raised £10,000, a book, Jack Draws Anything, was published in October 2011. After 3 years the fundraising total exceeded £64,000 and the project was brought to an end in June 2014, Royal Hospital for Sick Children, NHS Lothian web site
7.
University of Edinburgh
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The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
8.
Scottish Enlightenment
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The Scottish Enlightenment was the period in 18th and early 19th century Scotland characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments. By the eighteenth century, Scotland had a network of schools in the Lowlands. Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, political economy, engineering, architecture, medicine, geology, archaeology, law, agriculture, chemistry, the Scottish Enlightenment of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was a natural development of this earlier engagement and advancement of knowledge. Union with England in 1707 meant the end of the Scottish Parliament, the parliamentarians, politicians, aristocrats, and placemen moved to London. Scottish law, however, was separate from English law, so the civil law courts, lawyers. The headquarters and leadership of the Church of Scotland also remained, as did the universities, at the union of 1707, England had about five times the population of Scotland and about 36 times as much wealth. Scotland experienced the beginnings of economic expansion that allowed it to close this gap, contacts with England led to a conscious attempt to improve agriculture among the gentry and nobility. Although some estate holders improved the quality of life of their workers, enclosures led to unemployment. The major change in trade was the rapid expansion of the Americas as a market. Glasgow particularly benefited from this new trade, initially supplying the colonies with manufactured goods, it emerged as the focus of the tobacco trade, the merchants dealing in this lucrative business became the wealthy tobacco lords, who dominated the city for most of the eighteenth century. Banking also developed in this period, the Bank of Scotland, founded in 1695 was suspected of Jacobite sympathies, and so a rival Royal Bank of Scotland was founded in 1727. Local banks began to be established in burghs like Glasgow and Ayr and these made capital available for business, and the improvement of roads and trade. By the late 17th century there was a complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands. By the 17th century, Scotland had five universities, compared with Englands two, all saw the establishment or re-establishment of chairs of mathematics. Observatories were built at St. Andrews and at Kings and Marischal colleges in Aberdeen, Robert Sibbald was appointed as the first Professor of Medicine at Edinburgh, and he co-founded the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1681. These developments helped the universities to major centres of medical education. By the 18th century, access to Scottish universities was probably more open than in contemporary England, attendance was less expensive and the student body more socially representative. In the eighteenth century Scotland reaped the benefits of this system
9.
English-speaking world
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Approximately 330 to 360 million people speak English as their first language. More than half of live in the United States, followed by some 55 million in England. English is the third largest language by number of speakers, after Mandarin. Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly, from 470 million to more than 1 billion, david Crystal calculates that non-native speakers as of 2003 outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1. When combining native and non-native speakers, English is the most widely spoken language worldwide, there are six large countries with a majority of native English speakers that are sometimes grouped under the term Anglosphere. They are, in descending order of English speakers, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Ireland, other substantial communities of native speakers are found in South Africa, and Nigeria. Also there are countries where in a part of the territory English became a language, e. g. Colombias San Andrés y Providencia. This was a result of the influence of British colonization in the area, English is one of the eleven official languages that are given equal status in South Africa. It is also the language in current dependent territories of Australia and of the United States. Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been official status by 32 of the 50 state governments. It is, by treaty, the official language for aeronautical. English is one of the languages of the United Nations and many other international organizations. In 2012, excluding native speakers,38 percent of Europeans consider that they can speak English, in publishing, English literature predominates considerably with 28 percent of all books published in the world and 30 percent of web content in 2011. This increasing use of the English language globally has had a impact on many other languages, leading to language shift and even language death. English itself has more open to language shift as multiple regional varieties feed back into the language as a whole. Variation in Nonnative Varieties of English, Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. Census 2011, Key Statistics for Northern Ireland December 2012, language in England and Wales,2011. Language Use in the United States,2011, Population by mother tongue and age groups,2011 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories
10.
The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
11.
The Times
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The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London, England. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, the Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, itself wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967 and its news and its editorial comment have in general been carefully coordinated, and have at most times been handled with an earnest sense of responsibility. While the paper has admitted some trivia to its columns, its emphasis has been on important public affairs treated with an eye to the best interests of Britain. To guide this treatment, the editors have for long periods been in touch with 10 Downing Street. In these countries, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times or The Times of London, although the newspaper is of national scope, in November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, the Sunday Times remains a broadsheet. The Times had a daily circulation of 446,164 in December 2016, in the same period. An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006 and it has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the paper, up to 2010, is online from Gale Cengage Learning. The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, Walter had lost his job by the end of 1784 after the insurance company where he was working went bankrupt because of the complaints of a Jamaican hurricane. Being unemployed, Walter decided to set a new business up and it was in that time when Henry Johnson invented the logography, a new typography that was faster and more precise. Walter bought the patent and to use it, he decided to open a printing house. The first publication of the newspaper The Daily Universal Register in Great Britain was 1 January 1785, unhappy because people always omitted the word Universal, Ellias changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name, the Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its life, the profits of The Times were very large. Beginning in 1814, the paper was printed on the new steam-driven cylinder press developed by Friedrich Koenig, in 1815, The Times had a circulation of 5,000. Thomas Barnes was appointed editor in 1817
12.
Times Higher Education World University Rankings
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Times Higher Education World University Rankings is an annual publication of university rankings by Times Higher Education magazine. The publisher had collaborated with Quacquarelli Symonds to publish the joint THE–QS World University Rankings from 2004 to 2009 before it turned to Thomson Reuters for a new ranking system. It is considered as one of the most widely observed university measures together with Academic Ranking of World Universities and it is praised for having a new improved methodology but undermining non-English-instructing institutions and being commercialized are the major criticisms. Times Higher Education chose to partner with educational and careers advice company QS to supply the data, the publication developed a new rankings methodology in consultation with its readers, its editorial board and Thomson Reuters. Thomson Reuters will collect and analyse the data used to produce the rankings on behalf of Times Higher Education, the first ranking was published in September 2010. In fact, the surveys of reputation, which made up 40 percent of scores, and its clear that our research measures favored the sciences over the humanities. He went on to describe previous attempts at peer review as embarrassing in The Australian, The sample was too small. THE published its first rankings using its new methodology on 16 September 2010, the Globe and Mail in 2010 described the Times Higher Education World University Rankings to be arguably the most influential. The inaugural 2010-2011 methodology contained 13 separate indicators grouped under five categories, Teaching, research, citations, international mix, the number of indicators is up from the Times-QS rankings published between 2004 and 2009, which used six indicators. A draft of the methodology was released on 3 June 2010. The names of the categories and the weighting of each was modified in the final methodology, the overall ranking score was calculated by making Z-scores all datasets to standardize different data types on a common scale to better make comparisons among data. The reputational component of the came from an Academic Reputation Survey conducted by Thomson Reuters in spring 2010. The survey gathered 13,388 responses among scholars statistically representative of global higher educations geographical, the magazines category for industry income – innovation came from a sole indicator, institutions research income from industry scaled against the number of academic staff. The magazine stated that it used this data as proxy for high-quality knowledge transfer, the Times stated that articles published in 2009–2010 have not yet completely accumulated in the database. The magazine announced on 5 September 2011 that its 2011–2012 World University Rankings would be published on 6 October 2011, at the same time, the magazine revealed changes to the ranking formula that will be introduced with the new rankings. The methodology will continue to use 13 indicators across five categories and will keep its fundamental foundations. Teaching and research will each remain 30 percent of the overall score, however, a new international outlook – staff, students and research will be introduced and will make up 7.5 percent of the final score. One 2011–2012 indicator, the public research income, will be dropped
13.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
14.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
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The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine. It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a prize for progress through scientific discoveries in laboratories. The Nobel Prize is presented to the recipient at a ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobels death, along with a diploma. The front side of the medal provides the profile of Alfred Nobel as depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry. As of 2015,106 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 198 men and 12 women. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil von Behring, for his work on serum therapy and this includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal leucotomy, bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment. Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award, the 1952 prize to Selman Waksman was litigated in court, and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz who was not recognized by the prize. The 1962 prize awarded to James D, since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased, longevity is an asset, one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden into a family of engineers and he was a chemist, engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime, most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous. He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France, in 1888, Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63, because his will was contested, it was not approved by the Storting until 26 April 1897. After Nobels death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest, in 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II. According to Nobels will, the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden, a medical school, today, the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It was important to Nobel that the prize be awarded for a discovery, per the provisions of the will, only select persons are eligible to nominate individuals for the award. Past Nobel laureates may also nominate, until 1977, all professors of Karolinska Institutet together decided on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Therefore, the Nobel Assembly was constituted, consisting of 50 professors at Karolinska Institutet. It elects the Nobel Committee with 5 members who evaluate the nominees, the Secretary who is in charge of the organization, in 1968, a provision was added that no more than three persons may share a Nobel prize. True to its mandate, the Committee has selected researchers working in the sciences over those who have made applied contributions
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Nobel Prize in Chemistry
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The Nobel Prize in Chemistry is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of chemistry. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895, awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on proposal of the Nobel Committee for Chemistry which consists of five elected by Academy. The award is presented in Stockholm at a ceremony on December 10. The first Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded in 1901 to Jacobus Henricus van t Hoff, of the Netherlands, for his discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions. From 1901 to 2016, the award has been bestowed on a total of 174 individuals, though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, and signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences were to award the Prize in Chemistry. The committee and institution serving as the board for the prize typically announce the names of the laureates in October. The prize is awarded at formal ceremonies held annually on December 10. The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm is when each Nobel Laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of His Majesty the King of Sweden, the Nobel Laureate receives three things, a diploma, a medal and a document confirming the prize amount. Later the Nobel Banquet is held in Stockholm City Hall, a maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected. The award can be given to a maximum of three recipients per year and it consists of a gold medal, a diploma, and a cash grant. The Nobel Laureates in chemistry are selected by a committee that consists of five elected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In its first stage, several people are asked to nominate candidates
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Ivy League
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The Ivy League is a collegiate athletic conference comprising sports teams from eight private institutions of higher education in the Northeastern United States. The conference name is commonly used to refer to those eight schools as a group beyond the sports context. The eight institutions are Brown University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Harvard University, the University of Pennsylvania, Princeton University, the term Ivy League has connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and social elitism. While the term was in use as early as 1933, it became official after the formation of the NCAA Division I athletic conference in 1954. Seven of the eight schools were founded during the United States colonial period, Ivy League institutions account for seven of the nine Colonial Colleges chartered before the American Revolution, the other two are Rutgers University and College of William & Mary. Ivy League schools are generally viewed as some of the most prestigious, all eight universities place in the top fifteen of the U. S. News & World Report 2017 nation university rankings, including the top four schools and five of the top eight. Undergraduate enrollments range from about 4,000 to 14,000, making them larger than those of a private liberal arts college. Total enrollments, including students, range from approximately 6,400 at Dartmouth to over 20,000 at Columbia, Cornell, Harvard. Ivy League financial endowments range from Browns $3 billion to Harvards $36.4 billion, as of 2014, Harvard University has an endowment of $36.4 billion. Additionally, each university receives millions of dollars in grants and other subsidies from federal. Harvard University uses the date that the legislature of the Massachusetts Bay Colony formally allocated funds for the creation of a college, Harvard was chartered in 1650, although classes had been conducted for approximately a decade by then. The University of Pennsylvania initially considered its founding date to be 1750, later in Penns early history, the university changed its officially recognized founding date to 1749, which was used for all of the nineteenth century, including a centennial celebration in 1849. In 1899, Penns board of trustees adopted a third founding date of 1740. Penn was chartered in 1755, the same year classes began. Religious affiliation refers to financial sponsorship, formal association with, and promotion by, all of the schools in the Ivy League are private and not currently associated with any religion. Students have long revered the ivied walls of older colleges, planting the ivy was a customary class day ceremony at many colleges in the 1800s. In 1893 an alumnus told The Harvard Crimson, In 1850, the custom of planting the ivy, while the ivy oration was delivered, arose about this time. At Penn, graduating seniors started the custom of planting ivy at a university building each spring in 1873, Ivy planting ceremonies are reported for Yale, Simmons, Bryn Mawr and many others
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Yale School of Medicine
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The Yale School of Medicine is the graduate medical school at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. It was founded in 1810 as The Medical Institution of Yale College, the primary teaching hospital for the school is Yale-New Haven Hospital. The school is home to the Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library, one of the largest modern medical libraries, the faculty includes 62 National Academy of Sciences members,40 Institute of Medicine investigators, and 16 Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigators. U. S. News and World Report currently ranks the Yale School of Medicine 7th in the country for research, entrance is highly selective, for the class of 2018, the school received 4,374 applications to fill its class of 104 students. The average GPA for Class of 2018 was a 3.81, the School of Medicine offers the Doctor of Medicine degree and a Master of Medical Science degree through the Yale Physician Associate Program for prospective physician assistants. Public health degrees are administered through the Yale School of Public Health, students pursuing a tuition-free fifth year of research are eligible for the Master of Health Science degree. The M. D. program is notable for its assessment of student achievement, in particular, the school employs the so-called Yale System established by Dean Winternitz in the 1920s, wherein first- and second-year students are not graded or ranked among their classmates. In addition, course examinations are anonymous, and are intended only for students self-evaluation, student performance is thus based on seminar participation, qualifying examinations, clinical clerkship evaluations, and the United States Medical Licensing Examination. Prior to graduation, students are required to submit a thesis based on original research, in 18th century United States, credentials were not needed to practice medicine. Prior to the founding of the school, Yale graduates would train through an apprenticeship in order to become physicians. Yale President Ezra Stiles conceived the idea of training physicians at Yale and ultimately, the school was chartered in 1810 and opened in New Haven in 1813. Nathan Smith and Benjamin Silliman were the first faculty members, Silliman was a professor of chemistry and taught at both Yale College and the Medical School. The other two founding faculty were Jonathan Knight, anatomy, physiology and surgery and Eli Ives, pediatrics, one of Yales earliest medical graduates was Dr. Asaph Leavitt Bissell of Hanover, New Hampshire, who graduated in 1815, a member of the schools second graduating class. Following his graduation, Dr. Bissell moved to Suffield, Connecticut, a community where his parents came from. The saddlebags that Dr. Bissell carried in his practice, packed with paper packets, the original building later became Sheffield Hall, part of the Sheffield Scientific School. In 1860, the moved to Medical Hall on York Street. In 1925, the moved to its current campus, neighboring the hospital. This campus includes the Sterling Hall of Medicine, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Anlyan Center, before 1845, there was no dean
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Harvard Medical School
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Harvard Medical School is the graduate medical school of Harvard University. It is located in the Longwood Medical Area of the Mission Hill neighborhood of Boston, the school has a large and distinguished faculty to support its missions of education, research, and clinical care. These faculty hold appointments in the science departments on the HMS Quadrangle. There are approximately 2,900 full- and part-time voting faculty members consisting of assistant, associate, and full professors, and over 5,000 full or part-time, non-voting instructors. The school is the third-oldest medical school in the United States and was founded by John Warren on September 19,1782, with Benjamin Waterhouse, the first lectures were given in the basement of Harvard Hall and then in Holden Chapel. The first class, composed of two students, graduated in 1788 and it moved from Cambridge to 49 Marlborough Street in Boston in 1810. From 1816 to 1846, the school, known as Massachusetts Medical College of Harvard University, was located on Mason Street, in 1847 the school relocated to North Grove Street, and then to Copley Square in 1883. The school moved to its current location on Longwood Avenue in 1906, the architect for the campus was the Boston firm of Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge. The Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology offers an alternative MD program with a emphasis on biomedical research. The HST MD program is significantly smaller than the Pathways program, every winter, second year students at HMS write, direct, and perform a full-length musical parody of Harvard, their professors, and themselves. Upon matriculation, medical students at Harvard Medical School are divided into five named after famous alumni. Each society has an advisory dean along with several associate deans who serve as advisors to students. Students work in small group tutorials and lab sessions within their societies, every year, the five societies compete in Society Olympics for the famed Pink Flamingo trophy in a series of events that test the unorthodox talents of the students in each society. Francis Weld Peabody William Bosworth Castle Walter Bradford Cannon Oliver Wendell Holmes Irving M. London Harvard Medical School has a medical-consulting arm, other long-standing relationships include PHMIs work with Asan Medical Center in Seoul, South Korea, and Tokyo Medical and Dental University in Japan. In 2007 PHMI began a 10‑year collaboration with Lebanese American University, in October 2009 LAU opened a new medical school with assistance from PHMI
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Geisel School of Medicine
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The Geisel School of Medicine is the medical school of Dartmouth College, located in Hanover, New Hampshire, in the United States. The fourth-oldest medical school in the United States, it was founded in 1797 by New England physician Nathan Smith and grew steadily over the course of the 19th century. Several milestones in medical care and research have taken place at Dartmouth, including the first clinical X-ray, the first intensive care unit in the United States, and the Brattleboro rat. Today, Dartmouths Geisel School of Medicine continues to grant the Doctor of Medicine and Doctor of Philosophy degrees, as well as a Master of Public Health, the school has a student body of about 700 students and more than 2,300 faculty members and researchers. Geisel organizes research through over a dozen research centers and institutes, the Geisel School of Medicine is one of seven Ivy League medical schools and is ranked as a top medical school by U. S. News & World Report for both primary care and biomedical research. The founder was Nathan Smith, a Harvard University and University of Edinburgh Medical School educated physician from Cornish, though Dartmouth College as a whole was financially strapped, the Board approved the request, and Smith began lecturing on November 22,1797. For much of its life, the school consisted only of Nathan Smith. Students of Smith were educated as apprentices, and received a Bachelor of Medicine degree upon graduation, like Dartmouth College as a whole, the medical school had continual funding shortages. As time passed, however, the popularity of both the instruction and the basic sciences taught at the school drew undergraduates and training physicians alike. Soliciting funds from the state of New Hampshire, Smith was able to obtain equipment and, by 1811. Smith acted as the administrator and instructor of the medical school until 1810. Smith also revamped the curriculum, allowing the school to begin offering the Doctor of Medicine degree in 1812, Smith ultimately left Dartmouth in 1816, founding three additional schools of medicine at Yale University, Bowdoin College, and the University of Vermont. Smiths departure provided for a period of expansion, both among the faculty and the student body, former students of Nathan Smiths replaced him on the faculty, drawing medical professionals in the northeast such as Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. to join them. The first hospital at the school was founded by DMS alumnus Dixi Crosby in 1838, in 1870, Carlton Pennington Frost, DMS57, replaced Crosby as Dean of the school. Under Frost, the curriculum sustained another revamping, this time into a program that included clinical. Frost also presided over the establishment of Mary Hitchcock Memorial Hospital in 1893, in 1908, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching conducted a survey of medical education institutions in the United States. At the time, the discipline emphasized bedside teaching and providing students experience with a variety of illnesses. The schools rural location was deemed too remote for proper training
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University of Sydney
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The University of Sydney is an Australian public research university in Sydney, Australia. Founded in 1850, it is Australias first university and is regarded as one of the leading universities. The university comprises 16 faculties and schools, through which it offers bachelor, master, in 2011 it had 32,393 undergraduate and 16,627 graduate students. The university is known as one of Australias sandstone universities. Five Nobel and two Crafoord laureates have been affiliated with the university as graduates and faculty, the university has educated six prime ministers and 24 justices of the High Court of Australia, including four chief justices. Sydney has produced 24 Rhodes Scholars and several Gates Scholars and it would take two attempts on Wentworths behalf, however, before the plan was finally adopted. The university was established via the passage of the University of Sydney Act, two years later, the university was inaugurated on 11 October 1852 in the Big Schoolroom of what is now Sydney Grammar School. The first principal was John Woolley, the first professor of chemistry, by 1859, the university had moved to its current site in the Sydney suburb of Camperdown. Most of the estate of John Henry Challis was bequeathed to the university and this was thanks in part due to William Montagu Manning who argued against the claims by British Tax Commissioners. The following year seven professorships were created, anatomy, zoology, engineering, history, law, logic and mental philosophy, the New England University College was founded as part of the University of Sydney in 1938 and later separated in 1954 to become the University of New England. During the late 1960s, the University of Sydney was at the centre of rows to introduce courses on Marxism and feminism at the major Australian universities, prior to 1981, the Sydney Institute of Education was the Sydney Teachers College. In January 2005, the University of Sydney transferred the OAC to Charles Sturt University, in February 2007, the university agreed to acquire a portion of the land granted to St Johns College to develop the Sydney Institute of Health and Medical Research. This caused concern among some groups, who argued that it would interfere with scientific medical research, at the start of 2010, the university controversially adopted a new logo. It retains the same university arms, however it takes on a modern look. The original Coat of Arms from 1857 continues to be used for ceremonial and other formal purposes, concerns about public funding for higher education were reflected again in 2014 following the federal governments proposal to deregulate student fees. In order to enhance its competitiveness locally and internationally, the university has introduced plans to consolidate existing degrees to reduce the overall number of programs. In 2001, the University of Sydney chancellor, Dame Leonie Kramer, was forced to resign by the governing body. In 2005, the Public Service Association of New South Wales, action initiated by Spence to improve the financial sustainability of the university has alienated some students and staff
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Sydney Medical School
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Sydney Medical School is the graduate medical school of the University of Sydney. Established in 1856, it is the first medical school in Australia, in 2015, SMS was ranked by QS World University Rankings as the top medical school in Australia and among the top 20 on an international level. The School has a large and diverse faculty to support its missions in education, research, each year, it has over 1,100 medical students and 2,000 postgraduate students undertaking coursework and research-training programs. Sydney Medical School offers a graduate medical program. The curriculum has won numerous teaching awards and is licensed to universities in the UK, South Africa, first introduced in 1997, the graduate medical program originally led to the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery for historical reasons. Since 2014, the MD has replaced the MBBS as the title of the degree conferred by the Sydney Medical Program. Each years cohort has approximately 300 students enrolled, a proportion of which are international students. Entry is on the basis of the Australian Tertiary Admission Rank or equivalent, for Music Studies-Medicine only, an additional audition at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music is required. Since the introduction of this pathway in 2005, the ATAR cut-off or equivalent has consistently been 99.95. The highest cut-off of any undergraduate-entry program offered in Australia
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University of Melbourne
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The University of Melbourne is a public research university located in Melbourne, Australia. Founded in 1853, it is Australias second oldest university and the oldest in Victoria, Times Higher Education ranks Melbourne as 33rd in the world, while the Academic Ranking of World Universities places Melbourne 40th in the world. Melbournes main campus is located in Parkville, a suburb north of the Melbourne central business district. Melbourne is a university and a member of the Group of Eight, Universitas 21. Since 1872 various residential colleges have become affiliated with the university, there are 12 colleges located on the main campus and in nearby suburbs offering academic, sporting and cultural programs alongside accommodation for Melbourne students and faculty. Amongst Melbournes 15 graduate schools the Melbourne Business School, the Melbourne Law School, four Australian prime ministers and five governors-general have graduated from Melbourne. Nine Nobel laureates have been students or faculty, the most of any Australian university, the university was established by Act of Incorporation on 22 January 1853, with power to confer degrees in arts, medicine, laws and music. The act provided for an endowment of £9,000. The original buildings were opened by the Lieutenant Governor of the Colony of Victoria, Sir Charles Hotham. The first chancellor, Redmond Barry, held the position until his death in 1880, the inauguration of the university was made possible by the wealth resulting from Victorias gold rush. The institution was designed to be an influence at a time of rapid settlement. In 1881, the admission of women was a seen as victory over the conservative ruling council. The universitys 150th anniversary was celebrated in 2003, as of May 2009 the university suspended the Bachelor of Music Theatre and Puppetry courses at the college and there were fears they may not return under the new curriculum. New dean Sharman Pretty outlined drastic changes under the plan for the college in early April 2009. As a result, it is now being called into question whether the university have upheld that agreement, staff at the college responded to the changes, claiming the university did not value vocational arts training, and voicing fears over the future of quality training at the VCA. Melbourne University has 12 residential colleges in total, seven of which are located in an arc around the oval at the northern edge of the campus. The other five are located outside of university grounds, the residential colleges aim to provide accommodation and holistic education experience to university students. Several of the earliest campus buildings, such as the Old Quadrangle and Baldwin Spencer buildings, the new Wilson Hall replaced the original building which was destroyed by fire
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McGill University Faculty of Medicine
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The Faculty of Medicine is one of the constituent faculties of McGill University. It was established in 1829 after the Montreal Medical Institution was incorporated into McGill College as the Colleges first faculty, the Faculty awarded McGills first degree, and Canadas first medical degree to William Leslie Logie in 1833. His dissertation, Medical inaugural dissertation on Cynanche trachealis can be found in the McGill Library institutional repository, the faculty includes three schools, the School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, School of Nursing, and the School of Physical and Occupational Therapy. It also includes several research centres involved in studies on, for example, pain, neuroscience, five other major health care facilities are also affiliated with the faculty, Jewish General Hospital, Douglas Hospital, St. Marys Hospital, Lachine Hospital and Lakeshore General Hospital. In April 2006, the Quebec government approved plans to commence the first phase of construction of the new, on June 17,2015, McGill was put on probation by the Association of Faculties of Medicine of Canada for violating 24 of 132 required standards. In 1829 it was incorporated into McGill College as the new Colleges first faculty, from 1833 to 1877 the Faculty followed the pattern set by the University of Edinburgh and required graduating students to submit an inaugural dissertation - a database of these is available. Osler graduated from the MDCM program at McGill University Faculty of Medicine in 1872, McGill University Faculty of Medicine is currently the only medical school in Canada to award the four-year medical M. D. C. M. degree. MDCM is an abbreviation of the Latin Medicinae Doctor et Chirurgiae Magister, the Faculty of Medicine also offers joint degree programs with other disciplines including business M. D. -M. B. A. and science/engineering M. D. -Ph. D. There is also a program for selected graduates of the Quebec junior college system that combines one year of science curriculum with the four-year M. D. C. M. degrees. Admission into McGill Medicine is very competitive, for medical school students entering in 2010, the mean undergraduate GPA is 3.80, and the mean MCAT score is 32.1. I. D. S. 1933 — physician and professor Andrew Fernando Holmes — first dean and co-founder of McGill College Medical Faculty David Hunter Hubel B. Sc 1947,1951 — Nobel laureate in Physiology Colin MacLeod M. D. C. M. 1932 — Canadian-American geneticist, discovered DNA breakthroughs Joseph B, D1957 — Nobel laureate in Physiology Rocke Robertson B. Sc 1932, M. D. C. M. 1936 — physician Thomas George Roddick M. D. C. M, Joseph Hanaway, Richard Cruess, and James Darragh
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Robert Larner College of Medicine
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The Robert Larner College of Medicine is an American medical school located in Burlington, Vermont and associated with the University of Vermont. Established in 1822, it is the seventh oldest medical school. The primary teaching hospital for the Larner College of Medicine is the University of Vermont Medical Center in Burlington, the Larner College of Medicine is an allopathic medical school that offers both MD and PhD degrees. In 2007, there were 431 medical and 23 MD/PhD students enrolled, the entering class of 2020 contains 120 students. The schools medical curriculum is known as the Vermont Integrated Curriculum and it has both traditional, subject-based and more contemporary, organ/system-based components. The first 18 months of the curriculum are devoted to basic and clinical science, the institution is one of the ten most-selective medical schools in the United States, with an acceptance rate of 4. 0% annually. The Larner College of Medicine offers a Doctor of Medicine degree program into which it enrolls approximately 115 students annually, according to the institution, the Larner College of Medicine offers an integrated medical curriculum. This curriculum, known as the Vermont Integrated Curriculum, or VIC, is separated into three levels, level one/foundations is focused on basic and clinical sciences and lasts 18 months. Level two/clinical clerkships is a 12-month period spent rotating through clinical clerkships at The University of Vermont Medical Center and other affiliated hospitals. In level three/advanced integration, students continue rotating through clinical clerkships, the Larner College of Medicine is highly ranked among American medical schools. The Larner College of Medicine is affiliated with four teaching hospitals, a long-standing affiliation with Maine Medical Center in Portland, Maine began in the late 1970s but ended in February 2011. Three new hospitals took the place of MMC, Danbury Hospital in Danbury, Connecticut, Eastern Maine Medical Center in Bangor, Maine, and St. Marys Hospital in West Palm Beach, Florida
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Royal Postgraduate Medical School
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The Royal Postgraduate Medical School was an independent medical school, based primarily at Hammersmith Hospital in west London. In 1988, the merged with the Institute of Obstetrics & Gynaecology. The medical school had its roots in the British Postgraduate Medical School and it incorporated by Royal Charter in 1931 and opened in 1935. Its first director was Edinburgh Medical School graduate Francis Richard Fraser and it was the result of recommendations by the Athlone Report of 1921, and was a pioneer institution of postgraduate clinical teaching and research. The school had always closely linked with the Hammersmith Hospital and the Medical Research Council. Senior academic staff of the school provided consultant services and academic leadership for Hammersmith Hospital, the RPMS has had an enormous influence on British Medicine and had a major role in developing Endocrine Surgery in the UK. The school became part of the British Postgraduate Medical Federation in 1947, in 1974 the school became independent, with a new charter and the title Royal Postgraduate Medical School. Its separate status ended in 1997 with the assimilation into Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital is now a district general hospital and is still a centre of postgraduate medical education and research, although its influence is much less than in the past. According to Pappworth, experiments had been carried out without valid consent on vulnerable patients, such as children, roelcke, V. Maio, G. Twentieth Century Ethics of Human Subjects Research, p.181
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Imperial College School of Medicine
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Imperial College School of Medicine is the medical school of Imperial College London in England, and one of the United Hospitals. The School is ranked fifth in the world and third in the UK in the 2015 Times Higher Education World University Rankings and it is ranked 8th in the UK by the Guardian University Guide 2014 and 3rd in the UK by the 2017 Complete University Guide. It was ranked 2nd in the UK for research in the latest RAE in 2008, the School receives well over 2000 applications, interviews 600, accepts 400 and matriculates 277 each year. It has a rate of 20% and a matriculation rate of 69%. Imperial College London first gained a school by merger with St Marys Medical School in 1988. Unlike several other schools in the UK which are part of a Life Sciences Department or similar. Furthermore, the school runs a number of courses besides the standard MBBS degree programme and these include the Imperial College MPH Programme. Teaching hospitals of the School are part of the Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, all undergraduate students within the Faculty of Medicine are supported by the Imperial College School of Medicine Students Union. The Faculty of Medicine also offers postgraduate MSc, MRes and PhD programmes and these hospitals also have small research divisions which are part of the Imperial College Faculty of Medicine. The school accepts approximately 280 school leavers as medical undergraduates each year for a course leading to the award of an MBBS. Fifty graduates are accepted for the course that leads to the MBBS. Entry is highly competitive with applicants requiring A*AA at A-level, with chemistry and/or biology required at A-level, a 2,1 degree and/or PhD in a biological subject is required for graduate entry. Furthermore, the BMAT is required for entry to the six-year course, for 2008 entry, there were approximately 3,000 applicants for the six-year and 500 for the four-year course. However, medical students from other institutions may also join various portions of the course, the school runs four undergraduate courses. It also includes communication skills, medical ethics and law, teaching comprises lectures, clinical demonstrations, tutorials, dissection, computer workshops, laboratory practical and clinical skills classes, independent study, and some problem-based learning. Clinical experience in first year is provided by a patient contact course, third year consists of three ten-week attachments in general medicine and surgery. Teaching consists of clinical teaching, problem based learning within firms. This year also consists of a 3-week background to clinical specialties course, the following specialist courses are available instead of undertaking a research project, Medical humanities, History of medicine, Epidemiology and international health
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University of Cape Town
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The University of Cape Town is a public research university located in Cape Town in the Western Cape province of South Africa. The language of instruction is English, the roots of UCT lie in the establishment of the South African College in 1829 as a school for boys. In 1874 the South African College Schools, teaching up to level, were separated from the College. In 1887 the first male residence in Southern Africa was established, known as College House Residence, in 1918 the South African College was elevated to full university status with the power to award degrees, and renamed the University of Cape Town. UCT moved to the Groote Schuur Estate campus in 1928, during the apartheid era, roughly 1960-1990, many UCT students consistently opposed apartheid, and the university was a bastion of liberalism. However, the demographics of the university did not begin to change meaningfully until the 1980s,1987 saw frequent clashes between protesting students and police, with reporting of police presence on the campus being censored by the government. On 24 April 1987 the police entered the campus and this marked the first time since 1972 that South Africas police services had suppressed a demonstration at a white university, the UCT crest was designed in 1859 by Charles Davidson Bell, Surveyor-General of the Cape Colony at the time. Bell was an accomplished artist who also designed medals and the triangular Cape stamp, the main teaching campus, known as Upper Campus, is located on the Rhodes Estate on the slopes of Devils Peak. This campus contains, in a compact site, the faculties of Science, Engineering, Commerce. Upper Campus is centered on Jameson Hall, the location for graduation and other ceremonial events, the original buildings and layout of Upper Campus were designed by JM Solomon and built between 1928 and 1930. Since that time, many buildings have been added as the university has grown. Upper Campus is also home to the library, The Chancellor Oppenheimer library which holds the majority of the Universitys 1.3 million volume collection. Contiguous with Upper Campus, but separated from it by university sports fields, the state of the art artificial grass soccer field has been approved by FIFA for training for World Cup teams. The Upper, Middle and Lower Campuses together are referred to as the main campus. The Faculty of Health Sciences is located on the Medical School campus next to the Groote Schuur Hospital in Observatory, the Fine Arts and Drama departments are located on the Hiddingh Campus in central Cape Town. The Universitys original building, now known as the Egyptian Building, the only other campus built in this style was the Medical College of Virginia in Richmond, Virginia in the United States. The UCT Graduate School of Business is located on the Breakwater Lodge Campus at the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront. For his contribution of the tract of land which the campus was founded on, the statue was removed in April 2015 following pressure from student groups due to its perceived representation of South Africas racist past and the universitys inadequate representation of blacks
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Birkbeck, University of London
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Birkbeck, University of London, is a public research university located in Bloomsbury, London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. It is regarded as one of the leading universities for excellence in research. Birkbecks historic and main building is based in the Bloomsbury zone of Camden, in Central London, in partnership with University of East London, Birkbeck has an additional large campus in Stratford, next to the Theatre Royal. Birkbeck offers over 200 undergraduate and postgraduate programmes that can be studied either part-time or full-time and its staff members have optimal research reputation. Birkbecks academic activities are organised into five constituent faculties which are subdivided into nineteen departments and it also offers many continuing education courses leading to certificates and diplomas, foundation degrees, and short courses. Research at Birkbeck in 11 subject areas is rated as ‘internationally excellent’, Birkbeck, being part of the University of London, shares the University’s academic standards and awards University of London degrees. In common with the other University of London colleges, Birkbeck has also secured its own independent degree awarding powers, the quality of degrees awarded by Birkbeck was confirmed by the UK Quality Assurance Agency following institutional audits in 2005 and 2010. Birkbeck has been acknowledged as a ‘global elite‘ university and it is often shortlisted by the Times Higher Education Awards as University of the Year, the university was awarded The Queen’s Anniversary Prize for excellence in higher education research in 2006. Birkbeck has produced notable alumni in the fields of science, law, politics, economics, literature, media, art. Alumni include four Nobel laureates, numerous political leaders, members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, however the idea was not universally popular and some accused Birkbeck of scattering the seeds of evil. Two years later, the moved to the Southampton Buildings on Chancery Lane. In 1830, the first female students were admitted, in 1858, changes to the University of Londons structure resulting in an opening up of access to the examinations for its degree. The Institute became the provider of part-time university education. The early twentieth century saw further developments, with Birkbeck Students Union being established in 1904, in 1913, a review of the University of London successfully recommended that Birkbeck become a constituent college, although the outbreak of the First World War delayed this until 1920. The Royal Charter for the college was granted in 1926, the colleges first female professor, Dame Helen Gwynne-Vaughan began teaching botany in 1921. Among the other distinguished faculty in the years were Nikolaus Pevsner, J. D. Bernal. During the Second World War, Birkbeck was the only central University of London college not to out of the capital. In 1941, the library suffered a hit during The Blitz
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Middlesex Hospital
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The Middlesex Hospital was a teaching hospital located in the Fitzrovia area of London, England. First opened in 1745 by Edinburgh Medical School trained surgeon Charles Bell on Windmill Street and its staff and services were transferred to various sites within the University College London Hospitals NHS Trust. The Middlesex Hospital Medical School, with a history dating back to 1746, the first Middlesex Hospital opened in 1745 as the Middlesex Infirmary in Windmill Street, London W1, named after the county of Middlesex. The infirmary started with 18 beds to provide treatment for the poor. Funding came from subscriptions and, in 1747, the became the first in England to add lying-in beds. The second Middlesex Hospital, in Mortimer Street, was opened in 1757, the foundation stone was laid in 1755 by the hospitals president, the Earl of Northumberland. The Hospital was Incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1836, allowing it various benefits as a charity, over the years extra wings were added but, in 1924, it was decided that the building was structurally unsound and an entirely new building would be required. The Duke of York, later King George VI, visited the hospital on 26 June 1928 to lay the foundation stone of the new building and he returned to open the completed building on 29 May 1935. The hospital had been rebuilt, on the same site and in stages, without ever being closed. The nurses home in Foley Street was connected to the hospital by underground tunnels to allow safe and convenient access for nursing staff at night. In 1992 the St. Peters Hospitals were closed down and moved into new accommodation in the Middlesex Hospital, although the former county name Middlesex is common to all, there was no working connection between the Middlesex Hospital and the North Middlesex, Central Middlesex and West Middlesex Hospitals. The Middlesex Hospital Medical School traced its origins to 1746, when students were walking the wards. The motto of the school, Miseris Succurrere Disco, was provided by one of the deans, Dr William Cayley, from Virgils Queen Dido aiding a shipwreck, Non ignara mali. This refusal prompted the foundation of the North London Hospital, now University College Hospital, the medical schools of the Middlesex Hospital and University College Hospital merged in 1987 to form the University College and Middlesex School of Medicine. The current UCL Medical School, which resulted from the merger of UCMSM, the Courtauld Institute of Biochemistry of the Middlesex Hospital Medical School was opened by Samuel Augustine Courtauld in 1928, the foundation stone having been laid on 20 July 1927. Its main entrance was in Riding House Street, Courtauld also endowed a Chair of Biochemistry. Notable researchers at the institute include Frank Dickens FRS, Edward Charles Dodds FRS, the Middlesex Hospital closed in December 2005. The chapel of 1890, designed by John Loughborough Pearson, the Grade II listed stone and brick building on the corner of Nassau and Mortimer Street was also preserved
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UCL Medical School
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UCL Medical School is the medical school of University College London and is located in London, United Kingdom. The School provides a range of undergraduate and postgraduate medical education programmes and also has a medical education research unit. UCL has offered education in medicine since 1834, Middlesex Hospital and University College Hospital merged their medical schools in 1987 to form University College & Middlesex School of Medicine. The London School of Medicine for Women was established in 1874 by Sophia Jex-Blake, in 1998 The Royal Free & University College Medical School was formed from the merger of the two medical schools. On 1 October 2008, it was officially renamed UCL Medical School, in appreciation of the historic beginnings of UCL Medical School, its student society has retained the name RUMS and runs clubs and societies within University College London Union. The medical school is one of the largest in the country with an intake of 330 students. Undergraduate teaching is spread across three campuses based in Bloomsbury, at Archway and in Hampstead. The school is not only regarded as one of the best medical schools in the country. UCL offers a variety of integrated BSc degrees ranging from the traditional subjects like anatomy, physiology and biochemistry. Since 1994 there is also the opportunity to intercalate a PhD, UCL also operates a MBBS Oxford Transfer programme where each year a small number of students from Oxford Medical School can transfer to complete their clinical training at UCL. Admission to the school, in common with all 32 medical schools in the UK, is extremely competitive. The medical school receives approximately 2,500 applications yearly of which up to 700 applicants are selected for interview, approximately 450 offers are given for 322 places. Prospective students must apply through the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service, the International Baccalaureate, although less common, is also an acceptable entry qualification. The course is open to graduates with a minimum of a 2,1 required. Additionally, applicants must sit an exam, the BioMedical Admissions Test which is used alongside the rest of the UCAS application to determine selection for interview. UCL Faculty of Medical Sciences is one of four Faculties within the UCL School of Life, in the 2014/15, QS World University Rankings by Subject UCL was ranked 10th in the world for Medicine. In the 2014 Academic Ranking of World Universities subject tables, UCL was ranked 17th in the world for Clinical Medicine and Pharmacy. In domestic rankings for Medicine, UCL is ranked 2nd in the 2015 Complete University Guide, 4th in the 2014 Guardian University Guide, RUMS has a proud and illustrious past having been formed in the wake of the merger between the three constituent medical schools in 1998
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Alexander Monro (primus)
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Alexander Monro was the founder of Edinburgh Medical School. To distinguish him as the first of three generations of physicians of the name, he is known as primus. Monro was born of Scots parentage in London, and studied there and he was appointed lecturer on Anatomy by the Surgeons Company at Edinburgh in 1719, two years later he became professor, and in 1725 was admitted to the University. He was a promoter and early clinical lecturer in the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. Alexanders father, John Munro took great pains with his education and he had him instructed in the Latin, Greek and French languages, philosophy, arithmetic and book-keeping. After having gone through the course at the University of Edinburgh, he was bound apprentice to his father. A lasting friendship was formed between the two men, to gain as much experience as possible Monro lodged in the house of an apothecary and visited patients with him, and he also attended lectures by Mr. Whiston and Mr Hawksby on experimental philosophy. He made dissections of the body and of various animals. Monro took a part in discussions, and in one of his papers first sketched his Account of the Bones in General. In the spring of 1718, Alexander Monro went to Paris where he walked the hospitals and he performed operations under the direction of Thibaut and had instruction in midwifery from Gregoire, bandages from Cesau, and botany from Chomel. On 16 November 1718, Monro entered as a student of Leyden University to study under Boerhaave, the great physician, many patients from Scotland came to consult Boerhaave, and were put under Monros care. On his return to Edinburgh in the autumn of 1719, young Monro was examined by the Incorporation of Surgeons and was admitted as a member on 19 November, Mr Drummond then fulfilled his promise of resigning his professorship, and Mr MGill did likewise. They also gave Monro a recommendation to the Town Council, the patrons of the University, Monro was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, on 27 June 1723. Until 1725, Monro continued to lecture in the old Surgeons Hall on the side of Surgeons Square. At the end of 1726, Monro published his Anatomy of the Human Bones, which went through eight editions in his lifetime, the great reputation attained by Monros work did much to increase the fame of the new school of medicine on Edinburgh. In 1764, he resigned his professorship, but continued to give lectures at the hospital. In the same year, he published An Account of the Inoculation of Small-pox in Scotland, like all three generations, primus was a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. Secundus and Tertius were also Presidents of the RCPE and he died in Edinburgh of a pelvic cancer 10 July 1767
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Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh
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The College is located in Nicolson Street, Edinburgh, within the William Henry Playfair designed Surgeons Hall and adjoining buildings. The Barber-Surgeons of Dublin was the first medical corporation in Ireland or Britain, today the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh is an international network with a membership of almost 20,000, in almost 100 countries. Though Edinburgh based, only 10% of the Colleges membership is based in Scotland, with around 40% based in England, with a history stretching back five centuries, the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh is one of the oldest surgical corporations in the world. In 1647 the Incorporation acquired a permanent meeting place for the first time in rented rooms of a tenement in Dicksons Close. At the end of the century however, work on what is now known as Old Surgeons Hall, in High School Yards, was started and by 1697 was completed and occupied. The University of Edinburgh Medical School and The Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh were responsible for the development in Edinburgh of systematic medical teaching on a sound scientific basis. In 1778, King George III granted a new charter giving the surgeons corporation the title The Royal College of Surgeons of the City of Edinburgh, a site for this was acquired by the purchase of a Riding School in Nicolson Street. Surgeons Hall was completed in May 1832 and formally opened two months later, in July 1905, the College celebrated the fourth centenary of its Incorporation and as part of the celebrations conferred Honorary Fellowship upon 36 of the worlds most distinguished surgeons. These included Lord Lister, the acknowledged Father of Modern Surgery who had become a Fellow in 1855, the College celebrated its Quincentenary in 2005 with the opening of a new skills laboratory and conference venue, and of its Ten Hill Place Hotel. Today the College continues to serve its role, to continue education, assessment. In April 2014 the college opened a centre in Birmingham to cater for the 80% of its UK membership based in England. In 1879 the Diploma of Licentiate in Dental Surgery was introduced and recognised for admission to the Dentists Register, in 1921, the Dentists Act raised standards, and only dentists who had been trained in a dental school could be admitted to the Register and allowed to practice dentistry. The Edinburgh Dental School became part of the University of Edinburgh in 1948, the same year, the College introduced the diploma of Fellowship in Dental Surgery. In 1982, Dental Surgery became a faculty within the College and continues to concentrate on the education, training and maintenance of standards of professional competence. Since September 2008, the MRCS has become an Intercollegiate Examination, with a syllabus, format, the College conducts a number of other examinations, including dental examinations, immediate medical care examinations and sport and exercise medicine. The Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh runs a range of educational events and courses for medical students interested in surgery, through to surgical trainees. Many of these courses are held in the Surgical Skills Laboratory on site in Edinburgh and they offer distance learning courses through their Department of eLearning. The Post-Graduate Certificate in Remote and Offshore Medicine is an example of a course consists entirely of online modules
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Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh
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The Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh is a Medical Royal College in Scotland. It is one of three organisations that sets the specialty training standards for physicians in the United Kingdom and it was established by Royal Charter in 1681. The college claims to have 12,000 fellows and members worldwide, the RCPE was formed by a Royal Charter, granted in 1681, with Sir Robbert Sibbald recognised as playing a key part in the negotiations. Three applications preceded this and had been unsuccessful, there were 21 original Fellows, eleven of whom were graduates or students of the University of Leiden. The Universities Act 1858 resulted in several items from the College’s Charter becoming obsolete, in 1920 the College enacted changes that allowed women to be admitted on the same terms as men. The charter was amended on 7 May 2005, in 1704 the College acquired a house and grounds on Fountain Close, on the Cowgate, in the Old Town. On 27 November 1775 William Cullen laid the stone for a new hall. Architect James Craig, had ideas about expansion but the builders of neighbouring properties found favour instead, the hall was not fully completed until 1830. Unfortunately the great cost of the hall’s exterior exhausted the College’s finances leaving no money to finish the interior of a building, the Colleges debt was so much that there was talk of selling the Hall before it was even occupied. The Hall was sold to the Commercial Bank of Scotland in 1841 and was demolished, between 1843 and 1846 the College did not own a meeting place, instead renting a premises at 119 George Street. The foundation stone of a new Hall at 9 Queen Street was laid on 8 August 1844, the new Queen Street Hall was designed by Thomas Hamilton. The Queen Street Hall was completed in 1846, an adjacent building, Number 8 Queen Street was designed by Robert Adam as a house for Robert Ord and built between 1770 and 1771, one of the earliest New Town constructions. In 1868 it was purchased by the College, who leased it to other organisations until 1957. A restoration project began in 1990 and lasted seven years, numbers 11 and 12 were built around 1780. They were purchased by the college in the 20th century, the space behind 11 was used for the Conference Centre and 12 contains flexible meeting rooms and office space. In 1984 the college put Richard Dadds painting of Alexander Morison up for sale, in 1682, Robert Sibbald donated around one hundred books to the college. At the end of the 18th century the library was located at the Royal Infirmary, the college’s library in Queen Street bears Sibbald’s name in commemoration. The library also has artefacts, such as a medicine chest that belonged to Stuart Threipland, in the 1960s, the information held by the library was modern
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University of Bologna
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The University of Bologna, founded in 1088, is the oldest university in continuous operation. It was the first place of study to use the term universitas for the corporations of students and masters which came to define the institution, located in Bologna, as of 2013, the Universitys crest carries the motto Alma mater studiorum and the date A. D.1088. The University has about 85,500 students in its 11 schools and it has campuses in Ravenna, Forlì, Cesena and Rimini and a branch center abroad in Buenos Aires. It also has a school of excellence named Collegio Superiore di Bologna, an associate publisher of the University of Bologna is Bononia University Press S. p. A. The date of its founding is uncertain, but believed by most accounts to have been 1088 and these students then hired scholars from the city to teach them. In time the various nations decided to form an association, or universitas—thus. The foreign students in Bologna received greater rights, and collective punishment was ended, there was also collective bargaining with the scholars who served as professors at the university. By the initiation or threat of a student strike, the students could enforce their demands as to the content of courses, the professors could also be fined if they failed to finish classes on time, or complete course material by the end of the semester. A student committee, the Denouncers of Professors, kept tabs on them, Professors themselves were not powerless, however, forming a College of Teachers, and securing the rights to set examination fees and degree requirements. Eventually, the city ended this arrangement, paying professors from tax revenues, until modern times, the only degree granted at that university was the doctorate. Higher education processes are being harmonised across the European Community, nowadays the University offers 101 different Laurea or Laurea breve first-level degrees, followed by 108 Laurea specialistica or Laurea magistrale second-level degrees. After the Laurea one may attain 1st level Master, after second-level degrees are attained, one may proceed to 2nd level Master, specialisation schools, or doctorates of research. A new department of Latin History was added in 2015, on 25 April 1951 the first issue of the review was published in Bologna. In a short time, il Mulino became one of the most interesting points in Italy for the political and cultural debate. Editorial activities evolved along with the review, in 1954, the il Mulino publishing house was founded, which today represents one of the most relevant Italian publishers. In addition to this were initiated research projects, that led, in 1964. In the 2016-17 THE World University Rankings the University of Bologna was ranked in the worlds top 250 universities
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University of Padua
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The University of Padua is a premier Italian university located in the city of Padua, Italy. The University of Padua was founded in 1222 as a school of law and was one of the most prominent universities in early modern Europe and it is among the earliest universities of the world and the second oldest in Italy. The University of Padua is one of Italy’s leading universities and ranks in the first position in all the recent ranking of Italian large universities. In 2010 the university had approximately 65,000 students and in 2013 was ranked best university among Italian institutions of education with more than 40,000 students. The university is said to have been founded in 1222 when a large group of students. The first subjects to be taught were law and theology, there was also a Universitas Theologorum, established in 1373 by Urban V. The student body was divided into groups known as nations which reflected their places of origin, during this time, the university adopted the Latin motto, Universa universis patavina libertas. Nevertheless, the university had a turbulent history, and there was no teaching in 1237–61, 1509–17, the Botanical Garden of Padova, established by the university in 1545, was one of the oldest gardens of its kind in the world. Its title for oldest academic garden is in controversy because the Medici created one in Pisa in 1544, in addition to the garden, best visited in the spring and summer, the university also manages nine museums, including a History of physics museum. The University began teaching medicine in 1222 and it played a leading role in the identification and treatment of diseases and ailments, specializing in autopsies and the inner workings of the body. Since 1595, Paduas famous anatomical theatre drew artists and scientists studying the body during public dissections. It is the oldest surviving permanent anatomical theatre in Europe, anatomist Andreas Vesalius held the chair of Surgery and Anatomy and in 1543 published his anatomical discoveries in De Humani Corporis Fabrica. The book triggered public interest in dissections and caused many other European cities to establish anatomical theatres. On 25 June 1678, Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia, a Venetian noblewoman and mathematician, in recent years, the University has been able to meet the problems posed by overcrowded facilities by re-deploying over the Veneto as a whole. In 1990, the Institute of Management Engineering was set up in Vicenza, after which the courses at Brixen began once more. Other sites of re-deployment are at Rovigo, Treviso, Feltre, Castelfranco Veneto, Conegliano, Chioggia, recent changes in state legislation have also opened the way to greater autonomy for Italian universities, and in 1995 Padua adopted a new Statute that gave it greater independence. As the publications of innumerable conferences and congresses show, the modern-day University of Padua plays an important role in scholarly, notable people who have attended the University of Padua include, In natural sciences Nathaniel Eaton, Ph. D. and M. D
36.
Renaissance
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The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
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Anatomy
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Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is inherently tied to embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, Human anatomy is one of the basic essential sciences of medicine. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic anatomy, macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animals body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy, microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells. The history of anatomy is characterized by an understanding of the functions of the organs. Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts, make a pair of related disciplines. Derived from the Greek ἀνατομή anatomē dissection, anatomy is the study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs. It includes the appearance and position of the parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal respectively with the functions of those parts, the discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a scale, including histology. Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs, angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance angiography are methods to visualize blood vessels. The term anatomy is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy, however, substantially the same structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term zootomy is also used to specifically refer to animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature, the kingdom Animalia or metazoa, contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile. Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are known as eumetazoans. They have a digestive chamber, with one or two openings, the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development. Metazoans do not include the sponges, which have undifferentiated cells, unlike plant cells, animal cells have neither a cell wall nor chloroplasts
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World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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